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Encyclopjelia BRITANNICA;
D I C T I 6 NARY
O F
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Encyclopaedia Britannica
C 1 c
1CERO (Marcus Tullius), the celebrated Roman
orator, was born in the year of Rome 647, about
107 years before Chrift. Hisfather Marcus Tullius, who
was of the equeftrian order, took great cate of his edu¬
cation, which was direAed particularly with a view
to the bar. Young Tufly, at his frrft appearance in
public, declaimed with fuch vehemence againft Sylla’s
party, that it became expedient for him to retire into
Greece; where he heard the Athenian orators and
philofophers, and greatly improved both in eloquence
and knowledge. Here he met with T. Pomponius, who
had been his fchool-fellow ; and who, from his love to
Athens, and fpending a great part of- his days in it,
obtained the fumame of Atticus; and here they revived
and confirmed that noted friendlhip which (ubfifted be¬
tween them through life with fo celebrated a conftancy
and affe&ion. From Athens he paffed into Afia ; and
after an excurfion of two years came back again into
Italy.
Cicero was now arrived at Rome; and, after one
year more fpent at the bar, obtained, in the next place,
the dignity of quaeftor. Among the caufes which he
pleaded before his queftoilhip, was that of the famous
comedian Rofcius, whom a lingular merit in his art
had recommended to the familiarity and friendlhip of
the great. li men in Rome. The quaeftors were the
general receivers or treafurers of the republic, and
were fent annually into the provinces dillributed to
them, as they always were, by lot. The illand of
Sicily happened to fall to Cicero’s fhare; and that
part of it, for it was confiderable enough to be di¬
vided into two provinces, which was called Lilybaum.
This office he received, not as a gift, but a trult; and
he acquitted himfelf fo Well in it, that\he gained the
love and admiration of all the Sicilians. Before he
left Sicily, he made the tour of the illand, to fee every
thing' that was curious, and efpecially the city of Sy-
rachfe ; where he difeovered the tomb of Archimedes
to the magiftrates who were fhowing him the curiofi-
ties of the place, but who, to his furprife, knew nothing
of any fuch tomb.
We have no account of the precife time of Cicero’s
marriage with Terentia ; but it is fuppofed to have
been celebrated immediately after his return from his
travels to Italy, when he was about 30yrears old. He
was now difengaged from his queftorlhip in Sicily, by
which iirft ftep, in the legal gradation and afeent of
public honours, he gained an immediate right to the
fenate, and an aftual admiffion into it during Hfe;
and fettled again in Rome, where he employed him-
felf ccnllantly in defending the perfons and-properties
Vet. V. Part I.
G I C
of its citizens, and was indeed a general patron. Five Cicero,
years were almoft elapfed fince Cicero’s -eledtion to the -v—
queftorlhip, which was the proper interval preferibed
by law before he could hold the next office of aedile ;
to which he was now, in his 37th year, eledted by the
unanimous fuffrages of all the tribes, and preferably to
all his competitors. After Cicero’s elecUon to the
aedildhip, but before his entrance upon the office, he
undertook the famed profecutign of C. Verres, the late
praetor of Sicily ; who was charged with many flagrant
adts of injuftice, rapine, and cruelty, during his tri¬
ennial government of that ifland. This was one of the
moll memorable tranfadtions of his life ; for which he
was greatly and juftly celebrated by antiquity, and for
which he will, in all ages, be admired and efteemed by
the friends of mankind. The refult was, that, by his
diligence and addrefs, he fo confounded Hortenfius,
though the reigning orator at the bar, and ufually
ftyled the king of the forum, that he had nothing to fay
for his client. Verres, defpairing of all defence, fub-
mitted immediately, without expedting the fentence,
to a voluntary exile ; where he lived many years, for¬
gotten and deferted by all his friends. He is faid to
have been relieved in this miferable fituation by the ge-
nerofity of Cicero; ye: was proferibed and murdered
after all by Mark Antony, for the fake of tKbfe fine
ftatues and Corinthian veffcls of which he had plunder¬
ed the Sicilians.
After the ufual interval of two years from the time
of his being chofen asdile, Cicero offered himfelf a can¬
didate for the prastorfliip; and, in three different af-
femblies convened for the choice of prsetors, two of
which were diffolved without effedt, he was declared
every time the firft praetor by the fuffrages of all the
centuries. He was now in the career of his fortunes;
and in fight, as it were, of the confulihip, the grand
objedt of his ambition : and therefore, when his prae-
torfhip was at an end, he would notjaccept any foreiga
province, the ufual reward of that magiftracy, and
the chief fruit which the generality propofed from it.
He had no particular love for money, nor genius for
arms; fo that thofe governments had no charms for
him : the glory which he purfued was to ihine in the
eyes of the city as the guardian of its laws ; and to
teach the magiftrates how to execute, tire citizens how
to obey, them.
Being now in his 43dipar, the proper age required
by law, he declared hirnriff a candidate for the con-
fulftrip along with fix competitors, L. Sculpicius Gal-
ba, L. Sergius Catilitia, C. Antonins, L. Caffius Lon¬
ginus, Q^Cornificius, and C. Licinius Sacerdos. The
■ A - two
C I C [ 2 ] C I c
Cicero, two firft were patricians; the two next plebeians, yet fhip, took care to fend a particular account of his Cicero.
noble; the two laft the fons of fathers who had firft whole adminiftration to Pompey, who was finilhing -y—
imported the public honours into their families: Ci- the Michridatic war in Afia ; in hopes to prevent any
cero was the only new man, as he was called, among wrong imprefiions there from the calumnies of his
them, or one of equeftrian rank. Thefe were the enemies, and to draw from him fame public declara-
competitors ; and in this competition the pra&ice of tion in praife of what he had been doing. But Pom-
bribing was carried on as openly and as fhamefully by pey being informed by Metellus and Crefar of the ill
Antonius and Catiline as it ufually is at our ele&ions humour that was rifing againft Cicero in Rome, an-
in Britain. However, as the eleftion approached, fwered him with great coldnefs; and inftead of pay-
Cicero’s intereft appeared to be fuperior to that of all ing him any compliment, took no notice at all of
the caifflidates : for the nobles themfelves, though al- what had palled in the affair of Catiline : upon which
ways envious and defirous to deprefs him, yet out of Cicero expoftulates with him in a letter which is ftill
regard to the dangers which threatened the city from extant.
many quarters, and feemed ready to burft out into a About this time Cicero bought a houfe of M. Craffus *
flame, began to think him the only man qualified to on the Palatine-hill, adjoining to that in which he had
preferve the republic, and break the cabals of the de- always lived with his father, and which he is now fnp-
fperate by the vigour and prudence of his adminiftra- pofed to have given up to his brother Qtiintius. The
tion. The method of choofing confuls was not by an houfe coft him near L. 30,000, and ieems to have
open vote ; but by a kind of ballot, or little tickets of been one of the nobleil in Rome.. It was boilt about
wood diftributed to the citizens, with the names of 30 years before by the famous tribune M. Livius Dru*
the feveral candidates infcribed upon each: but in Ci- Hs: on which occafion we are told, that when the ar-
cero's cafe the people were not content with this fecret chitedl promifed to build it for him in fuch a manner
and filent way ; but, before they came to any fcrutiny, that none of his neighbours fhould overlook him;
loudly and univerfally proclaimed Cicero the firft con- “ But if you have any Ikill (replied Drufus), contrive
ful: fo that, as he himfelf fays, “ he was not chofen it rather fo that all the world may fee wliat I ara
by the votes of particular citizens, but the common doing.” The purchafe of fo expen live a houfe raifed
fuffrage of the city ; nor declared by the voice of the fome cenfure on his vanity ; and efpeeially as it was
crier, but of the whole Roman people.” made with borrowed money. This circumftance he
Cicero had no fooner entered upon his office than himfelf does not diffemble; but fays merrily upon it,
he had occafion to exert himfelf againft P. Servilius that “ be was now plunged fo deeply in debt, as to be
Rullus, one of the new tribunes, who had been alarm- ready for a plot, only that the confpirators would not
ing the fenate with the promulgation of an Agrarian truft him.”
law ; the purpofe of which was to create a decemvi- The mod remarkable event that happened in this
rate, or ten commiffioners, with abfolute power far year, which was the 4^.th*of Cicero’s life, was the
five years over all the revenues of the republic, to di- pollution of the myfteries of the fotra dea by Clo-
. ftribute them at pleafure to the citizens, &c. Thefe dius; which, by an unhappy train of confequences,
laws ufed to be greedily received by the populace, involved Cicero in a great and unexpe&ed calamity.,
and were propofed therefore by faftious magiftrates Clodius had an intrigue with Cselar’s wife Pom-
as oft as they had any point to carry with the multi- peia, who, according to annual cuftom, was now ce-
tude againft the public good ; fo that Cicero’s firft bu- lebrating in her houfe thofe awful facrifices of tha
finefs was to quiet the apprehenfions of the city, and goddeis, to which no male creature ever was admitted,,
to baffle, if pofiible, the intrigues of the tribune. Ac- and where every thing m^fculine was fo fcrupuloully.
cordingly, in an artful and elegant fpeech from the excluded, that even pictures of that fort were covered
roftra, he gave fuch a turn to the inclination of the during the ceremony. It flattered Clodius’s imagina-
people, that they rejected this law with as much eager- tion greatly to gain accefs to his miftrefs in the midfl
* nefs as they had ever received one. But the grand of her holy miniftry; and with this view he dreffed
affair of all, which conftituted the glory of his conful- himfelf in a woman’s habit, that by the benefit of
'(hip, and has tranfmitted his name with fuch luftre to his fmooth face, and the introdudiion of one of the
pollerity, was the ikill he ihowed, and the unwearied maids, he might pafs without difcovery: but by fome
pains he took, in fupprefling that horrid confpiracy miftake between him and his guide, he loft his way
which was formed by Catiline and his accomplices for when he came within the houfe, and fell in unluckily
the fubverfion of the commonwealth. For this great among the other female fervants. Here he was. detec-
fervice he was honoured with the glorious title of/irr/er ted by his voice, and the fervants alarmed the whole
patria, “ the father of his country,” which he retained company by their fhrieks, to the great amazement of
for a long time after. the matrons, who threw a veil over their facred my f-
Cicero’s adminiftration was now at an end; but he teries, while Clodius found means to efcppe. The
had no fooner quitted his office, than he began to feel ftory was prefently fpread abroad, and raifed a general
the weight of that envy whjch is the certain fruit of fcandal and horror throughout the city. The whole
illuftrious merit. He was now, therefore, the con.- defence which Clodius made when, by order of the fe-
mon mark, not only of all the fa&ious, againft whom nate, he was brought to a trial, was to prove himfelf
he had declared perpetual war, but of another party abfent at the time of the faft; for which purpofe he
not lefs dangerous,, the envious too : whofe united produced two men to fwear that he wfas then at Inter-
fple.en never left him from this moment till they had amna, about two or three days journey from the city,
driven him out of that city which he had fo lately pre- But Cicero being called upon to give his teftimony, de-
ferved. Cicero, upon the expiration of hi& conful- pofed, that Clodius had been with him that very morn-
4 ’ *ng
H.
c I C [ 3 ] C I C
Cicero, ing at his houfe in Rome. Irritated by this, Clodius
—~v  formed a fcheme of revenge. This was to get himfelf
chofen tribune, and in that office to drive Cicero out
of the city, by the publication of a law, which, by
fome ftratagem or other, he hoped to obtrude upon
the people. But as all patricians were incapable of the
tribunate by its original inftitution, fo his firft ftep
was to make himfelf a plebeian, by the pretence of an
adoption into a plebeian houfe, which could not yet
be done without the fuffrage of the people. The firft
triumvirate was now formed; which was nothing elfe in
reality but a traiterous confpiracy of three of the moft
powerful citizens of Rome, to extort from their coun¬
try by violence what they could not obtain by law.
Pompey’s chief motive was to get his ads confirmed
byCsefar in his confulthip, which was now coming on;
Csefar, by giving way to Pompey’s glory, to advance
his own ; and Craffus, to gain that afcendence by the
authority of Pompey and Ctefar, which he could not
fuftain alone. Cicero might have made what terms he
pleafed with the triumvirate ; and been admitted even
a partner of their power, and a fourth in their league:
but he would not enter into any engagements with the
three whofe union he and aH the friends of the republic
abhorred. Clodius, in the mean time, had been pufh-
ing on the bufinefs of his adoption: which at laft he ef-
feded ; and began foon after to threaten Cicero with
all the terrors of his tribunate, to which he was now
advanced without any oppofition. Both Casfar and
Pompey fecretly favoured his fcheme : not that they
intended to ruin Cicero, but only to keep him under
the lafti; and if they could not draw him into their
meafures, or make him at leaft keep quiet, to let Clo¬
dius loofe upon him. Ctefar, in particular, wanted
to diftrefs him fo far as to force him to a dependence
on himfelf: for which end, while he was privately en¬
couraging Clodius to purfue him, he was propofing ex¬
pedients to Cicero for his fecurity. But though his
fortunes feemed now to be in a tottering condition,
and his enemies to gain ground daily upon him ; yet
he was unwilling to owe the obligation of his fafety to
any man, far lefs to Csefar, w'hofe defigns he always
fufpeded, and whofe fchemes he. never approved. This
ftiffnefs in Cicero fo exafperated Caefar, that he refolvfed
immediately to affiit Clodius with all his power to op-
prefs him ; while Pompey was all the while giving him
the ftrongeft affurances that there was no danger, and
that he would fooner be killed himfelf than fuffer him
to be hurt.
Clodius, in the mean time, was obliging the people
with feveral new laws, contrived chiefly for their ad¬
vantage ; the defign of all which was only to intro¬
duce, with a better gVace, the ground-plot of the play,
the banifhment of Cicero. In ftiort, having caufed a
law to be enabled, importing, that any who had con¬
demned a Roman citizen unheard fhould himfelf be
banifhed, he foon after impeached Cicero upon it. It
was in vain that this great man went up and down
the city foliciting his caufe in. the habit of a fuppliant,
and attended by many of the firft young noblemen
whom he had taught the rules of eloquence ; thole
powers of freaking which had fo often been fuccefs-
ful in defending the caufe of others, feemed totally to
•forfake his own : he was banilhed by the votes of the
■people 400 miles £rom Italy ; his ho.ufes were ordered
to be demoliihed, and his goods fet up to fale. It can- Cicerb.
not be denied, that in this great calamity he did not v
behave himftlf with that firmnefs vyhich might reafon-
ably be expe&ed from one who had borne fo glorious a
part in the republic; confcious of his integrity, and
fuffering in the caufe of his country : for his letters are
generally filled with fuch lamentable expreffions of
grief and defpair, that his beft friends, and even his
wife, were forced fometiraes to admonifti him to roufe
his courage, and remember his former chara&er. At-
ticus %as conftantly putting him in mind of it; and
fent him word of a report that was brought to Rome
by one of Caffius’s freed-men, that his affli&ion had
difordered his fenfes. He was now indeed attacked
iu his weakeft part; the only place in which he was
vulnerable. To have been as great in affli&ion as he
was in profperity, would have been a perfedlion not
given to man : yet this very weaknefs flowed from a
fource which rendered him the more amiable in all the
other parts of his life ; and the fame tendernefs of dif-
pofition which made him love his friends, his children,
and his country, more paffionately than other men,
made him feel the lofs of them more fenfibly. When
he had been gone a little more than two months, a
motion was made in the fenate by one of the tribunes,
who was his friend, to recil him, and repeal the laws
of Clodius ; to which the whole houfe readily agreed.
Many obftruftions, as nAy be eafily imagined, were
given to it by the Clodian faftion ; but this made the
fenate only more refulute to efleft it. They pafled
a vote, therefore, that no other bufinefs fhould be done
till Cicero’s return was carried : which at laft it was;
and in fo fplendid and triumphant a manner, that he
had reafon, he fays, to fear, left people fhould imagine
that he himfelf had contrived his late flight for the fake
of fo glorious a reftoration.
Cicero, now in his 50th year, was reftored to his
former dignity, and foon after to his former fortunes;
fatisfa&Ion being made to him for the ruin of his eftatets
and houfes; which.laft were built up again by him¬
felf with more magnificence than before. But he had
domeftic grievances about this time, which touched
him very nearly ; and which, as he fignifies obfeurely
to Atticus, were of too delicate a nature to be expref-
i’ed in a letter : They arofe chiefly from the petulant
humour of his wife, which began to give him frequent
occafions of chagrin ; and, by a feries of repeated pro¬
vocations, confirmed in him that fettled difguft which
at laft ended in a divorce.
In the 56th year of his age, he was made procon-
ful of Cilicia; and his adminiftration there gained
him great honour. About this time the expectation
of a breach between Caefar and Pompey engaged the
general attention. Craflus had been deftroyed with
his army fome years before in the war with the Par-
thians ; and Julia the daughter of Caefar, whom Pom¬
pey married, and who, while ffie lived, was the ce¬
ment of their union, was alfo dead in child-bed. Cas¬
far had put an end to the Gallic war, and reduced
the whole province to the Roman yoke: but though
his commiffion was near expiring, he feemed to have
no thoughts of giving it up and returning to the con¬
dition of a private fubjeft. He pretended that he
could not poffibly be fafe if he parted with his army; '
efpecially while Pompey held the province of Spain
A 2 prolonged
G I C- [ 4 J C I C
Cicero, prolonged to liira for five years. This dlfpofition to
^ a breach Cicero foon learned from his friends, as he
was returning, from his province of Cilicia.- But as he
forefaw the confequences of a: war more clearly‘and
fully than any of them, fo his firlt refolution was to
apply all his endeavours and authority to the mediation
of a peace ; though, in the event of a breach, he was
determined within himfelf to follow Pompey. He
clearly forefaw, what he declared, without fcruple to
his friends, that which fide foever got the better, the
war muft necefiarily end in a tyranny. The only dif¬
ference, he faid, was, that if their enemies conquered,
they fhould be profcribed; if their friends, they would
be Daves.
He no fooner arrived at. the city, however, than
he fell, as he tells us, into the very flame of civil dif-
cord, and found the war in effeft proclaimed : for the
fenate had juft voted a decree, that Caefar ftiould dif-
band his army by a certain, day, or be declared an
enemy ; and Caefar’s fudden march towards Rome
effedually confirmed it. In the midft of all this hurry
and confufion, Caefar was extremely folicitous about
Cicero ; not fo much to gain him, for that was not to
be expeded, as to prevail with him to ftand neuter.
He wrote to him feveral times to that effed; and
employed all their common friends to prefs him with
letters on that fubjed: all which was dong; but in
vain, for Cicero was impatient to be gone to Pompey.
In the mean time, thefe letters give us a moft fen-
fible proof of the high efteem and credit in which-Ci¬
cero flouriflied at this time in Rome ; when, in a con-
teft for empire, which force alone was to decide, we
fee the chiefs on both fides fo folicitous to gain a man
to their party, who had no peculiar /kill in arms or
talents for war. Puifuing, however, the refult of all
his deliberations, he embarked at length to follow
• Pompey, who had been obliged to quit- Italy fome
time before, and-was then at Dyrrhachium ; and ar¬
rived fafely in his camp with his ion, his brother, and
his nephew, committing the fortunes of the whole
family to the iflue of that caufe. After the battle of
Pharfalia, in which Pompey was defeated, Cicero re¬
turned into Italy, and was afterwards received into
great favour by Caefar,- who was now declared dida-
tor the fecond time, and Mark Antony his mafter of
horfe. We may eafily imagine, what we find indeed
from his letters, that he was not a little difcompofed
at the thoughts of an interview with Caefar, and the
indignity of offering himfelf to a conqueror againft
whom he had been in arms : for though upon many ac¬
counts he had reafon to exped a kind reception from
Coefar, yet he hardly thought his life, he fays, worth
begging ; fince what was given by a mafter might al¬
ways be taken away again at pleafure. But at their
meeting he had no occaiion to fay or do any thing that
was below his dignity: for Csefar no fooner faw him than
he alighted, ran to embrace him; and walked with him
alone, converfing very familiarly, for feveral furlongs.
Cicero was now in his 6ift year, and forced at laft
to part with his wife Terentia ; whofe humour and
eondud had been long uneafy to him. She was a
woman of an imperious and turbulent fpirit : and
though he had borne her perverfenefs in the vigour of
health, and fiourifhing ftate of his fortunes ; yet, in a
declining life, foured by a continual fucceffion of mor¬
tifications from abroad, the want of cafe and quiet at
home w as no longer tolerable to him. But he w'as
immediately oppreffed by a new and moft cruel af-
flidion, the death of his beloved daughter Tullia, who
died in child-bed foon after her divorce from her
third hufband Dolabella. She was about 32 years
old at the time of her death ; and, by the few hints
which are left of her charader, appears to have been
an excellent and admirable woman. She was molt
affedionately and pioufly obfervant of her father;
and, to the ufual graces of her fex, having added the
more folid acqomplifiiments of knowledge and polite
letters, was qualified to be the companion and delight
of his age; and was juftly efteemed not only as one
of the belt, but the moft learned, of the Roman ladies.
His aftlidion for the death of this daughter wras fo
great, that, to Ihun all company as much as he could,
he removed to Atticus’s houfe, where he lived chiefly,
in his library, turning over every book he could meet
with on the fubjed of moderating grief. But finding
his refidence here too public, and a greater refort to
him than he could bear, he retired to Afturia, one of
his feats near Antium; a little ifland on the Latian
Ihore, at the mouth of a river of the fame name, cover¬
ed with woods and groves cut into Ihady. w^alks; a
fcene of all others the fitteft to indulge melancholy, and
where he could give a free courfe to his grief; “ Here
(fays he to Atticus) I live without the fpeech of man;
every morning early I hide myfelf in the thickeft of
the wood, and never come out till the evening. Next'
to yourfelf, nothing is fo dear to me as this folitude ;
and my whole converfation is with my books.” In¬
deed his whole time was employed in little elfe than
reading and writing during Caefar’s adminiftration,
which he could never cheex-fully fubmit to ; and it was
within this period that he draw up one of the graveft
of thofe philofophical pieces which, are ftill-extant in:
his works.
Upon the death of Csefar, Otlavius his nephew and
heir coming into Italy, was prefented to Cicero by
Hirtius and Panfa, with the ftrongeft profelfions on
the part of the young man that he would be governed
entirely by his dire&ion. Indeed Cicero thought it
neceflary to cherifh and encourage Odtavius, if for no¬
thing elfe, yet to keep him at a diftance from Antony;,
but could not yet be perfuaded to enter heartily into
his affairs. He fufpe&ed his youth and want of expe¬
rience ; and that he had. not ftrength enough to deal
with Antony ; and, above all, that he had no good dif-
polition towards the confpirators.' He thought it im-
poffible he fhould ever be a friend to them; and was-
perfuaded rather, that if ever he got the upper hand,
his uncle’s afts would be more violently enforced, and
his death more cruelly revenged, than by Antony him¬
felf. And when Cicero did confent at laft to unite
himfelf to O&avius’s interefts, it was with no other view
but.to arm him with a power fufficient to opprefs An¬
tony; yet fo checked and limited, that he fhould not
be able to opprefs the republic.
In the hurry of all thefe politics, he was Hill profe-
cuting his ftudies with his ufual application ;. and, be-
fides fome philofophical pieces, now finifhed his book of
offices, or the duties of man, for the ufe of his fon: A
work admired by all fucceeding ages as the moft per-
feft fyftem of Heathen morality, and the nobleft effort
and
C I C [ j ] C I c
e'cfro. and fpecimen of what reafon could do in guiding man
—"v through life with innocence and happiuefs. How¬
ever, he paid a conftant attention to public affairs;
mifled no opportunities, but did every thing that hu¬
man prudence could do for the recovery of the 'repub-.
lie : for all that vigour with which it was making this
laff effort for itfelf, was entirely owing to his counfels
and authority. This appears from thofe memorable
Philippics which from time to time he publifhed againfl
Antony, as well as from other monuments of antiquity.
But all was in vain : for though Antony’s army was
entirely defeated at the fiege of Modena, which made
many people imagine that the war was at an end, and
the liberty of Rome eftablifhetl-; yet the death of the
confuls Panfa and Hirtius in that action gave the fatal
blow to all Cicero’s fchemes, and was the immediate
caufe of the ruin of the republic.
Ocfavius having fubdued the fenate to his .mind,
marched towards Gaul to meet Antony and Lepi-
dus y who had aheady paffed the Alps, and brought
their armies into Italy, in order to have a perfonal
interview with him; which had been privately con¬
certed for fettling the terms of a triple league, and
dividing the power and provinces of Italy among
themfelves. The place appointed for this interview
was a fmall ifland about two miles from Bononia, form¬
ed by the river Rhenus which runs near that city".
Here they 'met* and fpent three days in a clofe con¬
ference to adjuft the plan of their accommodation :
and the lafl thing they adjufted was the lift of a pro-
feription which they were determined to make of
their enemies. This, as the writers tell us, occafioned
much difficulty and warm contefts among them ; till
each in his turn confented to facrifice feme of lys beft
friends to the revenge and refentment of his col¬
leagues. Cicero was at his Tufculan villa, when he
firft received the news of the profeription, and’ of his
being included in it. It was the delign of the trium¬
virate to keep it a fecret, if poffible, to the moment
of execution ; in order to furprife thofe whom they
had deftined to deftruction, before they were aware of
their danger, or had time to make their efcape. But
fome of Cicero’s friends found means to give him early
notice of it; upon which he fet forward to the fea-fide,
with a delign to tranfport himfe.if out of the reach of
his enemies. There, finding a veffel ready, he prefently
embarked; but the winds being adverfe, and the fea
uneafy to him, after he had failed about two leagues
along the coaft, he was obliged to land, and fpend the
night on fhore. From thence he was forced, by the
importunity of his fervants, on board again ; but was
foon afterwards obliged to land at a country-feat of his
a mile from the Ihore, weary of life, and declaring he
was refolved to die in that country which he-had To
often faved. Here he flept foundly for fome time, till
his fervants once more forced him away in a litter to¬
wards the ffiip, having heard that he was purfued by
Antony’s affaffins. They were fcarce departed when
the affaffins arrived at his houfe ; and, perceiving him
to be fled, pnrfued him immediately towaids the fea,
and overtook him in a wood that was near the fhore.
Their leader was one Popilius Lenas, a tribune of the
army, whofe life Cicero had formerly defended and
faved. As foon as the foldiers appeared, the fervants
prepared to defend their mailer’s life at the hazard of
their own ; but Cicero commanded them to fet him Cietr*.
down and. make no. refiftanee. They foon cut off his 1 v—J
head and his hands, returning with them to Rome as
the moft agreeable prefent to their cruel employer.
Antony, who was then at. Rome, received them with
extreme joy, rewarding the murderer with a large fum
of money, and ordering the head to be fixed upon the
roftra between the two hands : a fad fpeftacle to the
city; and what drew tears from every eye, to fee thofe
mangled members, which ufed to exert thcmfelves fb
glorioufly from that place in defence of the lives, the.
fortunes, "and the liberties of the Roman people, fa
lamentably expofed to the fcorn of fycophants and
traitors. The deaths of the reft, fays an hiftqrkit
of that age, caufcd only a private and particular for-
row; but Cicero’s an uni verbal one. It was a triumph
over the republic itfelf; and feemed to confirm and
eftablifh the perpetual flaveryof Rome.
A modern writer*, however, is of opinion, that*Rivlnlrmt.
“ pofterity has been too much.feduced- by the name o.i‘travels in
Cicero, and that better citizens were facrificed to the T'T vo1,
jealoufy of the triumvirs without exciting fi> much in- **’ P’ 3°2’
dignation. If we take an impartial furvey of Cicero’s
conduct and principles, avowed in his own epiftolary
correfpondence, and trace him through all the laby¬
rinths of his contradi&ory letters, we Audi find more-
to blame than to admire; and difeover, that the defire
of advancing his fortunes, and making himfelf a name,
were, from his outfet in life, the only obje&s he had
in view. The good of his country, and the dictates
of ftern fteady virtue, were not, as in Brutus and Cato,
the conftant fprings of his attions. The misfortunes
that befel him after his confulihip, developed his cha¬
racter, and fhowed him in his true colours; from that
time to his death, pufillanimity, irrefolution, and un¬
worthy repining, tainted his judgment, and perplexed
every ftep he wiflied to take, "fie flattered Pompey
and cringed to Casfar, while in his private letters he
abufed them both alternately. He acknowledges in a
letter to his friend, the time-ferving Atticus, that, al¬
though he was at prefent determined to fupport the
cauie of Rome and liberty, and to bear misfortune like
a philofopher, there was one thing which would gain
him over to the triumvirs, and that was their procu¬
ring for him the vacant augurffiip ; fo pitiful was the
bribe to which he would have facrificed his honour,
his opinion, and the commonwealth. By his waver¬
ing imprudent conduft, he contributed greatly towards
its deftrudion. After reproaching the confpirators
for leaving him out of the fecret, and loading them-
with the moft flattering compliments on their delivering
Rome from Csefar’s tyranny, he calls Cafca ^w ajfafjin,
to pay his court to the boy OCtavius, by whom he wag
completely duped. His praifes-of this triuinvir are in
the higheft ftrain of panegyric. Mark Antony well
knew, that the virulent abufe which Cicero was con¬
tinually pouring out againft him, was not an effulion
of patriotic zeal or'virtuous indignation, but merely
the ebullitions of perfonal hatred. He therefore caufed
Cicero to be killed, as'an angry man that has been
ftung ftamps on a venomous animal that comes within
reach of his foot. The cloak he threw over the body
of Brutus, and the fpeech he pronounced at the fight
of that hero when dead, differ widely from the treat¬
ment he gave the remains of Cicero; and (how, that he
3- made.
C I c
[ 6
Cicero, made a diftin&ion between a Roman who dppofecl him
•Cichori- £rom political motives, and one whofe enmity arofe
• - ‘ ■ from private pique.”
Cicero’s death happened on the 7th of December, in
the 64th year of his age, about ten days, from the fettle-
ment of the firft triumvirate; and with him expired the
ftiort empire of eloquence among the Romans. As an
orator he is thus chara&erifed by Dr Blair. “ In all his
orations his art is confpicuous. He begins commonly
with a regular exordium; and with much addrefs pre-
poifeifes the hearers, and lludies to gain their affeftions.
His method is clear, and his arguments are arranged
with exaft propriety. In a fuperior clearnefs of me¬
thod, he has an advantage over Demofthenes. Every
thing appears in its proper place. He never tries to
move till he has attempted to convince; and in moving,
particularly the fofter paffions, he is highly fuccefsful.
No one ever knew the force of words better than Cice¬
ro. He rolls them along with the greateft beauty and
magnificence ; and in the ftru&ure of his fentences is
eminently curious and exadt. He is always full and
flowing, never abrupt. He amplifies every thing; yet
'though his manner is generally diffufe, it is often hap¬
pily varied and accommodated to the fubjedt. When
an important public object roufed his mind, and de¬
manded indignation and force, he departs confiderably
from that loofe and declamatory manner to which he
at other times is addidted, and becomes very forcible and
vehement. This great orator, however, is not without
his defedts. In molt of his orations there is too much
art, even carried to a degree of oftentation. He feems
often defirous of obtaining admiration rather than of
operating convidtion. He is fometimes, therefore,
fhowy rather than folid, and diffufe where he ought
to have been urgent. His fentences are always round
and fonorous. They cannot be accufed of monotony,
fmce they pofiefs variety of cadence; but from too
great a fondr.efs for magnificence, he is on fome
occafions deficient in flrength. Though the fervices
which he had performed to his country were very con-
fiderable, yet he is too much his own pauegyrift. An¬
cient manners, which impofed fewer rellraints on the
fide of decorum, may in fome degree excufe, but can¬
not entirely jufiify, his vanity.”
CICHORIUM, succory : A genus of the po-
lygamia sequaiis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants; and in the natuial method ranking under
the 49th order, CompofiUe. The receptacle is a little
paleaceous; the calyx calculated ; the pappus almoit
quinquedentated, and indifiindUy hairy.
Species. I. The intybus, or wild fuccory, grows
naturally by the fides of toads, and in fhady lanes, in
many places of Britain. It fends out long leaves from
the roots, from between which the ftalks arife, grow¬
ing to the height of three or four feet, and branching
out into fmaller ones. The flowers come out from
the fides of the ftalks, and are of & fine blue colour.
They are fucceeded by oblong feeds covered, inclofed
in a down. 2. The fpinofum, with a .prickly forked
ftalk, grows naturally on the fea-coafts in Sicily, and
the iflands of the Archipelago. This fends out from
the root many long leaves which are indented on their
edges, and fpread flat on the ground ; from between
thefe arife the ftalks, which have veiy few leaves.
J C I c
and thofe are finall and entire: thefe ftalks are di- Cichori-
vided in forks upward, and from between them come um'
out the flowers, which are of a pale blue colour, and are ~ v"" L ‘
fucceeded by feeds lhaped like thofe of the common
forts. The ends of the fmaller branches are termina¬
ted by ftar-like fpines which are very ftiarp. 3. The
endivia, or fuccory with broad crenated leaves, differs
from the wild fort in its duration, being only annual,
whereas the wild fort is perennial.
* Culture, See. The lail fpecies may be confidered
both as an annual and biennial plant. If fown early
in the fpring, or even any time before the beginning
of June, the plants very commonly fly up to feed the
fame fummer, and perilh in autumn. If fown in June
and July, they acquire perfeftion in autumn, conti¬
nue till the next fpring, then (hoot up ftalks for flower
and feed, and foon after perifti. The inner leaves
are the ufeful parts. Thefe when blanched white to
render them crifp and tender, and reduce them from
their natural ftrong tafte to an agreeably bitter one,
are then fit for ufe. They are valued chiefly as in¬
gredients in autumn and winter falads, and for fome
culinary ufes. The principal feafon of them is from
the latter end of Auguft till Chriftmas or longer, ac¬
cording to the temperature of the feafon ; though the
curled kinds generally refift the frofts of our ordinary
winters, and remain in tolerable perfe&ion till March
or April. They are propagated by feeds fown in an
open (pot of ground, from which the plants are to be
removed into open beds or borders, where they may
remain to grow to full fize. The feafon for fowing
thefe feeds is from the beginning of June to the end
of July i and to have a regular fupply of plants, it is
proper to perform three dilferent fowings at about
three weeks or a month’s interval. The great excel¬
lence of endive is to have its inner leaves finely whi¬
tened or blanched. They naturally incline to white-
nefs of themfelves; but this may be greatly improved
by art when the plants are arrived at full growth.
Different methods are praftifed for this purpofe, fuch
as tying the leaves together; or taking up the plants,
and replanting them direftly, almoft to their tops, in
ridges of dry earth, laying boards or tiles flat ways
on the top of the plants ; but the firft is found to an-
fwer the purpofe moft effeftually. The proper time
for beginning this work is, when the leaves are al¬
moft full grown ; that is, when they are fo far ad¬
vanced that the leaves of the different plants interfere
with one another, and their hearts are full and bufhy:
but they are not all to be tied up at once, only a due
fupply of the largeft and forwarded plants, once eve¬
ry ten or twelve days according to the demand; for
the blanching takes up about three weeks. Blanch¬
ing in ridges of earth, however, is fometimes prac-
tifed in winter when a fevere froft is fitting in; for
by burying them in the earth almoft to their tops,
they are more out of the power of the cold. In No¬
vember, or December, when hard weather is ap¬
proaching, let a piece of light ground, that lies warm,
be trenched up in one or more (harp ridges two or
three feet wide at bottom, and near as much in
height, fideways to the fun, making the fides as fteep
as poffible, that the wet may run quickly off; then,
in a dry day, take up a quantity of your full grown
plants,
Barbut'
lufefti.
■ £5 “yr tfeperfea Weft,, Ci^.
placing them horizontally in the funny fide of the can overcome. i . Iir
ridge of earth almoft to their tops, and about fix CICISBEO, an Italian term, which in its etymolo-
or eight'inches each way diftant. In fevere froft, it gy fignifies a whifptrer; which has been bellowed in
will be proper to bellow fome covering on the plants. Italy both on lovers, and on thofe who to outward ap-
Medicinal ufes. The roots and leaves of the wild pearance aft as fuch, attending on married ladies with'
fuccory, and feeds of the endive, are articles of the as much attention and refpeft as if they were their lo-
materia medica. The lirft has a moderately bitter vers. This Italian cullom has been fpoken of very re-
talle, with fome degree of roughnefs; the leaves are proachfully by fome wt iters: Mr Baretti has taken
fomewhat lefs bitter ; and the darker coloured and great pains to vindicate it. He afcribes it to a fpirit:
more deeply jagged they are, the bitterer is their tafte. of gallantry, derived from the ages of chivalry, and
Wild fuccory is an ufeful detergent, aperient, and at- much heightened and refined by the revival of the Pla-
tenuating medicine, afting without much irritation, tonic pliilofophy in ltaly, about the thirteenth-century;
tending rather to cool than to heat the body ; and, at and by the verfes of Petrarch in compliment to the
the fame time, corroborating the tone of the intellinea. beautiful Laura, and his numerous imitatorsr
All the parts of the plant, when wounded, yield a CI^LUT, or Cicluch, a llrong frontier town of
milky faponaceous juice. This, when taken in large Dalmatia, fituated on the river Norentha, in E. Long,
quantities, fo as to keep up a gentle diarrhoea, and 17. 40. N. Lat. 45'. 20. It is furrounded with walls
continued for fome weeks, has been found to produce built in the ancient manner, and was taken by the Ve-
excelient effefts in fcorbutic and other chronical difor- netians from the Turks in 1694.
ders. The qualities of the endive are nearly of the CICONES, a people of Thrace near the Hebius.
fame kind. The feeds are ranked among the four lef* Ulyfles at his return from Troy conquered them, and
fer cold ones. plundered their chief city Ifmarus. They tore to pieces
CIC1NDELA, the Sparkler, in zoology, a genus Orpheus for his obfcene indulgences,
of infefts belonging to the order of coleoptera. The CICUTA, properly fignifies an hollowintercepted-
antennas are fetaceous; the jaws are prominent, and fur- between two knots, of the Italks or reeds df which
nilhed with teeth ; the eyes are a little prominent; and the ancient fliepherds ufed to make their pipes. It is
the bread is roundifh and marginated. There are 14 now, however, generally ufed to fignify the water hem-
fpecies. The campeftrisj or field-fparkler, is one of lock, and alfo the common fort; but Linnasus has de-
the mod beautiful of the genus. The upper part of its fcribed tire latter under the old name of Conium;
• body is of a fine green colour, rough, and rather blu- See that article.
i(h. _The under fide, as alfo the legs and antennae, are There are three fpecies of water-hemlock f the virofa,
of a foot colour, gold and red, of a eopperifo cad. the bulbifera, and the maculata. Of thefe the firlt is
The eyes are very prominent,( and give the head a tlie only one remarkab’e,. and that for the poifonous
broad appearance. The thorax is- angular, and nar- qualities of its-roots, which have been often known ter
rower than the head ; which conditutes the charafter dedroy children who eat them for parfnips*
of the cicindelae. It is rough, and of a green colour Cicuta is alfo ufed,. chiefly among the ancients,,
tinged with gold, as well as the head. The elytra are for the juice or liquor expreffed from the above plant,
delicately and irregularly dotted. Each of them has fix being the common, poifon wherewith the date crimi-
white fpots, viz. one on the top of the elytrum, at its nals at Athens were put to death : Though fome have
outward angle: three more along the outward edge, fuggtded, that the poifonous draught to which the
of which the middlemod forms a kind of lunula: a Athenians doomed their criminals was an infpiflated
fifth, on the middle of the elytra, oppofite the lunula ; juice compounded of the juice of r/n/ta and fome others
and that one is broader, and tolerably round: ladly, corrofive herbs.
a fixth, at the extremity of the elytra. There is alfo Socrates drank the cicuta.-—Plato, in his-dialogue
fometimesfeen a black fpot on the middle of each elyr- on the immortality of the foul, obferves, that “The
trum, oppofite to the fecond white fpot. The upper lip executioner advifed Socrates not to talk, for fear of
is alfo white, as is the upper fide of the jaws, which are caufing the cicuta to operate too flowly.” M. Petit,
very prominent and (harp. This infeft runs with in his Obfervationes Mifcellanecc, remarks, that this ad-
great fwiftnefs, and flies eafily. It is found in dry vertifement was not given by the executioner out of
fandy places, efpecially in the beginning of fpring. humanity, but to fave the rira/a/. for he was only al-
In the fame places its larva is met with, which refem- lowed fo much poifon per which,.if he exceeded,
bles a long, foft, whitifo worm, armed with fix legs, he was to furnifo at his own expence. This con-
and a brown fcaly head. It makes a perpendicular ftruftion is confirmed by a paffage in Phitarch: the
round hole in the ground, and keeps its head at the executioner who adminiftered the cicuta to Phocion,.
entrance of the hole to catch the infefts that fall into not having enough, Phocion gave him money to buy
it; a fpot of ground is fometimes entirely perforated more ; obfervrng by the way, “ that it was odd enough,
in this manner. The infefts belonging to this genus that at Athens a man mull pay for every thing, even
are in general very beautiful, and merit the attention bis own death.”
01 the curious in their microfcopic obfervations ; fome CID (Roderigo Dias le), a Callilian officer, who
are minute, though not inferior in fplendor, therefore was very fuccefsful againll the Moors, under Ferdi-
beft foiled for the amufement. Living fobjefts are nand II. king of Callile; butwhofenamewouldhard-
ever preferable to dead ones. The larvse of all this genus ly have been remembered, if Corneille had not made-
hi&»
e r L [8
Ciaara hit, paffion for Chimera the fubjeCt of an admi^dn^.
— Cfd^l/^efperately in love with Chimene, daughter
v of the Count de Gomes: but he is at variance with
the Count; and being challenged by him, kills him
in a duel. The conflict between love and honour in
the bread of Chimene, who at length pardons and
marries the Cid, forms the beauty of the piece. He
died in 1098.
CIDARIS, in antiquity, the mitre ufed by the Jew-
ifh high priefts. The Rabbins fay, that the bonnet
ufed by priells in general was made of a piece of linen
cloth 16 yards long, which covered their heads like a
helmet or turban : and they allow no other difference
between the high-pried’s bonnet and that of other
prieds, than that the one is flatter, and more in the
form of a turbant; whereas that worn by ordinary
prieds rofe fomething more in a point.
CIGNANI (Carlo), an Italian painter, was born at
Bologna in 1628.; and was the difciple of Albani. He
was edeemed by pope Clement XL who nominated
him prince of the academy of Bologna, and loaded him
with favours. Cignani died at Forli in 1719. The
cupola of la Madona del Fuoco at Forli, in which he
reprefented Paradife, is an admirable work. His prin¬
cipal pictures are at Rome, Bologna, and Forli.
CIG0LI, or Civoli, the painter. See Civoli.
CILIA, the Eye-lashes. See Anatomy, p. 766.
col. t.
CILIATED leaf, among botanical writers, one
furrounded with paiallel filaments fomewhat like the
hairs of the eye-lids.
CILICIA, an ancient kingdom of Afia, lying be¬
tween the 36th and 40th degree of north latitude :
bounded on the ead by Syria, or rather by Mount
Amanus, which fepara^fs it from that kingdom ; by
Pamphylia, on the wed ; by Ifauria, Cappadocia, and
Armenia Minor, on the north; and by the Mediter¬
ranean'fea, on the fouth. It is fo furrounded by deep
and craggy mountains, chiefly the 1 aurus and Amanus,
that it may be defended by a handful of refolute men
againd a numerous army, there being but three nar¬
row paffts leading into it, commonly called Pyh Ci¬
licia, or the gates of Cilicia ; one on the fide ot Cap¬
padocia, called the Pafs of Mount Taurus; and the
other two called the Pafs of Mount Amanus, and the
Pafs of Syria. The whole country was divided by the
ancients into Cilicia Afpera, and Cilicia Campedris;
the former called by the Greeks Trachaa or Stony,
from its abounding fo with dones; and to this day the
whole province is called by the Turks, Tas Wileieth,
or the Stony Province.
According to Jofephus, Cilicia was fird peopled by
Tarfliidi the ion of Javan, and his dependents, whence'
the whole country was named Tarfus The ancient
inhabitants were in jfrocefs of tiiqe driven out by a
colony of Phoenicians, who, under the conduft of Ci-
lixy fird fettled in the ifland of Cyprus, and from
thence palled into the country which, from thedeader,
they called Cilicia. Afterwards, feveral other colo-.
nies from different nations fettled in this kingdom,
particularly from Syria and Greece ; whence the ,Cili-
cians in fame places uled the Greek tongue, in others
the Syriac; but the former greatly corrupted by the
Perfian, the predominant language of the country be-
N3 8*»
1 GIL
. J ^ v a or mat tongue. We hnd no mention of
the kings of Cilicia after their fettlement in that coun¬
try, till the time of Cyrus, to whom they voluntarily
fubmitted, continuing fubjeft to the Petfians till the
overthrow of that empire ; but governed to the time
of Artaxerxes Mnemon, by kings of their own na¬
tion. After -the downfal of the Perfian empire, Cili¬
cia became a province of that of Macedon ; and, on
the death of Alexander, fell to the lhare of Seleucus,
and continued under his defeendents till it was reduced
to a Roman province by Pompey. As a proconfular
province, it was firft governed by Appius Claudius
Pulcher; -and after him by Cicero, who reduced feve¬
ral ftrong holds on Mount Amanus, in which fome Ci-
licians had fortified themfelves, and held out againlt
his predeceffor. It was on this occafion that the di-
vifion, formerly mentioned, into Trachaea and Cam-
pellris, took place. The latter became a Roman pro¬
vince ; but the former was governed by kings appoint¬
ed by the Romans, till the reign of Vefpafian, when
the family of Tracondementus being ex tin ft, this part
alfo made a.province of the empire, and the whole di¬
vided into Cilicia Prima, Cilicia Secunda, and Ifauria*;
the firfl. took in all Cilicia Campellris, the fecond the
coafl of Cilicia Trachasa, and the laft the inland parts
of the fame divifion. It is now a province of Aliatifi
Turky; and is called Caramania, having been the
lafl: province of the Caramanian kingdom which held
out againft the Ottoman race.
That part of Cilicia called by the ancients Cilicia
Campejlris, was, if we believe A mmianus Marcellinus,
one of the moll fruitful countries of Afia ; but the
weftern part equally barren, though famous, even to
this day, for an excellent breed of horfes,- of which
600 are yearly fent tp Conftantinople for the fpecial
nfe of the Grand Signior. The air in the inland parts
is reckoned wholefome ; but that on the fea-coall very
dangerous, efpecially to ftrangers.
The rivers of any note are the Pyramus, which rifes
on the north fide of mount Taurus, and empties itfelf
into the Mediterranean between Iffus and Magaraffus}
and the Cydnus, which fprings from the Amtitaurus,
paffes through Tarfus, and difembogues itfelf into the
Mediterranean. This lall is famous for the rapidity of
its llream, and the coldnefs of its waters, which proved
very dangerous to Alexander the Great.
The Cilicians, if we believe the Greek and Roman
hiftorians, were a rough unpolifhed race of people, un-<
fair in their dealings, cruel, and liars even to a proverb.
In the Romin times, they became greatly addifted td
piracy. They firft began, in the time of the Mithri-
datic war, to infeil the neighbouring provinces along
with the Pamphylians ; and, being emboldened with
fuccefs, they foon ventured as far as the coafts of
Greece and Italy, where they took a vaft number of
flaves, whom they fold to the Cypriots and the kings
of Egypt and Syria. They were, however, at laft
defeated and entirely fuppreffed by Pompey the Great.
See (Hijlory of) Rome.
Cilicia Terra, in the natural hiftbiy of the anci¬
ents, a bituminous fubftance improperly called an earth,
which, by boiling, became tough like bird-lime, and
was ufed inftead of that fubftance to cover the flocks
of the vines for preferving them from the worms.
It probably ferved in this office in a fort of double ca¬
pacity.
C I M [
•Cilicium pacity, driving away thefe animals by its naufeous
il fmtll, and entangling them if they chanced to get a-
•Cimbri. mongft it.
CILICIUM, in Hebrew antiquity, a fort of habit
made of coarfe ituff, formerly in ufe among the Jews
in times of mourning and diftrefs. It is the fame with
what the Septuagint and Hebrew verfions call fackcloth.
CILLEY, an ancient and famous town of Germa¬
ny, in the circle of Auftria, and in Upper Carnfola.
It is the capital of a county of the fame name, and is
fituated on the river Saan, in E. Long. 15. 45. N. Lat.
46. 28.
CILURNUM, (Notitia;) a town of Britain:
thought to be Collerton, or Collerford, in Northum¬
berland ; but Walwic, or Scilicdler, according to
Cambden.
CIMA, or Sima, in archite&ure, the fame with
Cymatium, or Ogee.
CIMABUE (Giovani), a renowned painter, born
at Florence in 1240, and the firft who revived the art
of painting in Italy. He painted, according to the
cullom of thofe times, in frefco and in diltemper ;
colours in oil not being then found out. He excelled
in archite&ure as well as in painting ; and was con¬
cerned in the fabric of San&a Maria del Fior at Flo¬
rence : during which employment he died at the age
of 60, and left many difciples.
CIMBRI, an ancient Celtic nation, inhabiting the
northern parts of Germany. They are faid to have
been defcended from the Aliatic Cimmerians, and to
Lave taken the name of Cimbri when they changed
their old habitations. When they firft became re¬
markable, they inhabited chiefly the peninfula now
called 'Jutland, and by the ancients Cimbrica Cherfo-
nefiis. About 113 years before Chrift, they left their
peninfula with their wives and children ; and joining
the Tuetones, a neighbouring nation, took their jour¬
ney fouthward in quell of a better country. They
firlt fell upon the Bob’, a Gaulifh nation fituated near
the Hercynian foreft. Here they were repulfed, and
obliged to move nearer the Roman provinces. The
republic being then alarmed at the approach of fuch
multitudes of barbarians, fent an army againft them
under the conful Papirius Carbo. On the approach
of the Roman army, the Cimbri made propofals of
peace. The conful pretended to accept it; but ha¬
ving thrown them into a difadvantageous fituation,
treacheroufly attacked their camp. His perfidy was
rewarded as it deferved ; the Cimbri ran to arms, and
not only repulfed the Romans, but, attacking them
in their turn, utterly defeated them, and obliged the
fhattered remains of their forces to conceal themfelves
in the neighbouring forefts. After this viftory the
Cimbri entered Tranfalpine Gaul, which they quickly '
filled with Daughter and defolation. Here they con¬
tinued five or fix years, when another Roman army
tinder the conful Silanus marched againft them. This
general met with no better fuccefs than Carbo had
done. His army was routed at the firft onfet; in
confequence of which, all Narbonne Gaul was expofed
at once to the ravages of thefe barbarians.
About 105 years before Chrift, the Cimbri began
to threaten the Roman empire itfelf with deftruclion.
The Gauls marched from all parts with a defign to
Vol. V. Part I.
9 ] G I M
join them, and to invade Italy. The Roman army Cimbri.
was commanded by the proconful Caepio, and the con-  * 
ful Mallius ; but as thefe two commanders could not
agree, they Were advifed to feparate, and divide their
forces. This advice proved the ruin of the whole
army. The Cimbri immediately fell upon a ftrong
detachment of the confular army commanded by M.
Aurelius Scaurus, which they cut off to a man, and
made Scaurus himfelf prifoner. Mallius being greatly
intimidated by this defeat, defired a reconciliation with
Csepio, but was haughtily refufed. He moved near-
er the conful, however, with his army, that the enemy
might not be defeated without his having a fhare in
the adtion. The Cimbri, by this movement, imagin-
ing the commanders had made up their quarrel, fent
ambafladors to Mallius with propofals of peace. As
they could not help going through Caepio’s camp, he
ordered them to be brought before him ; but finding
they were empowered to treat only with Mallius, he
could fcarce be reftrained from putting them to death.
His troops, however, forced him to confer with Mal¬
lius about the propofals fent by the barbarians : but
as Caepio went to the conful’s tent againft his will, fo
he oppofed him in every thing; contradidled with
great obftinacy, and infulted him in the grofleft man¬
ner. The deputies on their return acquainted their
countrymen that the mifunderftauding between the Ro¬
man commanders ftill fubfifted ; upon which the Cim¬
bri attacked the camp of Csepio, and the Gauls that
of Mallius. Both were forced, and the Romans flaugh-
tered without mercy. Eighty thoufand citizens and
allies of Rome, with 40,000 iervants and futlers, pe-
rifhed on that fatal day. In fhort, of the two Roman
armies only 10 men, with the two generals, efcapedto
carry the news of fo dreadful a defeat. The conquer¬
ors deftroyed all the fpoil, purfuant to a vow they had
made before the battle. The gold and filver they
threw into the Rhone, drowned the horfes they had
taken, and put to death all the prifoners.
The Romans were thrown into the utmoft confter-
nation on the news of fo terrible an overthrow. They
faw themfelves threatened with a deluge, of Cimbri
and Gauls, numerous enough to over-run the whole
country. They did not, however, defpair. A new
army was raifed with incredible expedition ; no citi¬
zen whatever who was fit to bear aims being exempt¬
ed. On this occafion alfo, fencing-mafters were firft
introduced into the Roman camp; by which means the
foldiers were ' foon rendered in a manner invincible.
Marius, who was at that time in high reputation on
account of his vidlories in Africa, was chofen com¬
mander, and waited for the Cimbri in Tranfalpine
Gaul: but they had refolved to enter Italy by two
different ways ; the Cimbri over the eaftern, and the
Teutones and other allies over the weftern Alps. The
Roman general therefore marched to oppofe the lat¬
ter, and defeated the Ambrones and Teutones with
great (laughter*. The Cimbri, in the mean time,* See/f-.-
entered Italy, and (truck the whole country with ter- krone* and”
ror. Catullus and Sylla attempted to oppofe them ; 'I'sutones.
but their foldiers were fo intimidated by the fierce
countenances and terrible appearance of thefe barba¬
rians, that nothing could prevent their flying before
them. The city of Rome was now totally defen ce-
B Ids;
C I M l 10 ] C I M
C'mibr, lefs • and, had the Cimbri only marched brifldy for- efcutcheon is extended fo far as to cover the abdomen Cimex
, c'mex- wards, tliey had undoubtedly become mailers of it ;
1,1 "* but they waited in expeftation of being joined by their
allies the AmbCones and Teutones, not having heard
of their defeat by Marius, till the fenate had time to
recal him to the defence of his country. By their or¬
der he joined his army to that of Catullus and Sylla ;
and upon that union was declared commander in chief.
The Roman army conniled of 52,300 men. The ca¬
valry of the Cimbri were no more than 15,000,. but
their foot feemed innumerable; for, being drawn up
in a fqliare, they are faid to have covered 30 furlongs.
The Cimbri attacked the Romans with the utmoll
fury; but, being unaccuftomed to bear the heats of
Italy, they foon began to lofe their ilrength,. and wtsre
eafily overcome. But they had put it out of their
power to fiy ; for, that they might keep their ranks
the better, they had, like true barbarians* tied them-
felves together with cords faftened to their belts, fo
that the Romans made a moll terrible havock of them.
The battle was therefore foon over, and the whole
day employed only in. the moll terrible butchery. An
hundred and twenty thoufand were killed on the field
of battle, and 60,000 taken prifoners. The victorious
Romans then marched to the enemy’s camp ; where
they had a new battle to fight with, the women, whom
they found more fierce than even their hulbatid’s had
been. From their carts and waggons, which formed
a kind of fortification, they difcharged fhowers of
darts and arrows on friends and foes without dillinc-
tion. Then they firft fuffocatedtheir children in their
arms, and then, they put an end to their own lives.
The greateft part of them hanged themfelves on trees.
One was found hanging at a cart with two of her chil¬
dren at her heels. Many of the men, for want of
trees and Hakes, tied firings in running knots about
their necks, and faflened them to the tails of their
horfes, and the horns and feet of their oxen, in order
to flrangle themfelves that way ; and thus the whole
multitude was deftroyed.
The country of the Cimbri, which, after this ter¬
rible cataflrophe, was left a mere defart, was again
peopled by the Scythians; who, being driven by Pom-
pty out of that vail fpace between the Euxine and the
Cafpian fea, marched towards the north and well of
Europe, fubduing all the nations they met with in their
way. They conquered Ruffia, Saxony, Weftphalia,
and other countries as far as Finland, Norway, and
Sweden. It is pretended that Wodin their leader tra-
verfed fo many countries, and endeavoured to fubdue
them, only with a view to excite the people againft
the Romans; and that the fpirit of animofity which
he had excited operated fo powerfully after his death,
that the northern nations combined to attack it, and
never ceafed their incurfions till it was totally fub-
verted.
Plate CIMEX, or Bug, in zoology, a genus of infofts
cxxxvm. belonging to the order of hemiptera. The roftrum is
inflccltd. The antennae are longer than the thorax..
The wings are folded together crofs-wife ; the upper
ones are coriaceous from their bafe towards their mid¬
dle. The back is fiat; the thorax margined. The
feet are formed for running. >
This genus is divided into different fedlions, as fol¬
lows; x,. Thofe without wings. 2. Thofe in which.the
and the wings. 3. The coleoptrati, whofe elytra are *“
wholly coriaceous. 4. Thofe whofe elytra are mem¬
branaceous ; thefe are very much depreffed like a leaf.
5. In which the thorax is armed on each fide with a
fpine. 6. Thofe which are of an oval form, without
fpines on the thorax. 7. In which the antennae be¬
come fetaceous towards their point. 8. Thofe of an
oblong form. 9. Thofe whofe antennae are fetaceous,
and as long as the body. 10. Thofe which have
their thighs armed with fpines. 11. Thofe whofe bo¬
dies are long and; narrow. Linnaeus enumerates no
fewer than 121 fpecies, to which feveral have been
added by other naturalifts. A very peculiar fpecies
was difeovered by Dr Sparman at the Cape, which
he has named Cimex paradoxus. He obferved it as at
noon-tide he fought for {belter among the branches of
a fnrub from the intolerable heat of the fun. “ Tho’
the air (fays he) was extremely Hill and calm, fo as
hardly to have Hiaken an afpen leaf, yet I thought I
faw a little withered, pale, crumpled leaf, eaten as it
were by caterpillars, flittering from the tree. This
appeared to me fo very extraordinary, that 1 thought
it worth my while fuddenly to quit my verdant bower
in order to contemplate it; and I could fcarcely be¬
lieve my eyes, when I faw a live infedl, in fhape and
colour refembling the fragment of a withered leaf, with
the edges turned up and eaten away, as it were, by
caterpillars, and at the fame time all over befet with
prickles. Nature, by this peculiar form, has certain¬
ly extremely well defended and concealed, as it were
in a mafic, this inledt from birds and its other dimi¬
nutive foes ; in all probability with a view to preferve
it, and employ it for fome important office in the fy-
Hem of her economy ; a fyfiem with which we are
too little acquainted, in general too little invefli-
gate, and, in every part of it, can never fufficiently
admire with that refpedl and veneration which we
owe to the great Author of nature and Ruler of the
univerfe.”
The larvffi of bugs only differ from the perfeft in
feft by the want of wings; they run over plants ;
grow and change to chryfalids, without appearing to
undergo any material difference; They have only ru¬
diments of wings, which the laff transformation un¬
folds, and the infect is then perfect. In the two firft
Hages they are unable to propagate their fpecies. In
their perfedl Hate, the female, fecundated, lays a
great nnmber of eggs, which are often found upon
plants, placed one by the fide of another ; many of
which, viewed through a glafs, prefent fmgular va¬
rieties of configuration. Some are crowned with a
row of fmall hairsp, others have a circular fillet; and
moH have a piece which forms a cap ;. this piece the
larva puflies off when it forces open the egg. Releafed
by nature from their prifon, they overfpread the plant
on which they feed, extracting, by the help of the
roffrum, the juices appropriated for their nourifhment;.
even in this Hate, the larvss are not all fo peaceably in¬
clined ; fome are voracious in an eminent degree, and
fpare neither fex nor fpecies they can conquer. In
their perfect Hate they are mere cannibals, glutting
themfelves with the blood of animals ; they deHroy
caterpillars, flies, and even the coleopterous tribe, whofe
hardnefs of elytra one would imagine was proof a-
gainlt
C I M [ I
Cimicifuga gamft tlieir attacks, have fallen an eafy prey to the
Ciniolia ^arP P'ercing nature of the roftrum of the bug, and
. . ‘ ^ ‘. the uncautious naturalift may experience a feeling fe-
verity of its nature. The cimex lectularius or houfe-
bug, is particularly acceptable to the palate of fpiders
in general, and is even fought after by wood-bugs;
which is not indeed furprizing, when the general vo¬
racity of this genus is confidered.
The methods of expelling houfe-bugs are various, as
oil of turpentine, the fmoke of corn-mint, of narrow¬
leaved wild crefs, of herb-robert, of the reddilh agaric,
of muftard, Guinea pepper, peats or turf, &C. (See
alfo Bug and Cimicifuga).
CIMICIFUGA, in botany : A genus of the poly-
andria order, belonging to the dicecia dafs of plants.
The male calyx is almoil pentaphyllous; there is no co¬
rolla ; the ftamina are 20 in number: the female calyx
is almoft pentaphyllous; no corolla; the llamina 20, and
barren; the capfules from 4 to 7, polyfpermous. Mef-
ferfchmidius, in the Ills Siberica, gives it the follow¬
ing character and name : Cimicifuga fcctida, with the
leaves of the herb Chrillopher, bearing a thyrfis of
yellow male flowers with a red villous feed, the feed-
vefiel in form of a horn. This whole plant fo refembles
the actea racemofa, that it is difficult to diftinguiffi
them when not in flower; but in the fructification it
greatly differs from it, the cimicifuga having four pi-
Itils, the actea but one. Jacquin fays, that it is a
native of* the Carpathian mountains. It has obtained
the name of chnicjugaf or bugbane, both in Siberia and
Tartary, from its property of driving away thofe in-
feCts; and the botanifts of thofe parts of Europe which
are infefted by them, have long defxred to naturalife it
in their feveral countries. Gmelin mentions, that in
Siberia the natives alfo ufe it as an evacuant in dropfy;
and that its effects are violently emetic and draftic.
CIMMERJI, anciently a people near the Palus
Mreotis. They invaded Alia Minor 1284 years before
Chriil, and feized upon the kingdom of Cyaxares.
After they had been mafters of the country for 28
years, they were driven back by Alyattes king of Ly¬
dia.—The name alfo of another nation on the weftern
coaft of Italy. The country which they inhabited
was fuppofed to be fo gloomy, that to exprefs a great
©bfcuvity the expreffion of Cimmerian darkmfs has pro¬
verbially been ufed; and Homer, according to Plu¬
tarch, drew his images of hell and Pluto from the
gloomy and difmal country where they dwelt.
CIMMERI UM (anc. geog.), a town at the mouth
of the Palus Moeotis ; from which the Bofphorus Cim-
merius is named; that ftrait which joins the Euxine
and the Palus Mseotis. Cimmerii was the name of the
people, (Homer) : and here flood the Promontorium
Cimmerium, (Ptolemy) ; and hence probably the mo¬
dern appellation Crim.
Cimmerium (anc. geog.), a place near Baiae, m
Campania, where formerly flood the cave of the fibyl.
The people were called Cimmetii; who living in fub-
terraneous habitations, from which they iffued in the
night to commit robberies and other acts of violence,
never faw the light of the fun (Homer,). To give a
natural account of this fable, Feflus fays, there was
a valley furrounded with a pretty high ridge, which
precluded the morning and evening fun.
, CLMOLIA TERRA, in natural hiflory; a name by
i ] e i m
which the ancients exprefled a very valuable medic!- Chnolia
nal earth; but which latter ages have fuppofed to
be no other than our tobacco-pipe clay and fuller’s, ^ '[ f
earth.
Tltc cimolia terra of the ancients was found in fe¬
veral of the iflands of the Archipelago; particularly
in the ifland of Cimolus, from whence it has its name.
It was ufcd with great fuccefs in the eryfipelas, in¬
flammations, and the like, being applied by way of
cataplafm to the part. They alfo ufed, as we do,
what we call cimolia, or fuller’s earth, for the cleanfing
of clothes. This earth of the ancients, though fo long
difregarded, and by many fuppofed to be loft, is yet
very plentiful in Argentiere (the ancient Cimolus),
■Sphanto, and many of thofe iflands. It is a marl of
a lax and crumbly texture, and a pure bright white
colour, very foft to the touch. It adheres firmly to
the tongue ; and, if thrown into water, raifes a little
biffing and ebullition, and moulders to a fine powder.
It makes a confiderable effervefcence with acids, and
fuffers no change of colour in the fire. Thefe are the
charatters of what the ancients called limply tei-ra ci¬
molia : but belides this, they had, from the.fame place,
another earth which they called by the fame general
name, but diflinguifhed by the epithet purple, purpu-
refcens. This they defcribed to be fattifh, cold to the
touch, of a mixed purple colour, and nearly as hard
as a flone. And this was evidently the fubfiance we
call Jleatites, or the foap-rock; common in Cornwall,
and alfo in the ifland of Argentiere, or Cimolus.
Cimolia Alba, the officinal name of the earth of
which we now make tobacco-pipes. Its dfflingurfh-
ing chara&ers are, that it is a denfe, compact, heavy
earth, of a dull white colour, and very clofe texture ;
it will not eafily break between the fingers, and flight-
ly ftains the fkin in handling. It adheres firmly to the
tongue ; melts very flowly in the mouth, and is not
readily diffufible in water. It is found in many places,
That of the ifle of Wight is much efleemed for its co¬
lour. Great plenty of it is found near Pole in Dorfet-
fliire, and near Wedenfbury in Stafford Sure.
Cimolia Nigra, is of a dark lead colour, hard, dry,
and heavy ; of a' fmooth compa£t texture, and not
vifcid : it does not colour the hands ; crumbles when
dry ; adheres to the tongue ; diffufes flowly in water ;
and is not a£ted upon by acids. It burns perfeftly
white, and acquires a confiderable hardnefs. The chief
pits for this clay are near Northampton, where it is
ufed in the manufacture of tobacco-pipes. It is alfo
mixed with the critche clay of Derbyfhire, in the pro¬
portion of one part to three, in the manufacture of the
hard reddifh brown ware.
CIMOLUS, (anc. geog-) one of the Cyclades, now
called Argentiere.
CIMON, an Athenian, fon of Miltiades and He-
gifipyle. He was famous for his debaucheries in his
youth, and the reformation of his morals when arrived
to years of difcretion. Fie behaved with great cou¬
rage at the battle of Salamis, and rendered himfelf po¬
pular by his munificence and valour. He defeated
the Perfian fleet, took 2GO fliips, and totally routed
their land army, the very fame day, A. U. C. 284.
The money that he obtained by his victories was not
applied for his own private ufe, but with it he fortified
and embellilhed the city. He fome time after loft all
B 2 his
C I N [ 12
Cinaloa hU popularity,and was banifhed by the Athenians, who
p. •! declared war againft the Lacedaemonians. He was re-
^Cinchona, cajjgd from ^ exjje . and at jjjg return made a re.
* conciliation between Lacedaemon and his countrymen.
He was afterwards appointed to carry on the war a-
gainil Perfia in Egypt and Cyprus, with a fleet of 200
{hips, and on the coaft of Afia he gave battle to the
enemy, and totally ruined their fleet, A. U. C. 304.
He died as he was befieging the town of Citium in
Cyprus. He may be called the laft of the Greeks
whofe fpirit and boldnefs defeated the armies of the
barbarians. He was fuch an inveterate enemy to the
Perfian power, that he formed a plan of totally de-
ftroying it; and in his wars he had fo reduced the
Perfians, that they promifed in a treaty not to pafs
the Chelidonian iflands with their fleet, or to approach
within a day’s journey of the Grecian feas. See At¬
tica. *
CINALOA, a province of Mexico in South A-
merica, abounding in corn, cattle, and cotton ; and
rendered extremely pi&urefque, by a number of beau¬
tiful cafcades of clear water that fall down from the
mountains. It lies on the eaftern coaft of the feaof Ca¬
lifornia, and has a town of the fame name, fituated in
N. Lat 26°.
CINARA, in botany, the Artichoke. See Cy-
NARA.
CINCHONA, in botany, a genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking with thefe plants,
the order of which is doubtful. The corolla is funnel-
fhaped, with a woolly fummit; the capfule inferior,
bilocular, with a parallel partition. Linnaeus de-
fcribes two fpecies: 1. The corymbifera, corymb¬
bearing cinchona, or white Peruvian bark, with ob¬
long lanceolate leaves and axillary corymbs; and, 2. The
officinalis, or coloured Peruvian bark, with elliptic leaves
downy underneath, and the leaves of the corolla woolly.
Both fpecies are natives of Peru, where the trees at¬
tain the height of 15 to 20 feet. The former particu¬
larly abounds in the hilly parts of Quito, growing pro-
mifcuoufly in the forefts, and is fpontaneoufly propa¬
gated from its feeds. Both forts have alfo been found
in the province of Santa Fe.
The bark has fome odour, to moft people not un-
pleafant, and very perceptible in the diftilled water, in
which floating globules, like efiential oil, have been
obferved. Its tafte is bitter and aflringent, accompa¬
nied with a degree of pungency, and leaving a confi-
derably lading impreffion on the tongue.
According to fome, the Peruvians learned the ufe
of the bark by obferving certain animals affefted with
intermittents inftin&ively led to it; while others fay,
that a Peruvian having an ague, was cured by hap¬
pening to drink of a pool which, from fome trees ha¬
ving fallen into it, tafted of cinchona ; and its ufe in
gangrene is faid to have originated from its curing-one
in an aguifh patient. About the year 164a, the lady
of the Spanifh viceroy, the Comitifla del Cinchon,
was cured by the bark, which has therefore been call¬
ed Cortex or P-uhis Comitiffte, Cinchona,- Chinachina, or
Chmhina, Kinalina or Kinkind, Quinaquina or Quin¬
quina ; and from the intereft which the Cardinal de
Lugo and the Jefuit fathers took in its diftribution, it
has been called Cortex or Pulvis Cardinalu de Lugo, Jo-
Juiticus, Patrum,
] C I N
On its firft introduction into Europe, it was reproba- Cinchonas,
ted by many eminent phyficiaiis; and at different periods —^
long after, it was confidered a dangerous remedy ; but
its character, in procefs of time, became very univerfally
eftablifhed. For a number of years, the bark which is
rolled up into fliort thick quills, with a rough coat, and
a bright cinnamon colour in the infide, which broke
brittle, and was found, had an aromatic flavour, a bit-
terifh aftringent tafte, with a degree of aromatic
warmth, was efteemed the beft; though fome efteemed
the large pieces as of equal goodnefs. During the time
of the late war, in the year 1779, the Huitar frigate
took a Spanifti fhip, loaded principally with Peruvian-
bark, which was much larger, thicker, and of a deeper
reddifli colour than the bark in common ufe. Soon af¬
ter it was brought to London, it was tried in St Bar¬
tholomew’s Hofpital, and in other hofpitals about
town, and was faid to be more efficacious than the
quill bark. This put practitioners on examining in¬
to the hiftory of the bark, on trying experiments
with it, and on making comparative trials of its ef¬
fects with thofe of the bark in common ufe on pa¬
tients labouring under intermittent complaints. In
July 1782, Dr William Saunders publiflted an account
of this red bark; in which he fays, that the fmall quill
bark ufed in England, is either the bark of young
trees, or of the twigs or branches of the old ones;
and that the large bark, called the red bark from the
deep colour, is the bark of the trunk of the old trees :
and he mentions a Mr Arnot, who himfelf gathered
the bark from the trees in Peru ; and Monf. Conda-
mine, who gives an account of the tree in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Sciences at Paris in the
year 1738; who both fay, that taking the bark from
an old tree effectually kills it; but that moft of the
young trees which are barked, recover, and continue
healthy ; and that for thefe reafons the Spaniards now
barked the younger trees for foreign markets, though
they ftill imported into Spain fome of the bark of the
old trees, which they efteemed to be much more efifi?
cacious than what was got from the young. From
thefe accounts Dr Saunders concludes, that the large
red bark brought to London in the year 1779 was
the fame kind as that ufed by Sydenham and Morton,
as it anfwers to the defcription of the bark ufed in
their time, which is given by Dale and other writers
on the materia medica, who were their contempora¬
ries. Dr Saunders fays, that it is not only ftronger
and more refinous, but likewife more efficacious and
certain in its effedf, than the common bark, and had
cured many agues after the other had failed.
A fpecies of cinchona has alfo been difcovered in
the Weft India iflands, particularly in Jamaica : It is
accurately defcribed by Dr Wright, under the title
of Cinchona Jamaicenfis, in a paper publiflred in the
Philofophical Tranfa&ions. In Jamaica it is called
the fea-fide beech, and grows from 20 to 4a feet high.
The white, furrowed, thick outer .bark is not ufed ;
the dark-brown inner bark has the common flavour,
with a mixed kind of a tafte, at firft of horfe-radifh
and ginger,, becoming at laft bitter and aftringent. It
feems to give out more extradlive matter than the cin¬
chona officinalis. Some of it was imported from St
Lucia, in confequence of its having been ufed with ad¬
vantage in the army and navy during the laft war; and
it has lately been treated of at confiderable length by
C I N [ 13 ] C I N
Cinchona. Dr Kentifli, under the title of St Lucia lark. The frefh
bark Is found to be confiderably emetic and cathartic,
which properties it is faid to lofe on drying.
The pale and the red are chiefly in ufe in Britain.
The pale is brought to us in pieces of different fizes,
either flat or quilled, and the powder is rather of a
lighter colour than that of cinnamon. The red is ge¬
nerally in much larger, thicker, flat-tifh pieces, but
fometimes alfo in the form of quills, and its powder is
reddifh like that of Armenian bole. As already ob-
ferved, it is much more refinous, and pofTeffes the fen-
fible qualities of the cinchona in a much higher de¬
gree than the other forts; and the more nearly the other
kinds referable the red bark, the better they are now
confidered. The red bark is heavy, firm, found, and
dry ; friable between the teeth ; does not feparate in¬
to fibres ;■ and breaks, not fhivery, but fhort, clofe,
and fmooth. It has three layers: the outer is thin,
rugged, of a reddifh brown colour, but frequently co¬
vered with moffy matter: the middle is thicker, more
eompadt, darker coloured, very refinous, brittle, and
yields firft to the peftle: the inmofl is more woody, fi¬
brous, and of a brighter red.
The Peruvian bark yields its virtues both to cold
and boiling water; but the deco&ion is thicker, gives
out its tafte more readily,' and forms an ink with a
chalybeate more fuddenly than the frefh cold infufion.
This infufion) however, contains at leaf! as much ex¬
tractive matter, but more in a ftate of folution ; and its
colour, on {landing fome time with the chalybeate, be¬
comes darker, while that of the decodtion becomes
more faint. When they are of a certain age, the addi¬
tion of a chalybeate renders them green; and when
this is the cafe, they are found to be in a ftate of fer¬
mentation, and effete. Mild or cauftic alkalies, or
lime, precipitate the extractive matter, which in the
cafe of the cauftic alkali is rediffolved by a farther ad¬
dition of the alkali. Lime-water precipitates lefs from
a frefh infufion than from a frefh decoftion; and in the
precipitate of this laft fome mild earth is perceptible.
The infufion is by age reduced to the fame ftate with
the frefh ;decodtion, and then they depofite nearly an.
equal quantity of mild earth and extractive matter; fo
that lime-water, as well as a chalybeate, may be ufed
as a teft of the relative ftrength and perifhable nature
of the different preparations, and of different barks.
Accordingly cold infufions are found by experiments
to be lefs perifhable than decodtions; infufions and de-
codtions of the red bark than thofe of .the pale ; thofe
of the red bark, however, are found by length of time
to feparate more mild earth with the lime-water, and
more extradted matter. Lime-water, as precipitating
the extradled matter, appears an equally improper and
difagreeable menftruum.
Water is found to fufpend the refin by means of
much lefs gum than has been fuppofed. Redtified fpi-
rit of wine extradts a bitternefs, but no aftringency,
from a refiduum of 20 affufions of cold water; and
water extradts aftringency, but no bitternefs, from the
refiduum of as many affufions of redtified fpirit. The
refidua in both are infipid.
From many ingenious experiments made on the Pe¬
ruvian bark by Dr Irvine, which are now publifhed in
a differtation which gained the prize-medal given by
the Harveian Society of Edinburgh for 1783, the
power of different menftrua, as adting upon Peruvian Cinch
bark, is afeertained with greater accuracy than had be--'v—
fore been done: and it appears, that with refpedt to
comparative power, the fluids after mentioned adt in
the order in which they are placed.
Dulcified fpirit of vitriol.
Cauftic ley.
French brandy.
Rhenifh wine.
Soft water.
Vinegar and water.
Dulcified fpirit of nitre.
Mild volatile alkali.
Redtified fpirit of wine.
Mild vegetable alkali.
Lime-water.
The antifeptic powers of vinegar and bark united
are double the fum of thofe taken feparately. The a--
ftringent power of the bark is increafed by acid of vi¬
triol; the bitter tafte is deftroyed by it.
The officinal preparations of the bark are, 1. The
powder: of this, the firft parcel that paffes the fieve
being the moft refinous and brittle layer, is the ftrong-
eft. 2. The extradl: the watery and fpirituous ex-
tradt conjoined form the moft proper preparations of
this kind. 3. The refin : this cannot perhaps be ob¬
tained feparate from the gummy part, nor would it be
dtfirable. 4. Spirituous tindture : this is beft made
with proof-fpirit. 5. The decodtion : this preparation,
tho’ frequently employed, is yet in many refpedls infe¬
rior even to a fimple watery infufion.
The beft form is that of powder; in which the
conftituent parts are in the moft effedtiial proportion.
The cold infufion, which can be made in a few mi¬
nutes by agitation, the fpirituous tindture, and the
extradt, are likewife proper in this refpedt. For co¬
vering the tafte, different patients require different ve¬
hicles ; liquorice, aromatics, acids, port-wine, fmall
beer, porter, milk, butter-milk, &c. are frequently
employed ; and thofe who diflike the tafte of the bark
itfelf, vary in their accounts to which the preference is
due ; or it may be given in form of eledtuary with cur¬
rant-jelly, or with brandy or rum.
Pradtitioners have differed much with regard to the
mode of operation of the Peruvian bark. Some have
aferibed its virtues entirely to a ftimulant power. But
while the ftrongeft and moft permanent ftimuli have
by no means the fame effedl with bark in the cure of
difeafes, the bark itfelf fhows hardly any ftimulant
power, either from its adtion on the ftomach, or on
other fenfible parts to which it is applied. From its
adtion on dead animal fibres, there can be no doubt of
its being a powerful aftringent; and from its good ef-
fedts in certain cafes of difeafe, there is reafon to pre¬
fume that it is a ftill more powerful tonic. To this
tonic power fome think that its adtion as an antifeptic
is to be entirely attributed : but that, independently
of this-, it has a very po-werful effedl in refifting the
feptic procefs to which animal fubftances are naturally
fubjedted, appears beyond all difpute, from its effedls
in refifting putrefadtion, not only in dead animal fo-
lids, but even in animal fluids, when entirely detached
from the living body.
But although it be admitted that the Peruvian bark
adts powerfully as an aftringent, as a tonic, and as an
C I N [ 14 ] C I N
hona. antifeptic ; yet thefe principles will by no means ex- It is a medicine which feems not only fuited to both Cinchona,
plain all the effedls derived from, it in the cure of dif- formed and latent intermittents, but to that ft ale of Cmcinna-
eafes. And accordingly, from no artificial combina- fibre on which all rigidly periodical difeafes feem to ^ ' ■
•tion in which thefe powers are combined, or in which depend; as periodical pain, inflammation, hemorrha-
they exift even to a higher degree, can the good con- gy, fpafm, cough, lofs of external fenfe, See.
fequences refulting from Peruvian bark be obtained. Baik is now ufed by fome in all continued fevers
Many practitioners, therefore, are difpofed to view it at the fame time attention is paid to keep the bowels
as a fpecific. If by a fpecific we mean an infallible re- clean, and to promote when neceffary the evacuation
medy, it cannot indeed be confidered as intitled to of redundant bile ; always, however, fo as to weaken as
that appellation ; but in as far as it is a very powerful little as pofiible.
remedy, of the operation of which no fatisfaCIory ex- In confluent fmall-pox, it promotes languid erup-
planation has yet been given, it may with great pro- tion and fuppuration, diminifhes the fever through the
priety be denominated a fpecific. But whatever its whole courfe of it, and prevents or correCls putrefcence
inode of operation may be, there can be no doubt that and gangrene.
it is daily employed with fuccefs in a great variety of In gangrenous fore throats it is much ufed, as it is
different difeafes. externally and internally in every fpecies of gangrene.
It was firft introduced, as has already been faid, for In contagious dyfentery, after due evacuation, it has
the cure of intermittent fevers; and in thefe, when been ufed by the mouth, and by injeClion with and with-
properly exhibited, it rarely fails of fuccefs. PraCfi- out opium.
itioners, however, have differed with regard to the bell In all thofe hemorrhagies called and which
mode of exhibition ; fome prefer giving it jult before it is allowed all hemorrhagies are very apt to become,
the fit, fome during the fit, others immediately after and likewife in other increafed difeharges, it is much
it. Some, again, order it in the quantity of an ounce, ufed ; and in certain undefined cafes of hasmoptyfis,
"between the fits; the dofe being the more frequent fome allege that it is remarkably effectual when joined
and larger according to the frequency of the fits; and with an abforbent.
this mode of exhibition, although it may perhaps It is ufed for obviating the difpofition to nervous-and
fometimes lead to the employment of more bark than convulfive difeafes ; and fome have great confidence in
is neceffary, we confider as upon the whole preferable, it joined with the acid of vitriol, in cafes of phthifis,
from being bell fuited to moil ftomachs. The requifite fcrophula, ill-conditioned ulcers, rickets, feurvy, and
quantity is very different in different cafes ; and in in ftates of convalefcence.
many vernal intermittents it feems even hardly necef- In thefe cafes in general, notwithflanding the ufe
fary. of the acid, it is proper to conjoin it with a milk
It often pukes or purges, and fometimes oppreffes diet,
the ftomach. Thefe, or any other effefts that may In dropfy, not depending on any particular local
take place, are to be countera&ed by remedies parti- affection, it is often alternated or conjoined with diu-
cularly appropriated to them. Thus, vomiting is of- reties, or other evacuants ; and by its early exhibition
ten reflrained by exhibiting it in wine; loofenefs by after the water is once drawn off, or even begins to
combining it with opium ; and appreffion at ftomach, be freely difeharged, a frefh accumulation is prevent-
by the addition of an aromatic. But unlefs for obvia- ed, and a radical cure obtained. In obilinate vene-
ting particular occurrences, it is more fuccefsful when real cafes, particularly thofe which appear under the
exhibited in its fimple Rate than with any addition ; form of pains in the bones, the Peruvian bark is often
and there feems to be little ground for believing that fuccefsfully fubjoined to mercury, or even given in
its powers are increafed by crude fal ammoniac, or conjun&ion with it.
any other additions which have frequently been made. CINCINNATUS, the Roman didlator, was taken
It is now given, from the very commencement of from the plough, to be advanced to the dignity of
the difeafe, without previous evacuations, which, with conful; in which offifce he reftored public tranquillity,
the delay of the baik, or under dofes of it, by retard- and then returned to his rural employments. Being
ing the cure, often feem to induce abdominal inflam- called forth a fecond time to be dictator, he conquered
mation, feirrhus, jaundice, heftic, dropfy, See. fymp- the enemies of Rome, and, refufing all rewards, re-
toms formerly imputed to the premature or intempe- tired again to his farm, after he had been di&ator only
rate ufe of the bark, but which are beft obviated by its 16 days. The fame circumftance appeared once more
earlyand large ufe. Itis to be continued not only till the in the 80th year of his age. He died 376 years be-
paroxyfms ceafe, but till the natural appetite, ftrength, fore Chrift.
and complexion, return. Its ufe is then to be gradually Order of Cincinxatus, or the Cincinnati, a fociety
left off, and repeated at proper intervals to lecure a- which was eftablifhed in America foon after the
gainft a relapfe,; to which, however unaccountable, in- peace, and confifts of the generals and officers of the
dependently of the recovery of vigour, there often feems army and navy of the United States. This inftitu-
to be a peculiar difpofition ; and efpecially when the tion, called after the name of the Roman dictator
wind blows from the eaft. Although, however, moft mentioned in the preceding article, was intended to
evacuants conjoined with the Peruvian bark in inter- perpetuate the memory of the revolution, the friend-
mittents are rather prejudicial than otherwife, yet it is <hip of the officers, and the union of the flates; and
of advantage, previous to its ufe, to empty the ali- alfo to raife a fund for the relief of poor widows and
mentary canal, particularly the ftomach ; and on this orphans whofe hulbancls and fathers had fallen during
account good effefts are often obtained from premifing the war, and for their defeendants. The fociety wasfub-
an emetic. divided into ftate focieties, which were to meet on the
4th
C I N [ I.
j Cin&ure /j.th of July, and with other bufinefs depute a number
h H of their members to convene annually in general meet-
fCmnabar. ,j,he members of the inftitution were to be di-
^ ftinguiihed by wearing a medal, emblematical of the
delign of the fociety; and the honours and advantages
were to be hereditary in the eldeft male heirs, and, in
default of male iffue, in the collateral male heirs. Ho¬
norary members were to be admitted, but without the
hereditary advantages of the fociety, and provided
their number ihould never exceed the ratio of one to
four of the officers or their defcendants. Though the
apparent defigns of this fociety were harmlefs and
honourable, it did not efcape popular jealoufy. Views
of a deeper nature were imputed to the framers; and
the inftitution was cenfured and oppofed as giving
birth to a military nobility, of a dangerous ariftocra-
tic power,, which might ultimately prove ruinous to
the liberties of the «ew empire. But the principal
ground of apprehenfion was the fuppofed right of in¬
heritance connedled with this honour to render it he¬
reditary ; which, however, hath been given up and
totally difclaimed by the fociety.
CINCTURE, in architecture, a ring, lift, or or-
lo, at the top and bottom of the (haft of a column,
feparating the (haft at one end from the bafe, and at
the other from the capital.
CINEAS, a Theilalian, minifter and friend to Pyr-
#hus king oFEpirus. He was fent to Rome by his
mafter to fue for a peace, which he, however, could
not obtain. He told Pyrrhus that the Roman fenate
was a venerable affembly of kings} and oblerved, that
to fight with them was to fight againft another Hy¬
dra. He was of fuch a retentive memory, that the day
after his arrival at Rome he could call every fenator
and knight by his name.
CINERITIOUS, an appellation given to different
fubftances, on account of their refembling afhes either
in colour or confiftence ; hence it is that the cortical
part of the brain has fometimes got this epithet.
CINNA (L. Corn.), a Roman who oppreffed the
republic with his cruelties. He was banifhed by Oc¬
tavius for attempting to make the fugitive flaves free.
He joined himfelf with Marius; and with him at the
head of the flaves he defeated his enemies, and made
himfelf conful even to a fourth time. He maflacred
fo many citizens at Rome, that his name became odi¬
ous; and one of his officers affaffinated him at Ancona,
as he was preparing war againft Sylla.
Cinna (C. Helvius), a poet intimate with Caefar.
He went to attend the obfequies of Caefar, and being
miftaken by the populace for the other Cinna, he was
torn to pieces.—Alfo a grandfon of Pompey’s. He
confpired againfl Auguftus, who pardoned him, and
made him one of his moft. intimate friends. Pie was
eonful A. U. C. 758, and made Auguftus his heir.
CINNABAR, in natural hiftory, is either native or
factitious.
The native cinnabar is an ore of quickftlver, mode¬
rately cbmpaft, very heavy, and of an elegant ftriated
red colour.
Faditiom cinnabar is a mixture of mercury and ful-
phur fublimed, and thus reduced into a fine red glebe.
The heft is of a high colour, and full of fibres like
needles. See Chemistry, n0 1404.
The chief ufe of cinnabar is for painting. Although
; 1 C I N
the -body is compofed of fulphur, which is of a light Cinn'jiun
colour, and mercury which is white as filverj it is ne- cJjue
verthelefs of an exceeding ftrong red colour. Lumps. ‘ ^ ~ >
of it are of a deep brown red without brilliancy ;
but when the too great intenfity of its colour is di-
miniflied by bruifing and dividing it into fmall parts,
(which is a method generally ufed to leflen the in¬
tenfity of all colours), the red of the cinnabar be¬
comes more and more exalted, flame coloured, and ex¬
ceedingly vivid and brilliant: in this ftate it is called
vermillion-
Cinnabar is often employed as an internal medicine.
Hoffman greatly recommends it as a fedative and an-
tifpafmodic : and Stahl makes it an ingredient in his
temperant powder. Other intelligent phyficians deny
that cinnabar taken internally has any medicinal qua¬
lity. Their opinion is grounded on the iufolubility op
this fubftance in any menftruum. This queftion con¬
cerning its internal utility cannot be decided withoutr
further refearches and experiments ; but cinnabar is
certainly ufed with fuccefs to procure a mercurial fu¬
migation, when that method of cure is proper in ve¬
nereal difeafes. For thispurpofe it is burnt in an open
fire on red-hot coals, by which the mercury is difen--
gaged and forms vapours, which, being applied to the
body of the difeafed perfon, penetrate through the
pores of the fkin, and produce effe&s fimilar to thefe
of mercury adminiftered by fridtion.
CINNAMON, the bark of two fpecies of kurus-
The true cinnamon is from the laurus cinnamomum ^
and the bafe cinnamon,, which is often fold for the
true, is from the laurus caffia. See Laurus.
CiNNAMON-W'tf'ter, is made by diftilling the bark,
firft infufed in fpirit of wine, brandy, or white-
wine.
Clove-CiNNAMON, is the bark of a tree growing in
Brazil,, which is often fubftituted for real cloves.
White Cinnamon, called alfb Winter’s bark, is the'
bark of a tree frequent in the ifle of St Domingo, Gua¬
dalupe, &c. of a ftiarp biting tafte like pepper.
Some ufe it inftead of nutmeg ; and in medicine it is
efteemed a ftomachic and antifcorbutic. See Ca-
NELUA.
CINNAMUS, a Greek hiftorian,' wrote a hiftory
of the eaiUrn empire, during the reigns of John and
Manuel Commenes, from x 118 to ix'43. His ftyle is
reckoned the bell of the modern Greek authors. He
died after 1183.^
CINNERETH, Cinereth, Chinnereth, (Mofes) ;
or Gennefareth, (anc. geog.) a lake of the Lower Ga¬
lilee ; called the Sea of Galilee, (Matthew); of'Tibe¬
rius, (John). Its name Gennefareth is from a fmall
cognominal diftridl upon it. In breadth 40 ftadia, in
length 140. The water frelh . and fit to drink, and
abounding in fifh.
CINQUEFOIL, in botany. See Potentilla.
CINQUE-Ports, five havens that lie on the eaft
part of England, towards France ; thus called by way
of eminence on account of their fuperior importance,
as having been thought by our kings to merit a parti¬
cular regard for their prefervation againft invafion.
Hence they have a particular policy, and are governed-
by a keeper with the title of Lord-warden of the
Cinque-ports.
Cambden tells us, that William the Conqueror firfe
5, apt-
C I N [ 16 ] C I P
'Cintjue appointed a warden of the Cinque-ports: but King
II John firft granted them their privileges; and that up-
in^ra8'. on condition they fliould provide 80 ftiips at their
own charge for 40 days, as often as the king ihould
have occafion in the wars ; he being then ftraitened for
a navy to recover Normandy.
The five ports are, liaftings, Romney, Hythe,
•Dover, and Sandwich.—Thorn tells us, that Ma¬
ilings provided 21 veffels, and in each veffel 21 men.
To this port belong Seaford, Pevenfey, Pledney,
Winchelfey, Rye, Hamine, Wakelbourn, Creneth,
and Forthclipe.—Romney provided five Ihips, and in
each 24 men. To this belong Bromhal, Lyde, Of-
vvarftone, Dangemares, and Romenhal.—Hythe fur-
nifhed five fliips, and in each 21 feamen. To this belongs
Weftmeath.-*—Dover the fame number asHaftings. To
this belong Folkfton, Feverfham, and Marge.—Daft¬
ly, Sandwich furniftied the fame with Hythe. To
this belong Fordiwic, Reculver, Serre, and Deal.
The privileges granted to them in confequence of
thefe fervices were very great. Amongft others, they
were each of them to fend two barons to reprefent
-them in parliament; their deputies were to bear the
canopy over the king’s head at the time of his coro¬
nation, and to dine at the uppermoft table in the
great hall on his right hand; to be exempted from fub-
fidies and other aids; their heirs to be free from
perfonal wardlhip, notwithftanding any tenure; to be
impleaded in their own towns, and not elfewhere;
not to be liable to tolls, &c.
The Cinque-ports give the following titles: Ma¬
ilings, a barony to the ancient family of Huntington :
Romney, to the Marlhams : Dover, new barony, to a
branch of the York family; formerly a dukedom (now
extindl) to the Queenlberry family : Sandwich, an
earldom to a branch of the Montagues.
CINTRA, a cape and mountain of Portugal, in
the province of Eftremadura, ufually called the Rock
of Lifbon. It lies on the north fide of the entrance of
the river Tajo ; and there is a town of the fame name
fituated thereon. W. Long. 10. 15. N. Lat. 59. o.
CINUS, or Cynus, a famous civilian of Piftoia in
the 14th century. His commentary on the Code was
finilhed in 1313: he alfo wrote on fome parts of the
digeft. He was no lefs famous for his Italian poems;
and is ranked among thofe who firft gave graces to the
Tufcan lyric poetry.
CINYRA, in the Jewifh antiquities, a mufical in-
ftrument. This, and the Hebrew cinnor, which is ge¬
nerally tranllated cithera, lyra, or pfalterium, are the
fame. It was made of wood, and was played on in the
temple of Jerufalem. Jofephus fays that the cinyra of
the temple had ten firings, and that it was touched
with a bow. In another place he fays that Solomon
made a great number of them with a precious kind of
metal called eledrum ; wherein he contradi&s the fciip-
tures, which inform us that Solomon’s cinnors were
made of wood.
CINYRAS, (fab. hift.) a king of Cyprus, fon of
Paphus. He married Cenchreis, by whom he had a
daughter called Myrrha. Myrrha fell in love with, her
father, and in the abfence of her mother fhe introdu¬
ced herfelf into his bed by means of her nurfe. Ciny-
ras had by her a fon called Adonis ; and when he knew
the inceft he had committed, he attempted to flab his
N°8i. ,
daughter, whb efcaped his purfnit and fled to Arabia, Cion
where, after fhe had brought forth, fhe was changed . I!
into a tree which ftill bears her name. Cinyras, ac- , Cifhcr-
cording to fome, ftabbed himfelf.
CION, or Cyon, in gardening, a young fhoot,
fprout, or fprig, put forth by a tree. Grafting is per¬
formed by the application of the cion of one plant up¬
on the flock of another. To produce a flock of cions
for grafting, planting, &c. the gardeners fometimes
cut off the.. bodies of trees a little above the ground,
and only leave a flump or root Handing : the redun¬
dant fap will not fail next fpring to put forth a great
number of fhoots. In dreffing dwarf-trees, a great many
cions are to be cut off.
CIOTAT, a fea-port town of Provence in France ;
famous for Mufcadine wine. It is feated on the bay of
Laquea, between Marfeilles and Toulon ; and the
harbour is defended by a ftrong fort. E. Long. 5. 30.
N. Lat. 43. 10.
CIPHER, or Cypher, one of the Arabic charac¬
ters dr figures ufed in computation, formed thus, o.
See Arithmetic.
Cipher is alfo a kind of enigmatic charadler, com-
pofed of feveral letters interwoven, which are general¬
ly the initial letters of the perfons nam'es for whom
the ciphers are intended. Thefe are frequently ufed
on feals, coaches, and other moveables.—Anciently,
merchants and tradefmen were not allowed to bear
arms : in lieu thereof, they bore their ciphers, or
the initial letters of their names, artfully interwoven
about a crofs; of which we have divers inftances on
tombs, &c. See Devise.
Cipher, denotes likewife certain fecret chara&ers
difguifed and varied, ufed in writing letters that con¬
tain fome fecret, not to be underftood but by thofe
between whom the cipher is agreed on.
De la Guilletiere, in his Latedamon ancient and mo¬
dern, endeavours to make the ancient Spartans the in¬
ventors of the art of writing in cipher. Their fcytala,
according to him, was the firft Ilcetch of this myfteri-
ous art: thefe feytahe were two rollers of wood, of
equal length and thicknefs; one of them kept by the
ephori; the other by the general of the army fent on
any expedition againft the enemy. Whenfoever thofe
magiftrates would fend any fecret orders to the gene¬
ral, they took a flip of parchment, and rolled it very
juftly about the fcytala which they had referved; and
in this ftate wrote their intentions, which appeared
perfect and confiftent while the parchment continued
on the roll: when taken oft', the writing was
maimed, and without connedlion: but was eafily re¬
trieved by the general, upon his applying it to his
fcytala.
Polybius fays, that iEneas Tadlitus, 2000 years ago,
colledted together 20 different manners of writing fo
as not to be underftood by. any but thofe in the fe¬
cret ; part whereof were invented by himfelf, and part
ufed before his time.—Trithemius, Cap. Porta, Vige-
nere, and P. Niceron, have written exprefsly on the
fubiedl of ciphers.
As the writing in cipher is become an art; fo is the
reading or unravelling thereof, called deciphering.—The
rules of deciphering are different in different languages.
By obferving the following, you will foon make out
any common cipher written in Englifh.
f. Obferve
C I P [I
'Cipher. i. Obferve the letters or chara&ers that moft fre-
quently occur; and fet them dowri for the fix vowels,
including^; and of thefe the moft frequent will gene¬
rally be e, and the leaft frequent «. ^
2. The vowels that molt frequently come together
are ea and' ou.
3. The confonant moft common at the ends of words
is j, and'the next, frequent r and*.
4. When two fimilar charafters come together, they
are moft likely to be the confonants f, /, or j, or the
vowels e or 0.
5. The letter that precedes or follows two fimilar
charafters is either a vowel, or /, m, n, or r. '
6. In deciphering, begin with the words that confift
of a Angle letter, which will be either a, /, o, or £ff.
7. Then take the words of two letters, one of which
will be a vowel. Of thefe words the moft frequent are,
an, to, be, by, of, on, or, no, fo, as, at, if, in, is, it, he, me,
my, us, we, am.
8. In words.of three letters there are moft common¬
ly two confonants. Of thefe words the moft frequent
are, the, and, not, but. yet, for, tho’, how, why, all, you,
fhe, his, her, our, who, may, can, did, was, are, has, had,
let, one, two,fx, ten, &c.—Some of - thefe/ or thofe of
two letters, will be found in every fentence.
9. The moft common words of four letters are, this,
that, then, thus, with, when, from, here, fame, mojl, none,
they, them, whom, mine, your, felf, mujl, will, have, been,
were, four,Jive, nine, &c.
to. The moft ufual words of five letters are, there,
thefe, thofe, which, were, while, fmce, their, Jhall, might,
could, would, ought, three, feven, eight. See.
11. Words of two or more fyllables frequently begin
with double confonants, or with a prepofition ; that is,
a vowel joined with one or more cpnfonants. The moft
common double confonants are bl, br, dr,Jl,fr, gl, gr,
ph, pi, pr,fh,Jb,fp,Jl, th, tr, wh, wr, &c. and the moft
common propofitions are com, coni de, dis, ex, im, in, int,
mis, per, pre, pro, re, fub, fup, un, &c.
12. The double confonants moft frequent at the end
of long words are, ch. Id, If, mn, nd, ng, rl, rm, rn, rp,
rt, fm, Jl, xt. See. and the moft common terminations
are ed, en, er, cs, et, ing, ly, fon,fan, tion,' able, ence, ent,
ment, full, lefs, nefs, &.c.
* ln On Plate CXXXVII.* fig. 7'. is given an example of
Vol. IV. a cipher wrote in arbitrary charadters as is commonly
praftifed. It will be eafily deciphered by obferving
the rules t but when the chara&ers are all placed
clofe together, as in the example fig. 8. and as they al¬
ways fhould be, the deciphering is much more difficult.
To decipher a writing of this, fort, you mult fiift
look for thofe chara&ers that moft frequently occur,
and fet them down for vowels as before. Then ob¬
ferve the fimilar characters that come together; but
you mult remember that two fuch charadters may
here belong to two words. You are next to remember
the combinations of two or three charadters that are
moft frequent; which will be fome of the words in
the feventh and eighth of the foregoing rules ; and by
obferving the other rules, you will infallibly difeover,
wu’th time and attention, any cipher wrote on thefe
principles. ,
When the words are wrote all clofe together, if
the key to the cipher w^ere to be changed every
word, according to a regular method agreed on be-
Vol.V. Parti.
7 1 , G I P
tween the parties, as might be done by either of the Cipher,
methods mentioned in N° II. below, with very little—Y'"—J
additional trouble, the writing would then be extreme¬
ly difficult to decipher. The longer any letter wrote
in cipher is, the more eafy it is to decipher, as then the
repetitions of the chara&ers and combinations are the
more frequent.
The following are the contents of the two forego¬
ing ciphers 5 in which we have inverted the order of
the words and letters, that they who are defirous of try¬
ing their talent at deciphering, may not, inadvertently,
read the explanation before the cipher.
enil eno ton dna shtnom elohw eerht, suoidifrep
dna lenre o. noituac & ecnedurp fo klat lliw uoy: On,
rotiart, tcelgen & ecnereffidni si ti. yltrohs rettel a em
dnes ot snaem emof dnif rehtie, traeh eht morf semoc
ti taht ees em tel &, erom ecaf ym ees ot erad reven ro.
evlewt fo ruoh eht ta thgin siht, ledatic eht fo etag
eht erofeb elbmefla lliw sdneirf ruo 11a. ruoh eht ot
lautenup eb: deraperp Hew emoc dna, ytrebil ruoy
niager ot, ylevarb eid ro. thgin eht si siht, su sekam
rehtie taht, etiuq su seodnu ro.
Contrivances for communicating intelligence by Cipher.
I. By means of a pack of cards. The parties muft pre-
vioufly agree in what manner the cards ffiall be firfl:
placed, and then how they ffiall be ffiuffled. Thus fup-
pole the cards are to be firft placed in the order as here¬
after follows, and then ffiuffled by taking off 3 from the
top, putting the next 2 over them, and the following 3
Under them *, and fo alternately. Therefore the par- * By flruf-
ty who fends the cipher firft writes the contents of it^'n8ffie
on a feparate paper, and then copies the firft 32 letters1 lS
on the cards, by writing one letter on every card ; he there will
then ffiuffles them, in the manner deferibed, and writes remain on-
the fecond 32 letters; he ftuiffles them a fecond time,*7 * to Put
and writes the third 32 letters, and fo of the reft. An k|).er at
example will make this plain. -Suppofe the letter to
be as follows:
I am in full march to relieve you ; within\ three days
I jhall be with you. If the ene\my in the mean time
fhould make an a/fau\lt, remember what you owe to your
countr\y, ta your family, and your felf Live with ho\nour,
or die with glory.
Order of the cards before
the 1 ft Ihuffle.
Ace fpade i a d u y i
Ten diamonds a l e u l
Eight hearts m l m 0 i u
King fpades i s u m l
Nine clubs n h l e 0
Seven diamods f b m r i
Nine diamonds 41 e a c t n
Ace clubs /
Knave hearts / ,
Seven fpades m 1
Ten clubs a 1
Ten hearts
Queen fpades
Eight diamonds
Eight clubs t
Seven hearts 0
Queen clubs r
Nine fpades e
King hearts /
< k \r y
r r h of
c h e e i
h a h y w
Quee#
E.
Cipher.
; / -
h h
13 d
l
C I P
Queen diamonds i d s o
J Eight fpades e i n w
Knave clubs v f a n
Seven clubs e t s l
Ace hearts y r e b
Nine hearts o I n w
A.ce diamonds
Knave fpades
Ten fpades
King diamonds
Queen hearts
Kjng clubs i n a t h
Knave diamonds n e u r o
The perfon that receives thefe cards firft places them
in the order agreed on, and tranfcribes the firft letter
on every card. He then (huffles them, according to
order, and tranfcribes the fecond letter on each card.
He fhufRes them a fecond time, and tranfcribes the
third letters : and fo of the reft.
If the cards were to be fhufifed the fecond time by-
threes and fours, the third time by two and foiys, 13c.
it would make the cipher ftill more difficult to dif-
cover : though as all ciphers depend on the combina¬
tion of letters, there are fcarce any that may not be
deciphered with time and pains; as we ft.all (how fur¬
ther on. Thofe ciphers are the belt that are by their
nature moft free from fufpicion of being ciphers j as for
example, if the letters were there wrote with fympathe-
tic ink, the cards mi^htthen pafs for a common pack.
II. By a dial. On a pieqe of fquare pafteboard
ABCD, fig. 3. 4. draw the circle EFGH, and divide
it into 26 equal parts, in each of which muft be wrote
one of the letters of the alphabet.
On the infide of this there muft be another circle of
pafteboard, ILMN, moveable round the centre Q, and
the extremity of this muft be divided into the fame
number of equal parts as the other. On this aMb muft
be wrote the letters of the alphabet, which, however,
need not be difpofed in the fame order. The perfon
with whom you correfpond muft have a fimilar dial, and
at the beginning of your letter you muft put any two
letters that anfwer to each other when you have fixed
the dial.
Exam. Suppofe you would write as follows : “ If
you will come over to us, you fhall have a penfion, and
you may ftill make a ftam oppofition.” You begin
with the letters Ma, which ftow how the dial is fixed 1
then for If you, you write un juc, and fo for the reft, as
you will fee at fig. 6.
The fame intention may be anfwered by a ruler, the
upper part of which is fixed and the lower part made
to Hide ; but in this cafe the upper part muft contain
two alphabets in fucceffion, that fome letter of that part
may conftantly correfpond to one in the lower part.
The drvifions ftarrding diredtly over each other in a
ftraight line will be much more obvious than in the
circumference of a circle. Or two flraight pieces of
pafteboard regularly divided, the one containing a fin-
gle and the other a double alphabet, would anfwer ex-
aftly the fame purpofe. In this cafe a blank fpace may
be left at each end of the fingle alphabet, and one or
two weights being placed on both the pieces will keep
them fteady.
III. The correfpoudwg faces. Take two pieces of
8 ] C I P
pafteboard or ftiff paper, through which you muft cut
long fquares, at different diftances, as you will fee in
the following example. One of thefe pieces you keep
yourfelf, and the other you give to your correfpondent.
When you would fend him any feciet intelligence, you
lay the pafteboard upon a paper of the fame fize ; and
in the fpaees cut out, you write what you would have
underftood by him only, and then fill up the interme¬
diate fpaces with fomewhat that makes with thofe words
a different fenfe-
[I lhall be| much obliged to you, as reading jdunej,
engages my attention |at] prefent, if you will lend me
any one of the |eight! volumes of the Spe&ator. I
hope you will excule Ithisj, freedom^but for a winter's
|evening| I |don’t| know a better entertainment. If I
[fail| to return it foon, never truft me for the time
[to come. I
A paper of this fort may be placed four different
ways, either by putting the bottom at the top, or by
turning it overj and by thefe means the fuperfluous
words may be the more cafily adapted to the fenfe of
the others.
This is a very eligible cipher, as it is free from fu¬
fpicion, but it will do only for {hort meffages: for if
the fpaces be frequent,- it will be very difficult to make
the concealed and obvious meanings agree together ^
and if the fenfe be not clear, the writing will be liable
to fufpicion.
IV. The mufwal cipher. The conftruftion of this
cipher is fimilar to that of N°II. The circle EFGH
(fig. 3.) is to be divided into twenty-fix equal parts,
in each part there muft be wrote one of the letters,
of the alphabet: and on the anterior circle ILMN,.
moveable round the centre O, there is to be the fame
number of divilions : the circumference of the inner
circle muft be ruled in the manner of a mufic paper
and in each divifion there is to be placed a note, dif¬
fering either in figure or pofition. Laftly, within the
mufical lines place the three keys, and on the outer
circle, the figures that are commonly ufed to denote
the time.
Then provide yourfelf with a ruled paper, and place
on.e of the keys, as fuppofe that of ge re fol, againft
the time two-fourths at the beginning of the paper,
which will inform your correfpondent how to lix his,
circle. You then copy the notes that anfwer to the
fcveral letters of the words you intend to write, in the;
manner exprdfed at fig. 5.
A cypher of this fort may be made more difficult
to difeover by frequently changing the key, and that
will not in the leaft embarrafs the reader. You. may
likewife add the mark ^ or j? to the note that be¬
gins a word, which will make it more eafy to read,
and at the fame time give the mufic a more natural
afpett. This cipher is preferable to that of N° IL
above, as it may be inclofed in. a letter about commoiv
affairs, and pals unfufpedted.
CIPPUS, in antiquity, a low column, with an in-
feription, erefted on the high, roads, or other places,,
to fhow the way to travellers j. to ferve as a boun¬
dary ) to mark the grave of a deceafed perfon, &c.
CIR
Cipher,
Cipput.
Cir
C I II [i
CIR (St), a village of France, two miles from Ver-
11 failles, remarkable for a nunnery founded here by
. irc^ u' Louis XIV. The nuns are obliged to take care ot
the education of 250 girls, who muft prove their fa¬
milies to have been noble from the 4th generation on
the father’s lide. They cannot enter before .7, nor
after 12 years of age: and they continue there till
they are 20 years and 3 months old. The houfe is a
molt magnificent ftrufture.
CIRCiEA, enchanter’s night-shade : Agenus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the diandria
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 48th order. Aggregate. The corolla is dipeta-
Ipus ; the calyx diphyllous, fuperior, with one bilocu¬
lar feed. There are two fpecies, one of which is a
native of Britain, and the other of Germany. They
are low herbaceous plants with white flowers, and
pofleffed of no remarkable property.
CIRCASSIA, a large country of Afia, lituated be¬
tween 45 and 50 degrees of north latitude, and be¬
tween 40 and 50 of eaft longitude. It is bounded by
Ruflia on the north ; by Aflracan and the Cafpian fea
on the eaft ; by Georgia and Dagiftan on the fouth 5
and by the river Don, the Pains Meotis, and the Black
Sea, on the weft. This country has long been cele¬
brated for the extraordinary beauty of its women ; and
here it was that the practice of inoculating for the
fmall-pox firft began. Terki, the principal city, is
feated in a very fpacious plain, very fwampy, towards
the fea-fide, in 43 deg. 23 min. north latitude : it is
about three werfts in compafs, well fortified with ram¬
parts and baftions in the modern ftyle, well ftored with
cannon, and has always a confiderable garrifon in it,
under the command of a governor. The Circafllan
prince who refides here, is allowed five hundred Ruf¬
fians for his guard, but none of his own fubjects are
permitted to dwell within any part of the fortifications.
Ever fince the redu&ion of thof? parts to the obedi¬
ence of Ruflia, they have put in all places of ttrength,
not only Ruffian garrifons and governors, but magi-
ftrates, and priefts for the exercife of the Chriftian re¬
ligion ; yet the Circaffian Tartars are governed by
their owm princes, lords, and judges; but thefe admini-
fter juftice in the name of the emperor, and in matters
of importance, not without the prefence of the Ruffian
governors, being all obliged to take the oath of alle¬
giance to his imperial majefty. The apparel of the
men of Circaflia is much the fame with that of the
Nagayans: only their caps are fomething larger ; and
their cloaks being likewife of coarfe cloth or fheep
fkins, are faftened only at the neck with a firing, and
as they are not large enough to cover the whole body,
they turn them round according to the wipd and wea¬
ther. The men here are much better favoured than
thofe of Nagaya, and the women extremely well fha-
ped, with exceeding fine features, fmooth clear com¬
plexions, and beautiful black eyes, which, with their
black hair hanging in two treffes, one on each fide the
face, give them a moft lovely appearance : they wear
a black coif on their heads, covered with a fine white
cloth tied under the chin. During the fummer they
all wear only a fmock of divers colours, and that open
fo low before, that one m*y fee below their navels:
this, with their beautiful faces always uncovered (con¬
trary to the cuftom of moft of the other provinces in
9 1 CIR
thefe parts), their good humour and lively freedom m CircaffiLi.
converfation, altogether render them very attracting :
notwithftanding which they have the reputation of be¬
ing very chafte, though they feldom want opportunity ;
for according to the accounts of a late traveller, jt is an
eftablifhed point of good manners among them, that as
foon as any perfon comes in to fpeak to the wife, the
hufband goes out of the houfe : but whether this conti-
nency of theirs proceeds from their own generofity, to
recompence their hufbands for the confidence they put
in them, or has its foundation only in fame, he pretends
not to determine. Their language they have In com¬
mon with the other neighbouring Tartars, although
the chief people among them are alfo not ignorant of
the Ruffian : their religion is Paganifm ; for notwith-
ftanding they ufe circumcifion among them, they have
neither prieft, alcoran, or mofque, like other Mahome¬
tans. Every body here offers his own facrilic’e at plea-
fure; for which, however, they have certain days, efta¬
blifhed rather-by cuftom than any pofitive command :
their moft folemn facrifice is offered at the death of
their neareft friends ; upon which occafion both men
and women meet in the field to be prefent at the offer¬
ing, which is an he-goat; and having killed, they flay
it, and ftretch the fkin with the head and horns on,
upon a crofs at the top of a long pole, placed common¬
ly in a quickfet hedge (to keep the cattle from it) ;
and near the place the facrifice is offered by boiling and
roafting the flefh, which they afterwards eat. When
the feaft is over, the men rife, and having paid their
adoration to the fkin, and muttered over fome certain
prayers, the women withdraw, and the men conclude
the ceremony with drinking a great quantity of aqua-
vitie ; and this generally ends in a quarrel’before they
part. The face of the country is pleafantly diverfified
with mountains, valleys, woods, lakes, and rivers ; and,
though not much cultivated, is far from being unfruit¬
ful. In fummer the inhabitants quit the towns, and
encamp in the fields like the neighbouring Tartars;
occafionally fhifting their ftations along with their
flocks and herds. Befides game, in which the coun»
try greatly abounds, the Circaffians eat beef and mut¬
ton ; but that which they prefer to all others is the
flefh of-a young horfe. Their bread confifts of thin
cakes of barley meal, baked upon the hearth, which
they always eat new ; and their ufual drink is water or
mare’s milk; from the latter of which they diftil afpi-
rit, as moft of the Tartar nations. They allot no fix¬
ed hours for the refrefhments of the table or fleep,
which they indulge irregularly, as inclination or con¬
venience dictates. When the men make excurfions into
an enemy’s country, they willpafs feveral days and nights
fucceffively without fleeping; but, at their return, de¬
vote as much time to repofe as the fpace in which they
had before with-held from that gratification. When
they eat, they fit crofs-legged on the floor, the fkin of
fome animal ferving them inftead of a carpet. In re¬
moving from one part of the country to another, the
women and children are carried in waggons, which are
a kind of travelling houfes, and drawn by oxen or ca¬
mels, they never ufing horfes for draught. Their
breed of the latter, however, is reckoned exceeding
good ; and they are accuftomed to fwim almolt any ri¬
ver on horfeback. The vyomen and children fmoke
tobacco as well as the men; and this is the moft accept-
C 2 able
> C I R [ 20 ] C I R
Circe table commodity whicha travellercan carry with him in-
II to the Tartar countries. There are here no publip inns,
irc g~ . which indeed are unneceflary; for fo great is the hofpi-
tality of the people, that they will contend with each
other who {hall entertain any ftrariger that happens to
come among them.—The principal branch of their
traffic is their own children, efpecially their daughters,
whom they fell for the ufe of the feraglios in Turky
and Periia, where they frequently marry to great ad¬
vantage, and make the fortune of their families. The
merchants who come from Conllantinople to purchafe
thofe girls, are generally Jew's, who, as well as the mo¬
thers, are faid to be extremely careful of preferving the
challity of the youtog women, knowing the value that
is fet by the Turks upon the marks of virginity. The
greater part of the Citcaffians are Chriftians of the
Greek church ; but there are alfo both Mahometans
and Pagans amongft them.
CIRCE (fab. hift.), a daughter of Sol and Perfeis,
celebrated for her knowledge of magic and venomous
herbs. She was filter to iEetes king of Colchis, and
to Pafiphae the wife of Minos. .She married a Sarma-
tian prince of Colchis, whom ffie murdered to obtain
the kingdom. She was expelled by her fubjedts, and
carried by her father upon the coafts of Italy in
an ifland called iEtea. Ulyffes, at his return from the
Trojan war, vifited her coafts; and all his compa¬
nions, who ran headlong into pleafure and voluptuouf-
nefs, were changed by Circe’s potions into filthy fwine^
Ulyffes, who was fortified againft all enchantments by
an herb called moly, which he had received from Mercur
ry, went to Circe, and demanded fword in hand the
reftoration of his companions to their former ftate. She
complied, and loaded the hero with pleafures and ho¬
nours. In this voluptuous retreat Ulyffes had by
Circe one fon called Telegonus, or two, according to
Hefiod, called Agrius and Latinus. For one whole
year Ulyffes forgot his glory in Circe’s arms. At his
departure the nymph advifed him to defcend to hell
and to confult the manes of Tirefias concerning the
fates that attended him. Circe {bowed herfelf cruel to
Scylla her rival, and to Picus.
CIRCENSIANgames, a general term under which
was comprehended alf combats exhibited in the Roman
circus, in imitation of the Olympic games in Greece.
Moft of the feafts of the Romans were accompanied
with Circenfian games; and the magiftrates, and other
officers of the republic, frequently prefented the people
with them, in order to procure their favour. The
grand games were held five days, commencing on the
15th of September. See Circus.
CIRCLE, in geometry, a plane figure comprehend¬
ed by a fingle curve line, called its circumference,(to
which right lines drawn from a point in the midd’le,
called the centre, are equal to each other. See Geo¬
metry.
Circles of the Sphere, are fuch as cut the mundane
fphere, and have their periphery either on its move-
able furface, or in another immoveable, conterminous,
and equidiftant furface. See Sphere. Hence arife
two kinds of circles, moveable and immoveable. The
firft, thofe whofe peripheries are in the moveable fur-
face, and which therefore revolve with its diurnal mo¬
tion ; as, the meridians, &q. The latter having their
2
periphery in the immoveable furface, do not revolve ; Circles,
as the ecliptic, equator, and its parallels, &c. See *“""
Geography.
Circles of Altitude, otherwife called almucantars, are
circles parallel to the horizon, having their common
pole in the zenith, and ftill diminiffiing as they ap¬
proach the zenith. See Almucantar.
Diurnal Circles', are immoveable circles, fuppofed
to be defcribed by the feven ftars, and other points
of the heavens, in their diurnal rotation round the
earth ; or rather, in the rotation of the earth round
its axis. The diurnal circles are all. unequal: the e*
quator is the biggeft.
Horary Circles, in dialing, are the lines which
ffiow the hours on dials ; though thefe be not drawn
circular, but nearly ftraight. See Dialing.
Circles of Latitude, or Secondaries of the Ecliptic,
are great circles parallel to the plane of the,ecliptic;
palling through the poles thereof, and through every
fta'r and planet. They are fo called, becaufe they
ferve to meafure the latitude of the ftars, which is no¬
thing but an arch of one of thefe circles intercepted
between the ftar and the ecliptic. See Latitude. -
Circles of Longitude, are feveral leffer circles, pa¬
rallel to the ecliptic ftill diminiffiing, in proportion
as they recede from' it. On the arches bf thefe circles,
the longitude of the ftars is reckoned.
Circle of perpetual Apparition, one of the leffer cir¬
cles, parallel to the equator defcribed by any point
of the fphere touching the northern point of the hor
rizon; and carried about with the diurnal motion. All
the ftars included within this circle never fet, but are
ever vifible above the horizom
Circle of perpetual Occultation, is another circle at a
like diftance from the equator * and contains all thofe
ftars which never appear in our hemifphere. The ftars
fituated between thefe circles alternately rife and fet
at certain times..
Polar Circles, are immoveable circles, parallel to
the equator, and at a diftance from the poles equal to
the greateft declination of the ecliptic. That next the
northern pole is called the arctic; and that next to
the fouthern one the antarctic.
Fairy-CiRCLE, See Fairy-C/rcze.
Druidictd Circles, in Britiffi topography, a name
given to certain ancient inclofures formed by rude
ftones circularly arranged, in the manner reprefented
on Plate CXXXV.* Thefe, it is now generally agreed, ‘ in
were temples, and many writers think, alfo places of Vol. IV,
folemn affemblies for councils or elections, and feats of
judgment. Mr Borlace is of this opinion. “ Inftead,
therefore (fays he), of detaining the reader with a
difpute, whether they were places of worffiip or coun¬
cil, it may with great probability be afferted, that they
were ufed for both purpofes ; and having for the molt
part been firft dedicated to religion, naturally became
afterwards the curise and forae of the fame communi¬
ty.” Thefe temples, though generally circular, oc-
cafionally differ as well in figure as magnitude: with
relation to the firft, the moft fimple were compofed of
one circle : Stonehenge confifted of two circles and
two ovals, refpeftively concentric ; whilft that at Bot-
talch near St Juft in Coijpwall is formed by four in-
terfedling circles.. And the great temple at Abury in
> Wilt (hire.
C I R L 21 ] C I R
.. Circle, WiltAure, it* is- faid, defcribed the figure of a fe-
raP^ or fi^y dying ferpent, reprefented by circles and
* right lines. Some befides circles have avenues of ftone
pillars. Moft, if not all of them, have pillars or al¬
tars within their penetralia or centre. In the article
©f magnitude and number of itones, there is the great-
eit variety; feme circles being only twelve feet dia¬
meter and formed only of twelve ftone?, whilft others,
ftfch as Stonehenge and Abury, contained, the firft
one hundred and forty, the fecond fix hundred and
fifty two, and occupied many acres of ground. All
thefe different'numbers and meafures arid arrangements
had their pretended reference ; either to the aftronomi-
Oal divifions of the year, or fome myfteries of the drui-
dical religion. Mr Borlace, however, fuppofes, that
thoie very fmall circles, fometimes formed of a low
bank of earth, fometimes of ftones erect, and fre¬
quently of loofe fmall ftones thrown together in a cir¬
cular form, enclofing an area of about three yards
diameter> without any larger circle round them, were
originally places of burial.
Circle, in logic, or Logical Circle, is when the
fame terms are proved in orbem by the fame terms; and
the parts of the fyllogifm. alternately by each other, both
directly and indiredtly^
Circles of the Empire, fuch provinces and principa¬
lities of the German empire as have a right to be pre-
fent at diets. Maximilian L divided the empire into
fix, and fome years after into ten circles. This laft di-
vifion was confirmed by Charles V. The circles, as
they ftand in the Imperial „Matricola, are as follow :
Auftria, Burgundy, the Tower Rhine, Bavaria, Up¬
per Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Upper Rhine, Weft-
phalia, and the Lower. Saxony.
CIRCQNCELLIONES, a fpecies of faqatics, fo
called becaufe they were continually rambling round
the houfes in the country. They took their rife among
the donatifts, in the reign of the emperor Conftantine.
It is incredible what ravages and cruelties thefe vaga¬
bonds committed in Africa through a long feries of,
years. They were illiterate, favage peafants, who
underftood only the Punic language. Intoxicated
with a barbarous zeal, they renounced agriculture,
profeffed continence, and affumed the title of “ Vindi¬
cators of juftice, and Prote&ors of the oppreft.” To
acccomplifti their miflion, they enfranchifed Haves,
fcoured the roads, forced mafters to alight from their
chariots, and run before their flaves, whom they ob¬
liged to mount in their place; and difeharged debtors,
killing the creditors if they refufed to cancel the bonds.
But the chief objefts of their cruelty were the.catholics,
and efpecially thofe who had renounced donatifm.
At firft they ufed no fwords, becaufe God had forbidden
the ufe of one to Peter; but they were armed with
clubs, which they called the clubs of Ifrael; and which
they handled in fuch a manner as to break a man’s
bones without killing him immediately, fo that he l»n-
guiihed a long time and then died. When they took
away a man’s life at once, they looked upon it as a fa¬
vour. They became' lefs fcrupulpus afterwards, and
made ufe of all forts of arms. Their ihout was Praife
be to God. Thefe words in their mouths were the fig-
nal of flaughter, more terrible than the roaring of a
lion. They had invented an unheard of punifhment;
which was to cover with lime diluted with vinegar,
the eyes of thofe unhappy wretches whom th«y had Clrconcel-
crufhed with blows, and covered with wounds, and
to abandon them in that condition. Never was a ir^“ ’ t
ftronger proof what horrors fuperftition can beget in
minds deftitute of knowledge and humanity. Thefe
brutes, who had made a vow of chaftity, gave them-
felves up to wine and all forts of impurities, running
about with women and young girls as drunk as them-
felves, whom they called facred virgins, and who of¬
ten carried proofs of their incontinence. Their chiefs
took the name of Chiefs of the Saints. After having
glutted themfelves with blood, they turned their rage
upon themfelves, and fought death with the fame fury
with which they gave it to others. Some fcrambled
up to the tops of rocks, and caft themfelves down
headlong in multitudes; others burned themfelves, or
threw themfelves into the fea. Thofe who propofed
to acquire the title of martyrs, publifhed it long be¬
fore ; upon which they were feafted and fattened
like' oxen for the fiaughter; after thefe preparations
they fet out to be deftroyed. Sometimes they gave
money to thofe whom they met, and threatened ta
murder them if they did not make them martyrs.
Theodorat gives an account of a ftout young man,
who meeting with a troop of thefe- fanatics, confent-
ed to kill them, provided he might bind them firft ;
and having by this means put it out of their power
to defend themfelves, whipped them as long as he
was able, and then left them tied in that manner.
Their biihops pretended to blame them, but in reali¬
ty made ufe of them to intimidate fych as might be
tempted to forfake their fe&; they even honoured
them as faints. They were not, however, able to go¬
vern thofe furious monfters; and more, than once
found themfelves under a necefilty of abandoning them,
and even of imploring the afiiftance of the fecular
power againft them. The counts Urfacius and Tau^
rinus were employed to quell them ; they deftroyed
a great number of them, of whom the dotanifts made
as many martyrs. Urfacius, who was a good ca¬
tholic and a religious man, having loft his life in
an engagement with the barbarians, the donatifts
did not fail to triumph in his death, as an effeft of
the vengeance of heaven. . Africa was the theatre of
thefe bloody feenes during a great part of Conftantine’s .
life.
CIRCUIT, in law, fignifies a longer courfe of
proceedings than is needful to recover the thing fued
for.
Circuit, alfo fignifies the journey or progrefs^-
which the judges take twice every year, through the
feveral counties of England and Wales, to hold courts
and adminifter juftice, where recourfe cannot be had
to the king’s courts at Weftminifter: hence England
is divided into fix circuits, viz. the Home circuit; Nor¬
folk circuit; Midland circuit; Oxford circuit ; Weft-
ern circuit, and Northern circuit. In Wales there
are but two circuits. North and South Wales: two
judges are aflignedby the king’s commilfion to every,
circuit.
In Scotland, the. judges of the fupreme criminal
court, or court of judiciary, are divided into three
feparate courts, confiding of two judges each; and
the kingdom into as many diftri<fts. In certain bo¬
roughs of every diftrid,. each of thefe courts by rota--
tiou:
C I R [ 22 1 C I R
Circuit tion are obliged to hold two courts in the year, in
r. 11 . fprtng and autumn; which are called circuit-courts.
]?leftr\cal Circuit, denotes the courfe of the eleclric
fluid from the charged furface of an electric body, to
the oppofite furface into which the difcharge is made.
Some of the firft ekdtrcians apprehended, that the
fame particles of the eledtric fluid, which were thrown
on one fide of the charged glafs, a&ually made the
whole circuit of the intervening conduftors, and ar¬
rived at the oppofite fide : whereas Dr Franklin’s
theory only requires, that the redundancy of electric
matter on the charged furface (hould pafs into the bo¬
dies which form that part of the circuit which is con¬
tiguous to it, driving forward that part of the fluid
which they naturally poffefs; and that the deficiency
of the exhaufted furface fhould be fupplied by the
neighbouring conductors, which form the lalt part of
the circuit. On this fuppofition, a vibrating motion
is fuccefiively communicated through the whole length
of the circuit. This circuit is always formed of the
beft condaCtors, let the length of it be ever fo great.
Many attempts were made, both in France and Eng¬
land, at an early period in the hiftory of ele&ricity,
to afcertain the diftance to which the eleclric fliock
might be carried, and the velocity of its motion. The
French philofophers, at different times, made it to
pafs through a circuit of 900 toifes, and of 2000
toifes, or about two Englifh miles and a half; and
they difcharged the Leyden phial through a bafon of
water, the furface of which was about an acre. And
M- Mouaier found, that, in puffing through an iron
wire of 950 toifes in length, it did not fpend a quar¬
ter of a fecond ; and that its motion was inflantaneous
through a wire of 1319 feet. In 1747, Dr Watfon,
and other Englifh philofophers, after many experiments
of a limilar kind, conveyed the eleclric matter through
a circuit of four miles ; and they concluded from this
and another trial, that its velocity is inflantaneous.
CIRCULAR, in a general fenfe, any thing that is
defcribed, or moved in a round, as the circumference
of a circle, or furface of a globe.
Circular Numbers, called alfo fphertcal ones, accord¬
ing to fome, are fuch whofe powers terminate in the
roots themfelves. Thus, for inftance, 5 and 6, all
whofe poweis do end in 5 and 6, as the fquare of 5
is 25; the fquare of 6 is 36, £sV.
Circular Sailing, is the method of failing by the
arch of a great circle. See Navigation.
CIRCULATION, the acl of moving round, or in
a circle ; thus we fay, the circulation of the blood, £sV.
Circulation of the Blood, the natural motion of the
blood in a living animal, whereby that fluid is alter¬
nately carried from the heart into all parts of the body,
by the arteries, from whence it is brought back to the
heart again by the veins. See Anatomy, n 125.
In a foetus, the apparatus for the circulation of the
blood is fomewhat different from that in adults. The
feptum, which feparates the two auricles of the heart,
is pierced through with an aperture, called the fora¬
men ovale; and the trunk of the pulmonary artery, a
little after it has left the heart, fends out a tube into
the defcending aorta, called the communicating canal.
The foetus being born, the foramen ovale clofes by
degrees, and the canal of communication dries up,
. and becomes a fimple ligament.
As to the velocity of the circulating bfood, and the Cire
time wherein the circulation is completed, feveral
computations have been made. By Dr Keil’s account,
the blood is driven out of the heart into' the aorta with
•a velocity which would carry it twenty-five feet in a
minute : but this velocity is continually abated in the
progrefs of the blood, in the numerous fedlions or
branches of the arteries; fo that before it arrive at
the extremities of the body, its motion is greatly di-
minifhed. The fpace of time wherein the whole mafs
of blood ordinarily circulates, is varioufly determined.
Some ftate it thus: Suppoling the heart to make two
thoufand pulfes in an hour, and that, at every pulfe
there is expelled an ounce of blood ; as the whole mafs
of blood is not ordinarily computed to exceed twenty-
four pounds, it mull be circulated feven or eight times
over in the fpace of an hour.
The curious, in microfcopic obfervations, have found
an eafy method of feeing the circulation of the blood
in the bodies of animals : for thefe inquiries it is ne*
ceffary to choofe fuch animals as are fmall, and eaiily
manageable, and which are either wholly or in part
tranfparent. The obfervations made by this means
are preferable to any others vve can have recourfe to;
fince, in difle£lions, the animal is in a ftate of pain,
or dying ; whereas in animals fmall enough to be thus
viewed, all is left in its ufual courfe, and we fee what
nature does in her own undifturbed method. In thefe
creatures alfo, after viewing, as long as we pleafe, the
natural ftate and current of the blood, we may, by
preflure, and feveral other way^ impede its courfe;
and by putting various mixtures into the creature’s
water, induce a morbid ftate, and finally fee the crea¬
ture die, either by means of this or by any other me¬
thod ; and we may thus accurately obferve all the
changes it undergoes, and fee what occafions the
trembling pulfe, &c. or dying people.
The current of the blood in fmall animals, that is,
its paifing on through the veflels, either to or from
the heart, is very ealily feen by the microfcope ; but
its circulation, that is, its running to the extremities
of the parts, and thence returning, is more difficult j
becaufe the veffels where this fhould be feen are fo ex¬
tremely minute, as not eafily to come under obferva-
tion. The larger arteries are eafily dillinguifhed
from the veins by the motion of the blood through
them, which in the veins is always fmooth and regu¬
lar ; but in the arteries by feveral propulfions after the
manner of pulfation. But this difference is not to be
found in the moie minute veflels; in all which, as well
arteries as veins, the motion of the blood is even and
regular.
The tranfparent membrane, or web between the
toes of a frog’s hinder foot, is a very proper objefl
to obferve the circulation of the blood in. The tails
or fins of fifhes are alfo very fine objetts; and when
the fifh is very fmall, thefe are manageable, and af¬
ford a view of a'great number of veins and arteries,
with a very quick and beautiful fucceffion of blood
through them. The tail of a flounder may be very
conveniently placed before the double microfcope on
a plate of glafs; and its body being fuppbrted by fome-
thing of equal height, the fifh will lie ftill, and the cir¬
culation may be feen very agreeably. In the minu-
teft veflels thus examined, the blood always appears
3 pale
C I R
CTrrnlatJon, pale or colourlefs, but in the large ones it is mauifed-
, Cu-chIus. fy re(j> arteries ufually branch out extremely
- " v' 1 before they join the veins to carry the blood back to
the heart: but this is not always the cafe; for Mr
Lewenhoeck has obferved, that on each fide of the
| v little griftles which give a ftiffnefs to the tail of a
flounder, there may be feen a very open communi¬
cation of the veins and arteries; the blood running
towards the extremities through arteries, and return¬
ing back again through veins, which were evidently
a continuation of thofe arteries, and of the fame dia¬
meter with them. The whole fifli on the tail of which
this examination was made, was not more than half
an inch in length ; it is eafy to conceive, therefore,
how fmall the tail muft be ; and yet in it there were
68 veffels • which carried and returned the blood;
and yet thefe veffels were far from being the moft
minute of all. How inconceivably numerous then
muff the circulations in the whole human body be ?
Mr Lewenhoeck is of opinion, that a thoufand dif¬
ferent circulations are continually carried on in every
part of a man’s body in. the breadth of a finger nail.
' The tail of a newt or water-lizard affords alfo a ve¬
ry entertaining profpefk of the circulation of the blood
through almoft numberlefs fmall veffels; but no ob¬
ject fhows it fo agreeably as one of thefe animals
while fo young as not to be above an inch long ; for
then the whole body is fo very tranfparent, that the
circulation may be feen in every part of it, as well as
in the tail; and, in thefe objects, nothing is more
beautiful than the courfe of the blood into the toes
and back again, where it may be traced all the way
with great eafe. Near the head there are alfo found
three fmall fins which afford a very delightful pro-
fpeft : thefe are all divided like the leaves of polypo¬
dy ; and in every one of the branches of thefe, the
blood may be very accurately traced, running to the
end through the artery, and there returning back
a^ain by a vein of the fame fize, and laid in the fame
direftion; and as the veffels are very numerous and
large in this part, and the third or fourth magnifier
may be ufed, there are fometimes feen 30 or 40 chan¬
nels of running blood at once ; and this the more as
the globules of blood in the newt are large, and are
fewer in number, in proportion to the quantity of fe-
rum, than in any other animal: and their figure, as
they are protruded through the veflels, changes in a
very furprifing manner. The impetus occafioning the
circulation, is great enough in fome animals to raife
the blood fix, feven, or eight feet high from the blood-
veffel it fprings out at; which, however, is far exceed¬
ed by that of the fap of a vine in bleeding time, which
will fometimes rife forty feet high.
Circulation of the f ip of Plants. See JPlants, and
Sap.
Circulation of the Spiritsy or Nervous Fluid. See
Anatomv, n° 136.
Circulation, in chemiftry, is an operation where¬
by the fame vapour, raifed by fire, falls back, to be
returned and diltflled feveral times.
Circulation of Money. See Commerce, and Mo¬
ney.
Subterranean Circulation. See Springs.
CIRCULUS, in chemiflry, an iron inftrument in
farm of a ring, which being heated red-hot, and ap-
C 1 it
plied to the necks of retorts and other glafs veffels till Cir-umam-
they grow hot, a few drops of cold water thrown upon
them, or a cold blaft, will make the necks fly regularly circumci-
and evenly off. - fion.
Another method of doing this is, to tie a thread, —y——^
firft dipt in oil of turpentine, round the place where
you would have it break ; and then fetting fire to the
thread, and afterwards fprinkling the place with cold
water, the glafs will crack exactly where the thread
was tied.
CIRCUMAMBIENT, an appellation given to a
thing that furrounds another on all fides; chiefly ufed
in fpeaking of the air.
ClilCUMCELLIONES. See Circoncelljo-
nes.
CIRCUMCISION, the aft of cutting off the pre¬
puce ; a ceremony in the Jewifli and Mahometan re¬
ligions, wherein they cut off the forefltin of their
males, who are to profefs the one or the other law.
Circumcfion commenced in the time of Abraham ;
and was, as it were, the feal of a covenant ftipulated
between God and him. It was in the year of the
world 2178, that Abraham, by divine appointment,
circumcifed himfelf, and all the males of his family;
from which time it became an hereditary praftice a-
mong his defeendants.
The ceremony, however, was not confined to the
Jews: Herodotus and Philo Judaeus obferve, that it
obtained alfo among the Egyptians and Ethiopians.
Herodotus fays, that the cuftom was very ancient
among each people ; fo that there was no determining
which of them borrowed it from the other. The
fame hiftorian relates, that the inhabitants of Colchis,
alfo ufed circumcifion ; whence he concludes, that they
were originally Egyptians. He adds, that the Phoe¬
nicians and Syrians were likewife circumcifed; but
that they borrowed the praftice from the Egyptians.
Andlaftly, that a little before the time when he wrote,,
circumcifion had paffed from Colchis, to the people in¬
habiting near Thermodoon and Parthenius.
Marfham is of opinion, that the Hebrews borrowed
circumcifion from the Egyptians ; and that God was:
not the firft author thereof; citing Diodorous Siculus,
and Herodotus, as evidences on his fide. This latter
propofition feems direftly contrary to the teftimony
of Mofes, who affures, Gen. xvii. that Abraham, tho*
99 years of age, was not circumcifed till he had the
exprefs command of God for it. But as to the for¬
mer pofition of Marfliam, it will admit of more de¬
bate. The arguments on both fides may be feen in
one view in Spencer de Legilus Hebrceorum, /. 2. c. 4.
Be this as it will, it is certain the praftice of cir¬
cumcifion among the Hebrews differed very confide-
rably from that of the Egyptians. Among the firft it
was a ceremony of religion, and was performed on the
eighth day after the birth of the child. Among the
latter, a point of mere dqcency and cleanllnefs ; and,
as fome will have it, of phyfical neceflity ; and was not
performed till the 13th year, and then on girls as well
as boys.
Among the Jews, the time for performing this rite
was the eighth day, that is, fix full days, after the child
was born : the law of Mofes ordained nothing with re-
fpeft to the perfon by whom, the inftrument with which,"
or the manner how, the ceremony was to be perform-
ed j
[ 23 1
C I R
Circumcl- ed; the inllrument was generally a knife of ftone.
fion 'phe child is ufually circumcifed at home, where the
Circumf- fat^er> or godfather,.holds him in <his arms; while the
renter." operator takes hold of the prepuce with One hand, and
<——v- 1 vvith the other cuts it .off; a third perfon holds,a por¬
ringer, with fand in it, to catch the blood; then the
[ 24 1 G I R
fufpended on the pivot in the centre of the circle^ Cifcmnfe-
There are alfo two fights to ferew on, and Aide up and _.reHto^»
down the index ; as alfo a fpangle and focket ferewed,‘rtutn e*‘
on the back fide of the circle for putting the head of
the ftaff in.
How to obferve the Quantity of an Angle by. the Cir-
operator applies his mouth to the part, and, having cuinferentor. Let it be lequired to find the quantity
fucked the blood,fpits it into a bowl of wine,and throws  T? ,r ^  ;"ft   ir
a ftyptic powder upon the wound. This ceremony
was ufually accompanied with great rejoicings and feaft-
ing; and it was at this time that the child was named
in prefence of the company. The Jews invented fe-
veral fuperftitious cuftoms at this ceremony, fuch as
placing three ftools, one for the circumcifor, the fe-
cond for the perfon who holds the child, and the third
for Elijah, who, they fay, affifts invifibly at the cere¬
mony, iffc.
The Jews diftinguifhed their profelytes into two
forts, according as they became circumcifed or not 1
thofe who fubmitted to this rite Were looked upon
as children of Abraham, and obliged to keep the
of the angle EKG ; firft place your inftrument at K,
with the flower-de-luce of the chart towards you; then
direft your fights to E, and obferve what degrees are
cut by the fouth end of the needle, which let be 296;
then, turning the inllrument about, direftyour fights
to G, noting then alfo what degrees are cut by the
fouth end of the needle, which fuppofe 247. This
done, always fubtradf the leffer from the greater, as
in this example, 247 from 296, the remainder is
49 degrees, which is the true quantity of the angle
EKG. .
A circumferentor is made by Mr Jones of Holburn
on an improved conllrudtion. From a very Ample
contrivance, it is rendered fuffieient to take angles with
laws of Mofes; the uncircumcifed were only bound the accuracy of a common theodolite ; and by it angles
to obferve the precepts of Noah, and were called noa-
chida.
The Turks never circumcife tillthe feventh or eighth
year, as having no notion of its being neceffary to fal-
vation. The Perfians circumcife their boys at 13, and
their girls from 9 to 15. Thofe of Madagafcar cut
the flelh at three feveral times ; and the moft zealous
of the relations prefent, catches hold of the preputium
and fwallows it.
of altitude and depreflion . may be obferVed as readily
as horizontal ones. The improvement chiefly confifts in
an arm or index (G),fo applied to the centre of tlie com-
pafs box, and within it, thgt, at the time of obferving,
by only flipping a pin (/>) out, the circle of degrees
alone may move round, and leave the index (G) fixed.
This index will remain flationary, from its being at¬
tached to the focket that ferews on the head of the
ftaffs. On the end of this index, next the degrees in
Circumcifion is pradtifed on women by cutting off the box, there is graduated a nonius fcale, by which
the forefkin of the clitoris, which bears a near refem- the circle of 360 degrees is fubdivided into 5 minutes
blance and analogy to the preputium of the male pe- or lefs if defired. To take angles of altitude or de¬
nis. We are told that the Egyptian captive-women preflions, the inftrumenl is turned down on its ball and
were circumcifed j and alfo the fubjefts of Prefter John, focket into a perpendicular pofition, and adjufted to
Circumcision is alfo the name of a feaft, cele¬
brated on the firft of January, in commemoration of the
circumcifion of our Saviour.
CIRCUMDUCTION, in Scots law. When par¬
ties in a fuit are alloWed a proof of alledgeances ; af-
its level by a plumb line (/), that is hung on a pin
at the back of the box, and made to coincide with a
mark made thereon. Then by looking through the.
fmall fight holes (s) purpofely made, the angles are
ftiown on the circle of degrees by the nonius as be-
ter the time limited by the judge for taking that proof fore. The arms (A A) of the inftrument flip off (at
is elapfed, either party may apply for circumdudtion BB), and the whole packs into a cafe but y-J inches
of the time of proving ; the effedt of which is, that. fquare and 3 deep.
no proof can afterwards be brought, and the caufe
muft be determined as it flood when circumdu&ion
was obtained.
CIRCUMFERENCE, in a general fenfe, denotes
the line or lines bounding a plane figure. However,
it is generally ufed in a more limited fenfe, for the
curve line which bounds a circle, and otherwife called
a periphery ; the boundary of a right-lined figure being the grave falls or lowers it: the circumflex
expreffed by the term perimeter. of
CIRCUMFERENTOR, an inftrument ufed by tw
Plate furveyoVs for taking angles,
r-wvtr confifts of a brals index and circle,'all of a piece.
CIRCUMFLEX, in grammar, an accent, ferving
to note, or diftinguifh, a fyliable of. an intermediate
found between acute and grave ; and generally fome-
what long.—The Greeks had three accents, the a-
cute, the grave, and the circumflex; formed thus,
In Latin, Englifti, French, &c. the circum¬
flex is made thus \—The acute raifes the voice, and
cumflex is a kind
dulation, or wavering of the voice, between the
two. It is feldom ufed among the moderns, unlefs to
Ihow the omiflion of a letter which made the fyllable
long and open ; a thing much more freqqent in the
The index is commonly about 14 inches long, and an French than among us : thus they write pate (orpajie;
inch and a half broad ; the diameter, of the circle is tlte for tejle ; ftimes for fufnes, &c. They alio ufe the
about feven inches. On this circle is made a chart, circumflex in the participles; Lome of their authors
whole meridian line anfwers to the middle of the writing conncu, peu, others count!, ptl, &c. Father
breadth of the index, and is divided into 360 degrees. Buffier is at a lofs for the reafon of the circumflex on
There is a brafs ring foldered on the circumference of this occafion.
the circle, on which ferevvs another ring, with a flat The form of the Greek circumflex was anciently the
glafs in it, fo as to form a kind of box for the needle, fame with that of ours, viz.A; being a compofition of
N° 81. the
G I R [25
Cirtumgy- the otlier two accents a in one—But the copifls, chan-
ration ging the form of the charafters, and introducing the
Circlnv running"^an(^> changed alfo the form of the circum-
vallation. flex accent; and inftead of making a juft angle, round-
v —y— _j ed it bff, adding a daih, thtough too much hafte; and
thus formed an s, laid horizontally, which produced
this figure", inftead of thisA.
CIRCUMGYRATION, denotes the whirling mo¬
tion of any body round a centre ; fuch is that of the
planets round the fun.
CIRCUMLOCUTION, an ambages, or tour of
words, ufed either when a proper term is not at hand,
to exprefs a thing naturally and immediately by ; or
when one choofes not to do it, out of refpeft, or for
fome other reafon. The word comes from circumlo-
quor, “ I fpeak about.”
Circumlocution, in oratory, is the avoiding of
fomething difagreeable or inconvenient to be exprefs-
ed in direct terms ; by intimating the fenfe thereof in
a kind of paraphrafe, fo conceived as to foften or
break the foice thereof.
Thus Cicero, unable to deny that Clodius was flain
by Milo, owns it, with this circumlocution, “ Milo’s
“ fervants being prevented from affifting their mafter.
G I R
CIRCUMVOLUTION, in architefture, denotes Ci1‘cu.m»0*
the torus of the fpiral line of the Ionic order. circus
CIRCUS, in antiquity, a large building, either 1 . ^ _ ■
round or oval, ufed for the exhibiting of ihows to the
people. Some derive the word from Circe, to whom
Tertullian attributes the invention. Caffiodorus fays.
Circus comes a circuitu. The Romans, Servius ob-
ferves, at firft had no other circus but that made by
the Tiber on one fide, and a palifadc gf naked fwords
on the other. Hence, according to Ifidore, came the
term lucli circenfes, quafi circum enfes. But Scab’ger ri¬
dicules that etymology.
The Roman circus was a large oblong edifice, arch¬
ed at one end ; encompafled with porticos, and fur-
niftred with rows of feats, placed afcending over each
other. In the middle was a kind of foot-bank, or e-
' minence, with obelifks, ftatues, and polls at each end.
This ferved them for the courfes of their biga and qua¬
driga. There were no lefs than ten circufes at Rome:
the largeft was built by the elder Tarquin, called
Circus Maximus, between the Aventine and Palatine
mounts. It was fo called, either becaufe of its vaft
circumference, or becaufe the great games were cele¬
brated in it; or again,'becaufe it was confecrated to the
who was reported to be killed by Clodius; they, in great gods, viz. to Vertumnus, Neptune, Jupiter, Ju-
“ his abfence, and without his privity, or confent, did
“ what every body would expe& from their own fer-
“ vants on fuch an occafion.”
CIRCUMPOLAR stars, an appellation given to
thofe liars, which, by reafon of their vicinity to the
pole, move round it without fetting.
no, Minerva, and the Dii Peijates of Rome. Dio-
nyfius Halicarnaflenfis fays that it was three ftadia and
a half in length, and four jugera broad; and thefe
meafures, according to Pliny, allowing to the Roman
ftadia 625 Roman feet, each of which is 12 inches,
will give for the length 2187 Roman feet, or fome-
CIRCUMPOTATIO, in antiquity, a funeral feaft what more than three Englilh furlongs ; and as to the
provided in honour of the dead. This was very fre-
epient among the ancient Romans, as well as among
the Athenians. Solon at Athens, and the decemviri
at Rome, endeavoured to reform this cuftom, thinking
it abfurd that mirth and drunkennefs ftiould mingle
with forrow and grief.
CIRCUMSCRIBED, in geometry, is faid of a
figure which is drawn round another figure, fo that all
its fides or planes touch the infcribed figure.
CIRCUMSCRIPTION, in natural philofophy,
the termination, bounds, or limits, of any natural body.
CIRCUMSTANCE, a particularity, which, tho*
not effential to any adlion, yet doth fome way af-
feft ft.
CIRCUMSTANTIAL evidence, inlaw, or the
doftrine of prefumption, takes place next to pofitive
proof: circumftances which either neceflarily or ufual-
ly attend fafts of a particular nature, that cannot be
demonllratively evinced, are called prefumptions, and are
only to be relied on till the contrary be adlually pro¬
ved.
CIRCUMSTANTIBUS, in law, a term ufed for
fupplying and making up the number of jurors (in
cafe any impanelled appear not, or appearing are chal-
langed by any party), by adding to them fo many of
the perfons prefent as will make up the number, in cafe
they are properly qualified.
CIRCUMVALLATION, or Line of Circvmval-
iation, in the art of war, is a trench bordered with
a parapet, thrown up quite round the befieger’s camp,
by way of fecurity againft any army that may at¬
tempt to relieve the place, as well as to prevent de-
fertion.
Vol.V. Parti.
breadth, allowing for each of the jugera 240 Roman
feet, it will be 960 Roman feet. It was beautified
and enlarged by the Roman emperors, fo as to feat
250,000 fpeftators. The moft magnificent circufes
were thofe of Auguftus and Nero. There are ftill
fome remains of the circufes at Rome, at Nifmes, and
other places. The Romans were exceffively fond of
the games exhibited'in the circus: witnefs that verfe
in Juvenal,
■ ■ ■ ' ■— /.tque duns tantum res anxius optat,
Panem & cirunfes 
The Games of the Circus, which fome call Circen/ian
Games, were combats celebrated in the circus, in ho¬
nour of Confus the god of councils; and thence alfo
called Confualia. They were alfo called Roman Games,
Ludi Romani, either on account of their antiquity, as
being coeval with the Roman people, or becaufe efta-
bliftred by the Romans: and the games held there, the
great games, ludi magni, becaufe Celebrated with more
expence and magnificence than others; and becaufe
held in honour of the great god Neptune, who was
their Confus.—Thofe who fay they were inftituted in
honour of the fun, confound the pompa circen/is, or
proceflion of the circus, witji the games.
The games of the circus were inftituted by Evan-
der, and re-eftabliftied by Romulus: the pomp, or
proceffion, was only a part of the games, making the
prelude thereof, and confiiling of a Ample cavalcade of
chariots. Till the time of the elder Tarquin, they
were held in an ifland of the Tiber; and were called
Roman games: after that prince had built the circus,
they took their name therefrom ; as being conilantly
held there. There were fix kinds of exeicifes in the
D circus;
C I R [ 26 ] CIS
Cirffncefler circus: the firft was wreftliug, and fighting with
II fwords, with ftaves, and with pikes; the fecond was
1 ^ ;'S' racing ; the third, faltatio, dancing ; the fourth, dif-
ci, quoits, arrows, and ceftus: all which were on
foot: the fifth was horfe-courfing ; the fixth, courfes
of chariots, whether with two horfes or with four.
In this laft exercife, the combatants were at firft di¬
vided into two fquadrons or quadrils; then into four ;
each bearing the names of the colours they wore; fac-
tiv alia, rujjea, &c. At firft there was only white and
red ; then green was added, and blue. Domitian ad¬
ded two more colours, but they did not continue.
It was Oenomauswho firft invented this method of di-
ftinguiftiing the quadrils by colours. The green was
for thofe who reprefented the earth; the blue for the
fea, &c.
CIRENCESTER, an ancient town of Gloncefter-
fiiire in England. It was ftrongly fortified with walls
and a caftle in the time of the Romans. The ruins
of the walls and ttreet are, or were lately, to be feen
in the adjacent meadows, where many Roman coins,
ehtquered pavements, and infcriptions on marble, have
been found. Two of the Roman confular ways crofs
each other at this town. The folfe-way, which comes
from Scotland, paffes through this county and town
to Totnefs in Devonftiire. The other, called Irmln-
Jlreet, comes from Glouceftcr, and runs along to South¬
ampton. Not many years ago they difoovered, .by
digging in a meadow near the town, an ancient build¬
ing under ground, 50 feet long, 40 broad, and 4 high,
and fupported by too brick pillars, curioully inlaid
with Hones of various colours, fuppofed to have been
a Roman bath. Cirencefter has now but one church,
in the windows of which are the remains of very va¬
luable painted glafs. The town is governed by 2 high
conftables, and 14 wards-men, who govern 7 diftindt
wards; and it fends two members to parliament. It
has a free fchool, a chaiity-fchool, with feveral alms-
houfes; and is feated on the river Churn, 36 miles
north-eaft of Briftoi, and 88 weft by north of Lon¬
don. W. Long. o. 2. N. Lat. 51. 42.
CIRENZA, a city of Naples, capital of the Bafi-
lieate, with an archbifttop’s fee. It was formerly a
confiderable place, but is now of fmall confequence.
It is feared on the river Brandano, at the foot of the
Apennine mountains, in. E. Long. 16. 44. N. Lat.
40. 48.
CIRO-ferri, an excellent Italian painter and ar-
chiteft, was born at Rome in 1614, and was the dif-
ciple of Peter de Cortona, whofe defigns he imita¬
ted with fuch exa&nefs, that it is difficult to diftin-
them. He was efteemed by Pope Alexan¬
der VII. and his three fucceffors, and died at Rome
in 1689.
CIRRUS, or Cirrhus, in botany, a clafper or
tendril; that fine fpiral firing or fibre put out from the
foot-ftalks, by which fome plants, as the ivy and
vine, faften themfelves to walls, pales, or trees, for
fupport. The term is fynonymous to the capreo-
lus, clavicula, and viticulus of other botanifts: and
is ranked by Linnseus among the fulcra, or parts
of plants that ferve for prote&ion, fupport, and de¬
fence.
Tendrils are fometimes placed oppoftte to the leaves,
as in the vine; foinetinies at the fide of the foot-ftalk
of the leaf, as in paffion-fiower; and fometimes, as in Gimt*
winged pea, pifum ochrus, they are emitted from the II
leaves themfelves. With refpeft to compofition, they 1 J'a^an!W,'
are either Ample, that is, compofed of one fibre or
chord, as in the vetch; or compound, that is, conliil
of two, three, or more, as in the everlafting pea.
Bitter fvveet, folanum, dulcamara, bignonia, and ivy,
fend forth tendrils which plant themfelves like roots in
the adjacent walls, or the bark of the neighbouring
trees. Clafpers, fays the ingenious Dr Grew, are like
trunk-roots, a mean betwixt r root and a trunk, but a
compound of both, as may be gathered from their cir¬
cumvolutions, in which they mutually afeend and de-
feend. In the mounting of the trunk, continues the
fame author, clafpers ferve for fupport. Thus, in
vines, the branches being very long, fragile, and dea¬
der, would be liable to frequent breaking, unlefs, fiy
means of their clafpers, they were mutually contained
together ; fo that the whole care is divided betwixt the
gardener and nature : the former, with his ligaments
of leather, fecures the main branches; and nature, with
thofe of her own providing, fecures the lefs. Their
aptitude to this end is feen in their convolutions, a
motion not proper to any other part : and alfo in their
toughnefs, which is fo much the more remarkable, as
they are flenderer than the branches from which they,
proceed. In the trailing of the trunk, tendrils ferve
for ftahilement and (hade : thus, in cucumbers, the
trunk and branches being long and fragile, would be
driven to and fro by the winds, to 'the great preju¬
dice both of themfelves and their tender fruits, were
they not, by thefe ligaments, held fall together, and
preferved in aflbeiation and good fellowfhip. The fame
clafpers ferve like wife for fhade: fo that a natural ar¬
bour is formed by the branches of the cucun ber, in the
fame manner as an artificial one is made by tangling
together the twigs of trees; for the branches, by the
linking of their clafpers, being couched together, the
tender fruits lie under the umbrage of a bower made
of their own leaves. Moft of the pea-bloom flowers
have twining clafpers, that is, which wind to the right
and back again.
CIRRI, in ichthyology, certain oblong and foft
appendages, not unlike little worms, hanging from
the under jaws or mouths of fome fifhes: thefe cirri,
commonly tranflated beards, afford marks to diftin-
guiih the different fpecies of the fifties on which they
are founeb
CIRTA, (anc. geog.) the metropolis and royal
refidence, not far from the river Ampfaga, in the in¬
land parts of Numidia Propria. A colony, furnamed
Colonia Sittiamrum, very rich,, when in the hands of
Syphax. The colony was led by one P. Sittius, un^
der the aufpices of Csefar, and was fnrnamed Julia.
Now called Conjlantina, in Algiers. E. Long. 7. o.
Lat. 35. 30.
CISALPINE, any thing on this fide the Alps.
The Romans divided Gaul and the country now called
Lombardy, into Cifalpine and Tranfalpiae. That which
was Cifalpine with regard to the Romans, is Tranfal-
pine with regard to us.
CISLEU, in Hebrew chronology, the ninth month
of their ecclefiaftical, and third of their civil, year, an-
fwering nearly to our November.
CISPADANAGALLiA,(anc.geog.)adiftn(ftofItaly,
to
CIS [ 1
to thefouth of tliePo, occupied by the Gauls in the time
of the kings of Rome, feparated from Liguria on the
' weft, as is thought by the Iria, running from fouth to
north into the Po ; bounded on the fouth by the A-
pennine, and on the eaft by theAdriatic. The term is
formed analogically, there being much mention in Ci¬
cero, Tacitus, Suetonius, and ancient infcriptions,
made of the Tranfpadani; which and Ctfpadam are
terms ufed with reiptft to Rome. Ptolemy calls the
Cifpadana peculiarly Gallia Togat'a, extending be¬
tween the Po and Apennine, to the Sapis and Ru¬
bicon.
CISSA, or Cissum (anc. geog.), a town of the
Hither Spain, in Lacetania, on the eaft fide of the I-
berus, (thought to be Gut/fona.) Where the Cartha¬
ginians were firft defeated by Scipio. Another Cijfa
,of Thrace, fituated on the river JEgos Potamus, winch
ScylaxTeems to cs\\ Crejfa, or CriJJa ; fo that the read¬
ing is doubtful.
CISSAMPELOS, in botany: A genus of the mo-
nodelphia order, belonging to the dicecia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the nth or¬
der, Sarmentacea. The male calyx is tctraphyllous;
no corolla; the ne&arium wheel-fhaped; four ftamina
with their filaments grown together. The female ca¬
lyx is monophyllous and ligulated roundifti, or like
a piece of garter a little roundifti. There is no
corolla; three ftyles, and a monofpermous berry.
There are two fpecies, the pareira and caapeba, both
natives of the warmeft parts of America. The root
of the fecond, applied externally, is faid to be an an¬
tidote againft the bites of venomous ferpents. The
plant being infufed in water, quickly fills the liquor
with a mucilaginous fubftance, which is as thick as
jelly ; whence the name of free%ing-wyth, by which
this genus of plants has been diftinguifhed by the Bra¬
zilians.
CISSOID, in geometry, a curve of the fecond or¬
der, firft invented by I)ioc!es, whence it is called the
ei/Joid of Diodes. See Fluxions.
CISSUS, the wild-grape : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
46th order, Hederacete. The berry is monolpermous,
fuirounded by the calyx, and a quadripartite corolla.
There are four fpecies, all of them natives of the
ifland of Jamaica, and fome of the other iflands in
the warm parts of America. They fend out {len¬
der branchesj having tendrils at their joTnts, by which
they fallen to the neighbouring trees, bufties, and
any other fupport, mou- ting to a confiderable height.
The fruit of fome -of the fpecies "are eaten by the
negroes.
CISTERCIANS, in church-hiftory, a religious or¬
der founded in the 1 nh century by St Robert, a Be-
■nedidline. They became fo powerful, that they go¬
verned almoft all Europe, both in fpirituals and tem¬
porals. Cardinal de Vitri defcribing their obftrvan-
*ces, fays, they neither wore {kins nor {hirts : nor ever
eat flefti, except in ficknefs; and abftained from fifh,
eggs, milk, and cheefe: they ky upon ftraw-beds, in
tunics and cowls: they rofe at midnight to prayers :
they fpent the day in labour, reading, and prayer :
and in all their exercifes obfcrved a continual filence.
The habit'of the ciftercian monks is a white robe,
7 ] O I T
in the nature of a caffock, with a black fcaptllary
and hood, and is girt with a wooden girdle. The
nuns wear a white tunic, arid a black fcapulary and
girdle.
CISTERN, denotes a fubterraneous refervoir of
"rain-water; or a veffel ferving as a receptacle for
rain or other water, for the neceffary ales of a fa¬
mily. There are like wife lead-cifterns,jar-cifterns, &c.
Authors mention a ciftern at Conftantinople, the
vaults of which are fupported by two rows of pillars,
2 1 z in each row, each pillar beipg two feet in diameter.
They are planted circularly, and in radii tending to
that of the centre.
Anciently there were cifterns all over the country in
Paleftine. There were fome likewife in cities and pri¬
vate houfes. As the cities for the moft part were
built on mountains, and the rains fell regularly in Ju¬
dea at two feafons in the year only, in fpring and au¬
tumn, people were obliged to keep water in cifterns in
the country for the ufe of their cattle, and in cities for
the conveniency of the inhabitants. There are ftill
cifterns of very large dimenlions to be feen inPaleftine,
fome whereof are 15.0 paces long,: and 54 wide.
There is one to be feen at Ramah «f 32 paces in
length, and 28 in breadth. Wells and cifterns, fprings
and fountains, are generally confounded in feripture-
language.
CISTUS, the Rock-rose : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
2Cth order, Rotacex. The corolla is pentapetalous ;
the calyx pentaphyllous, with two of its leaves fmaller
than the reft. The feeds are contained in a capfule.
There are 37 fpecies, moft of them natives of the fou-
thern parts of Europe, but hardy enough to bear the
open air in this country. They are beautiful ever¬
green ftmibs, generally very branchy quite from the
bottom, and forming diffufed heads. They are very
ornamental in gardens, not only as evergreens, ma¬
king a 'fine variety at all feafons with their leaves
of different figures, fizes, and ftiades of gieen and
white, but alio as firft-rate {lowering fhrubs, being
very profufe in moft elegant flowers of white, purple,
and yellow colours, Thefe flowers only laft for one
day ; but there is a continual fuccefiion of new ones
for a month or fix weeks on the fame plant; and when
there ate different fpecies, they will exhibit a conftant
bloom for near three months. They are propagated
either by feeds or cuttings, and thrive heft in a dry
foil. Their proper fituation in {hrubbery works ihould
be towards the front of the clumffe and other compart¬
ments, in affemblage with the choiceft ftirubs of fimi-
lar growth, difpofing them fo as to make a variety,
and to have {belter from the other plants; but they
ought by no means to be crowded. Gumlabdanum is
found upon a fpecies of ciftus which grows naturally in
the Levant, and is therefore called ladanifera. See
Labdanum.
CIT .DEL, a place fortified with five or fix ba-
ftions, built on a convenient ground near a city, that
it may co >m?.nd it in cafe of a rebellion.
CIFADELLA. the capital town in the ifland of
Minorca, in the Mediterranean, with a new harbour.
This, with the whole ifland, were taken by general
Stanhope and the confederate fleet in 1708, and ceded
D 2 to
IT r 28 1 C I T
to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713 :
bui it was taken by the French, after a brave defence,
in 1756 $ and reftored by the peace. In 1782, it was
taken by the Spaniards, and confirmed to them at
the fubfcquent peace. It is 27 miles weft of Port-
Mahon. E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 39. 58.
CITADINESCA, in natural hiftory, a name given
by fome writers to the Florentine marble, which is
fuppofed to reprefent'towns, palaces, ruins, rivers, &c.
Tbefe delineations are merely accidental, and are com¬
monly much affifted by the imagination, though the
natural lines of a ftone may fometimes luckily enough
reprefent the ruins of fome ancient building, or the
courfe of a river. In England there is a kind offep-'
taria, or ludus Helmontii, which has fometimes pret¬
ty beautiful, though very irregular, delineations of this ,
kind. The Florentine marble, as we fee it wrought up
in the ornaments of cabinets, &c. owe? a great deal to
the Ikill of the workmen, who always pick out the
proper pieces from the mafs, and difpofe them in the
work fo as to reprefent what they pleafe.
CITATION, in ecclefiaftical courts, is the fame
with fummons in civil courts. See Summons.
Citation, is alfo a quotation of fome law, autho¬
rity, or paffage of a book.
CITHiERON (anc. geog), a mountain and foreft of
Boeotia, celebrated both in fable and fong. To the weft
k ran obliquely, a little above the SihusCriflaeus, taking
its rife contiguous to the mountains of Megara and At¬
tica ; then levelled into plains, it terminates at Thebes,
famous for the fate of Pentheus and A&aeon; the
former torn by the Bacchae, the latter by his dogs ; as
alfo for the orgta, or revels of Bacchus.
CITHARA, in antiquity, a mufical inftrument, the
precife ftructure of which is not known ; fome think
it refembled the Greek delta A; and others the fhape
of a half moon. At firft it had only 3 firings, but
the number was at different times increafed to 8, to
9, and laftly to 24. It was ufed in entertainments
and private houfes, and played upon with a plectrum
or quill, like the lyre.
CITHAREXYLON, fiddle-wood: A genus of
the angiofpermia order, belonging to the (Jidynamia
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the 40th order, Perfonata. The calyx is quin-
quedentated, campanulated,wheel-fhaped, and inclining
to be funnel-fhaped, with its fegments villous on the
upper fide, equal. The fruit a difperinous berry;
the feeds bilocular. There are two fpeeies, both na¬
tives of the warm parts of America, where they grow
to be large trees, and are adorned with white flowers
growing in fpikes. In Britain they appear only as
flrrubs, and muft be conftantly retained in the ftove,
where they make a fine appearance, being beautiful
evergreens. They may be propagated either by feeds
or cuttings.
CITIUM, Cetium, or Cittium (anc. geog.), a
town of Cyprus, fituated in the fouth of the ifland:;
famous for the birth of Zeno, author of the fe£t called
Stoles; diftant two hundred ftadia to the weft of Sa¬
lami’s (Diodorus Siculus). A colony of Phoenicians,
called Chetbn : And hence it is that not only Cyprus,
but the other iflands and many maritime places, are
called. CkeUm by the Hebrewsnow called Chill.
CITIZEN, a native or inhabitant of a city, veiled Citiz
with the freedom and liberties of it. , II
A citizen of Rome was diilinguifhed from a ftran- Cl1''
ger, becaufe he belonged to no certain commonwealth
fubjeft to the Romans. A citizen is either by birth
or eleftion ; and fons may derive the right from their
fathers. To make a srood Roman citizen, it was ne-
ceffary to be an inhabitant of Rome, to be inrolled. in
one of the tribes, and terbe capable of dignities. Thofe
to whom wete granted the rights and privileges of
Roman citizens, were only honorary citizens.. It was
not lawful to fcourge a citizen of Rome.
CITRINUS, in natural hiftory, the name of a pe¬
culiar fpecies of fprig cryftal, which is of a beautiful
yellow. Many of the common cryftals, when in the
neighbourhood of lead mines, are liable to be acci¬
dentally tinged yellow, by an admixture of the par¬
ticles of that metal; and all thefe, whether finer or
coarfer, have been too frequently confounded together
under the name citrine: but Dr Hill has afeertained
this to be a peculiar fpecies of cryftal different from
all the others in form as well as in colour; and diftin-
guiftied by the name of ellipomacrojlylum luc'idum jla-
vefeens, pyramide brevi. It is never found cdlourlefs
like the other cryftals,, but has great variety of tinges,
from that of the deeper ochres to a pale lemon-colour.
It is very plentiful in the Weft Indies, ^and is [fome-
tiTnes found in Bohemia. Our jewellers have learned,
from the French and Italians, who are very fond of
it, to call it citrine; and often cut ftones for rings out
of it, particularly out of the pyramid, which is always
finer than the column; and thefe, after they have
paffed through two or three hands, are generally mif-
taken for topazes.
CITRON-tree, in botany. See Citrus.
CimoN-Water, a well known ftrong water or cor¬
dial, which may be thus made : Take of fine thin le¬
mon-peel, 18 ounces; of orange-peel, 9 ounces ; per-
fe£I nutmegs, 4 ounces; the fineft and beft reftified
fpirit of wine, 2 gallons and a half. Digeft in balnea
mariae for one night: draw off with a flow fire ; then
add as much water as will juft make the matter milky
(which will be about 7 quarts or 2 gallons) ; and,
laftly, add 2 pounds of fine fugar. This compofition
may be improved by freflv elder flowers, hung in a
cloth in the head of the ftill, fprinkled with amber-
greafe in powder, or its effence.
Citron-Wood, the wood of an American tree, cal¬
led by the natives candle-wood; becaufe, being cut
into fplinters, it burns like a candle.' The tree is fre¬
quent in the Leeward Iflands, and grows to a confi-
derable fize : the leaves are like thofe of the bay-tree,
but of a finer green; the flower is fweet, and much
like thofe of the orange ; the fruit fucceeding thefe is
black, and of the fize of a pepper-corn. The trunk
is fo like the yellow faunders in colour, that ther^ was
once an. opinion that it was the fame tree, and much
of it was imported into Europe,, and fold as fuch: but
they were foon found to be different; the faunders be¬
ing of a fweet feent,. and but moderately heavy and
refinpus;. but the citron-wood confiderably heavy,,
very oily, and of a ftrong fmell. It is of no known
ufe in medicine ; but is ufed in France and Germany
by the turners, being a fine firm-grained wood, and;
taking
C I T r 29 ] C I T
Citni'. taking a fine poiifh, and with age becoming of a very
, v 1 1 beautiful brown.
CITRtJS, the Citron-tree: A genus of the po-
lyadelphia order, belonging to the icofandria clufs of
plants. The calyx is quinqnefid ; the petals oblong,
and five in number ; the antherae 20, with their fila¬
ments grown together fo ’ as to form various pencils.
The fruit is an unilocular berry.
Species. I. The Medica, or Citron-tree, hath an up¬
right fmooth trunk, divided at top into a branchy
ftrong-fbooting, full head, from about 5 to 15 feet
high, adorned with large oval, fpear-fhaped, thick
leaves, having linear foot-ftalks, and numerous flowers
from the fides of the branches, fucceeded by very
large oblong: oval, pointed, rough-rinded fruit. The
varieties are citron-tree with four fruit.; with fweet
fruit; with long fruit; with warted fruit; with re¬
curved fruit; and with blotched leaves.
II. The Lima, or Lemon-tree, hath an upright
fmooth trunk, divided upward into a branchy regular
head ; from 12 to 15 feet high; large, oval, fpear-
ftiaped, pointed, flightly fawed leaves, on linear foot-
ftalks: and many flowers from the fides of the branches
fucceeded by large oval fruit prominent at the top.
The varieties are, the lemon-tree with four fruit;
with fweetifh fruit; with very’ large fruit called Impe¬
rial lemon; with pea'r-lhaped fruit; with furrowed
fruit; with cluftered fruit ; with childing fruit; with
whitifh fruit; with tricolor ftriped fruit; with filver
ftriped leaves; and with double flowers.
III. The Aurantium, or Orange-tree, hath an up¬
right trunk dividing upward into a branchy, regular
head, from 5 to 10 or 12 feet high ; oval, fpear-lhaped,
entire leaves, having winged foot-ftalks and numerous
white flowers at the fides of the branches, fucceeded
by globular fruit compreffed at both ends. The moft
noted varieties are, 1. The Seville orange. This is a
very handfome tree, and the hardieft of any; as in this
country it ftioots freely, produces large and beautiful
leaves, flowers ftronger, &c. The fruit is large, rough,
rinded, and four, of excellent quality for economical
ufes. 2. The China orange. This tree has mode¬
rately fixed leaves, and a fmooth, thifi-rinded, fweet
fruit, of which there are feveral varieties in warm
countries,” where they grow in the open ground.
3. The great Shaddock orange, or pumplemoes, grows
larger and ftronger than the foregoing, with large,
thick, and fomewhat ferrated leaves, and very large
fruit, having a reddifti pulp. It derives the name of
Shaddock from one of that name that firft brought
it from the Eaft Indies. 4. The Forbidden-fruit-tree,
in trunk, leaves, and flowers, very much refembles the
Plate common orange-tree ; but the fruit, when ripe, is
cxxxvm. larger and longer than the biggeft orange. It has
fomewhat the tafte of a fhaddock; but far exceeds
that, as well as the beft orange, in its delicious
tafte and flavour. 5. The Horned orange is a tree
of moderate fize, producing fruit which divide, and
the rind runs out into divifions like horns. 6. The
Hermaphrodite orange is a common fized tree, pro¬
ducing fruit fhaped partly like an orange and partly’ like
a citron. 7. The Dwarf orange tree, or nutmeg
orange, has a long ftem and fmall buftiy head, grow¬
ing two or three feet high ; fmall oval leaves in clus¬
ters ; and numerous flowers in clufters, covering the Ghr. s.
branc-hes, fucceeded by very fmall fruit. Thefe rre '
the moft remarkable varieties of the three foregoing
fpecies of citrus : but befides thefe there are a great
number of others; and indeed in thofe countries where
they grow naturally, the varieties may be multiplied
without end, like thofe of our apples and pears. The
flowers of all the fpecies and varieties are formed each
of five fpreading petals, appearing here principally in-
May and June ; and the fruit continue fetting in June
and July, and ripen the year following.
IV. The Trifoliata, or Japonefe citron, is a thorny
flirub growing naturally in Japan, where it is likewife
known by the names of Gees,. and Karatals banna.
The trunk, we are told by Ksempfer, acquires by age
and culture the thicknefs of a tree. The branches and
{boots are unequal; in fome parts comprefled, in others
fwelling, efpecially about the fpines. Thefe proceed
lingly from the ftem and branches ; are ftraight, run
out from a broad bafe into a very fliarp point; and
are protruded from the wood, with the common bark,
of which they are likewife invefted. The wood is
loofe and foft; the bark of a fliining green, moilt
and eafily parting from the wood. The leaves are
few in number, fawed on the edges, veined, placed
without order, but generally growing under the fpines.
They grow by threes, like thofe of trefoil, upon the
extremity of a common foot-ftalk which is furnilhed
on each fide with a membranaceous fringe or margin,
fomewhat refembling the pedicles of the orange. The
upper furface of the leaves is of a bright lucid green,
the lower dark and herbaceous. The flowers, which
refemble thofe of the medlar, proceed fingly from the
arm-pits of the leaves; are white, pofleffedof no great
degree of fragrance, and confift of five petals. The
fruit is equally beautiful with a middle-fized oraijge ;
their internal ftru&ure is alfo pretty much the fame ;
only the pulp is glutinous, of an unpleafant fmell, and
a harfh difagreeable tafte. The feeds have the fame
tafte with the pulp, and are fhaped exactly like thofe
of the orange.
Culture. The three firft fpecies merit particular at¬
tention. They are elegant evergreens, riling in this
country from about 5 to 10 feet in height; forming
full and handfome heads, elofely garnilhed with beau¬
tiful large leaves all the year round, and putting forth-
a profufion of fweet flowers in fpring and early in funi-
mer; which even in this climate are often fucceeded
by abundance of fruit that fometimes arrive at tole¬
rable perfection. Though all the varieties were ori¬
ginally obtained by feed, yet the only certain method
of continuing the approved varieties is by budding or
inarching them on ftocks raifed from feed to a proper
fize. As the young trees, however, are brought in
plenty from abroad, this method is feldom praftifed in
this country : but for curiofity, it may be done by
thofe who are fo inclined,, in the following manner:
Early in the fpring procure fome kernels, which may
be had in plenty from rotten fruits, or others that are
properly ripened, obfervnng that for ftocks, the citron,,
lemon, and Seville-orange, as being the freeft fhooters,
are to be. preferred; and of thefe the citron is the
ftrongeft. Sow the kernels in March,, in pots of rich
light earth half an inch deep, and plunge them in a*
hot-
. C 1 T [3,
'“■Citrus, hot-bed under frames and glades. Dung or tan may
'■r~~ be ufed, but the latter is preferable, giving air,,and
frequent fprinkl’ngs of water. In two or three weeks,
the plants will come up; and in fix or eight weeks
more, they will be advanced four br five inches or
more in height. You mutt now give them more air
and water; and about the middle of June harden them
to the full air, in which let them remain till Odlober;
then move them into the green houfe, to ftand till the
fpring, and in March or April plant them fingly in
fmall pots; being careful to fhak£ them out of the fe§d
pots with their roots entire. They mutt be watered
immediately after planting, and the watering mutt be
occafionally repeated. After this they are to be treat¬
ed as woody exotics of the green-houfe ; and in a
year or two the largeft of thofe defigned for ftocks
will be fit for budding.
The operation for budding is performed in the
* See Ino- month of Auguft, and is done in the common way * ;
tuUtfion. only the buds muft be taken from trees of a good kind
that bear well. As foon as the operation is finifhed,
the pots with their plants mud be placed in the green-
houfe, or in a glafs-cafe ; or, where there is the con¬
venience of a fpare bark-pit, where the heat of the
bark is almoft exhautted, the pots may be plunged there¬
in for two or three weeks. In either cafe, however,
the air mutt be admitted freely by opening the front
glaffes; allowing alfo a flight ttiade of mats in the
middle of hot funfhine days, and fupplying them with
water every two or three days during this kind of
weather. In three or four weeks the buds will be
united with the flock ; when it will be proper to loofen
the bandages, that they may have room to fwell; the
buds, however, will all remain dormant till the next
fpring. They may alfo be propagated by inarching,
t See In- which is done in the common way f; but the method
arthing. of budding is found to produce much handfomer trees,
and therefore is tq be preferred. But the moft cheap
and expeditious method of procuring a colledliob of
thele kinds of trees is by having recourfe to fuch as
are imported from Spain, Italy, and Portugal. Thefe
come over in chefts, without any earth to their roots,
having their roots and heads a little trimmed: they are
commonly from one inch to two or three in diameter
in the ftem ; from two to four or five feet in height:
and by the affiftanee of a bark-bed they readily take
root and grow freely ; forming as good trees in two
years, as could be raifed here by inarching or budding
in 15 or 20. They are fold in the Italian warehoufes
in London. Their price is from three (hillings to a guinea
each, according to their fize ; and they are generally
advertifed as foon as they arrive, which is early in the
fpring, and the fooner the better. In the choice of
thefe trees, it mutt be obferved, that they are com¬
monly budded at fuch height in the ftem, as to form
heads from about two to four or five feet high; and as
they are frequently furniflved with two buds, one on
each fide of the ftem, thefe fhould be chofen preftr-
ably to others ; as they will form the moft regular
heads. Preparatory‘to their planting, they mutt be
placed for a day or two in tubs of water to plump
their bark and roots; after this they mutt be waftied and
cleaned, their branches trimmed to half a foot long, and
the roots freed from difeafed parts, and all the fmall
> ] C I T
dried fibres. Then they are to be planted in pots filled Citru
with light rich earth; and plunged in a tan-bed, where  *
they are to remain for three or four months; after
which they are to be trained to the open air, but will
not bear it longer than from the end of May till the
middle or end of Oftober,
Sometimes thefe trees, inftead of being kept in pots
or tubs, are planted in the full ground ; and where
this Can be done, it is by far the mod eligible method.
Where this is intended, there mutt be frames eretfted
for the fupport of glafs and other covers, to defend
the plants during inclement weather; and in this fitua-
tion the trees generally (hoot ftrong, produce large
fruit, and may be trained either as wall or ftandard
trees. A fouth wall, in a dry fituation, is proper for
training them as wall-trees; again!! which may be
ereifted wooden frame-work (loping, either fixed or
moveable, for the fupport of glafs frames for winter ;
likewife for the greater protedlion of the trees in fe-
vere frofts, there may be a fiie-place with a flue or
two carried alongft a low wall in the fronts and ends.
To have the trees as ftandards, a more capacious and
lofty glafs-cafe (hould be eiefted againft the wall, in
the manner of a hot-houfe, but higher; in this one'or
two rows of orange-trees may be planted, fufftring them
to run up as ftandards with only fome neceffary pru¬
ning juft to preferve their regularity. In fome places
■there are lofty moveable glafs-cafes, fo that two or
three rows of trees are planted in a confpicuous part
of the pleafure-ground. In winter the frame is put
over them, and in fummer wholly taken alway ; fo
that they appear like a little orange-grove growing in
the open ground. The flowering and fruit-letting
feafon of all the forts cf citrus is in June and July.
They are often, efpecially the orange-trees, greatly
loaded with blofibms ; and when thefe ftand very
thick, it is proper to thin them a little, taking off
the fmalleft. It is alfo to be obferved, that as the
trees continue blowing and fetting their fruit for
three months, when a full crop of fruit is fet, it is of
benefit to the trees and fruit to gather off the fu-
perabundant bloffoms as they are produced ;- though
fome permit them to remain on account of their ap¬
pearance.
Ufes. The fruits of the citron, lemon, and orange
trees, yield very agreeable acid juices ; which, be fide s
the -ufes to which they are commonly applied, anfwer
confiderable purpofes in medicine. When-Commodore
Anfon failed round the world, his men were fo furpri-
fingly recovered from the feurvy by the oranges which
they found at the ifland of Tinian, that it was after¬
wards thought worthy of the attention of government
to inquire into the virtues of thefe fruits as an antifeor-
butic medicine, in Captain Cook’s laft voyage, he
was fupplied with a quantity of orange and lemon juice
infpiffated to a rob ; but his opinion of its efficacy is
by no means great. The dearnefs of it is a great ob-
jedlion ; and, unlefs in conjuniftion with other things,
he has not obferved its good effedls. Sir John Pringle,
in hisdifeourfe before the Royal Society, when Cautain
Cook was prefented with a medal by that refpeiftable
body, differs a little from the Captain’s opinion, and
thinks that in the fea-feurvy thefe fruits mutt neceffarily
be very efficacious. He approves, however, more of
C I T [
Citrus the juices themfelves depurated, than the extract of
]l them; as this cannot be prepared without diffipating
lty' many of the finer parts. The juice of lemons is very
frequently ufed 'for neutralifing alkaline falts for faline
draughts. The citroti is feldom ufed in this country;
though its peel, as well as that of the lemon, is can¬
died, and fold as a fweetmeat. The yellow peel of the
lemon is an agreeable aromatic, as is alfo that of the
orange; and in cold phlegmatic eon-ftituticns they
prove excellent ftomaehics and carminatives, promoting
appetite, warming the habit, and ftrengthening the
tone of the vifcera. Orange-peel, however, is very con-
fiderably warmer than that of lemons, and abounds more
in effential oil: to this circumftance, therefore, due re¬
gard ought to be had in the ufe of thefe medicines.
The flavour of orange-peel is likewife lets perifhable
than that of lemons. Both are ingredients in many
officinal preparations.
The young fruit of the Seville orange dried are
ufed in medicine under the name of anrantia-cvraflavstt-
tia. They are moderately warm bitterilh aromatics, of
a fufficiently agreeable flavour. The flowers of the
orange-tree have been forfome time part in great efteem
as a perfume. They are highly odoriferous, of a fome-
what warm and bitter tafte. They yield their flavour
by infufion to re&ified fpirit, and in diftillation both
to fpirit and water. The bitter matter is dilfolved in
water, and on evavorating the decoftion'remains entire
in the extradf. The diftilled wafftr was formerly kept
in the fhops,. but on account of the great fcarcity of
the flowers is nbw laid afide : it is called by foreign
writers aqua naphs. An oil diftilled from thefe flowers
is brought from Italy under the name of oleum, or e/fen-
Ua neroli.
CITTERN, a mufical inftrument much refembling
the guittar, for which it has been frequently miftaken.
Anciently it was called the cijlrum, and till lately was
held in great contempt both in France and Britain.
The practice on it being very eafy, ft was formerly
the amufement and recreation of lewd women and
their vifitors ; infbmuch, that in many of the old Eng-
hfti dramatic writers, it is made the fymbol of a wo¬
man that lived by proftitution. It was alfo the com¬
mon amufement. of waiting cuftomers in barbers fhops,
as being the moft eafy of all inftruments to play on,
and therefore it was thought that al noft every body
could make ufe of it.
CITY, according to Cowel, is a town corporate
which hath a bifhop and cathedral church; and is call¬
ed civitas, oppidum, and urls: civi/as, in regard it is
governed by juflice and order of magiftracy ; oppi¬
dum, becaufe it contains a great number of inhabi¬
tants ; and urlt, becaufe it is in due form furrounded
with walls.
Kingdoms have been faid to contain as many cities
as they have feats of archbifhops and bifhops: but, ac¬
cording to Blount, city is a word that hath obtained
fince the conqueft ; for, in the time of the Saxons,
there were no cities, but all the great towns were
called burghs, and even London was then called Lon-
donlurgh, as the capital of Scotland is called Edinburgh.
And long after the conqueft the word city is ufed pro-
rnifcuoufly with the burgh,, as in the charter of Leics-
fter, where it is both called dvitas and burgus; which
ffiuws that thofe writers were miftaken who tell us
i> ]. c i r
every city was, or is, a bifliop’s fee. And though the City,
word city fignifies with us luch a town corporate as hath u-—v-~-
ufually a bifhop an4 a cathedral church, yet it is not
always fo.
As to the ancient ftate of cities and villages, whilft
the feudal policy prevailed, they held of fome great
lord on whom they depended for protedtion, and were
fubjeft to his arbitrary jurifdidion. The inhabitants
were deprived of the natural and moft unalienable
rights of humanity. , They could not diipofe of the
effedfs which their own induft-ry had acquired, either
by a latter-will or by any deed executed during their
life. They had ho right to appoint guardians for their
children during their minority. They were not per¬
mitted to marry without purcliafing the confent of the
lord on whom they depended. If once they had com¬
menced a !a*-fuit, they durft not terminate it by an
accommodatiQn, becaufe that would have deprived the
lord, in whofe court they pleaded, of the perquilites
due to him on paffing his fentence. Services of vari- Rdtrfferds
ons kinds no lefs ditgraceful than oppreffive were ex- bar ‘
a£ted from them without mercy or moderation. The
fpirit of induftry were checked in Ibme cities by abfurd
regulations, and in others by unreafonable exadlions:
nor would the narrow and oppreffive maxims of a mili¬
tary ariftocracy have permitted it ever to rife to any
degree of height or vigour.
The freedom of cities was firft eftablifhed in It^ly,
owing principally to the introdudlion of commerce.
As foon as they began to turn their attention towards
tin’s oljtft, ?nd to conceive fome idea of the advan¬
tages they might derive from it, they became impa¬
tient to fhake off the yoke cf their infolent lords, and
to eftabliffi among themfelves fuch a free and equal
government as would render property fecure and in¬
duftry flourifhing. The German empeijors^ efpecially
thofe of the Franconian and Suabian lines, as the feat
of their government w as far diftant from Italy, poffeffcd
a feeble and imperfedt jurifdidtion in that country*
Their perpetual quarrels, either w ith the popes or their
own turbulent vaffals, diverted their attention from the
interior police of Italy, and gave conftant employment
for their arms. Thefe circumllances induced fome of
the Italian cities, towards the beginning of the i uh
century, to affume new privileges; to unite together
more clofely ; and to form themfelves into bodies poli¬
tic, under the government of laws eftabliflied by com¬
mon confent. The rights which many cities acquired
by bold or fortunate ufurpafions, others purchafed from
the emperors, who deemed themfelves gainers when
they received large fums for immunities which they
were no longer able to with-hold ; and fome cities ob¬
tained them gratuitoufly from the facility or generofi-
ty of the princes on whom they depended. The great
increafe of wealth which the crufades brought into Italy,
occafioned a new kind of fermentation and activity in
the minds of the people, and excited fuch a general
paffion for liberty and independence, that, before the
conclufion of the laft crufade, all the confiderable cities
in that country had either purchafed or had extorted
large immunities from the emperors.
This innovation was not long known in Italy before
it made its way into France. Louis the Grofs, in or¬
der to create fome power that might counterbalance
thofe potent vaffals wdio controlled or gave law to the
crown*
GIT [ 32 ] CIV
C'ty- crown, firjl adopted the plan of conferring new privi-
leges on the towns fituated within his own domaine.
Thefe privileges were called charters of community, by
which he enfranchifed the inhabitants, abolifhed all
marks of fervitude, and formed them into corporations
or bodies politic, to be governed by a council and ma-
giftrates of their own nomination. Thefe magiftrates
had the right of adminiltering juftice within their own
precindfs ; of levying taxes; of embodying and train¬
ing to arms the militia of the town, which took the
field when required by the fovereign, under the com¬
mand of officers appointed by the community. The
great barons imitate^ the example of their monarch,
and granted like immunities to the towns within their
territories. They had walled fuch great firms in their
expeditions to the Holy Land, that they were eager to
lay hold on this new expedient for railing money by the
fale of thofe charters of liberty. Though the conftitu-
tion of communities was as repugnant to their maxims
of policy as it was adverfe to their power, they difre-
garded remote confequences in order to obtain prefent
relief. In lefs than two centuries, fervitude was abolifii-
cd in moll of the cities of France, and they became free
corporations, inllead of dependent villages without ju-
rifdidlion or privileges. Much about the fame, period
the great cities of Germany began to acquire like im¬
munities, and laid the foundations of their prefent li¬
berty and independence. The practice fpread quickly
• over Europe, and was adopted in Spain, England, Scot¬
land, and all the other feudal kingdoms.
The Spanilh hillorians are almoft entirely filent con¬
cerning the origin and progrefs of communities in that
kingdom ; fo that it is impoffible to fix with any degree
of certainty the time and manner of their firft intro-
du&ion there. It appears, however, from Mariana,
that in the year 1350 eighteen cities had obtained a
feat in the Cortes of Caftile. In Arragon, cities feem
early to have acquired extenfive immunities, together
with a fhare in the legifiature. In the year 1118, the
citizens of Saragoffa had not only obtained political li¬
berty, but they were declared to be of equal rank with
the nobles of the fecond clafs; and many other immu¬
nities, unknown to perfons in their rank of life in other
parts of Europe, were conferred upon them. In Eng¬
land, the eftablilhment of communities or corporations
was pollerior to the conqueft. The pra&ice was bor¬
rowed from France, and the privileges granted by the
crown were perfeftly fimilarto thofe above enumerated.
It is not improbable, that fome of the towns in England
were formed into corporations under the Saxon kings';
and that the charters granted by the kings of the Nor¬
man race were not charters of enfranchifement from a
flate of flavery, but a confirmation of privileges which
f See Lordly ^ alrea<ty enjoyed f. The Englifh cities, how-
Lytteltons ever, were very ineonfiderable in the 12th century. A
Hifloryof dear proof of this occurs in the hiflory juft, referred
^2ryi\L t0, Fitz-Stephen, a contemporary author, gives a de-
'■ fcription of the city of London in the reign of Hen¬
ry II. and the terms in which he fpeaks of its trade,
its wealth, and the number of its inhabitant-, would
fuggeft no inadequate idea of its ftate at prefent, when
it is the greateft and moft opulent city in Europe.
But all ideas of gyandeur and magnificence are merely
comparative. It appears from Peter of Blois, arch¬
deacon of London, who flourilhed in the lame reign,
N°8r.
and who had good opportunity of being informed, that Civet
this city, of which Fitz-Stephen gives fuch a pompous Civic,
account, contained no more than 40,000 inhabitants. v 1
The other cities were fmall in proportion, and in no
condition to extort any extenfive privilegeis. That
the conftitution of the boroughs of Scotland in many
circumftances refembled that of the towns of France
and England, is mauifeft from the Leges Burgorum an¬
nexed to the Regiam Majejlatem.
CIVET, a kind of perfume which bears the name
of the animal it is taken from, and to which it is pecu¬
liar. See Viverra.
Good civet is of a clear, yellowilh, or brownilh co¬
lour ; not fluid nor hard, but about the confiftence of
butter or honey, and uniform throughout; of a very
ftrong fmell, quite offenfive when undiluted, but agree¬
able when only a firiall portion of civet is mixed with
a large one of other fitbftances. It unites eafily wdth
oils both expreffed and diftilled, but not at all with wa¬
ter or fpirit of wine : nor can it be rendered mifcible
with water by the mediation of fugar. The yolk of
an egg feems to difpofe it to unite with water; but in
a very little while the civet feparates from the liquor,
and falls to the bottom, though it does not prove of
fuch a refinous tenacity as when treated with fugar and
fpirit of wine. It communicates, however, fome lhare
of its finell both to watery and fpirituous liquors: hence
a fmall portion of it is often added in odoriferous tinc¬
tures, and fufpended in the ftill-head during the diftil-
lation of odoriferous waters and fpirits. It is rarely
if ever employed for medicinal purpofes. The Italians
make it an ingredient in perfumed oils, and thus -ob¬
tain the whole of its feent; for oils wholly dilfolve the
fubftance of it. It is very rare, however, to meet with
civet unadulterated. The fubftances ufually mixed with
it are lard and butter ; which agreeing with it in its
general properties, render all criteria for diftinguifhing
the adulteration impoffible. A great trade of civet is
carried on at Calicut, Baflbra, and other parts of the
Indies, and in Africa, where the animal that produces
the perfume is found. Live civet-cats are to be feen
alfo in France and Holland. The French keep them
only as a rarity; but the Dutch, who keep a great num¬
ber, draw the civet from them for fale. It is moftly
ufed by confedtioners and perfumers.
CirET-Cat, the Englifli name of the animal which
produces the civet. See Viverra.
CIVIC crown, was a crown given by the ancient
Romans to any foldier who had faved the life of a ci¬
tizen in an engagement.
The civic crown was reckoned more honourable
than any other crown, though compofed of no better
materials than oak-boughs. Plutarch, in the life of
C. M. Coriolanus, accounts as follows for ufing on
this occafion the branches of this tree before all others:
becaufe, fays he, the oaken wreath being facred to
Jupiter, the great guardian of their city, they thought
it the moft proper ornament for him who had pre-
ferved the life of a citizen. Pliny*, fpeaking of the* Lil.xn?
honour and privileges conferred on thofe who had*a/’-4- j
merited this crown, fays, “ They who had once ob¬
tained it, might wear it always. When they appeared
at the pu’plic fpedlacles, the fenate and people rofe to
do them honour, and they took their feats on thefe
occafions among the fenators. They were not only
per-
CIV L 33 1 CIV
Cividad perfonally excufed from all troublefome offices, but
j! procured the fame immunity for their father and grand-
Clvl1' father by the father’s fide.
”"’~v CIVIDAD-de-las-Palmas, the capital town of
the ifland of Canary, with a biihop’s fee, and a good
harbour. The houfes are well built, two dories high,
and flat-roofed. The cathedral is a very handfome
ftrufture ; and the inhabitants are gay and rich. The
air is temperate, and free from extremes of heat and
cold. It is defended by a fmall caftle feated on a hill.
W. Long. 14. 35. N. Lat. 28. o.
a town of Spain, in NewCaftile, and
capital of La Mancha. The inhabitants are noted for
dreffing leather extremely well for gloves. W. Long.
4. 15. N. Lat. 39. 2.
CiriDAD-Roderigo, a ftrong and confiderable town
of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, with abifliop’s fee.
It is feated in a fertile country, on the river Aquada,
in W. Long. 6. 52. N. Lat. 40. 38.
Cii^wAD-dl-Friuli, a fmall but ancient town of Italy, in
Friuli, and in the territory of Venice ; feated on the
river Natifona. E. Long. 13. 25. N. Lat. 46. 15.
CIVIL, in a general fenfe, fomething that regards
the policy, public good, or peace, of the citizens or
fubjefts of the ftate ; in which fenfe we fay, civil go¬
vernment, civil law, civil right, civil war, &c.
Civil, in a popular fenfe, is applied to a complai-
fant and humane behaviour in the ordinary intercourfe
of life. See Civility.
Civil, in a legal fenfe, is alfo applied to the ordi¬
nary procedure in an aftion, relating to fome pecuniary
matter or intereft; in which fenfe it is oppofed to cri¬
minal.
Civil Death, any thing that cuts off a man from
civil fociety ; as a condemnation to the galleys, perpe¬
tual baniflrment, condemnation to death, outlawry, and
excommunication.
Civil Law, is properly the peculiar law of each ftate,
country, or city: but what we ufually mean by the
civil law, is a body of laws compofed out of the beft
Roman and Grecian laws, compiled from the laws of
nature and natrons; and, for the moft part, received
and obferved throughout all the Roman dominions for
above 1200 years. See Law, Part I. n043, 44.
It was firft brought over into England by Theobald
a Norman abbot, who was elected to the fee of Can¬
terbury in 1138; and he appointed a profeflbr, nn%.
Roger firnamed Vicarius, in the univeriity of Oxford,
to teach it to the people of this country. Never-
thelefs, it gained ground very flowly. King Ste-
* phen iffued a .proclamation, prohibiting the ftudy
of it. And though the clergy were attached to
it, the laity rather wifhed to preferve the old conftitu-
tiqn. However, the zeal and influence- of the clergy
prevailed ; and the civil law acquired great reputation
from the reign of King Stephen to the reign of King
Edward III. both inclufive. Many tranferipts of Ju-
ftinian’s Inftitute are to be found in the writings of our
ancient authors, particularly of Bra&cn and Fleta;
and Judge Blackftone obferves, that the common law
would have been loft and over-run by the civil, had
not been for the incident of fixing the court of com¬
mon pleas in one certain fpot, and the forming the
prbfeffion of ,the municipal law into an aggregate
body.
Vol. V. Part I.
It is allowed, that the civil law contains all the prin¬
ciples of natural equity ; and that nothing can be bet¬
ter calculated to form good fenfe and found judgment.
Hence, though in feveral countries it has no other au¬
thority but that of reafen and juftice, it is every where
referred to for authority. It is not received at th’s
day in any nation without fome alterations : and fome-
times the feudal law is mixed with it, or general and
particular cuftoms ; and often ordinances and ftatutes
cut off a great part of it.
In Turky, the Bafilics are only ufed. In Italy,
the canon law and cuftoms have excluded a good part
of it. In Venice, cuftom hath almoft an abfolute go¬
vernment. In the Milanefe, the feudal law, and par¬
ticular cuftoms, bear fway. In Naples and Sicily, the
conftitutions and laws of the Lombards are faid to pre¬
vail. In Germany and Holland, the civil law is
efteemed to be the municipal law: but yet many parts
of it are there grown obfolete ; and others are altered,
either by the canon law or a different ufage. In
Friezeland, it is obferved with more ftridlnefs; but in
the northern parts of Germany, the jus Saxonicum,
Lubecenfe, or Culmenfe, is preferred before it. In
Denmark and Sweden, it hath fcarce any authority at
all. In France, only a part of it is received, and that
part is in fome places as a cuftomary law; and in thofe
provinces neareft to Italy it is received as a municipal
written law. In criminal caufes, the civil law is more
regarded in France ; but the manner of trial is re<nila-
ted by ordinances and edi&s. In Spain and Portugal,
the civil law is connefted with the jus regium and cu¬
ftom. In Scotland, the ftatutes of the federunt, part
of the regias majeftatis, and their cuftoms, controul the
civil law.
In England, it is ufed in the ecclefiaftical courts, in
the high court of admiralty, in the court of chivalry,
in the two univerlities, and in the courts of equity ;
yet in all thefe it is reftrained and dire&ed by the com¬
mon law.
Civil Society. See Law, -Part I. ft0 12.
Civil State, in the Britifti polity, one of the gene¬
ral divifions of the Laity, comprehending all orders of
men from the higheft nobleman to the meaneft peafant
that are not included under the Military or Mari¬
time ftates : though it may fometimes include indivi¬
duals of thefe as well as of the Clergy ; fince a noble¬
man, a knight, a gentleman, or a peafant, may become
either a divine, a foldier, or a feaman. The divifion
of this ftate is into Nobility and Commonalty. See
thefe articles.
Civil War, a war between people of the fame ftate,
or the citizens of the fame city.
Civil Tear, is the legal year, or annual account of
time, which every government appoints to be ufed
within its own dominions ; and is fo called in contra-
diftin&ion to the natural year, which-is meafured ex¬
actly by the revolution of the heavenly bodies.
CIVILIAN, in general, denotes.fomething belong¬
ing to the civil law; but more efpecially the doctors
and prefeftbrs thereof are called civilians.
CIVILI1Y, a term ufed in common life as fyno-
nymous with complaifance or good-breeding.
Civility is juftly inculcated by didaftk writers as a duty
of no flight confideration. Without civility, or good¬
breeding, a.couit would bethe feat of violence and de-
E folation.
CIV [ 34 .1 CIV
Civility, folalation. There, all tlie paffions are in fermentation,
becaufe all purfue what but few can obtain ; there, if
enemies did not embrace, they would ftab; there,
fmiles are often put on to conceal tears; there, mutual
fervices are prsfeffed, while mutual injuries are intend¬
ed ; and there, the guile of the ferpent fimulatcs the
.gentlenefs of the dove. To what a degree muft good¬
breeding adorn the beauty of truth, when it can thus
foften the deformity of falfehood? On this fubjeft we
have the following elegant obfeivations in Knox’s Ef-
fays, N° 95.
“ However juft the complaints of the mifery of
life, yet great occafions for the difplay of benefi¬
cence and Ipterality do not often occur. But there is
an hourly neWfiity for the little kind offices of’ mu¬
tual civility. At the fame time that they give pleafure
to others, they add to our own happinefs and improve-
■ ment. Habitual acts of kindnefs have a prayerful ef-
fe& ia foftening the heart. An intercourfe with po-
liihed and humane company tends to improve the dif-
• pofition, becaufe it requires a conformity of manners.
And it is certain, that a fenfe of decorum, and of a
proper external behaviour, will reftiain thofe whofe
natural temper would otherwife break; out in acrimo¬
nious and petulant converfation. Even the affeftation
of philanthropy will in time contribute to realife it.
The pleafure refuiting from an a61 of kindnefs natu¬
rally excites a wiffi to repeat it; and indeed the gene¬
ral efteem which the chara6ter of benevolence-procures,
is fufficient to induce thofe to wifh for it who a6t only
from the mean motives of felf-intereft.
“ As we are placed in a world where natural evil
abounds, we ought to render it fupport'able to each
other as far as human endeavours can avail. All that
can add a fweet ingredient to the bitter cup muft be
infufed. Amid the multitude of thorns, every flower
that will grow muft be cultivated with care. But nei¬
ther pomp nor power are of themfelves able to alleviate
the load of life. The heart requires to be foothed by
fympathy. A thoufand little attentions from all around
us are neceflary to render our days agreeable. The
appearance of negie6t in any of thofe with whom we
\ are connedled, chills our bofom with chagrin, or kindles
the fire of refentment. Nothing therefore feems fo
likely to enfure happinefs as our mutual endeavours to
promote it. Our Angle "endeavours, originating and
terminating in ourfelves, are ufually unfuccefsful. Pro¬
vidence has taken care to fecure that intercourfe which
is neceffary to the exiftence of fociety, by rendering it
the greateft fweetener of human life.
“ By reciprocal attentions we are enabled to become
beneficent without expence. A fmile, an affable ad-
drefs, a lock of approbation, are often capable of gi¬
ving a greater plealure than pecuniary benefits can be-
ftow. The .mere participation of the ftudies and amufe-
ments of othersj at the fame time that it gratifies our¬
felves, is often an a6t of real humanity; becaufe others
would not enjoy them without companions. A friendly
vifit in a folitary hour, is often a greater aft of kind¬
nefs than a valuable prefent.
“ It is really matter of furprife, that thofe who are
diftinguifhed by rank and opulence ftiould ever be un¬
popular in their neighbourhood. They muft know the
value of popularity; and furely nothing is more eafily
obtained by a fuperior. Their notice confers honour;
3
and the afpirlng heart of man is always delighted with
diftinftion. A gracious look from them diffufes hap¬
pinefs on the lower ranks. But it ufually happens,
that an overgrown rich man is not the favourite of a
neighbouring country; and it is-unfortunate, that pride
or inadvertence often prevent men from aftingthe god¬
like part of making others happy, even when" they
might do it without inconvenience to themfelves.’'
CIVITA-di-Penna, an ancient town of Italy, ia
the kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther Abruzzo,
with a biffiop’s fee. It is fituated near the river Sali¬
ne, 25 miles north eaft of Aquila. E. Long.' 13. 3.
N. Lat. 42. 25.
CiriTA-Cqfiellana, a town of Italy, in St Peter’s
patrimony, feated on a river, which, feven miles from
thence, falls into the Tiber. E. Long. 13. 5. N. Lac.
42. 15, v
CiriTA Turchino, a place in Italy, about two miles
north of the town of Corneto in the patrimony of
St Peter. It is an hill of-an oblong form, the fummit
of which- is almoft one continued plain. From the
quantity of medals, intaglios, fragments of inferip-
tions, Br. that- are occafiohaily found here, this is be¬
lieved to be. the very fpot where the ancient ami
powerful city of Tarquinii once Hood? At prefent it
is only one continued field of corn. On the fouth-
eaft fide of it runs the ridge of a hill which unites it
to Corneto. This ridge is at leaft three 6r four miles
in length, and almoft entirely covered with artificial
hillocks, called by the inhabitants monti rojfi. About
twelve of thtfe hillocks have at different times been
opened; and in every one of them have been found
feveral fubterranean apartments cut out of the folid
rock. Thefe apartments are of various forms and di-
menfions: fome confift of a large outer room, and a
fmall one within; others of a fmall room at the firft
entrance, and a large one within: others are fup-
ported by a column of the folid rock left in the centre,
with openings on every part. The entrance to them
all is by a door about five feet high, by two and a
half broad. Some of them have no light but from
the door, while others feem to have had a fmall light
from above, through, an hole of a pyramidal form.
Many of thefe apartments have an elevated port that
runs all round the wall, being a part of the rock left
for that purpofe. The moveables found in thefe apart¬
ments confift chiefly of Etrufcan vafes of various forms:
in fome indeed have been foundLome plain facrophagi
of ftone^ with bones in them. The whole of thefe
apartments are ftuccoed, and ornamented in various
manners : fome indeed are plain ; but others, particu¬
larly three, are richly adorned, having a double row
of Etrufcan inferiptions running round the upper part
of the walls, and under them a kind of frieze of fi¬
gures in painting : fome have an ornament under the
figures, which feems to fupply the place of an archi¬
trave. The paintings feem to be in frefco; and in
general refemble thofe which are ufually feen upon
Etrufcan vafes; though fome of them are perhaps
fuperior to any thing as yet feen of the Etrufcan art
in painting. In general they are flight, but well con¬
ceived ; and prove, that the artift was capable of pro¬
ducing things more ftudied and better finiffied ; though,
in fuch a fubterraneous fituation, the delicacy of a fi-
niftied work would in a great meafure have been
thrown
c L A [ 35 ] G L A
Clvita thrown away. It is probable, however, that among
I! the immenfe number of thefe apartments that yet re-
a£e ' main to be opened, many paintings and infcriptions
may be found fufHcient to form a very ufeful and en-
ttrtaining work. At prefent this great fcene of anti¬
quities is almoil entirely unknown, even in Rome. Mr
Jenkins, refident at Rome, was the firft Englithman
who vifited it.
CiriTA-Vecchia, a fea-port town of Italy in the
patrimony of St Peter, with a good harbour and an
arfenal, Here the Pope’s galleys are ftatibned, and it
has lately been made a' free port; but the air is very un-
wholefcme. E. Long. 12. 31. N. Lat. 45. 5.
CIVOLI, or Cigoli, (Lewis), an Italian painter,
whofe family-name was CartU, was born at the cattle
of Cigoli, in Tufcany, in the year 1559. WiS ecce homo,
which he performed as a trial of Ikill with Barochio
and Michael Angelo da Caravaggio, was judged better
than thofe executed by them. He excelled in de-
figning, and was employed by the popes and princes of
his time. He died at Rome in 1613.
CIUS (anc. geog.) a town and river of Bithynia,
which gave name to the Sinus Cianus. The town was
afterwards called Prvjia, Cius having been deftroyed
by Philip father of Perfeus, and rebuilt by Prufias
king of Bithynia. In the river, Hylas, the favourite
boy of Hercules, was drowned ; (Apollonius Rhodius).
CLAC, among countrymen. To clack wool, is to
cut off the (heep’s mark, which makes the weight lefs,
and yields lefs cuttom to the king.
CLACKMANNAN, the name of a fmall fhire in
Scotland, not exceeding eight miles in length and five
in breadth. It is bounded on the fouth by the frith
of Forth ; on the north and weft by Perthfhire; and
on the eaft by Fife. The country is plain and fertile
towards the frith, producing command pafture in abun¬
dance. It likewife yields great quantities of excellent
coal, which is exported to England, France, and Hol¬
land. It is watered By the rivers Forth and Devan,
and joins the (hire of Kinrofs in fending a member al¬
ternately to parliament.
Clackmannan, a fmall town of Scotland, and ca¬
pital of the county of that name, is fituated on the
northern fhore of the Forth, in W. Long. 3. 40.
N. Lat. 56. 15. It ftands on a hill, on the top of which
is the cattle, commanding a noble profpedt. It was
long the feat of the chief of the Bruces, who Vas here¬
ditary fheriff of the county before the jurifdidlions were
aboliihed. The large fquare tower is called after the
name of Robert Bruce; whofe great fword and cafque
are flill preferved here. The hill is prettily wooded ;
and, with the tower, forms a pi&urefque objeft. Clack¬
mannan is ftill the feat of the Bruces of Kennet.
CLAGENFURT, aftrong town of Germany, and
capital of Carinthia, fttuated in E. Long. 13. 56.
N. Lat. 46. 50.
CLAGET (William), an eminent and learned di¬
vine, born in 1646. He was preacher to the fociety
of Gray’s Inn ; which employment he exercifed until
be died in j688, being then alfo one of the king’s
chaplains. Archbifhop Sharp gives him an excellent
chara&er; and bifhop Burnet has ranked him among
thofe worthy men whofe lives and labours contributed
to refcue the church from the reproaches which the
follies of others had drawn upon* it. Dr Claget pu-
blifhed ftveral things; but his principal work is his Claim
“ Difcourfe concerning the Operations of the Holy
Spiritnor mull it be forgotten that he was one of ^
thofe excellent divines who made a noble ftand againft
the defigns of James II. to introduce popery. Four
volumes of his fermons were publifhed after his death
by his brother Nicholas Claget, archdeacon of Sud¬
bury, father of Nicholas Claget afterwards bifhop of
Exeter. v
CLAIM, in law, a'challenge of intereft in any
thing that is in the poffettion of another.
CLAIR, obfcure. See Claro Obfcuto.
CLAIRAULT (Alexis), of the French acade¬
my of fciences, was one of the moft illuftrious mathe¬
maticians in Europe. He read to the academy in
1726, when he was not 13 years old, “ a memoir
upon four new geometrical curves of hi.s own inven¬
tion and fupported the chara&er he thus laid a
foundation for by various publications from time to
time. He publifhed, Elemens de Geometric, 1741, in
8vo Elemens d’Algelre, 1746, in 8vo; Eheorie de la
Figure de la Terre, 1743, in 8vo; Tables de la Lune,
1754, in 8vo. Fie was concerned alfo in the 'Journal
des ■SVarwr/.f, which he fumifhed with many excellent ex¬
tracts. He died in 1765. He was one of the acade¬
micians who were fent into the north to determine the
figure of the earth.
CLAM, in zoology, a fhell-filh. See Venus.
CLAMP, a piece of wood joined to another.
Clamp is likewife the term for a pile of unburnt
bricks bailt up for burning. Thefe clamps are built
much after the fame manner as arches are built in kilns,
viz. with a vacuity betwixt each brick’s breadth for the
‘fire to afcend by; but with this difference, that in-
ftead of arching, they trufsover, or over-fpan ; that is,
the end of one brick is laid about half w’ay over the
end of another, and fo till both iides meet within half
a brick’s length, and then a binding brick at the top
finifhes the arch.
Clamp ifi adenotes a piece of timber applied to
a matt or yard to prevent the wood from burfting ; and
alfo a thick plank lying fore and aft under the beams
of the firft orlop, or fecond deck, and is the fame that
the rifing timbers are to the deck.
CiAMP-Nails, fuch nails as are ufed to fallen on
clamps in the building or repairing of fhips.
CLAMPETIA (anc. geog.), a town of the Brutii,
one of thofe which revolted from Hannibal, (Livy) ;
called Lampetia by Polybius. Now Amantia, or Man¬
ila, a town of Calabria Ultra, near the bay of Euphe-
mia. E. Long 16. 20. N. Lat. 39. 15.
CLAMPING, in joinery, is the fitting a piece of
board with the grain to another piece of board crofs
the grain. Thus the ends of tables are commonly
clamped, to prevent their warping.
CLANDESTINE, any thing done without the
knowledge of the parties concerned, or without the pro¬
per folemnities. Thus a marriage is faid to be clande-
ftine, when performed without the publication of bans,
the confent of parents, &c.
CLANS, is hittory, and particularly in that of Scot¬
land. The nations which over-ran Europe were ori¬
ginally divided into many fmall tribes ; and when they
came to parcel out the lands which they had conquered,
it was natural for every chieftain to beftow a portion,
E 3 in
Clans
I!
Clare.
JRobcrtfon's
lijtoty of
Scotland.
C L A [3
in the fir ft place, upon thofe of his own tribe or fa¬
mily. Thefe all held their lands of him ; and as the
fafety of each individual depended on the general
union, thefe fmall focieties clung together, and were
diftinguifhed by fome common appellation, either pa¬
tron ymical or local, long before the introduftion of
furnames or enfigns armorial. But when thefe be¬
came common, the defcendants and relations of every
chieftain affumed the fame name and arms with him ;
other vafl'als were proud to imitate their example;
and by degrees they were communicated to all thofe
who held of the fame fuperior. Thus clanfhips were
formed ; and, in a generation or two, that confangui-
nity, which was at firft in a great meafure imaginary,
was believed to be real. An artificial union was con¬
verted into a natural one : men willingly followed a
leader, whom they regarded both as the fuperior of
their lands and the chief of their blood ; and ferved
him not only with the fidelity of vaffals, but the affec¬
tion of friends. In the other feudal kingdoms, we
may obferve fuch unions as we have defcribed, im-
perfedtiy formed ; but in Scotland, whether they were
the produftion of chance, or the effedf of policy, or
flrengthened by their preferring their genealogies
both genuine and fabulous, clanfhips were univerfal.
Such a confederacy might be overcome ; it could not
be broken ; and no change of manners or govern¬
ment has been able, in fome parts of the kingdom, to
diffolve affociations which are founded upon prejudices
fo natural to the human mind. How formidable were
nobles at the head of followers, who, counting that
caufe juft and honourable which their chief approved,
were ever ready to take the field at his command,
and to facrifice their lives in defence of his perfon of
of his fame ! Againft fuch men a king contended with
great difadvantage ; and that cold fervice, which money
purchafcs, or authority extorts, was not an equal match
for their ardour and zeal.
Some imagine the word clan to be only a corruption
of the Roman colonia; but Mr Whittaker afferts it to
be purely Britifh, and to fignify a family.
CLAP, in medicine, the firft ftage of the venereal
difeafe, more ufually called a Gonorrhoea.
Clap-Not, in birding, a fort of net contrived for
the taking of larks with the looking-glafs, by the me¬
thod called daring or daring. The nets are fpread
over an even piece of ground, and the larks are invi¬
ted to the place by other larks faftened down, and by
a looking-glafs compofed of five pieces, and fixed in a
frame fo that it is turned -round very fvviftly back¬
wards and forwards, by means of a cord pulled by a
perfon at a confiderable diftance behind a hedge. See
Doring.
CLAR, or Claer, in metallurgy, bone-aflies per-
fe£Uy calcined, and finely powdered, kept purpofely
for covering the infides of Cop pels.
CLARAMONT-powder, a kind of earth, called
terra de Bair a, from the place where it is found ; it
is famous at Venice, for its efficacy in flopping hemor¬
rhages of all kinds, and in curing malignant fevers.
Precept of CLARE constat, in Scots law, the
warrant of a fuperior for entering and infefting the heir
of his former vaffal, without the interpofition of an in-
queft.
Nuns of St Clare, were founded at Affifa ip Italy,
6 ] C L A
about the 1212. Thefe nuns obferved the rule of St.
Francis, and wore habits of the fame colour witli thofe c
of the Francifcan friars : and hence were called Meno-
reffes ; and their houfe, without Aldgate, the Minories, u.
where they were fettled when firll brought over into
England, about the year 1293. They had only three
houfes befides this.
Clare, a market-town of Suffolk, 13 miles fouth
of Bury. E. Long. o. 35 N. Lat. 52. 15. It gives the
title of Earl to the duke of Newcaftle.
Clare is alfo the capital of a county of the fame
name in the province of Connaught, in Ireland, fir.ua-
ted about 1 7 miles north-weft of Limerick. W. Long.
9. o. N. Lat. 52. 40.
CLARENCIEUX, the fecond king at arms, fo
called from the duke of Clarence, to whom he firft be¬
longed : for Lionel, 3d fon to Edward III. having by
his wife the honour of Clare in th.e county of Tito-
mond, was afterwards declared duke of Clarence ;
which dukedom afterwards efeheating to Edward IV.
he made this earl a king at arms. His office is to
marfhai and difpofe of the funerals of all the lower no¬
bility, as baronets, knights, efquires, on the fouth fide
of the Trent; whence he is fometimes called fumy or
fouih-roy, in contradiftindlion to norroy.
CLARENDON (Conilitutions of), certain confti-
tutions made in the reign of Henry II. A. D. 1164, in
a parliament held at Clarendon ; whereby the king
checked the power of the Pope and his clergy, and
greatly narrowed the total exemption they claimed from
fecularjurifdi&ion.
Clarendon (Earl of.) See Hyde.
CLARENNA, Tabulae (anc. geog.); a town of
Vindelicia, at the confluence of the Lycus and Danube.
Now Rain, a town of Bavaria, on the fouth fide of the
Danube, at the confluence of the Lech. E. Long..
11. o. N. Lat. 48. 45.
CLARENZA, the capital of a duchy of the fame
name in the Morea; it is a fea-pprt town, fituated on
the Mediterranean. E. Long. 2 x. 40. N. Lat. 37.40.
CLARET, a name given by the French to fuch of
their red wines as are not of a deep or. high colouh
See Wine.
CLARICHORD, orMANiCHORD, a mufical inftm-
ment in form of a fpinet.
It has 49 or 50 flops, and 70 firings, which bear
on five bridges; the firft whereof is the higheft, the reft
diminifhing in proportion. Some of the firings are
in unifon, their number being greater than that of the
flops. There are feveral little moitoifes for palling
the jacks, armed with brafs-hooks, which flop and raife
the chords inftead of the feather ufed in virginals and
fpinets: but what diftinguifhes it moft is, that the
chords are covered with pieces of cloth, which render
the found fweeter, and deaden it fo that it cannot be
heard at any confiderable diftance: whence it comes to
be particularly in ufe among the nuns, who learn to
play, and are unwilling to diilurb the lilenee of the dor¬
mitory.
CLARIFICATION, the a£l of cleaning or fining
any fluid from all heterogeneous matter or fecu-
lencies.
The fubftances ufually employed for clarifying li¬
quors, are whites of eggs, blood, and ifinglafs. The
two firft are ufed for fuch liquors as are clarified whilft
boiling
C L A ' [ 37 ] C L A
Clarisratio Boiling hot; the laft for thofe which are clarified
!l in the cold, fuch as wines, &c. The whites of eggs
, (-lar ^(:s are beat up into a froth, and mixed with the liquor,
’ upon which they unite with and entangle the impure
matters that floated in it; and prefently growing
hard by the heat, carry them up to the furface in
form of a fcum no longer diflbluble in the liquid.
Blood operates in the fame manner, and is chiefly ufed
in purifying the brine from which fait is made. Great
quantities of ifinglafs. are confumed for fining turbid
wines. For this purpofe fome throw an entire piece,
about a quarter of an ounce, into a wine calk ; by de¬
grees the glue diffolves, and forms a ikin upon the fur-
face, which at length fubfiding, carries down with it
the feculent matter which floated in the wine. Others
previoufly diffolve the ifinglafs; and having boiled it
down to a filmy confiftence, mix it with the liquor,
roll the cafk flrongly about, and then fuffer it to Hand
to fettle. Neuman queftions the wholefomenefs of
wines thus purified; and affures us that he himfelf,
after drinking only a few ounces of fack thus clarified,
but not fettled-quite fine, was feized with ficknefs and
vomiting, followed by fuch a vertigo, that he could not
fland upright for a minute together. The giddinefs
continued with a naufea and want of appetite for fe-
veral days.
CLARIGATIO, in Roman antiquity, a ceremony
that always preceded a formal declaration of war. It
was performed in this manner : firft four heralds
crowned with vervain, were fent to demand fatisfac-
tion for the injuries done the Roman ftate. Thefe
heralds taking the gods to witnefs that their demands
were juft, one of them, with a clear voice, de¬
manded reftitution within a limited time, commonly
33 days; which being expired without reftitution
made, then the pater patratus, or prince of the heralds,
proceeded to the enemies frontiers, and declared
war.
CLARII Apollinis Fanum (Strabo, Pliny), a
temple and grove of Apollo, fituated between Colophon
and Lebedos, in Ionia; called Claras (Thucydides,
Ovid). The name alfo of a town and mountain there
(Nicander); and of a fountain (Clemens Alexandrinus);
the waters of which infpired with prophetic fury. C/a-
rius the epithet of Apollo (Strabo).
CLARION, a kind of trumpet, whofe tube is nar¬
rower and its tone acuter and fhriller than that of the
common trumpet. It is faid that the clarion, now ufed
among the Moors and Portuguefe, who borrowed it
from the Moors, ferved anciently for a treble to fe-
veral trumpets, which founded tenor and bafs.
CLARISSES,an order of nuns fo called from their
founder St Clara or St Clare. (See St Clare). She
was in the town of Affifa in Italy ; and having re¬
nounced the world to dedicate herfelf to religion, gave
birth to this order in the year 1212 ; which compre¬
hends not only, thofe nuns that follow the rule of St
Francis, according to the ftrift letter, and without
any mitigation, but thofe likewife who follow the fame
rule foftened and mitigated by feveral popes. It is at
prefent one of the moil flouriihing orders of nuns in
Europe. After Ferdinand Cortez had conquered Mexi¬
co for the king of Spain, Ifabella of Portugal, wife
of the emperor Charles V. fent thither fome nuns of
the order_ of St Clara, who made feveral fettlsments
4
there. Near their mouafteries were founded commu- Clarke,
nities of Indian young women, to be inftru&ed by the 1 v"~“"
clat iiTes in religion, and fuch works as were fuitable to
perfons of their fex. Thefe communities are fo con-
fiderable that they ufually confift of four or five hun¬
dred.
CLARKE (Dr Samuel), a preacher and writer of
confiderable note in the reign of Charles II. was, ■
during the inter-regnum, and at the time of the ejec¬
tion, minifter of St Bennet Fink in London. In No¬
vember 1660, he, in the name of the Preibyterian
minifters, prefented an addrefs of thanks to the king
Lor his declaration of liberty of confidence. He was
one of the commiffioners of the Savoy ; and behaved’
on that occafion with great prudence and moderation.
He fometimes attended the church as an hearer and
communicant; and was much efteemed by all that
knew him, for his great probity and indultry. The
moft valuable of his numerous works are laid to be
his Lives of the Puritan Divines and other perfons of
note, 22 of which are printed in his martyrology : the
reft are in his Lives of fundry Eminent Perfons in this
latter Age, folio; and in his Marrow of Ecclefiafticai-
Hiftory, in folio and quarto. He died in 1680.
Clarke (Samuel), the fon of the former, was fel¬
low of Pembroke-hall in Cambridge ; but was ejedled-
from his fellowftrip for refufing to take the engage¬
ments, as he was alfo afterwards from his re&ory of
•Grendon in Buckinghamfhire. Fie applied himfelf
early to the ftudy of t’ne feriptures; and his annota¬
tions on the Bible, printed together with the facred’
text, is highly commended by Dr Owen, Mr Baxter,
and DrCalamy. He died in tyor, aged 75.
Clarke (Dr Samuel), a very celebrated Engliflx
divine, was the fon of Edward Clarke, Efq; alderman
of Norwich,.and one of its reprefentatives in parlia¬
ment for feveral years ; and born there October 11.
1675. He was inftru6led in claffical learning at the
free-fehool of that town ; and in 1691 removed thence
to Caius college in Cambridge, where his uncommon
abilities foon began to difplay themfdves. Though
the philofophy of Des Cartes was at that time the
eftabliihed philofophy of the univerfity, yet Clarke
eafily maftered the new fyftem of Newton ; and in or¬
der to his firft degree of arts, performed a public ex-
ercife in the fchools upon a queftion taken from it.
He greatly contributed to the eftabliihment of the.
Newtonian philofophy by an excellent tranflation of,
and notes upon, Rohault’s “ Phyfics/’ which he fi-
niftied before he was 22 years of age. The fyftem of
natural philofophy then generally taught in the univer¬
fity was that written by Rohault, founded altogether
upon Cartefian principles, and very ill tranflated into
Latin. Clarke gave a new tranflation, and added to
it fueh notes as might lead ftudents infenfibly and by
degrees- to other and truer notions than could be
found there. “ And this certainly (fays Biihop Hoad-
ly) was a more prudent method of introducing truth
unknown before, than to attempt to throw aiide this
treatife entirely, and write a new one inftead of it.
The fuccefs anfiwered exceedingly well to his hopes ;
and he may juftly be ftyled a great benefaftor to the
univerfity in this attempt. For by this means the true .
philofophy has, without any noife, prevailed ; and to
this day his tranflation of Rohault is, generally/peak*
ing,.
his dunces, addreffing himfelf to the goddefs Dul-
nefs:
“ Let others creep by timid fteps and flow,
“ On plain experience lay foundations low, •
“ By common fenfe to common knowledge bred,
“ And loft to nature’s caufe through nature led.
“ All-feeing in thy mifts, we want no guide,
“ Mother of arrogance, and fource of pride!
“ We nobly take the high priori road,
“ And real'on downward, till we doubt of God.”
Hun clad, b. 4. 1. 455.
C L A- [ 38 ] C L A
Clarke, ffig, the fbnding text for kaures, tod his notes the neral title of “ A Difcourf .concerning the Being and
1 -v  fir ft diredion to thofe who are willing to receive the Attributes of God, the Obligations of natural Rdi- 1
reality and truth of things in the place of invention gion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Chnftian
and romance.” Whifton relates, that in ^97, while Revelation, in anfwer to Hobbes, Spinoza, the Au-
he was chaplain to Moore bifhop of Norwich, he met thor of the Oracles of Reafon, and other Demers of
young Clarke, then wholly unknown to him, at a cof- natural and revealed Religion.” Clarke having endea-
feehoufe -in that city ; where they entered into a con- voured in the firfl. part of this work to ffiow, that the
verlation about the Cartefian philofophy, particularly being of a God may be demonflrated by arguments
Rohault’s “ Phyfics,” which Clarke’s tutor, as he tells a priori, is unluckily involved in the cenfure which Pope
ns, had put him upon tranflating. “ The refult of has paffed upon this method of reafonmg in the fol-
tliis converfation was (fays Whifton), that 1 was great- lowing lines. They are putonto the^mouth of — ~c
ly furprized that fo young a man as Clarke then was,
fhould know fo much of thofe fublime difcoveries,
which were then almoft a fecret to all, but to a few
particular mathematicians. Nor did I remember (con¬
tinues he) above one or two at the moft, whom I had
then met with, that feemed to know fo much of that
philofophy as Clarke.” This tranflation of Rohanlt
was firft printed in 1697, 8vo. There have been four
editions of it, in every one of which improvements
have been made ; efpecially in the laft in 1718, which
has the following title : 'Jacobi Rohaulti Phyfica. La- Upon which we have the following note : “ Thofe who,
tine vertit, recenfuit, et uberioribut jam Annotationibus> from the effefts in this vifible world, deduce the eter-
ex illnjirijjimi IJaaci Newtoni Philofophia maximam partem nal power and Godhead of the firft caufe, though they
kdfflis, amplificavit et ornavit S. Clarke, S. T. P. Acce- cannot attain to an adequate idea of the Deity, yet
dunt etiam in hac quarta editions nova aliquot tabula ceri difcover fo much of him as enables-them to fee the
incifa, et Annotationes multumfunt auBa. Dr John Clarke, end of their creation and the means of their happi-
late dean of Sarum, and our author’s brother, tranf- nef8 ; whereas they who take this high priori road,
lated this work into Engliih, and publifhed it in 2 vols- as Hobbes, Spinofa, Des Cartes, and fome better rea-
8vo. . foners, for one that goes right, ten lofe themfelves in
Afterwards he turned his thoughts to divinity ; and mills, or ramble after vifions, which deprive them of
in order to fit himfelf for the facred fun&ion, he ftudied all fight of their end, and millead them in the choice
the Old Teftament in the original Hebrew, the New of wrong means.” Clarke, it is probable, would not
in the original Greek, and the primitive Chriftian have denied this ; and the poet perhaps would have
writers. Having taken holy orders, he became chap- fpared his better reafoners, and not have joined them
lain to Moore bilhop of Norwich, who was ever after with fuch company, had he recollefted our author’s
his conftant friend and patron. In 1699 he publilhed apology for ufingthe argument a priori. “ The argu-
two treatifes: one intitled “ Three pradical Effays on ment apojleriori (fays he) is indeed by far the moft
Baptifm, Confirmation, and Repentance the other, generally ufeful argument, moft eafy to be underftood,
“ Some Refle&ions on that part of a book called and in fome degree fuited to all capacities 5 and there-
Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton’s Life, which re- fore it ought always to be infilled upon : But for as
lates to the Writings of the Primitive Fathers, and the much as atheillical writers have fometimts oppofed the
Canon of the New Teftament.” In 1701 he publilhed being and attributes of God by fuch metaphyfical rea-
“ A Paraphrafe upon the Gofpel of St Matthew;” fonings, as can no otherwife be obviated than by ar-
which was followed in 1702 by the “ Paraphraies up- guing a priori; therefore this manner of arguing alfo
on the Gofpels of St Mark and St Luke,” and foon is ufeful and neceflary in its proper place.” To this
after by a third volume “upon St John.” They were may be added the anfwer he made to Mr Whifton up-
afterwards printed together in 2 vols 8vo ; and have on this occafion, as narrated by the latter in his Hi-
fince undergone feveral editions. He intended to have 'ftorical Memoirs. “When Clarke brought me his
gone through the remaining books of the New Telia- book, I was in my garden againft St Peter’s college in
ment, but fomething accidentally interrupted the exe- Cambridge, where I then lived. Now I perceived,
cution. that in thefe fermons he had dealt a great deal in ab-
Mean while Bilhop Moore gave him the reftory of ftra£l and metaphyfical reafoning. I therefore alked
Drayton near Norwich, and procured for him a parilh him how he ventured into fuch fubtleties which I ne-
in that city ; and thefe he ferved himfelf in that fea- ver durft meddle with ? and Ihowing him a nettle, or
fon when the bilhop refided at Norwich. In 1704 fome contemptible weed in my garden, I told him
he was appointed to preach Boyle’s ledlure ; and the that weed contained better arguments for the being and
fubjeft he chofe was, “ The being and attributes of attributes of a God than all his metaphyfics. Clarke
God.” He fucceeded fo well in this, and gave fuch confeffed it to be fo ; but alleged for himfelf, that fince
high fatisfa£lion, that he was appointed to preach the fuch philofophers as Hobbes and Spinoza had made ufe .
fame lefture the next year ; when he chofe for his fub- of thofe kind of fubtleties againft, he thought proper to
je£l “ The. evidences of natural and revealed religion.” Ihow that the like way of reafoning might be made better
Thefe fermons were firft printed in two diftinft vo- ufe of on the fide of, religion : which reafon or excufe
lumes ; the former in 1705, the latter in 1706. They I allowed to be not inconfiderable.” Undoubtedly,
.have fince been printed in one volume, under the ge- as the prefent editor of Biographia Britannica ob-
fei ves.
C L A f 39 ] C L A
Ctarlte. ferve®., the grand, the proper, the deciiive proof of
the exiftence, perfections, and providence of the Deity,
mud be drawn from his works. On this proof, as be-
ing equally fatisfaCtory to the profoundeft philofopher
and the meaneft. peafant, the caufe of religion will
ever Hand fecure. Neverthelefs, if there be fuch a
thing as an argument a prion., why may not fpeeula-
tive men be employed in its examination ? Several able
divines and philo.fophtrs have thought, and ftill think,
that this argument for the being and attributes of God,
will (land the teft of the fevered fcrutiny ; and there¬
fore they cannot be blamed for endeavouring to fet it
in a convincing light to others. As to the merit, in¬
deed, of the whole work under confideration, including
the evidences of natural and revealed religion, it is un¬
doubtedly of the firft order. Difficulties may be raifed
on particular points, and the ableft and moft candid
inquirers may fometimes fee caufe to hefitate with re¬
gard to the validity of the reafoning : but ftill, in ge¬
neral, the book reflefts honour on the age as well as
the author that produced, it, and will defcend, with
diftinguiffied reputation, to a late pofterity. The de¬
fence, in particular, of the facred original and autho¬
rity of Chriftianity, is admirably conducted.
In 1706 he publiffied “A Letter to Mr Dodwell
wherein all the ^rguments in his epiftolary difcourfe
againft the immortality of the foul are particularly an-
fwered, and the judgment of the fathers, to whom
Mr Dodwell had appealed concerning that matter,
truly reprefented. Bifhop Hoadly obferves, that in
this letter he anfwered Mr Dodwell in fo excellent a
manner, both with regard to the philofophical part,
and to the opinions of fome of the primitive writers,
upon whom thefe do&rines were fixed, that it gave
univerfal fatisfaffion. But this controverfy did not flop
here ; for the celebrated Collins, coming in as a fe-
cond to Dodwell, went much farther into the philofo-
phy'of the difpute, and indeed feemed to produce all
that could poffibly be faid againft the immateriality of
the foul, as well as the liberty of human a&ions. This
enlarged the fcene of .the difpute ; into which our au¬
thor entered, and wrote with fuch a fpirit of clear-
nefs and demonftration, as at once ffiowed him great¬
ly fuperior to his adverfaries in metaphyfical and phy-
fical knowledge ; and made every intelligent reader re¬
joice, that fuch an incident had happened to provoke
and extort from him that plenty of ftrong reafoning
and perfpicuity of expreffion, which were indeed very
much wanted upon this intricate and obfcure fubjeft.
“ And I am perfuaded (continues the bifhop), that
as what he has writ in this controverfy comprehends
the little that the ancients had faid well, and adds ftill
more evidence than ever clearly appeared before, and
all in words that have a meaning to them, it will re¬
main the flandard of good fenfe on that fide of the
queftion, on which he fpent fo many of his thoughts,
as upon one of his favourite points.” ^Clarke’s letter
to Dodwell was fqon followed by four defences of it,
in four feveral letters to the author of “ A Letter to
the learned Mr Henry Dodwell; containing fome Re¬
marks on a pretended Demonftration of the Immate¬
riality and natural Immortality of the Soul, in Mr
Clarke’s Anfwer to his late Epiftolary Difcourfe, &c.”
They were afterwards all printed together; and the
‘‘ Anfwer to Toland’s Amyntor” added, to them.
In the midft of all thefe labours, he found time to Clarke,
ffiow his regard to mathematical and phyfical ftudies, v*"
and exadl knowledge and Hull in them. And his na¬
tural affe&ion and capacity for thefe ftudies were not
a little improved by the friendfiiip of Sir Ifaac New¬
ton ; at whole requeft he tranflated his “ Optics” in¬
to Latin in 1706. With this veriion Sir Ifaac was fo
highly pleafed, that he prefented him with the fun* of
L. 500, or L. too for each child, Clarke having then
five children.
This year alfo, biffiop Moore, who had long form¬
ed a defign of fixing him more confpicuoufly, procu¬
red for him the reftory of St Bennet’s, Paul’s Wharf,
in London ; and foon after carried him to court, and
recommended him to the favour of queen Anne. She
appointed him one of her chaplains in ordinary ; and,
in confideration of his great merit, and at the requeft
of the bifhop, prefented him to the re&ory of St
James’s, Weftmitifter, when it became vacant in 1709.
Upon his advancement to this ftation, he took the
degree of D. D. when the public exeroife which he
performed for it at Cambridge was prodigioufly admi¬
red. The queftions which he maintained were thefe :
I. “ Nullum fidei Chriftians dogma, in faciis ferip-
turis traditum, eft redse rationi diffentaneum that
is, “ No article of the Chriftian faith, delivered in the
holy Scriptures, is difagreeable to right reafon.” 2.
“ Sine adionum humanarum libertate uulla poteft efle
religio that is, “ Without the liberty of human ac¬
tions there can be no religion.” His thefis was upon
the firft of thefe queftions; which being thoroughly
fifted by that moft acute difputant profeflbt James,
he made an extempore reply, in a continued difcourfe
for near half an hour, with fo little hefitation, that
many 0f the auditors declared themfelves aftonifhed ;
and owned, that if they had not been within fight. of
him, they fhould have fuppofed him to have read every
word of it from a paper. After this, through the
courfe of the fyllogiftical deputation, he guarded fo
well againft the arts which the profeffor was a com¬
plete mafter of; replied fo readily to the greateft dif¬
ficulties fuch an objedor could propofe ; and preffcS
him fo clofe and hard with clear and intelligible an-
fwers, that perhaps there never was fuch a conflid
heard in thofe fchools. The profefTor, who was a man
of humour as well as learning, faid to him at the end
of the difputation, “ Profedo, me probe exercuifti
that is, “ On my word, you have worked me fuffi-
cientlyand the members of the univerfity went
away, admiring, as indeed they well might, that a man
even of Clarke’s abilities, after an abfence of fo many,
years', and a long difcourfe of bufinefs of quite ano¬
ther nature, fhould acquit himfelf in fuch a manner, as
if this fort of academical exercife had been his conllant
employment; and with fuch fluency and purity of ex¬
preffion, as if he had been accuftomed to no other lan¬
guage in converfation but Latin. The fame year,
X 709, he revifed and correded Whifton’s tranflation
of the “ Apoftolical Conftitutions” into Englifh.
Whifton tells us,that his own ftudies having been chiefly
upon other things, and having rendered him incapable
of being alfo a critic in words and languages, he defi-
red his great friend and great critic Dr Clarke to re-
vife that tranflation ; which he was fo kind as to agree
to.
In
C L A L 40 1 G L A
Clarke. Jn lytJ, lie publi/hed a moil beautiful and pom-
'pous edition of Ciefar’s commentaries, adorned with
elegant fculptures. It is intituled, “ C. Julii Caefaris
quae extant, accuratiffime cum libris editis Se mff. opti-
mis collata, recognita, & correfla ; acceiferunt annota-
tiones Samuelis Clarke, S- 1'. P. item indices locorum,
rerumque & verborum, utilifSmae.” It was printed in
1712, folio; and afterwards in 1720, 8vo. It was de-
■ dicated to the great duke of Marlborough, “ at a time,”
fays Biihop Hoadly, “ when his unequalled victories
and fucceffes had railed his glory to the higheil pitch
abroad, and leffened his intercft and favour at home.”
In the publication of this book, the doftor took par¬
ticular care of the pundluation. In the annotations,
he feledted what appeared the beft and mod judicious
in former editors, with fome corrections and emenda¬
tions of his own interfperfed. Mr Addifon has fpoken
of this folio edition of Csefar’s commentaries in the fol¬
lowing words: “ The new edition, which is given u«
of Csefar’s commentaries, has already been taken notice
of in foreign gazettes, and is xt work, that does ho¬
nour to the Englilh prefs. It is no wonder that an
edition fhould be very corredt, which has paffed thro’ the
hands of one of the moft accurate, learned, and judicious
writers this age has produced. The beauty of the pa¬
per, of the character, and of the feveral cuts with
which this noble work is illuftrated, makes it. the fi¬
ned book that I have ever feen ; and is a true indance
of the Englifh genius, which, though it does not come
the fird into any art, generally carries it to great¬
er heights than any other country in the world.” This
noble work has rifen in value from that time to the pre-
•fent. A copy of this edition in large paper, mod
fplendidly bound in morocco, was fold at the Hon.
Mr Beauclerk’s fale for forty-four pounds ; and it was
faid to-be purchafed by the Duke of Grafton. “ To
a prince or a nobleman (fays Dr Harwood), it was a
cheap purchafe; for it was the mod magriificent book I
ever beheld. The binding codMrBeauclerkfive guineas.
The fame year, 1712, he publilhed his celebrated
book intituled, “ The Scripture Dodlrine of the Tri¬
nity, &c.” which is divided into three parts. The
fird is, a colletlion and explication of all the texts in
the “ New Tedament,” relating to the dodlrine of the
Trinity: in the fecond, the foregoing dodlrine is fet
forth at large, and explained in particular and didindl
propofitions ; and in the third, the principal paffages
in the liturgy of the church of England, relating to
the dodlrine of the Trinity, are confidered. Bifhop
Hoadly applauds our author’s method of proceeding,
in forming his fentiments upon fo important a point:
“ He knew (fays he), and all men agreed, that it was a
matter of mere revelation. He did not therefore retire
into his clofet, and fethimfclf to invent and forge a plau-
fible hypothefis, which might fit eafily upon his mind.
He had not recourfe to abfiradt and metaphyfical rea-
fonings to cover or patronize any fyftem he might have
embraced before. But, as a Chriftian, he laid open the
• New Teftament before him. He fearched out every
text in which mention was made of the three perfons,
or -any one ®f them. He accurately examined the
meaning of the words uted about a;very one of them ;
and by the beft rules of grammar and critique, and
by his Ikill in language, he endeavoured to fix plainly
what was declared about every perfon, and what was
not. And what he thought to be the truth, he pub-
N° 81.
liihed under the the title of ‘ The Scripture Dodlrine Clarke.
of the Trinity.’ “ I am far (fays the Biihop) from  v—■—
taking upon me to determine, in fo difficult a quefiion
between him. and thofe who made replies to him ; but
this I hope I may be allowed to fay, that every
Chriftian divine and dayman ought to pay his thanks
to Dr Clarke for the method into which he brought
this difpute ; and for that colledlion of texts of the
New Teftament, by which at laft it mull be decided,
on which fide foever the truth maybe fuppofed to lie.”
Whiiton informs us, that fome time before the publi¬
cation of this book, there was a meffage fent to him
from lord Godolphin, and others of queen Anne’s mi-
nifters, importing, “ That the affairs of the public
were with difficulty then kept in the hands of thofe
that were for liberty ; that it was therefore an unfeafon-
able time for the publication of a book that would
make a great noife and dilturbance; and that there¬
fore they defired him to forbear till a fitter oppor¬
tunity Ihould offer itfelfwhich meffage (fays he)
the doflor had no regard to, but went on according
to the diflates of his own confcience with the publi¬
cation of his book. The minifters, however, were
very right in their conjeflures; for the work made noife
and difturbance enough, and occafioned a great number
of books and pamphlets, written by hjmfelf and others.
Books and pamphlets, however, were not all which
the “ Scripture Dodlrine of the Trinity” occafioned :
it made its author obnoxious to the power ecclefialtical,
and his book to be complained of by the Lower Houfe
of convention. The Dodlor drew up a preface, and af¬
terwards gave in feveral explanations, which feemed to
fatisfy the Upper Houfe ; at lead the affair was not
brought to any iffue, the members appearing defirous
to prevent diffenfions and divifions.
In 1715 and 17x6, he had a difpute with the cele¬
brated Leibnitz, relating to the principles of natural
philofophy and religion; and a coiledlion of the pa¬
pers which paffed between them was publilhed in
17x7. This performance of the dodtor’s is inferibed
to her late majefty queen Caroline, then princefs of
Wales, who was pleafed to have the controverfy pafs
through her hands. It related chiefly to the import¬
ant and difficult fubjedls of liberty and neceffity.
In 1718, Dr Clarke made an alteration in the forms
of doxology in the finging pfalms, which produced no
fmall noife and difturbance, and occafioned fome pam¬
phlets to be written. The alteration was this :
To God, through Chi ift, his only Son,
Immortal glory be, &.c.
And,
To God, through Chrift, his Son, our Lord,
All glory he therefore, &<..
A confiderable number -of tbefe feledl pfalms and
hymns having been difperfed by the Society for Pro¬
moting Chnlti,an Knowledge, before the alteration of
the doxologies* was taken notice of, he was charged
with a defign of impofing upon the fociety : whereas,
in truth, the edition of them had been prepared by
Jfim for the ufe of his own parilh only, before the. fo¬
ciety had thoughts of pnrehafing any of the copies:
and as the ufual forms of doxology are not eftabhftied
by any legal authority, ecelefiaftical^ or Civil, in this
he had not offended.
About this time he was prefented by the lord Lech-
mere,
, C L A [ 4
mere, the chancellor of the ducby of Lancafter, to the
■*' mafterfliip of Wigfton’s hofpital in Leicefter. In 1724,
he publilhed 17 fermons preached on feveral occadons,
11 of which were never before printed; and the year
following, a fermon, preached at the parifh-church of
St James’s, upon the erecting a charity-fchool for the
education of women fervants. In 1727, upon the
death of Sir Ifaac Newton, he was offered by the court
the place of mafter of the Mint, worth communibus an-
nis 1200 or 1500I. a year. But to this fecular prefer¬
ment he could not reconcile himfelf; and therefore ab-
folutely refufed it. Whifton feems to wonder, that
Clarke’s elogifts fhould lay fo little ft refs upon this re-
fufal, as to mention it not at all, or at leaft very negli¬
gently; while “ he takes it,” he fay's, “ to be one of
the moft glorious aftions of his life, and to afford un¬
deniable convidlion, that he was in earneft in his re¬
ligion.” In 1728, was publiftied, “ A Letter from
Dr Clarke to Mr Benjamin Hoadly, F. R. S. occa-
fioned by the Controverfy, relating to the Proportion
of Velocity and Force in Bodies in Motion and
printed in the'** Philofophical Tranfaftions, n° 40'.
In 1729, he publilhed the 12 firft books of “ Ho¬
mer’s Iliad.” This edition was printed in 410, and
dedicated to the duke of Cumberland. The Latin
verfion is alntoft gntirely new ; and annotations are
added to the bottom of the pages. Homer, Bilhop
Hoadly tells, was Clarke’s admired author, even to a
degree of fomething like enthufiafm, hardly natural to
his temper; and that in this he went a little beyond
the bounds of Horace’s judgment, and was fo unwil¬
ling to allow the favourite poet ever to nod, that he
has taken remarkable pains to find out, and give a
reafon for every paffage, word, and title, that could
create any fufpicion. “ The tranOation,” adds the
Bilhop, “ with his corre&ions, may now be ftyled accu¬
rate ; and his notes, as far as they go, are indeed a
treafury of grammatical and critical knowledge. Fie
was called to his talk by royal command ; and he has pre¬
formed it in fuch a manner, as to be worthy of the
young prince, for whom itwas laboured.” The year
©f its publication was the laft of this great man’s life.
Though- not robuft, he had always enjoyed a firm ftate
of health, without arty indifpbfition bad enough to
confine him, except the fmall-pox in his youth ; till,
on Sunday May 11. 1729, going out in the morning
to preach before the judges at Serjeant’s-inn, he was
there feized with a pain in his fide, which made it
impoffible for him to perform the office he was called
to; and quickly became fo violent, that he was obliged
to be carried home. He went to bed, and thought
himfelf fo much better in the afternoon, that he would
not fuffer himfelf to be blooded ; againft which reme¬
dy, it is remarkable that he had entertained ftrong
prejudices. But the pain returning violently about
two the next morning, made bleeding abfolutely ne-
ceffary; he appeared to be out of danger, and conti¬
nued to think himfelf fo, till the Saturday morning
following ; when, to the inexpreffible furprife of all
about him, the pain removed from his fide to his
head ; and, after a very fhort complaint, took away
his fenfes fo, as they never returned any more. He
continued breathing till between feven and eight of the
evening of that day, which was May 17. 1729 ; and
then died, in his 54th year.
Vol. V. Part L
i 1 C L A
Soon after his death were publiftied, from his ori¬
ginal manufcripts, by his brother Dr John Clarke, dean
of Sarum, “ An Expofition of the Church Catechifm,”
and ten volumes of fermons, in 8vo. His “ Expofi¬
tion” is made up of thofe leftures he read every
Thurfday morning for fume months in the year, at St
James’s church. In the latter part of his time he re-
vifed them with great care, and left them completely
prepared for the prefs. As to the fermons, few dif-
courfes in the Englifh language are more judicious,
and fewer ftill are equally inftrublive. The reafoning
and the pra&ical parts are excellent, and the explana¬
tions of fcripture are uncommonly valuable. Though
Dr Clarke had not the turn of mind which qualified
him for moving the pafiions, and indeed did not make
it his objeft, his fentiments, neverthelefs, are frequent¬
ly expreffed with fuch a clearnefs of conception and
fuch a force of language, as to produce in well dupo-
fed readers all the effeft of the pathetic. Several vo¬
lumes of fermons have been publifhed fince his time,
which are far fuperior in point of elegance and beauty,
and we have the higheft fenfe of their merit. But ftill,
if we were called upon to recommend difcourfes, which
abound with the moft folid inftru&ion, and promile
the moft lafting improvement, we Ihould never forget
a Clarke and a Jortin. Three years after the Doctor’s
death, appeared alfo the Twelve Laft Books of the'
Iliad, publilhed in 410 by his fon, Mr Samuel Clarke,
who informs us, in the preface, that his father had fi«
nilhed the annotations to the three firft of thofe books,
and as far as the 359th verfe of the fourth ; and had
revifed the text and verfion as far as verfe 510 of the
fame book. Dr Clarke married Catharine, the daugh¬
ter of the Rev. Mr Lockwood, reftor of Little Mif-
fingham in Norfolk ; in whofe good fenfe and un-
blameable behaviour he was happy to his death. By
her he had feveri children, two of whom diedbefore him,
and one a few weeks after him.
Of the character of this great divine, the following
Ihort delineation appeared fome years fince in the Gen¬
tleman’s Magazine : “ Samuel Clarke, D.D. rector
of St James’s, Weftminfter : in each feveral part of
ufeful knowledge and critical learning, perhaps with¬
out a fuperior; in all united, certainly without an
equal: in his works, the bell defender of religion ; in
his practice, the greateft ornament to it: in his con-
verfation communicative, and in an uncommon man¬
ner inftrudlive ; in his preaching and writings, ftrong,
clear, and calm; in Iris life, high in the efteem of the
wife, the good, and the great ; in his death, lamented,
by every friend to learning, truth, and virtue.” In
the fame publication fome not incurious anecddtes!
Concerning him are printed, colledled by the Rev. Mr
Jones of Welwyn. We learn from them, that Dr
Clarke was of a very humane and tender difpofition.’
When his young children amufed themfelves with tor-'
menting and killing flies upon the windows, he not on¬
ly forbad fuch practices, but calmly reafoned with
them, in fuch a familiar manner, as was calculated to
make 4 powerful imprefiion upon their minds. He
was very ready and condefcendimg in anfwering appli¬
cations to him with refpefl to fcruples ; numberlefs
inftances of which occurred in the courfl of his life.
One thing of which Dr Clarke was peculiarly cautious,
was not to lofe the leaft minute of his time. He al-
F ways
Clarke.
C L A [ 42 1 C L A
wavs carried fome book about with him, which he tory of Buxted in Suffex, at the particular recommen- Clarke
would read whilft riding in a coach, or walking in the
fields, or if he had any leifure moments free from
company or his other ftudies. Nay, he would read
even in company itfel|, where he might take fuch a li¬
berty without offence to good manners. His memory was
remarkably ftrong. Jie told Mr Pyle of Lyn, that he
never forgot any thingvvhichhe had once thoroughly ap¬
prehended and underftood. The Doftor, with his in¬
timate friends, was perfectly free and eafy ; but if
Grangers were introduced, he behaved with much cir-
cumfpeftion, converling only upon con-mon topics.
When he vifited Dr Sykes, his ufual way was to fit
with him upon a couch, and, reclining upon his bo-
fem, to difeourfe with him, in the moit familiar man¬
ner, upon fuch fubje&s as were agreeable to the tafte
and judgment of both. When Sir John Germaine lay
upon his death-bed, and was in great confufion and
trouble of mind, he fent for Dr Ciarke, and requeft-
ed to know of him whether he fhould receive the fa-
crament, and what he fhould do in his fad condition.
The Doctor, who Was well acquainted with Sir John’s
purfnits and courfe of life, fedately replied, that he
could not advife- him to receive the facrament. and
that he did not think it likely to be of any avail to him
with refpedt to his final welfare. Having laid this, he
departed without adminiftering the communion, having
firft recommended the dying man to the mercy of God.
Dr Clarke was of a cheerful, and even playful dif-
poiitlon. An intimate friend of his, the late Rev. Mr
Bott, ufed to relate, that once when he called upon
him, he found him fwimming upon a table. At ano¬
ther time, when the two Dr Clarkes, Mr Bott, and
ieveral men of ability and learning were together, and
amufing themfelves with diverting tricks. Dr Samuek
Clarke, looking out of the window, faw a grave
blockhead approaching to the houfe ; upon which he
cried out, “ Boys, boys, be wife, here comes a fool.”
This turn ofhis mind hath fince been confirmed by Dr
Warton, who, in his obfervations on the following line
of Mr Pope,
“ Unthonght of frailties cheat ns in the wife,”
fays, “ Who could imagine that Locke was fond of
romances; that Newton once ftudied aftrology ; that
Dr Clarke valued himfelf for his agility, and frequent¬
ly amufed himfelf, in a private room of Iris houfe, in
leaping oVer the tables and chairs ; and that our author
himfelf was a great epicure ?” With refpett to what
is here recorded of Dr Clarke, we can fcarcely per-
fuade ourfelves to confider it as a frailty. To be pof-
fefied of fuch a temper as his was, muft have been no
fmall degree of happinefs ; as it probably enabled him
to purfue his important and ferious ftudies with great¬
er vivacity and vigour. To be capable of deriving
amufement from trivial circumftances, indicates a heart
at eafe, apd may generally be regarded as the concomi¬
tant of virtue.
Clarke (William), an Englifh divine, was born at
Haghmon-abbey in Shropftiire, 1696; and after a
grammar-education at Shrewfbury fchool, was fent to
St John’s college Cambridge, of which he was elected
fellow, Jan. 17.1716; B. A. 1731, M. A. 1735. He
'was prefented byarchbifliop Wake in 1724 to the rec-
dation of Dr Wotton, whofe daughter he married. •
In 1 738, he was made prebendary and refidentiary of
the cathedral church of Chichefter. Some years before
this he had given to the public a fpecimen of his lite¬
rary abilities, in a preface to his father-in-law Dr Wot-
ton’s Leges Wallhe Ecclejiaftica ct Civiles Hoeli Boni, et
aliorum Wall'ue Principum ; or, Ecelefiaftical and Civil
Laws of Hovvel, D Da, and other princes of Wales.
There is reafon likewife to furmife, that an excellent
Difcdurfe on the Commerce of the Romans, which
was highly extolled by Dr Taylor in his Elements of
the Civil Law, might have been written by our author.
It came either from his hand or from that of his friend
Mr Bowyer, and is reprinted in that gentleman’s Mif-
cellaneous Tratts. But Mr Clarke’s chief work was.
The Connexion of the Roman, Saxon, and Englifh
Coins ; deducing the Antiquities, Cuftoms, and Man¬
ners of each people to modern times ; particularly the
Origin of Feudal Tenures, and of Parliaments : Illu-
ftrated throughout with critical and hiftoricai Re¬
marks on various Authors, both facred and profane.
This work was publifhed, in one volume quarto, in
1767; and its appearance from the prefs was owing to
the difeovery made by Martin Folkes, Efq; of the old
Saxon pound. It was dedicated to the duke of New-
caftle, whofe beneficent difpofition is celebrated for
having conferred obligations upon the author, which
were not the effefts of importunity. Mr Clarke’s per¬
formance was perufed in manufeript by Arthur On¬
flow, Efq; fpeaker of the houfe of commons, who ho¬
noured him with fome ufeful hints and obfervations t
but he was chiefly indebted to Mr Bowyer, who cook
upon him all the care of the publication, drew up fe~
veral of the notes, wrote part of the differtation on the
Roman fefterce, and formed an admirable index to the
whole. By this work our author acquired a great
and juft reputation. Indeed, it refle&s honour upon
the country by which it is produced ; for there are
few performances that are more replete with profound
and curious learning. Mr Clarke’s laft promotions
were the chapcellorfliip of the church of Chichefter,
and the vicarage of Amport, which were bellowed
upon him in 1770. ' Thefe preferments he did not
long live to enjoy, departing this life on the 2 ill of
October, in the following year. He had refigned, in
1768, the rediory of Buxted to his fon Edward. In
Mr Nichols’s Anecdotes of Bovvyer, there are feveral
letters and extra&s of letters, written to that learned
printer by Mr Clarke, which difplay him to great
advantage as a man of piety, a friend, and a fcho-
lar.
In a Ik etch of his charafter in the Biographies Bri-
Uinnica, furnilhed by Mr Hayley, who was his inti¬
mate acquaintance, he is reprefented as not only a man
of extenfive erudition, but as polfelfed of the pleafmg
talent of communicating his various knowledge in fa¬
miliar converfation, without any appearance of pedan¬
try or prefumption. Antiquities were the favourite
ftudy of Mr Clarke, as his publications fufficiently
Ihow : but he was a fecret, and by no means an unfuc-
cefsful, votary of the mules. He wrote Englilh verfe
with eafe, elegance, and fpirit. Perhaps there are few
better epigrams in our language than the following,,
■which
C L A
[ 43
winch he compofcd on feeing the words Domus ultima
infcribed on the vault belonging to the dukes' of Rich
mond in the cathedral of Chichefter.
Did he, who thus infcrib’d the Wall,
Not read, or not believe Sr Paul,
Who fays there b, where’er it hands,
Another houfenot made with hands?
O, may we gather from thefe words,
That hosfe is not a houfe of Lord ?
Among the happier little pieces of his fportive
poetry, there were fome animated Itanzas, defcribing
tlie character of the twelve Eriglilh poets, whofe por¬
traits, engraved by Vertue, were the favourite orna¬
ment of his parlour: but he fet fo modeft and humble
a value on his poetical compofitions, that they were fel-
dom committed to paper, and are therefore very im-
perfeftly preferved in the memory of thofe to whom
lie fometimes recited them.' His tafte and judgment
! C L A
CLASMIUM, in natural hiftory, the name of a Cufmiutn
genus of foffils, of the clafs of the gypfums; the cha-
rafters of which are, that they are of a foft texture, -i
and of a dull opaque look, being compofed, as all the
other gypfums, of irregularly arranged flat particles.
The word is derived from the Greek a
fragment or fmall particle ; from the flaky fmall par¬
ticles of which thefe bodies are compofed. Of this
genus there is only one known fpecies: this is of a
tolerably regular and even ftructure; though very
coarfe and harfli to the touch. It is of a very lively
and beautiful rad in colour 5 and is found in thick
roundilh mafles, which, when broken, are to be feen
compofed of irregular arrangements of flat particles ;
and emulate a ftriated texture. It will neither give
fire with fleel nor ferment with acids; but calcine*
very freely and eafily, and affords a very valuable
plafter of Paris, as do all the purer gypfums. It is
in poetry appears indeed very ftriking in many parts of common in Italy, and is greatly efleemed there ; it is
his learned and elaborate CtmneB'wn of Coins. His il-
lultration of Neftor’s cup, in particular, may be efleem¬
ed as one of the happiett examples of that light and
beauty which the learning and fpirit of an elegant an¬
tiquarian may throw on a cloudy and miftaken paflage
of an ancient poet. In ftriff attention to all the du¬
ties of his ftation, in the moft aftive and unwearied
charity, he might be regarded as a model to the mini-
fters of God. Though his income was never large, it
was his cuftom to devote a {hilling in every guinea that
he received to the fervice of the poor. As a mailer,
as a hufband, and a father, his conduct was amiable
and endearing ; and to clofe this imperfect {ketch of
him with his moil ftriking feature, he was a man of
genuine unaffefted piety.”
CLARO-obscuro, or Clair-obscure, in paint'-*
ing, the art of diftriburirig to advantage the lights and
{hadowe of a piece, both with refpett to the eafmg of
the eye and the effect of the whole piece. See
Painting.
CiARo-Ob/curo, or Chmro-fcuro, is alfo ufed to fig-
nify a deilgn confifting only of two colours, moft ufu-
ally black and white, hut fometimes black and yellow;
or it is a defign waChed only with one colour, the
fltadows being of a dulky brown, and the lights heigh¬
tened up by white.
The word is alfo applied to prints of two colours
taken oft’ at twice: whereof there are volumes in the
•cabinets of thofe who are curious in prints.
alfo found in fome parts of England, particularly Der-
byftiire, but there it is not much regarded.
CLASPERS, or Tendrils. See Cirrhtjs.
CLASS, an appellation given to the moft general
fuhdtvifions of any thing : thus, animal is fubdivided
into the clafles quadrupeds, birds, fifties, &c. which
are again fubdivided into feriefes or orders; and thefe
laft into genera. See Botany and Zoology.
Class, is alfo ufed in fchools, in a fynonymous fenfe
with form, far a number of boys all learning the fame
thing.
CLASSIC, or Classical, an epithet, chiefly ap¬
plied to authors read in the claifes at fchools.
This term feems to owe its origin to Tullius Ser-
vius, who, in order to make an eftimate of every per-
fon’s eftate, divided the Roman people into fix bands,
which he called claffes. The eftate of the firft clafs
was not to be under 2001. and thefe by way of emi¬
nence were called clafici, claflics”: hence authors of
the firft: rank came to be called clajfcs, all the reft being
faid to be infra clajfem : thus Ariftotle is a clafiic
author in philofophy; Aquinas infchool divinity, &c.
CLASSICUM was the alarm for battle, given by
the Roman generals ; and founded by trumpets and
other martial muiic throughout the army.
CLATHRI, in antiquity, bars of wood or iron,
ufed in fecuring doors and windows. There was a
goddefs called Clathra, that prefided over the clathri.
CLAVARIA, club-top. A genus belonging to
CLARUS, or Claros (anc. geog.), a town of the cryptogamia clafs of plants, and of the order of
Ionia, famous for ait oracle of Apoflo. It was built
by Manto, daughter of Tirefias, who fled from Thebes
after it had been deftoytd by the Epigoni. She was
fo afflicted with her misfortunes, that a lake was formed
with her tears, where ftie firft founded tlie oracle.
Apollo was from thence lirnamed Clari us. Alfo an
ifland of the ALgean, between Tenedos and Seios.
CLARY, in botany. See Salvia.
Clary-IVater, is compofed of brandy, fugar, clary-
flowers, and cinnamon, with a little ambergris diflblved
in it. It helps digeftion, and is cardiac. This water
is rendered either purgative or emetic, by adding re fin
uf jalap and fcammotsy, or ermus metailorum. Some
make ckiry-water of brandy, juice of cherries, ftraw-
berries, and goofeberries, fugar, cloves, white pepper,
and coriander feeds ; iofufed, fugared, and {trained.
5
fungi; the 58th in the natural method. The fungus
is fmooth and oblong. The hemotades, or oak leather
club-top, exaftly refembles tanfied leather, except that
it is thinner and fofter. It is of no determinate form.
It grows in the clefts and hollows of old oaks, and
fometimes on afti in Ireland and in fome places of Eng¬
land, &c. In Ireland it is ufed to drefs ulcers, and in
Virginia to fpread plafters upon, mftead of leather.
The militaris, and one of two other fpecies, are re¬
markable for growing only on the head of a dead in-
feA in the nympha ftate.
A modern writer on natural hiftory (Mr Milkr),
has aflerted the whole genus of clavaria to belong to
the tribe of -zoophytes, that is, to the animal, and not to
the vegetable kingdom. According to his method, he
Tanks them among the Veim.es, under a fuhdlvifion
F 2 which
C L A [ 44 1 c L A
Clavarium which he terms Fungofa ofculis atomiftris; thereby un-
Claud* derftanding them to be compound animals with many
» orifices on their furface, from which are protruded
atoms or animalcules which have a vifible fpontaneous
motion, fomething fimilar to what is now acknow^
Irdged to be a fa cl with regard to a numerous clafs of
marine bodies termed corallines. This motion, how¬
ever, has not been obferved by other naturalifts.
■Schceffer has figured the feeds of feveral clavarire as
they appeared to him through the microfcope ; and
none of thefe fungi, when burnt, emit the ftrong difa-
greeable fmell peculiar to animal fubftances.
CLAVARIUM, in antiquity, an allowance the Ro¬
man foldiers had for furnifhing nails to fecure their
•fhoes with. They raifed frequent mutinies, demand¬
ing largeffef; of the emperors under this pretence.
CLAV/aTA vestimenta, in antiquity, habits
adorned with purple clavi, which were either broad
or narrow. See Clavus.
CLAUBERGE (John), a learned profeffor of phi-
lofophy and divinity at Duifburg, was born at Solin-
^gen in 1622. He travelled into Holland, France, and
England, and in each country obtained the efteem of
the learned. The elector of Brandenburg gave him
public teftimonies of his efteem. He died in 1665.
His works were printed at Amfterdam in 2 vols qto.
The moft celebrated of thefe is his treatife, entitled
Logica vetus et nova, &c.
CLAUDE of Lorrain, or Claude Gelee, a cele¬
brated landfcape painter, and a ftriking example of the
efficacy of induftry to fupply, or at leaft to call forth,
genius. Claude was born in 1600; and being dull
and heavy at fchool, was put apprentice to a paftry-
cook : he afterwards rambled to Rome to feek a live¬
lihood ; but being very ill-bred, and unacquainted
with the language, no body cared to employ him.
Chance threw him at laft in the way of Auguftino
Traflb, who hired him to grind his colours, and to do
all his houfehold drudgery, as he kept no other fer-
vant. His mafter hoping to make him ferviceable to
him in feme of his greateft works, taught him by de¬
grees the rules of perfpe&ive and the elements of de-
fign. Claude at firft did not know what to make of
thofe principles of art; but being encouraged, and not
failing in application, he came at length to underftand
them. Then his foul enlarged itfelf apace, and cul¬
tivated the art with wonderful eagemefs. He exerted
his utmoft induftry to explore the true principles of
painting by an inceffant examination of nature, that
genuine fource of excellence ; for which purpofe, he
made his ftudies in the open fields ; where he very fre¬
quently continued from fun rife till the d'ufk of the
evening compelled him to withdraw himfelf from his
contemplations. It was his cuftom to fketeh whatever
he thought beautiful or ftriking ; and every curious
tinge of light, on all kinds of objefts, he marked in his
fketches with a fimilar colour; from which he perfedl-
ed his landfcapes with fuch a look of real nature, and
gave them fuch an appearance of truth, as proved fu-
perior to any artift that ever painted in that ftyle.
The beauties of his paintings are derived from na¬
ture herfelf, which he examined with uncommon af-
fiduity ; and Sandrat relates, that Claude ufed to ex¬
plain to him, as they walked through the fields, the
caufes of the different appearances of the fame profped
at different hours of the day, from the reflections .or Chude,
refrattions of light, from dews or vapours, in the even- Claudia,
ing or morning, with all the precifion of aphilofopher. v
He worked on his pictures with great care, endeavour¬
ing to bring them to perfection, by touching them fre¬
quently over again; ; d if any performance did not an-
fwer his idea* it was caftomary with him to alter, to
deface, and repaint it again feveral times over, till it
correfponded with that image pictured in his mind.
But whatever ftruck his imagination, while he obferved*
nature abroad, it was fo ftrongly impreffed on his me¬
mory, that on his return to his work, he never failed
to make the happieft ufe of it.
His Ikies are warm and full of luftre, and every ob-
je6t is properly illumined. His diftances are admira¬
ble, and in every part a delightful union and harmony
not only excite our applaufe but our admiration.- His
invention is pleafing, his colouring delicate, and his
tints have fuch an agreeable fweetnefs and variety,
as have been but imperfectly imitated byr the belt fub-
fequent artifts, but were never equalled. He frequent¬
ly gave an uncommon tendernefs to his finiflred trees
by glazing ; and in his large compofitions which he
painted in frefco, he was fo exadt that the diftindt fpe-
cies of every tree might readily be diftinguilhed. As
to his figures, if he painted them himfelf, they are very
indifferent; and he was fo confcious of his deficiency
in this refpedt, that he ufually engaged other artilts
who were eminent to paint them for him ; of which
number were Courtois and Philippo Laura. His pic¬
tures are now very rare, efpecially fuch as are unda¬
maged ; and tho’fe are at this time fo valued, that no
price, however great, is thought to be fuperior to their
merit. In order to avoid a repetition of the fame fub-
jedt, and. alfo to detedt fuch copies of his works as
might be injurious to his fame, by being fold for ori¬
ginals, it w'as his cuftom to draw (in a paper-book pre¬
pared for his purpofe) the defigns of all thofe pidlures
which were tranfmitted to different countries; and on
the back of the drawings, he wrote the name of the
perfon who had been the purchafer. That book,
which he titled Libra di Verita, is now in the poffeffion
of the duke of Devonfhire.
Claude (John), a Proteftant divine, born in the
province of Angenois in 1619. Meff. de Port Royal
ufing their utmoft endavours to convert M. de Tu-
renne to the catholic faith, prefented him with a piece
calculated to that encl, which his lady engaged Mr
Claude to anfwer; and his performance gave rife to
the moft famous controverfy that was ever carried on
in France between the Roman Catholics and Prote-
ftants. On the revocation of the edidt of Muntz, he
retired to Holland," where he met with a kind recep¬
tion, and was honoured with a confiderable penfion by
the prince of Orange. He died in 1687; and left a
fon Ifaac Claude, whom he lived to fee minifter of the
Walloon church at the Hague, and who publiftied fe¬
veral excellent works of his deceafed father.
CLAUDIA, a veftal virgin at Rome, who being
fufpedted of unchaftity, is faid to have been cleared
from that imputation in the following manner: the
image of Cybele being brought out of Phrygia to
Rome in a barge, and it happening to Hick fo fall in
the river Tyber that it could not be moved, fhe tying
her girdle, the badge of chaftity, to the barge, drew
C L A [ 45 ] c L A
Claudia, it along to the city, which a thoufand men were unable
Clsudianus do.
Claudia Aqua (Frontinus), water conveyed to Rome
by a canal or aquedudl of eleven miles in length, the
contrivance of Appius Claudius the cenfor, and the
firft ftrufture of the kind, in the year of Rome 441.
Called alfo Aqua Appia.
Claudia Copia (Infcriptions), a name of Lugdunum,
or Lyons in France; the birth-place of the emperor
Claudius: A Roman colony, called Claudia, from its
benefactor the emperor; and Copia, from its plenty of
all neceffaries, efpecially corn. See Lugdunum.
Claudia, or. Clodia Via (Ovid), was that road
which, beginning at the Pons Milvius, joined the Fla-
minia, palling through Etruria, on the fouth lide of the
Lacus Sabatinus, and ftriking olf from the Caffia,
and leading to Luca (Antonine): large remains of it
are to be feen above Bracciano (Holftenius).
Claudia Lex, de Comtiis, was enadted by M. Cl.
Marcellus in the year of Rome 702. It ordained, that
at public eledtions of magiftrates no notice Ihould be
taken of the votes of fuch as were abfent. Another,
de Ufurp, which forbad people to lend money to minors
on condition of payment, after the deceafe of their
parents. Another, de Negotiatione, by (^Claudius the
tribune, 535. It forbad any fenator or father of a
fenatorto have any veffel containing above 300 ampho¬
rae, for fear of their engaging themfelves in commercial
fchemes. The fame law alfo forbad the fame thing to
the fcribes and the attendants of the queftors, as it
was naturally fuppofed that people who had any com¬
mercial connedlions could not be faithful to their trull
nor promote the interell of the Hate. Another,
576, to permit the allies to return to their refpedlive
cities, after their names were inrolled. Liv. 41.
c. 9. Another, to take away the freedom of the
city of Rome from the colonifts which Csefar had
carried to Novicomum.
CLAUDIANUS (Claudius), a Latin poet, flou-
rilhed in the 4th century, under the emperor Theo-
dolius, and under his fans Arcadius and Honorius. It
is not agreed of what country he was a native ; but
he came to Rome in the year of Chrill 395, when he
was about 30 years old ; and there infmuated himfelf
into Stilicho’s favour; who being a perfon of great
abilities both for civil and military affairs, though a
Goth by birth, was fo confiderable a perfon under Ho¬
norius, that he may be faid for many years to have
governed the weftern empire. Stilicho afterwards fell
into difgrace, and was put to death ; and it is more
than probable that the poet was involved in the mis¬
fortunes of his patron, and feverely perfecuted in his
perfon and fortunes by Hadrian, an Egyptian by birth,
who was captain of the guards to Honorius, and fuc-
ceeded Stilicho. There is reafon, however, to think
that he rofe afterwards to great favour ; and obtained
feveral honours both civil jind military. The princefs
Serena had a great efteem for Claudian, and recom¬
mended and married him to a lady of great quality
and fortune in Libya. There are a few little poems
on facred fubjedts, which through millake have been
afcribed by feme critics to Claudian; and fo have made
him be thought a Chriftan. But St Auftin, who was
cotemporary with him, exprefsly fays that he was a
Heathen. The time of Claudian’s death is uncertain,
nor do we know any further particulars of his life than Claudius,
what are to be colledled from his works, and which CUufen-
we have already related above. He is thought to urg’ ,
have more of Virgil in his ftyle than all the other imi¬
tators of him.
Claudius I. Roman emperor, A. D. 41. The be¬
ginning of his reign was very promifing ; but it was
foon difeoverd that little better than an ideot filled
the throne, who might eaiily be made a tyrant: ac¬
cordingly he became a very cruel one, through the in¬
fluence of his emprefs, the infamous Meffalina: after
her death, he married his niece Agrippina, who caufed
him to be poifoned to make way for Nero, A. D. 54.
See (Hijloryof) Rome.
Claudius II. (Aurelius), furnamed Gothicus, fig-
nalized himfelf by his courage and prudence under the
reigns of Valerian and Julian; and on a . death of the
latter was declared emperor in 268. He put to death
Aureolus, the murderer of Galienus ; defeated the
Germans; and in 269 marched againft the Goths, who
ravaged the empire with an army of 300,000 men,
which he at firll haraffed, and the next year entirely
defeated : but a contagious difeafe, which had fpread
through that vaft army, was caught by the Romans ;
and the emperor himfelf died of it a fhort time after,
aged 56. Pollio fays that this prince had the mo¬
deration of Auguftus, the virtue of Trajan, and the
piety of Antoninus.
CLAVES insulas, a term ufed in theifle of Man ;
where all weighty and ambiguous caufes are referred
to a jury of twelve, who are called claves infula, the
keys of the ifland.
CLAVICHORD, and Clavicitherium, two mu-
fical inftruments ufed in the 16th century. They were
of the nature of the fpinet, but of an oblong figure.
The firll is Hill ufed by the nuns in convents; and
that the pradlitioners may not dillurb the fillers in the
dormitory, the firings are muffled with, fmall bits of
fine woollen cloth.
CLAVICLE. See Anatomy, n°46.
CLAVICYMBALUM, in antiquity, a mufical in-
ftrument with 30 firings. Modern writers apply the
name to our harpfichords.
CLAVI vestium, were flowers or ftuds of purple
interwoven with or fewed upon the garments of
knights or fenators; only, for diftindlioa, the former
ufed them narrow, the latter broad.
CLAVIS properly fignifies a key ; and is fome-
times ufed in Englilh to denote an explanation of fome
obfeure paffages of any book or writing.
CLAVIUS (Chriftopher), a German Jefuit born at
Bamberg, excelled in the knowledge of tlie mathe¬
matics, and was one of the chief perfons employed to
redlify the kalendar; the defence of which he alfo
undertook againft thofe who cenfured it, efpecially
Scaliger. He died at Rome in 1612, aged 75. His
works have been printed in five volumes folio ; the
principal of which is his commentary on Euclid’s ele¬
ments.
CLAUSE, in grammar, denotes a member of a pe¬
riod or fentence.
Clause fignifies alfo an article or particular ftipu-
lation in a contradl, a charge or condition in a tefta- ■
ment, &c.
CLAUSENBURG, a large city of Tranfilvania,-.
fituated •.
C L A [ 46 J C L A
fitunted on the river Samos, in E. Long. 20. 50.
N. Lat. 47- to.
CLAVUS, in antiquity, an ornament upon die robes
of the Roman fenators and knights; which was more
er lefs broad, according to the dignity of the perfon :
hence the diflinttion of tunica angufti-clavia and lati-
clavia.
Clavus, In medicine and furgery, is ufed in feve-
ral fxgnifications: 1. Clavus hyftericus, is a (hooting
pain ih the head, between the pericranium and cra¬
nium, which affeft fuch as have the green-ficknefs.
2. Clavus oculorum, according to Celfus, is a callous
tubercle on the white of the eye, taking its denomi¬
nation from its figure. 3. Clavus imports indurated
tubercles of the uterus. 4. It alfo imports a cht-
rurgical inftmment of gold, mentioned by Amatus
Lufitanus, defigned to be introduced into an exul-
cerated palate, for the better articulation of the
voice. And, 5. It lignifies a callus, or corn on the foot.
Claws Airmails, in antiquity. So rude and igno¬
rant were the Romans towards the rife of their fhite,
that the driving or fixing a nail was the only method
they had of keeping a regifter of time 5 for which
reafon it was called davits annalh. There was an an¬
cient law, ordaining the chief praetor to fix a nail
every year on the Ides of September ; it was driven
into the right fide of the temple of Jupiter Opt. Max.
towards Minerva’s temple. This cuitom of keeping
an account of time by means of fixing nails, was not
peculiar to the Romans ; for the Etrurians ufed like-
wife to drive nails into the temple of their goddefs
Nortia with the fame view.
CLAW, among zoologifts, denotes the (harp-pointed
nails with which the feet of certain quadrupeds and
birds are furniihed.
CLAY, in natural hillory, a genus of earths, the
charafters of which are thefe : They are firmly cohe¬
rent, weighty, and compadt; (tiff, vifcid, and duftile
to a great degree, while moift, fmooth to the touch ;
not eafily breaking between the fingers, nor readily
diffufible in water ; and, when mixed, not readily fub-
(iding from it. See Chemistry, n° 647, &c.
Clay (brinks remarkably when drying 5 in fo much
that Dr Lewis obferves, the purity of it may be known
by the degree to which it (brinks. He made experi¬
ments on it pure, and when mixed with various
proportions of fand. Pure clay he found (hrunk one
part in 1 3 while drying ; but, when mixed with twice
its weight of fand, only one part in 30.
The common clays are never free from filiceons
earth: the bed method of obtaining the argillaceous
earth in perfeft purity is, by diffolving Roman alum
in water, filtering the folution, and precipitating it by
mild volatile alkali. When procured by this method*
its fpecific gravity is about 1305'; it is foluble in acids
with a little effervefcence ; it forms alum with the vi¬
triolic acid; and deliquefcent falts with the nitrous
and marine. When dry it abforbs water greedily,
and becomes foft, and acquires fuch a tenacity that it
may be moulded at pleafure; it contrafts, however,
greatly in the fire, by which numerous cracks are oc-
cafioned. With a certain degree of heat it becbmes
fo hard as to ftrike fire with fteel, and by thus burn¬
ing it lofes its tenacity, the water being excluded by
the approach of its particles towards each other. Af¬
ter having loft this property, it cannot be made to af- Clay,
fume it again without being diffolved in an acid, and
then precipitated from it. Fixed alkalies alfo diffolve
it in the dry way, as acids do in the moift; but of
thefe laft the vitriolic is the moft proper, as it may be
moft eafily concentrated.
According to Mr Kirwan, the fpecific gravity of
this earth, when pure, does not exceed 2000. It is
exceedingly diffufible in water, though fcarcely more
foluble than magnefia. It is combinable with acids,
from whence it may be feparated like magnefia, but
can fcarce be precipitated by the vitriolic acid, with
which if forms alum, a fait that always contains an
excefs of acid, and has an aftringent tafte. When in
combination with any of thefe acids, it cannot be pre¬
cipitated by acid of fugar ; a criterion by which it is
diftinguifhed from all the other earths; every one of
which (terra ponderofa alone excepted, which when
united to the vitriolic acid, is not affedted by any o-
ther excepting that of fluor) is precipitated from the
vitriolic, nitrous, and marine acids, by that of fugar.
The precipitation of thefe earths, however,, does not
take place if there be an excefs of the mineral acids,
nor does it always appear before the liquors are eva¬
porated. Though clay is hardened by a very ftrong
heat, it cannot be made thereby to affume the proper¬
ties of lime. By a mixture with calcareous earth it
readily melts; and hence M. Gerhard has found it fu-
fible in a crucible of chalk, though not in one of clay.
Its fufion is not promoted by fixed alkali, but borax
and microcofmic fait diflolve it; the former with a very
(light effervefcence, but the latter with a more per¬
ceptible one. It is lefs affe&ed by calces of lead than
the calcareous earths are.
M. Beaume has formed a new hypothefis concerning
this earth ; fuppofing the bails of alum, or pure argil¬
laceous earth, to be nothing elfe than flint; and com¬
mon clay to be filiceous earth combined with a little
vitriolic acid. This opinion has been examined by
Mr Scheele, who began by trying, in the following
manner, whether the filiceous earth be in reality fo¬
luble in vitriolic acid. He took an ounce of moun¬
tain cryftal reduced to powder, and mixing it with
three ounces of fait of tartar, melted the whole by a
ftrong fire. The mafs was then diffolved in 20 ounces
of water, and a? much diluted vitriolic acid poured up¬
on it as was more than fufficient for faturarion. The
liquor being then filtered and evaporated, yielded a
drachm and an half of alum, befides a quantity of fub-
acid vitriolated tartar. It now remained therefore
to determine whether the precipitated filiceous earth,
by a repetition of the fame procefs, would ftill continue
to yield alum. The operation was therefore repeated
feven times, and a quantity of alum procured at each
operation. But when our author was about to be con¬
firmed in his opinion that M. Beaume was in the right,
he happened to infpeCt his crucibles, and perceived
them to be full of little cavities, and every where rough
and uneven on the iniide. Thus he began to fufpeeft •
that the alkali had diffolved part of the clay of his
crucibles, by which means the alum had been produ¬
ced ; and this fuppofition was verified by his after¬
wards ufing a crucible of iron, when he could not ob¬
tain ti (ingle particle of alum, nor perceive the fmalleft
mark of folution on the filiceous earth.
M.
G L A L 47 J C L A
M. Beaume alfo pretends that clay contains a little
vitriolic acid, and is therefore foluble in a large quan¬
tity of boiling water. Mr Scheele lilcewife tried this
experiment; but found, that of feveral kinds of argil¬
laceous earth not the fmallell quantity was diffolved ;
and he likewife made feveral experiments in order to
obtain vitriolic acid from pure clay, but without fuc-
cefs : neither was he able to obtain any hepar either
by means of alkali of tartar or with charcoal; nor
could he obtain with clay a vitriolic neutral fait from the
refiduum of the diliillation of muriatic and nitrous acid.
The contraction of clay by heat has afforded Mr
Wedgewood an opportunity of conftrudfing by its
means an inllrument for meafuring thofe degrees
of heat which are above the reach of the fcale of
common thermometers, as defcribed under the article
Thermomkter.
Mr Scheele has made feveral experiments to difco-
ver the properties of alum when mixed with other
fubftances. A folution of alum, he finds, is decom¬
posed by lime-water ; and if no more of the water be
added than Is exadfly requifite for the precipitation,
the earth of alum forms a tranfparent precipitate like
boiled ttarch ; and if the clear water be filtered, it is
found to be a folution of gypfum. On adding more
lime-water than is neceffary for precipitation, the pre¬
cipitated matter is deilitute of the gelatinous appear¬
ance jult mentioned. If the whole be allowed to itand
for a quarter of an hour, and frequently agitated du¬
ring this time, no gypfum, nor even lime, is found in
the filtered liquor, unlefs too much lime-water has been
ufed. On examining the precipitate in this cafe, our
author found it to confift of earth of alum, felenite,
and lime. This was difeovered firft by treating it with
muriatic acid, which difiblved the aluminous earth,
leaving the gypfum behind. The addition of cauftic
volatile alkali threw down a tranfparent gelatinous
mafs, which was the earth of alum ; and on draining
it again, and then adding a fixed alkaline lixivium,
the lime was thrown down ; whence it appeared, that
the lime and gypfum had feparated from the water,
and united with the earth of alum.
To underftand the reafon of this uncommon preci¬
pitation, Mr Scheele next poured into a folution of
alum a quantity of cauftic volatile alkali more than fuf-
ficient to faturate the acid, in order to be certain of
having it all taken off. The precipitated earth was
then edulcorated, and mixed with a folution of gypfum,
that he might obferve whether the gypfum would fe-
parate from the water, and precipitate with the earth
of alum ; which, however, did not take place. On
mixing lime-water with the precipitate, he found that
the former very foon loft its cauftic tafte, and that the
earth of alum became opaque. Some part of the wa¬
ter was ftrained, and lixivium tartari dropped into
it; but it remained clear, nor was any. precipitate
formed by a fplution of cprrofive fublimate. He after¬
wards added muriatic acid to the laft precipitate, which
it diffolved entirely without leaving any gypfum be¬
hind ; whence our author concludes, that the earth of
alum- had united with the lime into a peculiar kind of
compound.
Laftly, he now imagined, that this compound of
earth of alum and lime might be capable of feparating
gypfum from water. To try this, he prepared a large
quantity of the compound earth, mixed it with a- folu¬
tion of gypfum, and let it reft for a quarter of an hour;
when he found, to his furprife, that the gypfum ftill
remained fufpended in the water, and that the preci¬
pitate was entirely foluble in muriatic acid. He now
mixed a folution of gypfum with lime-water, adding
earth of alum at the 1'ame time} when he found, that
the whole was precipitated as before, the lime and alu¬
minous earth having fallen to the bottom along with
the gypfum, leaving the water pure. On the whole,
our author concludes, x. That the vitriolic acid in
gypfum is capable of combining with more lime than
is neceffary to an exa& faturation. 2. That calcareous
earth is capable of forming an union with the earth of
alum. 3. That gypfum cannot combine with the
earth of alum ^ but that if a fuperfluous quantity of
lime be united with vitriolic- acid, it will then ferve as
a bond of union to combine gypfum with the earth of
alum, and thus form a new compound confifting of
three earths. Pure clay has no effedf upon limevvater.
Cronftedt is of opinion, that common clay, efpecially
the blue, grey, and red kinds, may derive their origin
from mud ; and as the mud proceeds from vegetables,
it will thence follow, that the varieties of clay juit
mentioned are nothing elfe but the common mould al¬
tered, after a length of time, by means of water.
This opinion, he thinks, receives coniiderable ftrength
from the following circumftances; viz. that a great
quantity of fea-plants rot every year in the lakes, and
are changed into mud t very little of which, however,
is feen upon the Ihores alter the water is dried in the
fummer-time ; and that the clay begins where the mud
ceafes. Profeffor Bergman has likewife hinted, that pure
clay may be a calcareous earth combined with iome
acid not yet difeovered; “ but (fays he) compoiitions-
of this kind ought to be confidered as primitive fub¬
ftances, with refpe£t to our knowledge of them, till
they fliall be experimentally decompofed: for no found
knowledge In natural philofopby can be obtained from
the conikleration of mere poifibilities ; iince daily ex¬
perience Ihows, that even the moft probable fuppoli-
tious have proved falfe, when the means of putting
them to the teft have afterwards been found out.”-—
“ Now, therefore, (fays M. Magellan), that the ar-
gillactous is acknowledged to be a fimple primitive earth,
which cannot be decompofed into any other principles,
nor formed by the combination of any other limple
fubftances we know, we ought to reft fatisned at j.re¬
lent without endeavouring to account for its formation.”*
The principal fpecies of the argillaceous earths dr
clays are,
1. The argilla aerata, or lac luns. It is generally
found in fmail cakes of the hardnefs of chalk ; like
which, alfo, it marks white. Its hardnefs is nearly like
that of the fteatites, and it feels Ids fat than days com¬
monly do. It is of a fnow-white colour, and about the
fpeciiic gravity of 1.669. When examined with a mi-
crofcope, it is found to confift of fmall tranfparent cry-
ftals ; and, from Mr Schreber's experiments, appears
to be an argillaceous earth faturated with fixed air, in
confequence of which it eftervefees with acids. It
contains alfo a fmall quantity of calcareous earth, and
fnmetimes of gypfum, with fume flight traces of iron.
It is found at Halles.
2. The argilla apyra, porcelain clay, the kaolin of
tiie
C L A [ 4S ] C L A
the Chincfe, Is very refra&ory in the fire, and cannot
in any common ftrong fire be brought into fufion far¬
ther than to acquire a tenacious foftnefs without lofing
its foim. When broken, it has then a dim fhining
appearance, and is of a folid texture ; Unites fire with
iteel; and has confequently the beft chemical proper¬
ties of any fubftance whereof veffels can be made. It
is found of an excellent quality in Japan, and likewife
in different parts of Europe. In Sweden it is met
•with in coal-pits between the ftrata of cOal. Cronftedt
informs us, that he has feen the root of a tree entirely
changed into this kind of earth.
M. Magellan remarks, that we muft be careful to
diflinguifh between the pipe-clay of which there is
plenty in Devonfhire, and that ufed in the porcelain
manufactures. The former, in a ftrong fire, burns to
a bluifh grey or pigeon colour, the latter remains
white. The porcelain clay, according to bur author,
feems to be only a decayed feldt-fpar; and, confe¬
quently, according to Mr Bergman, contains magncfia.
Our porcelain clay contains likewife quartz, cryftals,
and mica, parts of the granite which it originally com-
pofed. Before it is ufed, the quartz muft be feparated,
but the mica remains.
3. Combined with phlogifton, and including the
•white tobacco-pipe clay, with others of a grey, black,
or violet colour, Mr Kirwan obferves, that many of
the white clays become grey in a low degree of heat,
becaufe the mineral oil with which they are mixed
.burns to a kind of cbal, and tinges them ; but this be¬
ing confumed in a ftronger heat, they again become
white. The other clays evidently contain phlogifton ;
in confequence of which, they become quite black
internally on being expofed to a quick and ftrong fire,
affuming the appearance of common flints both in co¬
lour and hardnefs ; but if heated by degrees, they are
firft white, and afterwards of a pearl colour. They
contain a larger quantity of the inflammable principle
in proportion to their apparent fatnefs; which may be
judged of both by their fmoothnefs and undtuofity,
and by their ftiining when fcraped with the nail. “ It
is difficult (fays M. Magellan) to determine whether
this ftrongly adherent phlogifton is the caufe of the
above-mentioned pearl-colour, or prevents them from
being burned white in a ftrong fire ; yet no heterogene¬
ous fubftance can be extracted from them except fand,
which may be feparated from fome by means of water,
but does not form any conftituent part of clay. If they
be boiled in aqua-regis in order to extradf their iron,
they lofe their vifcofity.” In the lefs undtuous clays,
our author has found pure quartz in greater and fmaller
grains, and he has likewife found that clays of this kind
fometimes attract phlogifton in the fire.
4. The lithomarga, or ftone-marrow, when dry, feels
as fat and flippery as foap, but is not wholly diffufible
in water. When mixed with this fluid, it falls to pie¬
ces either in larger or fmaller mafles, fo as to affume
the appearance of curds. In the fire it readily melts
into a white or reddifti frothy flag ; which, in confe-
sqiience of its internal vacuities, is then of a larger vo¬
lume than it formerly was. In the mats it breaks in¬
to irregular fcaly pieces. This kind is called fuller’s
earth (waHera) in Sweden. In Grim Tartary it is
called kejfekii; and is faid to be ufed there inftead of
foap, for waftiing. It is found alfo in the Auftrian
Elanders in the barony of Hierges, near Niverle, belong-
82.
tug to the Duke of Arenberg. It was fhowed to
M. Magellan by the Duke’s chancellor ; who, from
the uprightnefs of his behaviour, has obtained the ho
riourable appellation of Jean de Bien. At prefent it is
only found in feparate maffes; but M. Magellan is of opi¬
nion, that fome couliderable ftrata of it might be met
with, if properly fearched for on the fpot, by digging
the ground to a confiderable depth.
To this fpecies alfo belongs the yellowifir-brown
earth called terra lemnia; which is of a fhining texture,
and falls to pieces in water with a crackling noife. Ac¬
cording to Mr Bergman, this is a compound of the
argillaceous, iiliceous, and magnefian earths. Its com¬
ponent parts are the fame as thofe of the talc, but
loofer, and in different proportions. M. Cronftedt
remarks, that “ the terra lemnia cannot properly be
called a fuller’s earth, as it is never ufed in the fulling
bufinefs, nor is likely to be applicable to it, as being
belides very fcarce. The true fuller’s earth of England
agrees entirely with the defeription of the ftone-mar¬
row already given, and in colour and texture refembles
that from Sweden, which is compofed of coarfe par¬
ticles. The Hampfhire fuller’s earth is of a dufky
brown, inclining to green, with veins of a faint yelf
low ; and contains a fmall portion of muriatic acid,
and of a yellow oily matter. Every fine clay that does
not communicate a colour, is in general fit for the bu-
finefs of fulling ; even the excrements of hogs, mixed
with human urine, are ufed for this purpofe in various
woollen manufactures. The properties required in a
good fuller’s earth are, that it ffiall carry off the oily
impurities of the woollen cloth, and at the fame time
thicken it by caufing the hairs or fibres- to curl up.
The beft is compofed of fine filiceous earth with argil*
la, and a little calcareous earth without vitriolic acid ;
a little martial calx, however, is not hurtful, if unat¬
tended with any adtive menftruum.
The terra lemnia is fo called from the ifland of
Lemnos, now Statimanej in the iEgean Sea, from
whence it is procured. It is likewife called the Turki/h
earth, on account of its being impreffed with the feal
of the Grand Signior.
The Swedifh fuller’s earth is found in a mountain
named Ofmund at Ratwick in Eaft Dalecarlia. The
ftratum is three feet thick, and the mountain itfelf is
chiefly calcareous. It is of an afti colour; harder, and.df
finer particles, than the Lemnian earth.
“ Ail thefe fubftances (the fuller’s earths),” fays
M. Magellan, “ are akin to zeolites, and likewife re-
femble fome marles. But in the Ofmundian earths,
the connection of the parts is not merely mechanical, as
in marles; which on that account effervefee ftrongly with
acids, though they often contain a fmaller quantity of
calcareous earth or magnefia than the litho marga.” -
The following table fliows the proportion of ingre¬
dients in each of the fuller’s earths.
Terra lemnia.
x00parts? Siliceous earth, 47.0
contain } ’ ^'
Chalk, 5.4
Magnefia, 6.2
Argilla, 19.0
Calx of iron, 5.4
Water or vola¬
tile matter, 17.0
Ofmund Hamp-
fuller’s earth. Ihire d».
66.0 51.8
5-7 3-3 ■
0.5 0.7
xi.1 25.0
4-7 3-7
x 8.0 15.5'
S'-
-Clay.
C L A L 49 ] c L A
5. Bolus, bole, or iron clay, is a fine and denfe
clay of various colours, containing a large quantity of
iron, fo that it is very difficult, or even impoflible, to
know the natural and fpecific qualities of the bole itfelf.
It is not fo eafily foftened in water, when indurated as
the porcelain and common clays; but either falls to
pieces in the form of fmall grains,, or repels the wa¬
ter, and cannot be made duftile. In the fire it
grows black, and is then attra&ed by the loadftone,
M. Kirwan thinks the term bole a word of fuch un¬
certain fignification, that it ought to be banifhed from
common life, or at.Ieaft from every mineralogical trea-
tife. “ Some (fays he) beftow this name upon very
fmooth compact clays, confifting of the fineft par¬
ticles : others require befides, that their colour fhould
be red, yellow, or brown, and that they fhould con¬
tain iron.” The red generally blacken in the fire; but,
according to Rinman, without-becoming magnetic.
The yellow, when heated, become fiift red ; and, in a
ftrong heat, brown or black. What the Italians call
Calamita Bianca, according to Ferber, is a white bole
ftriated like afbeftos. The true figillata rubra con¬
tains calcareous earth ; and, according to Rinman, be¬
comes magnetic after torrefaftion. The yellow, red,
and brown clays contain moft iroii, fometimcs difper-
fed through their fubftance, and fometimes united to
the filiceous part: in this cafe they are fufible with
greater difficulty. The yellow calx of iron is more de-
phlogiilicated than the red, and the red than the
brown. Thefe clays do not become magnetic after
calcination, unlefs they contain 14 or 15 per cent, of
iron.
The foft boles are of various colours, as red, yellow,
green, gre^* and bluifh grey. The red kind is that
ufed in medicine under the name of Armenian bole ; an
indurated kind of which affords the material for the red
pencils. Formerly, when the terrae figillatae were
efteemed in medicine, the druggids endeavoured to
have them of all different colours; for which reafon they
not only iealed up all the natuial forts of clay, but
fuch as had been mixed and coloured artificially;
whence the clr.fs of boles was fuppofed to be much
more numerous than it really is. Cronlledt concludes,
that “ fince the greateft part of thefe terra figillata
contain iron, the bole mull be a martial clay; and as
fuch it feems to be more fit for medical ufes than o-
ther clay's, if any dead earth muft be ufed inter¬
nally, when there is fuch an abundance of finer fub-
ftances.
The indurated bole or flate is of a reddifh brown
or grey colour, and is found in moft coalkries between
the feams of coal. It is met with frequently in pieces
like nuts of various fizes; which, when broken, ex¬
hibit impreffions of plants as the nodules of copper
flate from Ilmenaus contain fifh.
6. With fcaly particles, the horn-blende of the
Swedes. This is called horn rock-fone by Wallerius,
who places it among the apyrous ftones ; but Lin
naeus has put it among the calcareous ftones by the
name of horn-flag, talcum corneum. It is named talcum
friatum by Rinman, and has the following properties :
1. Its fpeci'c gravity is never lefs than 2.660, and
frequently rifes to 3.880. 2. It has a ftrong earthy
fmell, which is particularly fenfible on breathing upon
it, or pouring hot water on fit. 3. A toughnefs or
Vol. V. Part I,
vifcidity is perceived on pounding it in a mortar, as is
the cafe with mica and horn ; from which laft it de¬
rives its name. 4. When pounded it affords a green-
ifti-grey powder. 5. It is faid to be fufible per fe f
though Mr Kirwan informs us, that he could never
melt this ftone even by the affiftanee of a blow-pipe.
This ftone is frequently mixed with pyrites. It is di-
ftinguiftted from the martial glimmer or mica by the
fcales being lefs fttining, thicker, and rectangular. It
is of two kinds, black, and greeniftt. The former,
when rubbed fine, affords a green powder. It is the
corneum nitens of Wallerius, and is either of a lamel-
lated or granular texture ; the former being fometimes
fo foft as to be fcraped with the nail, and its furface
frequently as gloffy as if it had been greafed ; the
fpecific gravity being from 3600 to 3880. It does
not detonate with nitre, but becomes of a fnuff-colour
when heated, and then flightly effervefces with diluted
nitrous acid ; the folution affuming a greeniftt colour.
In order to difcover the principle on which the fmell
of this ftone depends, Mr Kirwan boiled its powder in
water ; but could not difcover, either Wy the tafte or
by any other method,, that any thing had been com¬
municated to the fluid. An hundred parts of the la¬
mellar fort contain 37 of filiceous earth, 22 of pure
argillaceous earth, 16 of magnefia, and two of calca¬
reous earth, both in a mild ftate, together with 23 of
calx of iron not much deplogifticated. The greenifti
kind is of a granular texture; or ftriated ; the fpecific
gravity of a fpecimen' examined by Mr Kirwan was
2683. The common pale, greeniftt-grey whetftone
feems to belong to this fpecies.
7. The %eolite was firft difcovered by Cronftedt,
and by him reckoned a genus diftinft from every o-
ther ; but on a proper chemical analyfts, both Kir¬
wan and Bergman have reckoned them among the
argillaceous earths ; and here M. Magellan obferves,
that, “ it is not fo much the' quantity as the inten-
fity or predominancy of property that fhould in ge¬
neral direct us in the claflification of mineral bodies;
not to mention, that if the rule refpedting quantity were
rigoroufly adhered to, the two primitive earths, mag¬
nefia and argill, would not be found among the earths ;
which would doubtlefs be an abfurdity, as Bergman
has rightly obferved.”
The properties of zeolite are, x. It is a little harder
than the fiuors, and other calcareous fpars ; but is
fcratched by fteel, and does not ftrike fire with it.
2. It melts eafily in the fire, with an ebullition like
borax, into a white frothy flag, which cannot without
great difficulty, be brought into a folid tranfparent
ftate. 3. It diffolves more readily in the fire by the
help of mineral alkali, than that of borax or micro-
cofmic fait. 4. It does not ferment with the latter as
lime does, nor with the former as thofe of the gyp-
feous' kind 5. It .diffolves very flowly, and without
effervefcence, in acids, as oil of vitriol and fpirit of
n.tre. With the former a great heat arifes, and the
powder unites into a mafs. By diftillation with ni¬
trous acid, fome fixed and dephlogifticated airs are
procured. Some forts of zeolite, however, found in
Sweden, do not melt by themfelves in the fire, but are
readily diffolved by the acid of nitre into a kind of
jelly. 7. The fufifile kinds, in the very moment of
fufion, emit a phofphoric light.
With
C L A [ 5'
With regard to the component parts of zeolite, M.
Bayen is of opinion that it confifts of equal parts of fi-
liceous and argillaceous earths, which is alfo confirm¬
ed by M. Guettard ; but according to-Mr Bergman’s
analyfis, the red zeolite of Adelfores contains 80 per
cent, of filiceous earth; 9.5 of argillaceous; 6.5 of
pure calcareous earth ; and four of water. The white,
oval, radiated zeolite of Feroe in Iceland, contains,
according to M. Pelletier, 50 of filex ; 20 of argilla¬
ceous earth ; 8 of pure calcareous earth; and 22 of
water. According to Mr Mayer’s analyfis, a radiated
zeolite yielded'58.33 per cent, of filex: 17.5 of ar-
gill; 6.66 of lime; and 17.5 of water. In general
the cryftallifed kind contain more water than the o-
ther. At any rate, though the proportions of in¬
gredients are various, filex always feems to predomi¬
nate.
In general the zeolites are of a cryftalline form,
compofed of imperfect pyramids turned towards a
common centre; their form is fometimes globular,
but feldom prifmatic. Meffrs Faujas and Rome de
PIfle mention zeolites, of a cubic and other forms,
found in Iceland, the Cyclops Illands.near Etna in
Sicily, the ifiand of Bourbon, &c. their fpecific gra¬
vity is from 2.100 to 3.150 ; but this laft is very rare.
Fabroni mentions a femitrahfparent zeolite from Gar-
phyttan in Sweden, which has an electric power. To
the fpecies of zeolite alfo belongs the lapis lazuli, from
which ultramarine is made. See Lapis Lazuli, and
Ultramarine.
The fparry zeolite refembles a calcareous fpar; but
is of a more irregular figure, as well as more brit¬
tle. It is found in Sweden of a light sred or orange
colour.
The cryllallized zeolites are met with in greater
plenty than the other kinds ; and are found in Sweden
of various forms and colours. Brunich informs us, that
in the north, the countries of the zeolites and of the
chalcedony and calholong, pieces are fhown as cu-
riofities, in whichthe zeolite is inclofed in the chalce¬
dony; hut this is not fufficient to- prove that the one
was produced from the other.
Cronftedt obferves, that the zeolites have nearly
the fame qualities in the fire as the boles. The pro¬
perty of fwelling in the fire, like borax, is peculiar to
the cryllallized kind ; the others rife only in fome
fmall blifters, which are of a white colour at their edges,
and inilantly cover themfelves'with a white glaffylkin,
after which they become, quite refra&ory. According
to Berg-man they have a great affinity to the fchoerls ;
but their component parts are not fo ftrongly connec¬
ted as to hinder the a&ion of acids, which can dellrov
their combination, without being previoully treated
with fixed alkali ; this lad being a neceffary requilite
for analyfing fchoerls. Mr Pazumot is of opinion
that the zeolites cannot be a volcanic product ion, but
only a fecondary one formed by the decompofition of
volcanic earths. Pure bafaltes and volcanic lavas have
indeed the fame component parts with the zeolites:
and thefe laft have not yet been found but among vol¬
canic matters: but, as M. Faujas obferves, there are
many inftanees of true zeolites being quite buried
within the bodies of folrd bafaltes, fome being only
fragments, and others complete zeolites ; 1 ' which,
(fays M. Magellan), undeniably proves,, that the lat-
> J CL A
ter have been completely formed before thefe volcanic
maffes were produced by fubterraneous fires.
8. Tripoli ufed in polifhing hard fubftances. See Tri¬
poli.
9. The common or Inch clay, has the following
properties. 1. It acquires a red colour, more or lets
deep, in the fire. 2. it melts pretty eafily into a
greenifh glafs. 3. It confifts of a mixture of pure
clay, filiceous and martial earth, containing alfo a
fmall quantity of 'vitriolic acid. It is found in a ftate of
purity of various colours, as red, pale-red, grey, and blue.
In fome provinces of Sweden a white kind is met withy,
often in a fiafy form, with fine fand between its ftrata
which when burnt is of a paler colour than any of the
preceding, and does not cake well in the fire ; it is al¬
fo more fuiible than any of them. In this country al¬
fo is found a fpecies called, by Cronftedt, fermenting
clay, argilla intumefeens. It is very like the preceding
as to the external appearance and other- qualities : but,
when both are found in the fame place, they feem to
be different in tegard to the fermenting property of
this variety. “ This fermentation (fays our author)
cannot be the effe£t of the fand mixed with it, becaufe
fand is found in them both: and befides, this kind
ferments in the fame manner when it is mixed with-
gravel or ftones; and then it ferments later in the fpring
than the other, fince by the ftones, perhaps, the frolt
is longer retained in it.
This kind of clay is alfo found mixed with calca¬
reous earth, in which cafe it is called Marle. It is-
alfo found in an indurated ftate, and that either pure,
or mixed with phlogifton and a large quantity of vi¬
triolic acid; in which cafe it conftitutes the ores of a-
lum. It is alfa found in this ftate mixed with calca¬
reous earth, forming ftone marie.
10. Argillaceous fojjile Hones. The moft remarkable
of thefe are, 1. The fchiftus tegularis, or common
houfe-ftate. It is of a bluilh purple colour, does not
ftrike fire with fteel, and may be flightly feraped with
the nail. It is very brittle, of a lamellar texture, and
of the fpecific gravity 2.876; giving a clear found,
•when in pieces of half an inch thick. It is never tranf-
pirent, but has a moderately fine grain, effervefeing-
flightly with acids when powdered, but not other-
wife. In the fire it lofes upwards of 2 per cent, of its
weight; detonates flightly with nitre, and then af-
fumes a brownifti red colour; however, it is not ren¬
dered magnetic by calcination. By a vehement heat
it is fiifible yier fe, and melts into a black fcoria. It
melts with difficulty in the dry way with mineral alka¬
li, but more "tafily with borax and microcofmie fait,
with little effervefcence ; and it melts with equal cafe
in chalk or day veffels. By digeftion for two months
in dephlogifticated fpirit of nitre, the menftruurn af-
fumes a green colour. According to Mr Kirwan, it
contains 26 parts of argillaceous earth; 46 of fili¬
ceous ; 8 of magnefia ; 4 of calcareous earth ; and 14.
of iron. Part of the iron feems to be phlogifticated
by a mineral oil united with it; and part dephlogifti*
cated, or in a red calx. This laft is united to the ar¬
gillaceous part as well as to the filiceous, and cannot be
feparated without great difficulty. The colour of this
flate varies to the pale, to the flightly purple, and to
the biuifn. The laminae of the laft are thicker, their
texture coarfer, and they contain more filiceous earth
aad
c L A [ <
and lefa iron than the foregoing. Other ftonea are alfo
made ufe of for covering houfes; but .their lamina; are
much thicker, their furface more uneven, and their
texture coarfer. They belong chiefly to the fand-ftones,
or to the calcareous kinds. The dark blue fchijhis fcrip-
tortus contains more magnefia and lefs iron than the
foregoing, and therefore effervefces more brifldy with
acids. Its fpecific gravity is 2701. 2. The pynta-
reous fchijlas, to which alfo belongs that from which
alum is made, is of a grey, blue, brown, or black colour;
and is more or lefs decompofable by its expofure to air,
according to the quantity of the pyrites, and the flate of
the iron in it. When the iron is in a femiphlogifticated
Hate, the fchiftus will be eaiily decompofed ; but much
more (lowly, if at all, when the calx is much dephlogifH-
cated. 3. The bituminous fchijlus is generally black, of
a lamellar texture, and various degrees of hai dnefs. It
never gives fire with fteel, but emits a llrong fmell
when heated, and fometimes without being heated.
When fcraped it does not produce any white mark
like the other fchiftus. M. Magellan mentions a fpe-
cimen found in Yorkftiire which burned like coal, with
a ftrong. fmell of bitumen.
There are various other fpecies of argillaceous
earths, as the flag-fi'.me, fand or free ftone, toad-
ftone, &c. for a defcription of which fee thefe ar¬
ticles.
Clays are of very extenfive ufe in common life.
Some varieties of the porcelain clay become perfedtly
white in the fire; and it is not to be doubted but thefe
are ufed in' the porcelain manufactories. The indu¬
rated porcelain clay, however, cannot be eafily heat¬
ed without cracking ; and therefore we can go no great
length in hardening it. The boles have almoft loft
their value as medicines; but are ft ill employed to
make bricks, potter’s ware, &c. Tripoli is of indif-
penfable ufe in the bufinefs of polifhing, and is like-
wife, on many occafions, ufed for making moulds to call
metals in.
In agriculture, clay is indifpenfably necelfary; ex¬
cepting, however, according to Cronftedt, the white
and fermenting clays above mentioned, for which no
ufe has yet been difcovered. By its coherency clay
retains humidity ; on which perhaps its chief power of
promoting vegetation depends.
Dr Black obferves, that clay, when mixed with a
large proportion of water, and kneaded a little, be¬
comes a remarkable duttile adhefive mafs, which is not
eafily diffolved in more water, and to render it thin
and fluid requires great trouble. Hence it is employ¬
ed for confining large quantities of water, as in making
canals and dykes : but the foil riiuft either contain a
great quantity of clay naturally, or feme quantity of
it muft be fpread on the bottom ; or the water itfeli
muft depofit a quantity of clay fuffident to render it
tight. Hence alfo we fee the bad effedts of allowing
cattle to tread much in clay-grounds when wet; for
the clay is reduced to fuch an adhefive mafs as not to
admit the roots to penetrate the foil, or the water to
enter to the roots.
Clay is ufed in the refining of fugar; for which no
©ther property is requifite than that it may not dry too
foon : but that fpecies ufed in fulling muft, if we
were to judge a priori, befides the finenefs of its par-
I ] C L A
ticks, be of a dry nature, or fuch as attracts oils 5 tho* Clay,
this quality perhaps may not be found in all thofe clays Clay‘‘_'V
that are now employed in the bufinefs. According to v
Fabroni, the pure white clay being calcined in a ftrong
heat, acquires a phofphorefcent quality.
Clay, a town of Norfolk in England, feated on
an arm of the fea between two rivers, in E. Long,
o. 30. N. Lat. 47. 28.
Clay-Lands, thofe abounding with clay, whether
black, blue, yellow', white, &c. of which the black and
the yellow are the beft for corn.
All clay-foils are apt to chill the plants growing on
thefn in moift feafons, as they retain too much water :
in dry feafons, on the contrary, they turn hard and
choke the plants. Their natural produce is weeds,
goofe-grafs, large daifies, thiftles, docks, poppies, &c.
Some clay-foils will bear clover and rye-grafs; and, if
well manured, wall produce the beft grain: they hold
manure the beft of all lands; and the moft proper for
them are horfe-dung, pigeon’s dung, fome kinds of
marie, folding of fheep, malt-duft, afhes, chalk, lime,
foot, &c.
CLAYTON (Dr Robert), a prelate of great learn¬
ing, of diftinguiflied worth and probity, and a respec¬
table member of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies
at London, was advanced to the bilhopric of Kiilala,
Jan. 23, 1729; tranflated to the fee of Cork, Dec. 19.
1735 ; to that of Clogher, Aug. 26. 1745 ; and died
much lamented, Feb. 25. 1758. His publications
are, 1. A Letter in the Philofophical Tranfa6tions,
n°46i, p. 813. giving an account of a Frenchman 70
years old (at Inilfianan, in his diocefe of Corke), who
laid he gave fuck to a child. —2. The Chronology
of the Hehrtvv Bible vindicated, &c. 1751, 410 
3.. An impartial Inquiry into the Time of the Co¬
ming of the Mefliah ; 1751, 8vo.—4. An Eftay on
Spirit, 1751, 8vo.—5. A Vindication of the Hiftories
of the Old and New Teftament, in Anfwer to the O.b-
je&ions of the late lord Bolingbroke : in Two Letters
to a young Nobleman, 1752, 8vo, reprinted in 1 753.
—6. A defence of the Effay on Spirit, with Re¬
marks on the feveral pretended Anfwers; and which
may ferve as an Antidote againft all that fhall ever ap¬
pear againft it, 1753, 8vo.—7. A Journal from Grand
Cairo to Mount Sinai, and back again, tranflated
from a Manufcript w'ritten by the Prefetto of E-
gypt, in Company with fome Milfionaries 'de propa¬
ganda fide at Grand Cairo to which are added, Re¬
marks on the Origin of Hieroglyphics, and the My¬
thology of the ancient Heathens, 1753, ^vo> two e-
ditions 4to and 8vo. It was foon after this publica¬
tion that his Lordfiiip became (in March 1754)
a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.—8. Some
Thoughts on Self-love, Innate Ideas, Free-will, Tafte,
Sentiments, Liberty, and Neccflity, &c. occafioned
by reading Mr Hume’s Works, and the Ihort Trea-
tife written in French by Lord Bolingbroke on Com¬
panion, 1754, 8vo.—9. A Vindication of the Hi¬
ftories of the Old and New Teftament, Part II. A-
dorned with feveral Explanatory Cuts, 1754, 8vo.—
10. Letters between the bilhop of Clogher and Mr
William Penn, concerning Baptifm, 1755, 8vo.—
ix. A Speech made in the Houfe of Lords in Ire¬
land, on Monday, Feb. 2. 1756, for omitting the Ni-
G 2 cene
C L E [5
Claytonia cene and Athanafian Creeds out of the Liturgy, &c.
II ^ 1756, 8vo.—12. A Vindication, part III. 1758, 8vo.
. , The three parts of the “ Vindication, with the Eflay
on Spirit, were reprinted by Ivfr Bowyer, in one vol.
8vo, 1 yijg; with fome additional notes, and an index
of texts of fcripture illuftrated or explained.
CLAYTONIA, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
13 th order, Succulents. The calyx is bivalved ; the
corolla pentapetalous; the ftigfna trifid; the capfule tri-
valved, unilocular, and trifpermous. There are two
fpecies, natives of America. They are verydow herba¬
ceous plants, with white flowers; and are pofl’effed of
no remarkable property.
CLAZOMENjE arum, (Herodotus, Strabo, Vel¬
leius, Pliny); Clascomena, ae, (Mela) ; one of the
twelve ancient cities of Ionia. The country of An¬
axagoras; fituated in the neighbourhood of Colophon.
The city was fmall, its port on the N. N. W. fide
of the ifland. Traces of the wails. Dr Chandler in¬
forms us, are found by the fea, and in a hill are velli-
ges of a theatre. Three or four trees grow on it; and
by one is a cave hewn in the rock, and affording water.
A vaulted room with a chimney at one end, and a ho¬
vel or two made with ftones piled, are all the prefent
ftruftures ; and thefe are chiefly frequented by fifher-
men and by perfons employed to watch and to drive
away birds when the grain ripens. Referring to this
confined fituation of Clazomenae, a famous fophift,
when importuned to adorn his native city by re-
fiding in it rather than at Smyrna, replied, The nlghtin*
gale ref ufes to fmg in a cage.
CLEANTHES, a ftoic philofophet, difciple of
Zeno, flourifhed 240 years before Chrift. He main¬
tained himfelf in the day by working in the night: be¬
ing queftioned by the magiftrates how he fubfifled, he
brought a woman for whom he kneaded bread, and a
gardener for whom he drew water; and refufed a pre¬
fent from them. He compofed feveral works, of
which there are now only a few fragments remaining.
CLEAR, as a naval term, is varioufly applied to
the weather, the fea-coafts, cordage, navigation, &c.
The weather is faid to be clear when it is fair and
open, as op.pofed to cloudy or foggy- The fea-coaft is
called clear when the navigation is not interrupted, or
rendered dangerous by rocks, fands, or breakers, &c.
It is expreffed of cordage, cables, &c. when they are
unembarraffed or difentangled, fo as to be ready for
immediate fervice. It is ufually oppofed to foul in all
thefe fenfes-
CLEARCHUS, a tyrant of Heraclea in Pontus,
who was killed by Chion and Leonidas, Plato’s pu¬
pils, during the celebration of the feft ivals of Bacchus.
He had enjoyed the fovereign power during 12 years.
A Lacedaemonian fent to quiet the Byzantines. He
was recalled, but refufed to obey, and fled to Cyrus
the younger, who made him captain of 13,000 Greek
foldiers. He obtained a-yi&dry aver Artaxcrxes; who
was fo enraged at the defeatv that Jwhen Clearchus fell
into his hands by the treachery of Tiflaphernes, he put
him immediately to death.
-CLEATS, in naval affairs, pieces of wood having
one or two proje&ing ends whereby to fallen the
ropes: fomc of them are fattened to the ftirouds below
2 1 C L E
for this purpofe, and others nailed to different places Cleche
of the fhip’s deck or fides. H
CLECHE, in heraldry, a- kind of crofs, charged e ‘
with another crofs of the fame figure, but of the colour
of the field.
CLEDGE, among miners, denotes the upper ftra-
tum of fuller’s earth.
CLEDONISM, Cledonismus, a kind of divina¬
tion, in ufe among the ancients. The word is formed
from which fignifies two things, rumor, “ a
report,” and avis, “ a bird.” In the firft fenfe, cle-
donifm fliould denote a kind of divination drawn frona
words occafionally uttered. Cicero obferves, that the
Pythagoreans made obfervation not only of the words
of the gods, but of thofe of men ; and accordingly be¬
lieved the pronouncing- of certain words, v. g. incen-
dium, at a meal, very unhappy. Thus, inftead of
prifon, they ufed the word domicilium; and to avoid
erinnys, furies, faid eumenides. In the fecond fenfe,
cledonifm fhould feem a divination drawn from birds; the
fame with ornithomantia..
CLEEVERS. See Clivers.
CLEF, or Cliff, in mufic, derived from the La¬
tin word clams, a key; becaufe by it is expreffed the
fundamental found in ‘•the diatonic fcale, which re- \
quires a determined fucCeffion of tones or femitones,
whether major or minor, peculiar to the note from
whence we fet out, and refulting from its pofition in
the fcale. Hence, as it opens a way to this fuccef-
fion, and difcovers it, the technical term, key is ufed
with great propriety. But clefs rather point out.
the pofition of different mufical parts in the general
fyftem, and the relations which they bear one to an-
othen
A clef, fays Rouffeau, is a chara&er in mufic placed
at the beginning of a Have, to determine the degree of
elevation occupied by that Have in the general claviary
or fyftem, and to point out the names of all the notes
which it contains in the line of that clef.
Anciently the letters by which the notes of the ga¬
mut had been fignified were called clefs. Thus the let¬
ter A was the clef 'of the note la, C the clef of ut, E
the clef of mi, &c. In proportion as the fyftem was
extended, the embarraffment and fuperfluity of phis
multitude of clefs were felt..
Gui d’Arezzo, who had inverted them,, marked a
letter or clef at the beginning of each line in theftave
for as yet he had placed no notes in the fpaces. In
procefs of time they marked no more than one of the
feven clefs at the beginning of one of the lines only ;
and this was fufficient to fix the pofition of all the
reft, according to their natural order : at lalt, of thefe
feven lines or clefs they felefted four, which were
called claves Jignata, or difcriniinating clefs ; becaufe they
fatisfied themfelves with marking one of them upon
one of the lines, from which the powers of all the o-
thers might be recognized. Prefently afterwards they
even retrenched one of thefe four, viz. the gamma, of
which they made ufe to mark the fol below, that is to
fay, the hypoproflambanomene added to the fyftem of
the Greeks.
In reality Kircher afferts, that if we underftood the
characters in which ancient mufic was written, and exa¬
mined minutely the forms of our clefs, we fhould find
that each of them reprefents the letter a little altered in its,
form.
G L E [5
form, by wbicb the note was originally named. Thus
the clef of fol was originally a G, the clef of ut a C, and
the clef of fa an F.
We have then three clefs, one a fifth'above the
other: the clef of F, or fa, which is the loweft ;
the clef of ut, or C, which is a fifth above the for¬
mer ; and the clef of fol, or G, which is a fifth above
that of ut. Thefe clefs, both as marked by foreign¬
ers and in Britain, may be feen in art. 170 of Music ;
upon which it is neceflary to remark, that by a remain
of ancient pra&ice, the clef is always placed upon a
line, and never in a fpace. It deferves notice, that
the clef of fa is marked in three different manners: one
in mufic which is printed; another in mufic which is
written or engraven ; and a third in the full harmony
of the chorus.
By adding four lines above the clef of fol, and three
lines beneath the clef of fa, which gives both above
and below the greateft extent of permanent or efta-
blifiied lines, it appears, that the whole fcale of notes
which can be placed upon the gradations relative to
thefe clefs amounts to 24; that is to fay, three octaves
and a fourth from the F, or fa, which is found be¬
neath the firft line, to the ft, or B, which is found a-
bove the laft, and all this together forms what we call
the general damary ; from whence we may judge, that
this compafs has, for a long time, conflituted the ex¬
tent of the fyilem. But as at prefent it is continually
acquiring new degrees, as well above as below, the de¬
grees are marked by leger lines, which are added a-
bove or below as occafion requires.
Inftead of joining all the lines, as has been done by
Rouffeau in his Dictionary, (plate A, fig. 5.) to mark
the relation which one clef bears to another, they fe-
parate them five by five; becaufe it is pretty nearly
within the degrees to which the compafs of ordinary
voices extends. This collection of five lines is called a
Jlave; and in thefe they place a clef, to determine the
names of the notes, the pofitions of femitones, and-to
fhow what ftation the ftave occupies in the claviary or
general fcale.
In whatever manner we take five fucceffive lines in
the claviary, we lhall find one clef comprehended ; nay,
fometimes two ; in which cafe one may be retrenched as
ufelefs. Cuftom has even prefcribed which of the two
fhould be retrenched, and which retained; it is this
likewife which has determined the number of pofitions
affigned to each clef.
If I form a ftave of the firft five lines in the clavia¬
ry, beginning from below, I find the clef of fa in the
fourth line. This then is one pofition of the clef, and
this pofition evidently relates to the loweft note ; thus
likewife it is that of the bafs clef.
If I wifh to gain a third in afcent, I muft add a line
above ; I muft then obliterate one below, otherwife
the ftave will contain more than five lines. The clef of
fa then is found transferred from the fourth to the
third, and the clef of ut is likewife found upon the fifth;
but as two clefs are ufelefs, they retrench here that of
ut. It is evident, that the ftave of this clef is a third
higher than the former.
By throwing away ftill one line below to gain ano¬
ther above, we have a third kind of ftave, where the
clef of fa will be found upon the fecond line, and that
®f ut upon the fourth. Here we. leave out the clef of
3 ] C L E
fa, and retain that of ut. We have now gained ano¬
ther third above, and loft it below.
By continuing thefe alterations from line to line,
we pafs fucceffively through four different pofitions
of the clef of ut. Having arrived at that of fol, we
find it placed upon the fecond line, and then upon
the firft. This pofition includes'the five higheft lines,
and gives the lharpeft diapafon wjhich the clefs can fig-
nify.
The reader may fee in Rouffeau’s Mufical Diction¬
ary, Plate, A. fig. 5. this fucceflion of clefs from the
loweft to the higheft; which in all conftitutes eight
ftaves, clefs, or different pofitions of clefs.
Whatever may be the chara&er and genius of any
voice or inftrument,' if its extent above or below does
not furpafs that of the general claviary, in this number
may be found a ftation and a clef fuitable to it; and
there are, in reality, clefs determined for all the parts
in mufic. If the extent of a part is veiy confiderable,
fo that the number of lines neceffary to be added above
or below may become inconvenient, the clef is thea
changed in the courfe of the mufic. It may be plainly
perceived by the figure, what, clef it is neceffary to
choofg, for railing or depreffing any part, under what¬
ever clef it may be actually placed.
It will likewife appear, that, in order to adjuft one
clef to another, both muft be compared by the gene¬
ral claviary, by means of which we may determine
what every note under one of the clefs is with re-
fpeft to the other. It is by this exercife repeated,
that we acquire the habit of reading with eafe all the
parts.
From this manoeuvre it follows, that we may place
whatever note we pleafe of the gamut upon any line
or fpace whatever of the ftave, fince we have the
choice of eight different pofitions, which is equal to the
number of notes in the oftave. Thus you may mark a
whole tune upon the fame line, by changiruj the clef
at each gradation. The 7th fig. of the fame plate in
Rouffeau’s Mufical Di&ionary, to which we formerly
referred, fhoWs by the feries of clefs the order of the
notes, re, fa, la, ut, mi, fol, ft, re, rifing by thirds, al¬
though all placed upon the fame line. The fig. fol¬
lowing reprefents upon the order of the fame clefs
the note ut, which appears to defcend by thirds upon
all the lines of the ftave ; and further, which yet, by
means of changing the clef, ftill prefei ves its unifon.
It is upon fuch examples as this, that fcholars ought
to exercife themfelves, in order to underftand at the
firft glance the powers of all the clefs, and their fi-
multaneous effedL
There are two of their pofitions, viz. the clef of
fol upon the firft line, and that of fa upon the third,,
which feem daily to fall more and more into defuetude.
The firft of thefe may feem lefs neceffary, becaufe
it produces nothing but a pofition entirely fimilar to
that of fa upon the fourth line, from which however
it differs by two ofitaves. As to the clef of fa, it is
plain, that in removing it entirely from the third line,
we lhall no longer have any equivalent pofition, and
that the compofition of the claviary, which is at
prefent complete, will by thefe means become de¬
fective. *
Thus much for Rouffeau’s account of clefs. He pro¬
ceeds to explain their tranfpdfition j but as this would
render
Cleft
«JL
C L E [ 5+ ] G L E
refider the prefent article too long and intricate, we placed, and offering them any thing elfe which was in ClemencyC
remit the curious to his Mufical DiSionary, vol. i. his power to grant. At the fame time he difpatched
page 162. See alfo Malcom’s Dltfertation on Mujtc. a meffenger to the mother of one of them, who was
CLEFT, in a general fcnfe, is a fpace made by the then at a great diftance, and-under deep concern about
feparation of parts. Green timber is very apt to fplit the fate of her fon, to affiire her, that her fon was not
and cleave in feveral places, after it is wrought into only alive, but forgiven.
form; and thefe cracks in it are very difagreeable to 2. Licinius having raifed a numerous army, Zofi-ii. 674
the fight. The common method of the country car- mus fays 130,000 men, endeavoured to wreft the go-
penters is to fill up thefe cracks with a mixture of vernment out of the hands of his brother-in-law Con-
greafc and faw duft; but the neateft way of all is, ftantine the emperor. But his army being defeated,
the foaking both fides well with the fat of beef-broth, Licinius fled with what forces he could rally to Nico-
and then dipping pieces of fponge into the fame broth, media, whither Conftantine purfued him, and imme-
and filling up all the cracks with them : they fwdl diately inverted the place : but on the fecond day of
out fo as to fill the whole crack ; and accommodate the fiege, the emperor’s fifter intreating him, with a
themfelves fo well to it, that the deficiency is hardly flood of tears, by the tendernefs he had ever fhown
ften. • for her, to forgive her hufband, and grant him at leatl
Clefts, or Cracks, in farriery, appear on the his life, he was prevailed upon to comply with her re¬
bought of the parterns, and are caufed by a rtxarp and queft ; and the next day, Licinius, finding no means
malignant humour. See Farriery, fe£t. xxxiii. of making his efcape, prefented himfelf before the
CLEMA, in antiquity, a twig of the vine, which conqueror, and throwing himfelf at his feet, yielded
ferns as a badge of the Centurion’s office. to him the purple and the other enfigns of fovereignty.
CLEMATIS, virgin’s-BowEr : A genus of the Conftantine received him in a very friendly manner,
polygynia order, belonging to the polyandria'dafs of entertained him at his table, and afterwards fent him
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the to Theflalonica, affurmg him, that he fhould live un-
26th order, Multifiliqu*. There is no calyx ; the petals molefted fo long as he raifed no new difturbanCes.
are four, rarely five; the feeds have a train. There 3. The council of thirty, eftablifhed at Athens by
are twelve fpecies ; all of which, except two, are fhrub- Lyfander,. committed the moft execrable cruelties,
by climbing plants, very hardy, and adorned with qua- Upon pretence of reftraining the multitude within
drupetalous flowers of red, blue, purple, white, and their duty, and to prevent feditions, they had caufed
greeniih colours. They are very eafily propagated guards to be affigned them, had armed 3000 of the
by layers or cuttings. The vitis alba, one of the fpe- citizens for that purpofe, and at the fame time dif-
cies, is very acrid to the tafte, and without any fmel). armed all the reft. The whole city was in the utmoft
It is frequently ufed as a cauftic, and for cleanfing old terror and difmay. Whoever oppofed their injuftice
ulcers. The root is faid to be purgative. The leaves and violence fell a vi&irn to their refentment. Riches
of all the fpecies bruifed and applied to the ikin, burn were a crime that never failed of drawing a fentence
it into carbuncles as in the plague ; and if applied to upon their owners, always followed with death and the
the noftrils in a fultry day immediately after being confifcation of eftates ; which the thirty tyrants di-
cropped, will caufe the fame uneafy fenfation as a flame vided amongft themfelves. They put more people to
applied to that part would occafion. Hence the title death (fays Xenophon) in eight months of a peace,
of jlammula, or “ little flame,” by which this genus than their enemies had done in a war of thirty years,
of plants was formerly diftinguiffied. All the citizens of any confideration in Athens, and
CLEMENCY, denotes much the fame with mercy ; who retained a love of liberty, quitted a place reduced
and implies a remiffion of feverity towards offenders, to fo hard and fhameful a flavery, and fought elfewhere
The term is moft generally ufed in fpeaking of the an afylum and retreat, where they might live in fafe-
forgivenefs exercifed by princes or perfons of high ty. At the head of thefe was Thrafybultis, a per-
authority. It is the refult, indeed, of a difpofition fon of extraordinary merit, and who beheld with the
which ought to be cultivated by all. ranks, though moft lively afflidfion the miferies of his country,
its effefts cannot be equally confpicuous or exten- The Lacedemonians had the inhumanity to endea-
live. In praife of clemency joined with power, vour to deprive thofe unhappy fugitives of this laft re-
it is obferved, that it is not only the privilege, the fource. They publilhed an edidt to prohibit the cities
honour, and the duty of a prince, but it is alfo his of Greece from giving them refuge, decreed that they
fecurity, and better than all his garrifons, forts, and ffiould be delivered up to the thirty tyrants, and con-
guards, to preferve himfelf and his dominions in fafe- demned all fuch as ftiould contravene the execution of
ty : That that prince is truly royal, who mafters him- this edidt to pay a fine of five talents. Only two ci-
felf; looks upon all injuries as below him ; and go- ties rejedled with difdain fo unjuft an ordinance, Me-
verns by equity and reafon, not by paffion or caprice, gara and Thebes ; the latter of which made a decree
In illuftration of this fubjedt, the following examples to punifti all perfons whatfoever that ftiould fee aa A-
are feledted out of many recorded in hiftory. thenian attacked by his enemies without doing his ut-
Sueton, e. 9. 1. Two patricians having confpired againft Titus moft to affift him. Lyfias, an orator of Syracufe who
the Roman emperor, were difcovered, convifted, and had been baniftied by the thirty, raifed 500 foldiers at
fentenced to death by the fenate : but the good-na- his own expence, and fent them to the aid of thecom-
tured prince fent for them, and in private admonifhed mon countty of Eloquence. Thrafybulus loft no
them, that in vain they afpired to the empire, which time. After having taken Phyta, a fmall fort in At-
was given by deftiny ; exhorting them to be fatisfied tica, he marched to the Pirseus, of which he made
with the rank in which by Providence they had been himfelf mafter. The thirty flew thither with their
troops,
C L E [ 55 ] C L E
7. troops, and a battle enfued. The tyrants were over¬
thrown. Critias, the moft favage of them all, was
killed on the foot : and as the artny was taking to
flight, Thrafybulus cried out, “ Wherefore do you fly
from me as from a vi&or, rather than aflifl. me as the
avenger-of your liberty ? We are not enemies, but fel¬
low-citizens $ nor have we declared war againft the
city, but againfl; the thirty tyrants.” He continued
with bidding them to remember, that they had the
fame origin, country, laws, and religion : he exhorted
them to compaffionate their exiled brethren, to reftore
their country to them, and refume their own liberty.
This difcourfe had thedefired effedl. The army, upon
their return to Athens, expelled the thirty, and fub-
ftituted ten perfons to govern in their room, whofe
condudl proved no better than theirs : but king Fau-
fanias, moved with compaflion for the deplorable con¬
dition to which a city, once fo flourifhing, was redu¬
ced, had the generofity to favour the Athenians in
fecret, and at length obtained a peace for them. It
was fealed with the blood of the tyrants, who having
taken arms to reinftate themfelves in the government,
were all put to the fword, and left Athens in the full
poffeflion of its liberty. All the exiles were recalled.
Thrafybulus at that time propofed the celebrated am-
nefty, by which the citizens engaged upon oath, that
all pad tranfadlions fliould be buried in oblivion. The
government was re eftablifhed upon its ancient foot,
the laws were rertored to their pridine vigour, and
magidrates eledled with the ufual form.
This (fays Rollin) is one of the fined events in ancient
hidory, worthy the Athenian clemency and benevolence,
and has ferved as a model to fucceffive ages in all good
governments. Never had tyranny been more cruel and
bloody than that the Athenians had lately thrown off.
Every houfe was in mourning, every family bewailed the
lofs of fome relation: it had been a feries of public rob¬
bery and rapine, in which licence and impunity had
authorifed all manner of crimes. The people feemed
to have a right to demand the blood of ?.H accomplices
in fuch notorious, malverfations, and even the intereft
©f the date to authorife fuch a claim, that by exem¬
plary feverities fuch enormous crimes might be pre¬
vented for the future. But Thrafybulus rifing above
thefe fentiments, from the fuperiority of his more ex-
tenfive genius, and the views of a more difcerning and
profound policy, forefaw, that by giving in to the pu-
Bifliment of the guilty, eternal feeds of difcord and
enmity would remain, to weaken the public by dome-
ftic divifions, when it was neceffary to unite againft
the common enemy, and alfo occafion the lofs to the
date of a great number of citizens, who might render
it important fervices from the view of making amends
for pall milbehaviour.
4. Such conduft, after great troubles in a date, has
always feemed, with the abled politicians, the moft
eertain and ready means to reftore the public peace and
tranquillity. Cicero, when Rome was divided into
two fa&ions upon the occafion of Csefar’s death, who
had been killed by the eonfpirators, calling to mind
this celebrated sm'nefty, propofed, after the example
of the Athenians, to bury all that had pafftd in eter¬
nal oblivion.
5. Cardinal Mazarine obferved toDon Lewis deHaro,
prime minifter of Spain, that this gentle and humane
conduct in France had prevented the troubles and re- Clemency
volts of that kingdom from having any fatal confe- . ^
quences, and “ that the king had not loft a foot of, ‘ *■
land by them to that daywhereas “ the inflexible
feverity of the Spaniards was the occafion that the
fubje&s of that monarchy, whenever they threw off
the mafk, never returned to their obedience but by the
force of arms ; which fufliciently appears (fays he) in
the example of the Hollanders, who are in the peace¬
able poffeflion of many provinces, that not an age ago
were the patrimony of the king of Spain.”
6. Leonidas the Lacedemonian having, with Z00 }jeroj
men only, difputed the pafs of Thermopyke againd
the whole army of Xerxes; and being killed in thatc.77.78;
engagement, Xerxes, by the advice of Mardonius one
of his generals, caufed his dead body to be hung up¬
on a gallows, making thereby the intended dilhonour
of his enemy his own immortal fliame. But fome
time alter, Xerxes being defeated, and Mardonius
flain, one of the principal citizens of Aigina came and
addreffed bimfelf to Paufanias, defiring him to avenge
the indignity that Mardonius and Xerxes had fhown
to Leonidas, by treating Mardonius’s body after the
fame manner. As a farther motive for doing fo, he
added, that by thus fatisfying the manes of thofe who
were killed at Thermopylae, he would be fure to im¬
mortalize his own name throughout all Greece, and
make his memory precious to the lateft pofterity.
“ Carry thy bafe counfels elfcwhere (replied Paula-
nias) ; thou mud have a very wrong notion of true
gloiy to imagine, that the way for me to acquire it
is to refemble the barbarians. If the efteem of the
people of dEgina is not to be purchafed but by fuch a
proceeding, I dull be content with preferving that of
the Lacedemonians only, amongft whom the bafe and
ungenerous pleafure of revenge is never put in compe¬
tition with that of fhowing clemency and moderation
to their enemies, efpecially after their death. As for
the fouls of my departed countrymen, they are fufE-
ci\nly avenged by the death of the many thoufand
Perfians flain upon the fpot in the lad engagement.”
CLEMENS Romanus, bifhop of Rome, where he
is faid to have been born ; and to have been fellow-
labourer with St Peter and St Paul. We have no¬
thing remaining of his works that is clearly genuine,
excepting one epiftle, written to quiet fome diftur-
bances in the church of Corinth ; which, next to holy
writ, is efteemed one of the moft valuable remains of
ecclefiailical antiquity.
Clemens Alexandrhms, fo called to diftinguifh him.
from the former, was an eminent father of the church,
who flourifhed at the end of the fecond and beginning
of the third centuries. He was the fcholar of Pan-
taenus, and the inftruftor of Origen. The heft edi¬
tion of his works is that in 2 vols folio, publifhed in
1715, by archbifhop Potter.
CLEMENF V. (pope), the firft who made a pub¬
lic fale of indulgences. He tranfplanted the holy fee
to Avignon in France ; greatly contributed to the fup-
prefiion of the knights templars; and was author of a.
compilation of the decrees of the general councils of
Vienna, ftyled Clementines. He died in 1314.
Clement VII. ( Julius de Medicis), pope, memo¬
rable for his relufmg to divorce Catharine of Arra-
gon from Henry VIII.; and for the bull he publiftied
3 upon.
C L E L S6 1 c L E
Clement upon the king’s marriage with Anne Boleyn ; which,
Clenard accor(^,ng to the Romifh authors, loft him England. He
■ '. died in 1534.
Clement XIV. (Francis Laurentius Ganganelli),
the late pope, was born at St Angelo in the duchy of
Urbino, in October 1705; and chofen pope, though
not yet a biihop, in 1769 : at which time the fee of
Rome was involved in a moft dlfagreeable and dan¬
gerous conteft with the houfe of Bourbon. His reign
was rendered troublefome by the collifion of parties
on the affairs of the Jefuits; and it is pretended that
his latter days were embittered by the apprehenfions
of poifon. Though this report was probably apocry¬
phal, it is faid that he often complained of the heavy
burden which he was obliged to bear } and regretted,
with great fenfibility, the lofs of that tranquillity which
he enjoyed in his retirement when only a Ample Fran-
cifcan. He was, however, fortunate in having an
opportunity, by a Angle aft, to diftinguiftr a fhort ad-
miniftration of Five years in fuch a manner as will ever
prevent its finking into obfcurity. His death was im¬
mediately attributed to poifon, as if an old man of 70,
loaded'with inArmities and diforders, could not quit
the world without violence. His proceedings againft
the Jefuits furnifhed a plaufible pretence for thischarge ;
and the malevolence of their enemies embelliihed it with
circumftances. It even feems as if the minifters of
thofe powers who had procured their diffolution did
not think it beneath them to countenance the report;
as if falfehood was neceffary to prevent the revival of a
body which had already funk, in its full ftrength, un¬
der the weight of real mifconduft. The charge was
the more ridiculous, as the pontiff had undergone a
long and painful illnefs, which originally proceeded
from a fuppreffion of urine, to which he was fubjeft ;
yet the report was propagated with the greateft in-
duftry: and though the French and Spanifh minifters
were prefent at the opening of his body, the moft hor¬
rible circumftances were publiftied relative to that ope¬
ration. It was conftdently told that the head fell off
from the body, and that the ftench poifoned and killed
the operators. It availed but little that the operators
Ihowed themfelves alive and in good health, and that
the furgeons and phyAcians proved the falfehood of
every part of the report. Clement XIV. appears to
have been a man of a virtuous charafter, and poffeffed
of conAderable abilities. He'died much regretted by
bis fubjefts.
CLEMENTINE, a term ufed among the Augu-
ftins, who apply it to a perfon who, after having been
nine years a fuperior, ceafes to be fo, and becomes
a private monk, under the command of a fuperior.
The word has its rife hence, that pope Clement, by
a bull, prohibited any fuperior among the Auguftins
from continuing above nine years in his office.
Clementines, in the canon law, are the conftitu-
tions of pope Clement V. and the canons of the coun¬
cil of Vienne.
CLENARD (Nicholas), a celebrated grammarian
in the 16th century, was born at Dieft ; and after ha¬
ving taught humanity at Louvain, travelled into France,
Spain, Portugal, and Africa. He wrote in Latin,
1. Letters relating to his Travels, which are very cu¬
rious and fcarce. 2. A Greek Grammar, which has
N° 82.
been revifed and correftcd by many grammarians; Cleobrs
and other works. He died at Grenoble in 1542. ^*foa
CLEOBIS and BITON, two youths, tons of Cy- cieomene*
dippe the prieftefs of Juno, at Argos. When oxen —y—-w
could not be procured to draw their mother’s chariot
to the temple of Juno, they put themfelves under the
yoke, and drew it 45 ftadia to the temple, amidft the
acclamations of the multitude, who congratulated the
mother on account of the piety of her fons. Cydip-
pe intreated the goddefs to reward the piety of her
fons with the bell gift that could be granted to a mor¬
tal. They went to reft and awoke no more ; and by
this the goddefs Ihowed that death is the only true
happy event that can happen to a man. The Argiyes
raifed them ftatues at Delphi.
CLEOBULUS, fonofEvagoras, and one of the Gre¬
cian fages; he was valiant, a lover of learning, and an
enemy to vice. Flourifhed about56oyears before Chrift.
CLEOMBROTUS, a king of Sparta, Ion of An-
axandrides. He was deterred from building a wall
acrofs the ifthmus of Corinth againft the approach of
the Perfians, by an eclipfe of the fun. He died in the
75th Olympiad, and was fucceeded by Piiftarchus, fon
of Leonidas, a-minor.
Cleombrotus II. fon of Paufanias king of Spar¬
ta, after his brother AgeApolis I. He made war
againft the Boeotians ; and left he Ihould be fufpefted
of treacherous communications with Epaminondas, he
gave that general battle at Leuftra, in a very difad-
vantageous place. He was killed in the engagement,
and his army deftrqyed, in the year of Rome 382.
Cleombrotus III. a fon-in-law of Leonidas king
of Sparta, who for a while ufurped the kingdom after
the expulftoii of his father-in-law. When Leonidas
was recalled, Cleumbrotus was banilhed, and his wife
Chelonis, who had accompanied her father, now ac¬
companied her hulband in his exile.
CLEOME. in botany : A genus of the Aliquofa
order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 25th or¬
der, Putaminea. There are three neftariferous glan¬
dules, one at each Anus of the calyx except the low-
eft ; the petals all riAng upwards; the Aliqua unilocu¬
lar and bivalved. There are ly fpecies ; all of them,
except two, natives of warm climates. They are her’
baceous plants riAng from one to two feet high ; and
are adorned with flowers of various colours, as red,
yellow, flelh colour, &c. They are propagated by feeds,
and require no other care than what is common to
other exotics which are natives of warm countries.
CLEOMENES, king of Sparta, conquered the
Argives and freed Athens from the tyranny of the Pi-
Aftratidas. By bribing the oracle he pronounced De-
maratus, his colleague on the throne, illegitimate, be-
caufe he refufed to punilh the people of iEgina, who
had deferted the Greeks. He killed himfelf in a At
of madnefs,
Cleomenes II. fucceeded his brother AgfApolis II.
He reigned 34 years in the greateft tranquillity, and
was father to Acrotatus and Cltonymus. He was fuc¬
ceeded by Areus I. fon of Acrotatus.
Cleomenes III. fucceeded his father Leonidas.
He was of an enterpriAng fpirit, and refolved to'fe-
ftore the ancient difeipline of Lycurgus in its full
z force..
C L E
force. He killed the Ephori, and removed by poifon
his royal colleague Eurydamides, and made his own
f brother Euclidas king, againft the laws of the Hate,
which forbad more than one of the fame family to fit
on the throne. He made war againil the Achseans,
and attempted to deftroy the Achaean league. Aratus
the general of the Achteans, who^fuppofed himfelf in¬
ferior to his enemy, called Antigonus to his affiftance;
and Cleomenes, when he had fought the unfortunate
[ si 1,
C L E
CLEPSYDRA, an inftrument or machine iferving ClejjfrJri,
to meafure time by the fall of a certain quantity of ^rc' .
■water.
The word comes front **'*d», conJo, aqua,
“ water” ; though there have likewife been clepfydrac
made with mercury.
The Egyptians, by this machine, meafured the
courfe of the fun. Tycho Brahe, in our -days, made
ufe of it to meafure the motion of the liars, &c. and
battle of Sellafia, retired into Egypt to the court of Dudley ufed the fame contrivance in making all his
Ptolemy Evergetes, where his wife and children had maritime obfervations. The ufe of clepfydne is very
gone before him. Ptolemy received him with great ancient: they were invented in Egypt under the Pto-
cordiality ; but his fuccelfor, weak and fufpicious, foon lemies; as were alfo fun-dials. Their ufe was chiefly
 i.:„ .r.. .i,:n anrl im- Jn the winter; the fun-dials ferved in the fummer.
They had twm great defects; the one, that the water
ran out with a greater or lefs facility, as the air -was
more or lefs denfe ; the other, .that the water ran
more readily at the beginning than towards the con-
clufion. M. Amontons has invented a clepfydra free
from both thefe inconveniences; and which has thefe
exprefled his jealoufy of this noble ftranger, and
prifoned him. Cleomenes killed himfelf, and his body
was flayed :• nd expofed on a crofs, 140 Olymp.
CLEON, the name of feveral noted men of anti¬
quity. 1. Of an Athenian, who, though originally a
tanner, became general of the armies of the Hate by
his intrigues and eloquence. Pie took Thoron in
Thrace, and was killed at Amphipolis in a battle with three grand advantages, of ferving the ordinary puf-
Brafidas the Spartan general, Olymp. 89th. 2. Age- pofeof clocks, of ferving in navigation for the difco-
neral of Meffenia, who difputed with Ariftcdemus for very of the longitude, and of meafuring the motion of
the fovereignty. 3. Aftatuary* 4. A poet who wrote the arteries.
a poem on the Argonauts. 5. An orator of Halicar- Conftrudwn of a CispsrDRj. To divide any cy-
nafius who compofed an oration for Lyfander, in which lindric veffel into parts to be'emptied in each divifion
he intimated the propriety of making the kingdom of of time ; the time wherein the whole, and that where-
Sparta eledlive. 6. A Magnefian who wrote fome com- in any part, is to be evacuated, being given.
mentaries, in which he fpeaks of portentous events, &c.
CLEONiE (anc. geog.), a town of Argolis, above
Mycense, on the road which leads from Argos to Co¬
rinth ; Handing on an eminence, on every fide occu¬
pied by houfes. In the foiefl near this town was fiain
by Hercules the huge lion (Sil. Italicus, Seneca).
Cleonaus the epithet; Cleonaum S'ultis, the lion. 
Another Cleonte on Mount Athos in Chalcidice.
CLEOPATRA, the celebrated queen of Egypt,
was daughter of Ptolemy Auletes. By her extraor¬
dinary beauty, Ihe fubdued the two renowned Roman
Suppofe, v. gr. a cylindric veflel, whole charge of
water flows out in twelve hours, were required to be
divided into parts to be evacuated each hour. 1. As
the part of time 1 is to the whole time 12; fo is the
fame time 12 to a fourth proportional, 144. 2. Divide
the altitude of the veffel into 144 equal parts : here
the laff will fall to the laff hour ; the three next above
to the laff part but one; the five next to. the tenth
hour, &c.; laffly, the 23 laff to the firft hour. For
fince the times increafe in the feries of the natural
numbers- 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and the altitudes, if the
generals Jidius Caefar and Mare Antony: the latter of numeration be in retrograde order from the twelfth
whom, it is thaught, loft the empire of Rome by his
attachment to her. At length, Marc Antony being
fubdued by O&avius Csefar, Ihe tried the force of her
declining charms upon the conqueror, but in vain ; up¬
on which, expelling no meicy from him, fhe poifon-
ed herfelf, 30 years before Chrift. According to fome
authors, fhe was the reftorer of the Alexandrian libra¬
ry, to which fine added that of Pergamos ; and it is
faid, that fhe ftudied philofophy to confole her for the
abfence of Antony. With her death ended the family
of the Ptolemies in Egypt, after it had reigned from
hour, increafe in the feries of the' unequal numbers 1,
3, 5, 7, 9, &c. the altitude, computed from the twelfth
hour, will be as the fquares of the times 1, 4, 9, 16,
25, &c. therefore the fquare of the whole time 144
comprehends all the parts of the altitude of the veffel
to be evacuated. But a third proportional to 1 and *•
12 is the fquare of 12, and confeqUently it is the num¬
ber of equal parts into which the altitude is to be di¬
vided, to be diffributed according to the feries of the
unequal numbers, through the equal intervals-of hours.
Since in lieu of parts of the fame veffel, other lefs
the death of Alexander 294 years: for Egypt, after veffels equal thereto maybe fubftituted ; the altitude
tins, was reduced to a Roman province; in which of a veffel emptied in a given fpace of time being given,
dependence it remained till it was taken from them by the altitude of another veffel to be emptied in a given
the Saracens; A D. 641. time may be found; vit. by making the altitudes as
CLEOPATRIS (anc. geog.), a town of Egypt, the fquares of the times. For a further defeription,
on the Arabian Gulf. See Arsinoe. Now faid to be with a figure, fee Hydrostatics.
Suez,, fituated at the bottom of the gulf of the Red
Sea. E. Long. 34. 30. N. Lat. 30. o.
CLEOSTRATUS, a celebrated aftronomer born
in Tenedos, was, according to Pliny, the firft who dif-
covered the figns of the Zodiac ; others fay, that he
only difeovered the figns Aries and Sagittarius. He
alfo corrected the errors of the Grecian year -about
the 306th before Chrift.
Vol.V. Part I.
CLERC (John le), a moft celebrated writer and
univerfal fcholar, born at Geneva in 1657. After he
had paffed through the ufual courfe of ftudy at Geneva,-
and had loft his lather in 1676, he went to France in
1678 ; but returning the year after, he was ordained
with the general applaufe of all his examiners. In
1682, le Clerc vifited England with a view to learning
-the language. He preached feveral times in the French
H churches
C L E [ 58 1 C L E
Clerc. churches in London, and vifited feveral bidiops and
■—V ' men of learning : but the fmoky air of the town not
agreeing with his lungs, he returned to Holland within
the year, where he at length fettled. He preached
before a fynod held at Rotterdam by the remonftrants
in 1684; and was admitted profefibr of philofophy,
polite literature, and the Hebrew tongue, in their
fchool at Amfterdam. The remainder of his life
affords nothing but the hiftory of his works, and of the
controverfies he was engaged in; but thefe would lead
into too extenfive a detail. He continued to read re¬
gular leftures; and becaufe there was no fingle author
full enough for his purpofe, he drew up and publifhed
his Logic, Ontology, Pneurtiatology, and Natural Phi¬
lofophy. He publifhed Ars Critica ; a Commentary
on the Old Teftament; a Compendium of Univerfal
Hiftory ; an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of the two firfl Cen¬
turies ; a French Tranflation of the New Teftament,
&c. In 1686, he began, jointly with M. de la Crofe,
his BiUiotheque Umverfelle et Hiftorique, in imitation of
other literary journals; which was continued to the
year 1693, inclufive, in 26 vols. In 1703, he began
his Bibliotheque Choifie, and continued it to 1714, and
then commenced another work on the fame plan called
Bibliotheque Ancienne et Moderne, which he continued to
the year 1728 ; all of them juftly deemed excellent
flores of.ufeful knowledge. In 1728, he was feized
with a palfy and fever; and after fpending the laft
fix years, of his life with little or no underftanding,
died in 1736.
Clerc (John le), called Chevalier, an eminent hifto-
rical painter, was born at Nanci in 1587, but ftudied
in Italy, where he refided for twenty years; and was
a difciple of Carlo Venetiano, with whom he worked
a long time, and whofe ftyle he fo effe&ually ftudied
and imitated, that feveral of the pictures which were
finifhed by le Clerc were taken for the work of Ve¬
netiano. He was moft highly efteemed at Venice for
his extraordinary merit; and as a token of public re-
fpeft, he was made a knight of St Mark. His free¬
dom of hand was remarkable; he had a light pencil;
and in his colouring he refembled his mafter. He died
in 1633.
Clerc (Sebaftian le), engraver and defigner in or¬
dinary to the French king, was born at Metz in 1637.
- After having learnt defigning, he applied himfelf to
mathematics, and was engineer to the marfhal de la
Ferte. He went to Paris in 1665, where he applied
himfelf to defigning and engraving with fuch fuccefs,
that M. Colbert gave him a penfion of 600 crowns.
In 1672, he was admitted into the royal academy of
painting and fculpture; and in 1680 was made pro-
feffor of geometry and perfpe&ive in the fame acade¬
my. He publilhed, beftdes a great number of defigns
and prints, 1. A Treatife on theoretical and practical
Geometry. 2. A Treatife on Architefture; and other
works: and died in 1714.—He was an excellent ar-
tift, but chiefly in the petit ftyle. His genius feldom
exceeds the dimenfions of fix inches. Within thofe
limits he could draw up 20,000 men with great dex¬
terity: No artift except Callot and Della Bella could
touch a fmall figure with fo much fpirit. His moft
efteemed prints are : 1. The pajfion of our Saviour, on
3d fmall plates, lengthwife, from his own compofitions.
The heft impreffions are without the borders. 2,. The
miracle of the feeding fve thoufand, a middling fixed Clerc.
plate, lengthwife. In the firft impreffions, which are v-*
very rare, a town appears in the back-ground ; in
place of which a mountain is fubftituted in the common
ones. 3. The elevation of the large fortes ufed in build¬
ing the front of the Louvre, a large plate, lengthwife.
The firft impreffions are without the date 1677, which
was afterwards added. 4. The academy of the fciences,
a middling fized plate, lengthwife. The firft impref¬
fions are before the fkeleton of the flag and tortoife
were added. The fecond impreffions are before the
ffiadow was enlarged at the bottom, towards the right
hand fide of the print. Both thefe impreffions are
very fcarce. The firft is rarely met with. This print
was copied for Chambers’s Dictionary. 5. The May
of the Gobelins, a middling-fized plate, lengthwife. The
firft impreffion is before the woman was introduced,
who covers the wheel of the coach. 6. The four con-
quefs, large plates, lengthwife, reprefenting the taking
of Tournay, the taking of Dovay, the defeat of the
comte de Marfin, and the Switzerland alliance. 7.
The battles of Alexander, fr om Le Brun, fix fmall long
plates, including the title, which reprefents the picture
gallery at the Gobelins. The firft impreffions of the
tent of Darius, which plate makes part of this fet, is
diftinguilhed by the fhoulder of the w'oman, who is
feated in the front, being without the fhadow, which
was afterwards added; for which reafon they are called
the prints with the naked foulder. 8. The entry of
Alexander into Babylon, a middling-fized plate, length-
wife. In the firft impreffions, the face of Alexander
is feen in profile ; in the fecond, it is a three quar¬
ter face, and therefore called the print with the head
turned.
Clerc (George le) count de Buffon, a celebrated
naturalift, was born at Montbard, in Burgundy, the
7th of September 1707: his father was a counfellof
of the parliament of Dijon, and the fon was deftined
to the fame office, if fcience had not drawn him away
from the law. He ftudied at Dijon ; and his eager
aftivity, his acutenefs, penetration, and robuft confti-
tution, fitted him to purfue bufinefs and pleafure with
equal ardour. His early paffion was for aftronomy,
and the young Le Clerc was never •without Euclid in
his pocket. At the age of twenty, he went with an
Englilh nobleman and his governor to Italy; but he
overlooked the choiceft remains of art, and, amidft the
ruins of an elegant and luxurious people, he firft felt
the charms of natural hiftoiy, whofe zealous and fuc-
cefsful admirer he afterwards proved. On his return
to France, he fought, on feme occafional quarrel, with,
an Engliftiman, whom he wounded, and .was obliged
to retire to Paris. He there tranflated Newton’s
Fluxions, from the Latin, and Hales’s Statics from the
Englifh, into the French language. He aftewards
came to England, at the age of twenty-five ; and this
journey concluded his travels: he ftaid here about-
three months. At the age of twenty-one, he fucceeded
to the eftate of his mother, which was valued at about
300,000 hvres (above 12,000 pounds fterling) ; and he
was one of thofe whofe eafy or affluent circumftances-
urge on literary purfuits, and clear the path of fome of
its thorns Perhaps this was the period of his retirement
to Montbard, where he fpent much time, and where:
his leifure was little interrupted : while in the capita!,.
C L E [ 59 ] C L E
Clerc, his office of intendant of the king’s garden and cabinet
Clergy, engaged much of his time. He loved much company,
and was partial to the fair; but he loved glory more.
He fpent 14 hours every day in ftudy ; and, when we
examine the extent of his knowledge, and the num¬
ber of his works, we wonder at his having executed fo
much even in this time. At five in the morning he
retired to a pavilion in his vaft gardens, and he was
then inacceffible. This was, as prince Henry of Pruffia
called it, the cradle of natural hiftory ; but fhe was in¬
differently accommodated. The walls were naked, an
old writing-table, with pen, ink, and paper, and an el¬
bow chair of black leather, were the only furniture of
his ftudy. His manufcripts were in a cabinet in an¬
other building, and he went occafionally from one to
the other. The eras of Buffon’s works are pretty
well known. When each was finifhed, it was put
afide, in order that he might forget it, and he then re¬
turned to it-with the feverity of a critic. He was
anxious to have it perfpicuous ; and if thofe to whom
he read his works hefitated a moment, he changed the
paffage. The works of others he at laft read like
Magliabechi, the titles, the contents, and the moft in-
terefting parts; but he read M. Neckar’s Compte
Rendu, and the Adminiftration of the Finances, at
length: he fpoke of them alfip with no little enthufiafm.
His favourite authors were Fenelon, Montefquieu, and
Richardfon.
M. de Buffon’s converfation was unadorned, rarely
animated, but fometimes very cheerful. He was exaft
in his drefs, particularly in dreffing his hair. He fat
long at table, and then feemed at his eafe. His con¬
verfation was, at this time, unembarraffed, and his
guefts had frequently occafion to notice feme happy
turn of phrafe, or fome deep refle&ion. His complai-
fahee was very confiderable : he loved praife, and even
praifed himfelf; but it was with fo much franknefs, and
with fo little contempt of others, that it was never dif-
agreeable. Indeed, when we confider the extent of
his reputation, the credit of his works, and the atten¬
tion with which they were always received, we do not
wonder that he was fenfible of his own value. It
would perhaps have difplayed a ftronger mind to have
concealed it. His father lived to 93, and almoft
adored his fon ; his grandfather to 87 ; and the fub-
jeft of the prefent article exceeded only 80. He
died in April 1788. Fifty-fix ftones were found in his
bladder; but if he had confented to the operation, he
might probably have lived longer. One fon remains;
who near a high tower in the gardens of Montbard has
placed a low column, with the following infeription :
Excelfse Turri
Humilis Columna,
Parenti fuo
Fil. Buffon.
CLERGY, a general name given to the body of
ecclefiaftics of the Chriftian church, in contradiftinftion
to the laity. See Laity.
The diftin&ion of Chriftians into clergy and laity,
was derived from the Jewifh church, and adopted into
the Chriftian by the apoftles themfelves: whenever
any number of converts was made, as foon as they
were capable of being formed into a congregation or
church, a bifhop or prefbyter, with a deacon, were or¬
dained to minifter to them. Of the bifhops, priefts,
and deacons, the clergy originally confifted ; but in the
third century, many inferior orders were appointed, as
fubfervient to the office" of deacon, fuch as Acolu-
thists, Readers, &c.
This venerable body of men being feparate and fet B
apart from the reft of the people, in order to attend
the more clofely to the fervice of Almighty God, have
therefore large privileges allowed them by our muni¬
cipal laws: and had formerly much greater, which
were abridged at the time of the reformation, on ac¬
count of the ill ufe which the Popifti clergy had endea¬
voured to make of them. For, the laws having ex¬
empted them from almoft every perfonal duty, they
attempted a total exemption from every fecular tie.
But it is obferved by Sir Edward Coke, that as the
overflowing of waters doth many times make the ri¬
ver to lofe its proper channel, fo, in times paft, eccle-
fiaftical perfons, feeking to extend their liberties be¬
yond their due bounds, either loft, or enjoyed not,
thofe which of right belonged to them. The perfonal
exemptions do indeed for the moft part continue: a
clergyman cannot be compelled to ferve on a jury, nor
to appear at a court-leet, or view of frank-pledge,
which almoft every other perfon is obliged to do:
but if a layman isfummoned on a jury, and before the
trial takes orders, he flrall notwithftanding appear and
be fworn. Neither can he be chofen to any temporal
office, as bailiff, reeve, conftable, or the like ; in re¬
gard of his own continual attendance on the facred
fun&ion. During his attendance on divine fervice, he
is privileged from arrefts in civil fuits. In cafes alfo of
felony, a clerk in orders ffiall have the benefit of his
clergy, without being branded in the hand; and may
likewife have it more than once : in both which par¬
ticulars he is diftinguifhed from a layman. But, as
they have their privileges, fo they have alfo their dif-
abilities, on account of their fpiritual avocations. Cler¬
gymen are incapable of fitting in the houfe of com¬
mons; and by ftatute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. are not
in general allowed to take any lands or tenements to
farm, upon pain of 10L per month, and total avoidance
of the leafe; nor, upon like pain, to keep any tap-
houfc or brew-houfe; nor flrall engage in any manner
of trade, nor fell any merchandize, under forfeiture of
of the treble value. Which prohibition is confonant
to the canon law.
Bertejit of Clergy, is an ancient privilege whereby
one in orders claimed to be delivered to his ordinary to
purge himfelf of felony.
After trial and convidfion * of a criminal, the judg- * gee ^
ment of the court regularly follows, unlefs fufpended articles Ar~
or arrefted by fome intervening circumftance.; of which ra'gnment,
the principal is benefit of clergy: a title of no fmall cu- ^nl’ccn-uk
riofity as well as ufe; and concerning which, therefore, t'wn. °n'V“~
it may not be improper to inquire, 1. Into its original,
and the various mutations which this privilege of the
clergy has fuftained. 2. To what perfons it is to be
allowed at this day. 3. In what cafes. 4. The confe-
quences of allowing it.
I. Clergy, the privilegium cleric ale, or (in common Blad/l.
fpeech) the benefit of clergy, had its original from the Comment,
pious regard paid by Chriftian princes to the church in
its infant ftate* and the ill ufe which the popifh eccle¬
fiaftics foon made of that pious regard. The exemp-
H 2 tions
L E f 60 1 C L E
Clergy, tions which they granted to the church were principal-
1 ly of two kinds : i. Exemptions of places conlecrated
to religious duties from criminal arrefts ; which was
the foundation of fan&uaries. 2. Exemption of the
perfons of clergymen from criminal procefs before the
fecular judge in a few particular cafes; which was
the true original and meaning of the privikgium clerl-
cale.
But the clergy increafmg in wealth, power, honour,
number, and intereft, foon began to fet up for them-
felves ; and" that which they obtained by the favour of
the civil government, they now claimed as their in¬
herent right, and as a'right'of the higheft nature, in-
defeafible, and jure clivino. By their canons, there¬
fore, and conilitutions, they endeavoured at, and
where they met with eafy princes,. obtained, a vaft
extenfion of thofe exemptions ; as well in regard to
the crimes themfelves, of which the lilt became quite
univerfal, as in regard to the perfons exempted;
among whom were at length comprehended, not
only every little fubordinate officer belonging to the
church, or clergy, but even many that were totally
laymen.
In England, however, although the ufurpations of the
pope were very many and grievous, till Henry VIII.
totally exterminated his fupremacy, yet (a total ex¬
emption of 'the clergy from fecular jurifdiction could
never be thoroughly effected, though often endea¬
voured by the clergy: and therefore, though the an¬
cient privilegium clericale was in fome capital cafes,
yet it was not univerfally allowed. And in thofe par¬
ticular cafes, the ufe was for the bilhop or ordinary to
demand his clerks to be remitted out of the king’s
courts as foon as they were indicted: concerning the
allowance of which demand there was for many years
a great uncertainty ; till at length it was finely fettled,
in the reign of Henry VI. that the prifoner fhould firft
be arraigned; and might either then claim his benefit
of clergy by way of declinatory plea; or, after con-
vidtion, by way of arreft of judgment. This latter
way is mofl ufually praftifed, as it is more to the fatif-
faftion of the court to have the crime previoufly afcer-
tained by confeffion or the verdift of a jury ; and alfo
it is more advantageous to the prifoner himfelf, who
may poflibly be acquitted, and fo need not the benefit
of his clergy at all.
Originally the law was held that no man Ihould be
'admitted to the benefit of, clergy, but fuch as had the
habitum et tonfuram clericalem. But, in procefs of
time, a much wider and more comprehenfive criterion
was eftablifhed; every one that could read (a great
mark of learning in thofe days of ignorance and her
filler fuperflition) being accounted a clerk, or cle-
ricus, and allowed the benefit of clerkfhip, though
neither initiated in clerkfhip, nor trimmed with the
holy tonfure. But when learning, by means of the
invention of printing,, and other concurrent caufes, be¬
gan to be more generally difleminated than formerly ;
and reading was no longer a competent proof of clerk¬
fhip, or being in holy orders ; it was found that as ma¬
ny laymen as divines were admitted to the privilegium
clericale: and therefere by ftatute 4 Henry VII. c. 13.
a diflinftion was once more drawn between mere lay
fcholars and clerks that were really in orders. And,
though it was thought reafonable Hill to mitigate the
feverity of the law with regard to the former, yet Clergy,
they were not put upon \the fame footing with ac- 1 'r~~
tual clergy ; being fubjedled to a flight degree of pu-
nifhment, and not allowed to claim the clerical privi¬
lege more than once. Accordingly the flatute dire&s,
that no perfon, once admitted to the benefit of clergy
fhall be admitted thereto a fecond time, until he pro¬
duces his orders: and in order to diftinguifh their
perfons, all laymen who are allowed this privilege,
fhall be burned with a hot-iron in the brawn of the
left thumb. This diftin&ion between learned laymen
and real clerks in orders was abolifhed for a time by
the flatutes 28 Hen. VIII. c. 1. and 32 Hen. VIII.
c. 3.; but is held to have been virtually reflored by
flatute 1 Edw. VI. c. 12. which flatute alfo enadls,
that ’ords of parliament and peers of the realm may
have the benefit of their peerage, equivalent to that of
clergy, for the firfl offence (although they cannot read,
and without being burnt in the hand), for all offences
then clergyable to commoners, and aifo for the crimes
of houfe-breaking, highway-robbery, horfe-flealing,
and robbing of churches.
After this burning, the laity, and before it the real
clergy, were difcharged from the fentence of the law
in the king’s courts, and delivered over to the ordi¬
nary, to be dealt with according to the ecclefiaflical
canons. Whereupon the ordinary, not fatisfied with
the proofs adduced in the profane fecular court, fet
himfelf formally to make a purgation of the offender
by a new canonical trial; although he had been pre¬
vioufly Convidled by his country, or perhaps by his
own confeffion. This trial was held before the bifhop
in perfon, or his deputy; and by a jury of twelve
clerks: And there, firil, the party himfelf was re¬
quired to make oath of his own innocence : next,
there was to be the oath of twelve compurgators, who
fwore they believed he fpoke the truth : then, wk-
neffes were to be examined upon oath, but on behalf
of the prifoner only: and, laflly, the jury were to
bring in their verdidt upon oath, which ufually acquit¬
ted the prifoner; otherwife, if a clerk, he was de¬
graded, or put to penance. A learned judge in the
beginning of laft century, remarks with much indig¬
nation the vafl complication of perjury and fuborna-
tion of perjury in this folemn farce of a mock trial:
the witneffes, the compurgators* and the jury, being all
of them partakers in the guilt: the delinquent party
alfo, though convidled in the clearefl manner, and con-
fcious of his own offence, yet was permitted, and almoll .
compelled, to fwear himfelf not guilty ; nor was the
good bifhop himfelf, under whofe countenance this fcene
was tranfacled, by any means exempt from a fhare of
it. And yet, by this purgation, the party was reflored
to his credit, his liberty, his lands, and his capacity of -
purchafing afrefh, and was entirely made a new and an
innocent man.
This fcandalous proflitution of oaths, and the forms-
of juflice, in the almofl conflant acquittal of felonious
clerks by purgation, was the, occafion that,, upon very,
heinous and notorious circumHances of guilt, tem¬
poral courts would not trull the ordinary with the
trial of the offender, but delivered over to him the
convicted clerk, abfque purgations faciendo : in which
fituation the clerk convidl could not make purgation ;..
but was to continue in prifon during life, and was in¬
capable
C L E [ 6
Gletf y. capable of acquiring any perfonal property, or recei-
"v ving the profits of his lands, unlefs the king fiiould
pleafe to pardon him. Both thefe courfes were in fome
degree exceptionable; the latter perhaps being too
rigid, as the former was productive of the moft aban¬
doned perjury. As therefore thefe mock trials took
their rife from factious and popifh tenets, tending to
exempt one part of the nation from the general-mnni-
cipal law ; it became high time, when the reformation
was thoroughly eftablifhed, to abolifh fo vain and impi¬
ous a ceremony.
Accordingly the ftatute 18 Eliz. c. 7. enadts, that,
for the avoiding fuch perjuries and abufes, after the
offender has been 'allowed his clergy, he lhall not be
delivered to the ordinary as formerly ; but, upon fuch
allowance, and burning of the hand,'he (hall forthwith
be enlarged and delivered out of prifon ; with pro-
vlfo, that-the judge may, if he thinksdit, continue the
offender in gaol for any time not exceeding a year.
And thus the law continued unaltered for above a
century ; except only, that the ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 6.
allowed, that women convifted of fimple larcenies
under the value of iqs. (hould (not properly have
the benefit of clergy, for they were not called upon to
read; but) be burned in the hand, whipped,^>r flock¬
ed, or imprifoned for any time not exceeding a year.
And a fimilar. indulgence by the ftatutes 3 ancf^. Will,
and Mary c. 9. and 4 and 5 Will. and.Mary c. 24. was
extended to women guilty of any clergyable felo. y what¬
ever ; who were allowed once to claim the benefit of
the ftatute, in like manner as men might claim the be¬
nefit of clergy, and to be difeharged upon being burned
in the hand, and imprifoned for any time not exceed-
. ing a year. All women, all peers, and all male com¬
moners who could read, were therefore difeharged in
fuch felonies abfolutely, if clerks in orders ; and for the
firft offence upon burning in the hand, if lay ; yet all
liable (except peers), if the. judge faw occafion, to
imprifonment not exceeding a year. And thefe men
who could not. read, if under the degree of peerage,
were hanged.
Afterwards, indeed, it was confidered, that educa¬
tion and learning were no extenuations of guilt, but
quite the reverfe : and that if the punilhment of death
for fimple felony was too fevere for thofe who had
been liberally inftrudled, it was, a fortiori, too fevere
for the ignorant alfo. And thereupon, by ftatute
5 Anne, c. 6. it was enabled that the benefit of clergy
fhould be granted to all thofe who were intitled to a(k-
it, without, requiring them to read by way of condi¬
tional merit. And, experience haying (hewn that fo
univerfal a lenity was frequently inconvenient, and an
encouragement to commit the lower degres of felo¬
ny ; and that though capital punifhments were too ri¬
gorous for thefe inferior offences, yet no punilhment
at all (or next to none, as branding or whipping),
was as much too gentle ; it was enabled by the fame
ftatute ^ Anne, ,c. 6. that when any perfon is convic¬
ted of any theft or larceny, and burnt in the hand
• fur the fame, he (hall, at the diferetion of the judge,,
be committed to the houfe of corredlion or public
work-houfe, to be there kept to hard labour, for any
time not lefs then fix months, and not exceeding two
years; with a power of inflifling a double confinement
in cafe of the party's efcape from the firft.. And it is
i ] C L E
alfo enabled by the ftatutes 4 Geo. I. c. 11. and 6. Cleryy.
Gep. I. c. 23. that when any perfons (hall be convicted
of any larceny, either grand or petit, or any felonious
dealing or taking of money or goods and chatties, ei¬
ther from the perfon or the houfe of any other, or iri
any other manner, and who by the law (hall be intitled
to the benefit of clergy, and liable only to the penal¬
ties of burning in the hand, or whipping ; the court, in
their diferetion, inftead of fuch burning in the hand, or
whipping, may diredt fuch offenders to be tranfported
to America for feven years ; and if they return, or are
feen at large in this kingdom within, that time, it (hall
be felony without benefit of clergy.
In this (late does the benefit of clergy at prefeut
(land ; very confiderably different from its original in-
ftitution : the wifdom of the Englifh legifiature ha¬
ving, in the courfe of a long and laborious procefs, ex-
Cradled, by a noble alchemy, rich medicines out of poi-
fonous ingredients ; and converted, by gradual muta¬
tions, what was at firft an unreafonable exemption of
particular popifh ecclefiaftics, into a merciful mitiga¬
tion of the general law with refpedt to capital punifti-
ments.
From the whole of this detail, we may colledl, that
however in times of ignorance and fuperftition, that
monfter in true policy may for a while fubfift, of a-
body of men redding in-a date, and yet independent
of its laws; yet when learning and rational religion
have a little enlightened mens minds, fociety can no
longer endure an abfurdity fo grofs, as muft deftroy its
very fundamentals. For, by the original, contradl of
government, the price of protection by the united force
of individuals, is that of obedience to the united will of
the community. This united will is declared in the
laws of the land : and that united force is exerted in
their due, and univerfal, execution.
II. We are next to inquire, to what perfons the be¬
nefit of clergy is to be allowed at this day : and this
muft chiefly be collected from what has been obfer-
ved in the preceding article. “For, upon the whole,,
we may pronounce, that all clerks in orders are, with¬
out- any branding, and of courfe without any tranf-
portation (for that is only fubftituted in lieu of the
ojther), to he admitted to this privilege, and immedi¬
ately difeharged, or at moft only confined for one year;
and this as often as they offend. Again, all lords of
parliament, and peers of the realm, by the ftatute
1 Edw. VI. c. 12. (hall be difeharged in all clergyable
and other felonies provided for by the aft without any
burning in the hand, in the fame manner as real clerks
convift :. but this is only for the firft offence. Laftly,
all the commons of the realm, not in orders, whether
male or female, (hall, for the firft offence, be dif¬
eharged of the punifliment of felonies, within the be¬
nefit of clergy, upon being burnt in the hand, and fuf- -
fering diferetionary imprifonment; or, in cafe of lar-•
ceny, upon being tranfported for feven years, if the '
court (hall think proper. .
III. The third point to be confidered is, for what
crimes the privilegium cleric ale, ■ or benefit of clergy,,
is to be allowed. And it is to be obferved, that nei¬
ther in high treafon,. nor-in petit larceny, nor in any
mere mifdemeanors, it was indulged at the common
law: and therefore we may lay it down as a rule,.
that it was allowable only in petit treafon and capital ,
5 felonies};
C L E r 62 1 C L E
Clergy, felonies; which for the moft part became,legally in-
' » titled to this indulgence by the Ilatute de clero,
25 Edw. III. flat. 3. c. 4. -which provides, that clerks
convift for treafon or felonies, touching other perfons
than the king himfelf or his royal majefty, (hall have
the privilege of holy church. But yet it was not al¬
lowed in all cafes whatfoevef : for in fome it was de¬
nied even in common law, viz. mfidiatio •viarumi. or ly¬
ing in wait for one on the highway ; depopulatio agro¬
rum, or deftroying and ravaging a country ; combujlio
domorum, or arfon, that is, burning of houfes; all
which are a kind of hoftile afts, and in fome degree
border upon treafon. And farther, all thefe identical
crimes, together with petit treafon, and very many
other afts of felony, are oufted of clergy by particular
a&s of parliament.
Upon the whole, we may obferve the following
rules. 1. That in all felonies, whether new created,
or by common law, clergy is now allowable, unlefs ta¬
ken away by aft of parliament. 2. That where clergy
is taken away from the principal, it is not of courfe ta¬
ken away from the accelfory, unlefs he be alfo particu¬
larly included in the words of the ftatute. 3. That
when the benefit of clergy is taken away from the of¬
fence (as. in cafe of murder, buggery, robbery, rape,
and burglary), a principal in the fecond degree, being
prefent, aiding and abetting the crime, is as well ex¬
cluded from his clergy as he that is a principal in
the firfl: degree : but, 4. That where it is only taken
away from the perfon committing the offence (as in
the cafe of ftabbing, or committing larceny in a
dwelling-houfe), his aiders and abettors are not ex¬
cluded, through the tendernefs of the law which
hath determined that fuch ftatutes ftiall not be taken
literally.
IV. Laftly, We are to inquire what the confequen-
ces are to the party, of allowing him this benefit of
clergy. We fpeak not of the branding, imprifonment,
or tranfportatibn ; which are rather concomitant con¬
ditions, than confequences, of receiving this indul¬
gence. The confequences are fuch as affeft his pre¬
fent intereft, and future credit and capacity: as ha¬
ving been once a felon, but now purged from that
guilt' by the privilege of clergy ; which operates as a
kind of ftatute pardon. And we may obferve, 1. That,
by his cbnviftion, he forfeits all his goods to the king;
which, being once veiled in the crown, lhall not after¬
wards be reftored to the offender. 2. That, after
conviftion, and till' he receives the-judgment of the
law by branding or the like, or elfe is pardoned by
the king, he is, to all intents and purpofes, -a felon ;
and fubjeft to all the difabilities and other incidents of
a felon. 3. That, after burning or pardon, he is dif-
charged for ever of that, and all other felonies before
committed, within the benefit of clergy ; but not of
felonies from which fuch benefit is excluded : and this
by ftatutes 8 Eliz. c. 4. and 18 Eliz. c. 7. 4. That,
by the burning, or pardon of it, he is reftored to all
capacities and credits, and the poffelfion of his lands,
as if he had never been convifted. 5. That what is
faid with regard to the advantages of commoners and
laymen, fubfequent to the burning in the hand, is
equally applicable to all peers and clergymen, although
never branded at all. For they” have the fame privi-
4
leges, without any burning, to which others are in-
titled after it.
CLERK (clericus), a word formerly ufed to fignify
a learned man, or man of letters. The word comes
from the Greek **»/’©', ufed for clergy; but more pro¬
perly fignifying lot or heritage, in regard the lot and
portion of clerks or ecdefiaftics is to ferve God. Ac¬
cordingly clems was at firft ufed to fignify thofe who
had a particular attachment to the fervice of God.
The origin of the expreffion is derived from the Old
Teftament, where the tribe, of Levi is called the lot,
heritage, *'; and God is reciprocally called their
portion; by reafon that tribe was confecrated to the
fervice of God, and lived on the offerings made to God,
without any other fettled provifion as the reft had.
Thus, Pafquier obferves, the officers ofthe counts (co-
mites') were anciently created under the title of clerks op
accompts; and fecretaries of ftate were called clerks of
the fecret. So clcricus domini regis, in the time of Ed¬
ward I. was Engliftied, the king's fecretary, or clerk of his
council. The term was applied indifferently to all who
made any profeffion of learning; or who knew how to
manage the pen : though originally it was appropria¬
ted to ecclefiaftics. As the nobility and gentry were
ufually brought up to the exercife of arms, there was
none but the clergy left to cultivate the fciences; hence,
as it was the clergy alone who made any profeffion of
letters, a very learned man came to be called z great clerk,
and a ttupid ignorant man a bad clerk.
Clerk is alfo applied to fuch as by their courfe of
life exercife their pens in any court or office; of which
there are various kinds:' thus,
Clerk of the Bails, an officer in the court of king’s
bench, whofe bufinefs is to file all bail-pieces taken in
that court, where he always attends.
Clerk of the Check, an officer belonging to the king’s
court; fo called, becaufe he has the check and con-
troulment of the yeomen that belong to the king, queen,
or prince. He likewife, by himfelf or deputy, fets the
watch in the court. There is alfo an officer in the navy
of the fame name, belonging to the king’s yards.
Clerk of the Crown, an officer in the king’s bench,
who frames, reads, and records all indiftments againft
offenders, there arraigned or indifted of any public
crime. He is likewife termed clerk of the crown-ojjice,
in which capacity he exhibits information by order of
the court for divers offences.
Clerk of the Crown, in chancery, an officer whofe
bufinefs it is conftantly to attend the lord chancellor
in perfon or by deputy ; to write and prepare for the
great feal fpecial matters of ftate by commiffion, both
ordinary and extraordinary, uia. commiffions of lieu¬
tenancy, of juftices of affize, oyer and terminer, gaol-
delivery, and of the peace; all general pardons, granted,
either at the king’s coronation, or in parliament: the
writs of parliament, with the names of the knights, ci¬
tizens, and burgeffes, are alfo returned into his office:
He alfo makes out fpecial pardons and writs of execu¬
tion on bonds of ftatute-ftaple forfeited.
Clerk of the Deliveries of the Ordnance. See Ord¬
nance.
Clerk of the Errors, in the court of common pleas,
an officer who tranferibes and certifies into the king’s
bench, the tenor of the record of the aftion on which
the
C L E . [ 6
the writ of error, made out by the curfitor, is brought
there to be determined. In the king’s bench, the clerk
of the errors tranfcribes and certilies the records of
caufes, by bill, in that court, into the exchequer. And
the bufinefs of the clerk of the errors in the exchequer,
is to tranfcribe the records certified thither out of the
king’s bench, and to prepare them for judgment in the
exchequer-chamber.
Cierk of the Ejfolns, in the court of common pleas,
keeps the effoin roll, or enters effoius : he alfo provides
parchment, cuts it into rolls, marks the number on
them, delivers out all the rolls to every officer, and re¬
ceives them again when written. See Essoin.
Clerk of the EJfrcats, an officer in the exchequer,
who every term receives the eftreats out of the lord-
treafurer’s remembrancer’s office, and writes them out
to be levied for the crown.
Clerk of the Green-cloth, formerly an officer in chan¬
cery, but now aboliffied.
Clerk of the Hamper, or Hanaper, an officer in chan¬
cery, whofe bufinefs is to receive all money due to the
king for the feals of charters, letters patent, commif-
iions, and writs; alfo the fees due to the officers for
enroliing and examining them.
CiERK-Compiroller of the King’s Hbufehold, an officer
of the king’s court, authorifed to allow or difallow
the charges of pnrfuivants, meflengers of the green-
cloth, &c. to infpedt and controul all defedts of any
of the inferior officers ; and to fit in the counting-houfe
with the lord-ileward and other officers of the houfe-
hold for regulating fuch matters.
Clerk of the King’s Silver, an officer of the common
pleas, to whom every fine is brought, after it has paffed
the office of the of os brevium; and who enters the ef-
fe& of writs of covenant, into a book kept for that
purpofe, according to which all the fines of that term
are recorded in the rolls of the court.
Clerk of the Market, an officer of the king’s houfe,
to whom is given the charge of the king’s meafures
and weights, the ftandards of thofe that ought to be
ufed all over England.
Clerk of the Nichils, or Nihils, an officer of the ex¬
chequer, who makes a roll of all fuch fums as are ni-
chilled by the iheriffs upon their eftreats of green wax,
and delivers them in to the remembrancer of the trea-
fury, to have execution done upon them for the king.
See Nihil.
Clerk of the Ordnance. See Ordnance.
Clerk of the Outlawries, an officer of the common
pleas, and deputy to the attorney-general, for making
out all writs of capias utlegatum after outlawry, to which
there muft be the king’s attorney’s name.
Clerk of the Paper-off ce, an 'officer belonging to the
king’s bench, whofe bulinefs is to make" up the paper-
books of fpecial pleadings in that court.
Clerk of the Peace, an officer belonging to the fef-
fions of the peace, whofe bufinefs is to read indidlments,
inrol the proceedings, and draw the procefs : he like-
wife certifies into the king’s bench tranferipts of in-
dictments, outlawries, attainders, and convictions had
before the juftices of peace, within the time limited by
ftatute, under a certain penalty. This office is in the
gift of the cufos rotulorum, and may be executed by de-
puty..
3 1 C L E
Clerk cf the Pells, an officer that belongs to the ex¬
chequer, whofe bufinefs is to enter every teller’s bill
into a parchment-roll called pellis receptorum; and to
make another roll of payments called pellis exituum.
Clerk of the petty Bag, an officer of the court of chan¬
cery, whereof there are three, the matter of the rolls
behig the chief: their bufinefs is to record the return
of all inquifitions out of every fhire ; to make out pa¬
tents of cuftomers, gaugers, comptrollers, &c.; libe¬
rates upon extent of ftatutes-ttaple ; conge d'elires for
biihops ; fummons of the nobility, clergy, and bur-
geffes to parliament ; and commiffions diredted to
knights and others of every ffiire, for affeffing fubiidies
and taxes.
Clerk of the Pipe, an officer of the exchequer, who
having the accounts of all debts due to the king, deli¬
vered out of the remembrancers’s office, charges them
in a great roll folded up like a pipe. He writes out
warrants to ftserifts, to levy the faid debts on the goods,
and chattels of the debtors; and if they have no goods,
then he draws them down to the treafurer’s remem¬
brancer to write eftreats againft their lands.
Cl erk of the Pleas, an officer of the exchequer, in
whofe office all the officers of the court, having fpecial
privilege, ought to fue or be fued in any aftion. In
this office alfo actions at law may be profecuted by other
perfons, but the plaintiff ought to be tenant or debtor
to the king, or fome way accountable to him. The
under clerks are attorneys in all fuits.
Clerks of the Privy-feal, four officers that attend the
lord privy feal, for writing and making out all things
that are fent by warrant from the fignet to the privy feal,
and to be paffed the great feal; and likewife to make
out privy feals, upon fpecial occafions of his majefty’s
affairs, as for loan of money, or the like.
Clerk of the Rolls, an officer of the chancery, whofe
bufinefs is to make fearches after, and copies of deeds,
officers, &c.
Clerk of the Signet, an officer continually attending
upon his majefty’s principal fecretary, who has the cli¬
ft ody of the privy fignet, as well for fealing the king’s
private letters as thofe grants which pafs the king’s
hand by bill figned. There are four of thefe officers
who have their diet at the fecretary’s table.
Six Clerks, officers in chancery next in degree be¬
low the twelve mailers, whofe bufinefs is to inrol com¬
miffions, pardons, patents, warrants, &c. which pafs
the great feal. They were anciently cleric'i, and for¬
feited their places if they married. Thefe are alfo at¬
torneys for parties in fuits depending in the court of
chancery.
Clerk of the Treafury, an officer belonging to the
court of common pleas, who has the charge of keeping
the records of the court, makes out all records of nift
prius, and likewife all exemplifications of records being
in the treafury. He has the fees due for all fearches ;
and has under him an ufider keeper, who always keeps
one .key of the treafury-door.
Clerk of the Warrants?, an officer of the common-
pleas, whofe bufinefs is to enter all warrants of at¬
torney for plaintiffs and defendants in fuit; and-to in-
rol deeds of bargain and fale, that are acknowledged,
in court, or before a judge. His office is likewife to
eftreat into the exchequer all iffues, fines, eftreats, and
amercements^
C L E [ 64 ] C L E
'Ctcrke amercements, which grow due to the crown in that
court.
•;,CIe™ort- CLERKE (Captain Charles), a celebrated Englifh
' 1 navigator, was bred up in the navy from his youth,'
and was prefect in feveral attions during the war of
1755. In that between the Bellona'and Courageux
he was in great danger ; for having been ftationed in
the mizen-top on board the former, the-mail was car¬
ried overboard by a fhot, and he fell into the fea along
with it: but, however, was taken up without ha¬
ving. received any injury. When Commodore Byron
made his firft voyage round the world, Mr Clerke fer-
ved on board his fhip in quality of a 'midfhipman ; and
was afterwards on the American ftation. In the year
1768, he failed round the world a fecond time in the
Endeavour, on board of which he ferved in the ftation"
of mailer’s mate ; but, during the voyage, fucceeded
to a lieutenancy. He returned in 1775, and was foon
after appointed mailer and commander. When Cap¬
tain Cook undertook his lail voyage, Mr Clerke was
appointed Captain of the Difcovery; and in confequence
of the death of Captain Cook, naturally fucceeded to
the fupreme command. He did not, however, long
enjoy his new' dignity. Before his departure from
England, he had manifeil fymptoms of a confumption.
'Of this difeafe he lingered during the whole of the voy¬
age ; and his long refidence in the cold northern cli¬
mates- cut off all hopes of recovery: but though feniible
that the only chance he had of prolonging his life was by
a fpeedy return to a warmer climate, his attention to
his duty was fo great, that he perfevered in fearch of
a paffage between the Afiatic and American continents
until every one of the officers was of opinion that it
was imprafticable. He bore his diftemper with great
firmnefs and equanimity, retaining a good flow of fpi-
rits to the laft; and died on the 22d of Auguff 1778,
in the 38th year of his age, the ihip being then within
-view of the coaft of Kamtfchatka.
Clerke’s IJland lies on the weftern fide of the Ame¬
rican continent, in N. Lat. 63. 15. and E. Long.
190. 30. It was difcovered by Captain Cook in his
latl voyage, but a landing could not be effe&ed. At
a dillance it appeared to be of confiderable extent, and
to have feveral hills conne&ed with the low grounds in
fuch a manner as to make it look like a group of iflands.
Hear its eaftern extremity is a little ifland remarkable
for having three elevated rocks upon it. Both the large
and fmall ifland are uninhabited.
CLERMONT, a confiderable, rich, and populous
town of France, in Auvergne, with a bilhop’s fee. The
cathedral, the public fquares, and the walks, are very
fine. Here is a bridge naturally formed, as they pre¬
tend, by the petrifying quality of a fountain. E. Long.
3. 18. N. Lat. 45. 47.
Glermoht Manufcript, is a copy of St Paul’s Epi-
ftles, found in the monallery of CJermonr in France,
and ufed by Beza, together with the Cambridge MS.
in preparing his edition of the New Teftament. This
■copy is in the octavo form, and is written on fine
vellum in Greek and Latin, with fome mutilations.
Beza fuppofes that it is of equal antiquity with the
Cambridge copy; but both were probably written
by a Latin fcribe in a later period than he affigns
to them. The various readings of this MS. were
cemmunicatcd to archbilhop Uflier, and they are
N° 82.
preferved by Walton. The MS. itfelf was in the Cleromaa^
poffeffion of Morinus; and after his death depofited cy
among the MS, copies of the Royal Library at Paris, Q!evJaQ»
^2245.
CLEROM ANCY, a kind of divination performed
by the throwing of dice, or little bones} and obfer-
ving the points, or marks, turned up. The word *
comes from “ lot,” and “ divination.”
At Bura, a city of Achaiat, was a temple' and ce¬
lebrated oracle of -Hercules; where fuch as confulted
the oracle, after praying to the idol, threw four dies,
the points whereof being well fcanned by the prieff,
he was fuppofed to draw an anfwer from them.
Something of this kind feems to have been prafti-
fed.with regard to Jonah.
k CLERVAL, a town of France, in the Franehe
Comte, feated on the river Doux, belonging to the
houfe of Wirtemburgh, but depends on the crown of
France. E. Long. 5. 57. N. Lat. 46. 35.
CLERVAUX, one of the moil celebrated and fined
abbeys of France, in Champagne, five miles from Bar-
fur-Aube, and feated in a valley furrounded with woods
and mountains. It is the chief of the Ciftercian or¬
der. Here is the famous Tun of St Bernard, which
will hold 800 tuns of wine. Near this abbey is a fmall
town.
CLESIDES, a Greek painter, about 276 years
before Chrift, in the reign of Antiochus I. He re¬
venged the injuries he had received from queen Stra-
tonice by reprefenting her in the arms of a fiflierman.
However indecent the painter might reprefent the
queen, (he was drawn with fuch perfonal beauty, that
fire preferved the piece and liberally rewarded the ar-
tift.
CLETHRA, in botany: A genus of the mono- :
gynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 18th or¬
der, Bicornes. The calyx is quinquepartite ; the pe¬
tals five; the ftigma trifid ; the capfide trilocular and
three-valved. There is but one fpecies, vi%. the Alni-
folia. This is a native of Virginia and Carolina, where
it grows in moifl places, and near the fides of rivulets,
rifing near eight or ten feet high. The leaves are fhaped
like thofe of the alder-tree, but longer; thefe are
placed alternately upon the branches: the flowers are
produced in dofe fpikes at the extremities of the
branches ; they are white, compofed of five petals, and
have ten flamina in each, nearly of the fame length
with the petals. This is hardy enough to bear the
open air in Britain, jand* is one of the moil beautiful
flowering ftmibs. Its feafon is commonly about the
beginning of July ; and, if the feafon is not very hot,
there will be part of the fpikes in beauty till the mid¬
dle of September. This fhrub will thrive hell in moiit
land, and requires a fheltered fituat-ion, where it may
be defended from ftrong winds, which frequent¬
ly break off the branches where they are too much
expofed to their violence. It is propagated by layers,
but they are generally two years before they take root.
It may alfo be propagated by fuckers, which are fent
out from the roots: if thefe are carefully taken off
with fibres in the autumn, and planted in a nurfery-
bed, they will be ffrong enough in two years to tranf-
plant where they are to remain.
CLEVELAND, a diftridt in the north riding of
York-
c L I . [ 65 ] C L I
Cleveland Yorkfaire :n England, from whence the noble family
H of Fitzroy took the title of Duke, but which is now
extinft.
_y Cleveland (John), an Ena-liih poet.of fome emi¬
nence in his time, who during the civil1-war under
Charles !, engaged as a literary champioii in the royal
caufe again! the parliamentarians. He died in J 658,
and was much extolled by his party. Elis works,
which confift' of poems, characters, orations, epiftles,
Cfr. were printed in o&avo in 1677.
CLEVES, the duchy of, a province, of the circle of
' Weftphalia,jn Germany. It is divided into two parts
by the Rhine, and is about 40 miles in length from
call to weft, and 20 in breadth from north to fouth.
It is a fine agreeable country, and pretty populous.
The towns are, Cleves the capital, Calcar, Gennet,
Santen, Orfpy, Biireck, and Greit. Thefe lie on the
left fide the river. On the right, Duy(burgh, Wefe,
Rees, and Emmerick. There have been great con-
tefts about this duchy, but it now belongs to the king
of Pruffia.
Cleves, a city of Germany, in the duchy of Cle¬
ves, of which it is the capital. It (lands upon a plea-
fant hill, about three miles from the Rhine, with
which it communicates, by means ofi|p canal which
is large enough for great barges. rOie caftle (lands
upon a mountain, and, though old, is very agreeable.
Calvin !fts; Lutherans, and Roman Catholics, are
all tolerated in this city. E. Long. 5. 36. N. Lat.
51. 40.
CLIENT, among the Romans, a citizen who put
himfelf under the jprote&ion of fome great man, who
in refpect of thait relation was called patron.
This patron aflifted his client with his prote&ion,
intereft, -and goods ; and the client gave his vote for
his patron, when he fought any office for himfelf or
his friends. Clients owed refpedl to their patrons, as
thefc owed them their protection.
The right of patronage was appointed by Romulus,
to unite the rich and poor together, in fuch a manner
as that one might live without contempt, and the
other without envy ; but the condition of a client, in
courfe of time, became little elfe but a moderate
flavery.
Client is now ufed for a party in a law-fuit, who
has turned over his caufe into the hands of a counfel-
lor or folicitor.
CLIFFORTIA, in botany: A genus of the poly-
andria order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 38th or¬
der, Tricocea. The male calyx is triphyllous; no
corolla ; the (lamina near 30 in number ; the female
calyx is triphyllous, fuperior to the receptacle of the
fruit; , no corolla two (tyles; with a bilocular cap-
fulc; and a fingle feed. There are three fpecies,
all of them natives of Africa ; fo require to be kept
in a green-houfe when cultivated in this country.
Their flowers make no great appearance; but the
plants themfelves are very ornamental evergreens.
They grow to the height of four or .five feet ; and
are propagated by cuttings, which mud be young
(hoots of five or fix inches length. If thefe are plant¬
ed in. pots in fpring or fummer, and plunged in a
hot bed, they will readily take root. They mud
Vol. V. Part I.
be watered plentifully in fummer, but very fparingly Climr&edc
in winter. .Climate.
CLIMACTERIC, among phyficians, (from climac- ^ J
ter, “a ladder”), a crit caLyear in a perfon’s life.
According to fome, this is every feventh year; but
others allow only thofe years-produced by multiplying-
7 by the odd number 3, 5, 7, and 9, to be climadteri-
cal. Thefe years, they fay, bring with them fome
remarkable change with refpedt to health, life, or for¬
tune : the grand climadteric is the 63d year; but
fome, making two, add to this the 8ill: the other
remarkable climadlerics are the 7th, 21ft, 35th, 49th,
and 56th.
CLIMATE, or Clime, in geography, a part of
the furface of the earth, bounded by two circles
parallel to the equator; and of fuch a breadth, as
that the longed day in the parallel nearer the pole
exceeds the longed day in that next the equator by
fome certain fpaces; v\%. half an hour. The word
comes from the Greek “ inclinamentum,” an
inclination.
The beginning of the climate, is a parallel circle
wherein the day is the (horteft. The end of the
climate, is that wherein the day is the longed. The
climates therefore are reckoned from the equator to
the pole ; and are fo many bands, or zones, termi¬
nated by lines parallel to the equator: though, in
dridlnefs, there are feveral climates in the breadth of
one zone. Each climate only differs from its conti¬
guous ones, in that the longed day in fummer is longer
or (horter by half an hour in the one place than in the
other. As the climates commence from the equator,
the firft climate at its beginning has its longed day
precifely 12 hours long ; at its end, 12 hours and an
half: the fecond, which begins where the, fird ends,
viz. at 12 hours and an half, ends at 13 hours; and
fo of the reft, as far as the polar circles, where, what
the geographers call hour-climates terminate, and month-
climates commence. As an hour-climate 's a (pace
comprifed between two parallels of the equator, i 1 the
firft of which the longed day exceeds that in the lat¬
ter by half an hour; fo the montluclimate is a fpace
terminated between two circles parallel to the polar
circles, whofe longed day is longer or (horter than that
of its contiguous one by a month or 30 days.
The ancients, who confined the climates to what
they imagined the habitable parts of the earth, only
allowed of feven. The firft they made to pafs through
Meroe, the fecond through Sienna, the third through
Alexandria, the fourth through Rhodes, the fifth
through Rome, the fixth through Pontus, and the fe¬
venth through the |mouth of the Boryfthenes. The
moderns, who have failed further toward the poles,
make 30 climates on each fide ; and, in regard the
obliquity of the fphere makes a little difference in the
. length of the longed day, inftead of half an hour,
fome of them only make the difference of climates, a
quarter.
Vulgarly the term climate is bedowed on any coun¬
try or region differing from another either in refpedt
of the feafons, the quality of the foil, or even the
manners of the inhabitants ; without any regard to
the length of the longed day. Abulfeda, an Ara¬
bic author, didinguifties the fird kind of climates by
I the
C L I L 06 ] C L I
Climate the term real climates., and the latter by that of ap- Ricciolus furnifhes a more accurate one, wherein Climate
H parent climates. Varenius gives,us a table of 30 cli- the refractions are allowed for; an abftraft of which II
. I0, . mates; but without any regard to the refraftion. follows: , ‘tonJ* .
Middle Longeft Latit. Middle Longeft Latit. Middle
of Clim. Day. of dim. Day. of dim.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
12th 30 7°
3 0\l5
3°23
029 49
3035 35
0 4° 3 2
3° 44
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
5
53 46
.7 44
60 39
62 44
65
65 54
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
Latit. Cont. North Coat. •• South
Light. Night. Light. Night.
66° 53
69 30
73 0 93
78 6 124
84 o 156
90 oj 188
27«
58
87
117
148
180
3°
60
89
120
150
178
CLIMAX, or Gradation, in rhetoric, a figure
wherein the word or expreffion which ends the firft
member of a period begins the fecohd, and fo on ; fo
that every member will make a diftinCt fentence, ta¬
king its rife from the next foregoing, till the argument
and period be beautifully finifhed; as in the following
gradation of Dr Tillotfon: “ After we have praclifed
good aftions a while, they become eafy ; and when
they are eafy, we begin to take pleafure in them;
and when they pleafe us, we do them frequently; and
by frequency of adds, a thing grows into a habit; and
confirmed habit is a kind of fecond nature; and fo far
as any thing is natural, fo far it is necefiary; and we
can hardly do otherwife ; nay, we do it many times
when we do not think of it.”
CLINCH, in the fea-language, that part of a cable
which is bended about the ring of the anchor, and then
feized or made fall.
CLINCHING, in the fea-language, a kind of flight
caulking ufed at fea, in. a profpedt of foul weather,
about the polls : k confiils in driving a little oakum
into their feams, to prevent the water coming in at
them.
CLINIC, a term applied by the ancient church-hi-
florians to thofe who received baptifm on their death¬
bed.
Clinic Medicine, was particularly ufed for the me¬
thod of vifiting and treating lick perfons in bed, for
the more exadl difcovery of all the fymptoms of their
difeafe.
CLINIAS, a Pythagorean- philofopher, and mufi-
rian, in the 65th Olympiad. He was wont to affuage
his palfion, being very choleric, by his lyre.
CLINOPODIUM, Field-basil : A genus of the
gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 4ill-order, Afperifolia. The involucrum confills
of many fmall briilles under the verticillus or whirl of
flowers. There are fix fpecies, all of them herbaceous
plants, growing from one to two feet high. They
are remarkable only for their llrong odour, being
fomewhat between marjoram and bafil.
CLIO, in pagan mythology, the firll of the mufes,
daughter of Jupiter and Mnemofyne. She prefided'
over hiltory. She is reprefented crowned with laurels,
holding, in one hand a trumpet, and a book in the
other. Sometimes Ihe holds a plectrum or quill with
a lute. Her name fignifies honour and reputation,.
xAfif, gloria ; and it was her office faithfully to record
the adlions of brave and illullrious heroes. She had
Hyacintha by Pierius, fon of Magnes.
Clio, in zoology, a genus of infedls belonging to p]ate
the order of vermes mollufca. The body is oblong and cxxxvnii.
fitted for fwimming ; and it has two membranaceous
wings placed oppofite to each other. The fpecies are
three, principally dillinguilhed by the lhape of their
vagina, and are all natives of the ocean.
CLIPEUS, in natural hiftory, a name given to the
flat deprefled Centronix, from their refembling a fliield.
See Centronia.
CLISTHENES, a famous Athenian magiftrate,
the author of the mode of banilhing ambitious citizens
by ollracifm, or writing their names upon a ffiell: the
intention was patriotic, but it was abufed like all other
human inftitutions ? fome of the worthieft citizens of
Athens being thus exiled. He died 510 years before
Chrift.
CLITOMACHUS, the philofopher, flourifheda-
bout 140 years before Chrift. He was born at Car¬
thage ; quitted his country at 40 years of age; and
went to Athens, where he became the difciple and fuc-
cefibr of Carneades. He compofed many books, but
they are all loft.
CLITORIA, in botany : A genus of the decan-*
dria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 32d or¬
der, Papilionacete. The corolla is fupine, or turned
down-fide up ; with the vexillum or flag-petal very
large, patent, and almoft covering the alse or wing-pe¬
tals. There are four fpecies, all of them herbaceous
perennials, or annuals, of the kidney-bean kind, grow¬
ing naturally in both the Indies. The ftalk is climbing,,
flender, and of the height of a man. The leaves are
winged, placed alternately, and confift of two, three,
or five pair of lobes, terminated by an odd one. The
flowers, which are elegant, Hand fingly, each on its-
proper foot-ftalk. They are very large, and gene¬
rally of a deep blue, but fometimes of a white colour..
From the fruit of this plant is diftilled an eye-water.
The beans reduced to powder, and taken in broth, to
the quantity of two drachms, prove a gentle purge ;.
and Grimmius remarks, in his Laior Ceyl. that the
powder of the dried beans, being mixed with the milk
of the cocoa nut, or with broth,, and adminiftered in
1 quantity
C L r [ 67 1 C L o
Clitoris quantity from one to three drachms, not only mitigates
!J colic pains, but is very ufeful, and much ufed in Cey-
Chve' Jon, in all diforders of the ftomach and bowels. Thefe
"""~V plants are propagated by feeds ; and, in this country,
muft be kept continually in a ftove.
CLITORIS, in anatomy, is a part of the .external
pudenda, fituated at the angle which the nymphce form
with each other. Like the penis it has an erection,
and it is thought to be the principal feat of venereal
pleafure. The clitoris is of different fizes in different
women ; but in general it is fmall, and covered with
the labia. The preternaturally enlarged clitoris'is
what conftitutes an hermaphrodite. When the Clito¬
ris is too large, it may be fo extirpated as to remove
the unneceffary part; but this requires much care, for
a farther extirpation fubjedls the patient to an involun¬
tary difcharge of urine.
■CLITUMNUS, (anc. geog.), a river of Umbria,
on this fide the Apennine. According to Pliny,
it was a fountain confifting of feveral veins, fituated
between Hifpellum and Spoletium ; which foon af¬
ter fwelled into a very large and navigable river,
running from eaft to weft into theTinia, and both to¬
gether into the Tiber. A river famous for its milk-
white flocks and herds, (Virgil.) The god of the ri¬
ver was called Clitumnus.
CLITUS, brother to Alexander the Great’s nurfe,
followed that prince in his conquefts, and faved his
life by cutting off the hand of Rofaces, which held
an ax lifted up to kill him at the paflage of the
Granicus. Alexander, who had a great regard for
him, fome time after invited him to fupper; when
•Clitus, at the end of the repaft, being heated with
wine,^ diminifhed the exploits of that prince, in order
to magnify thofe of Philip his father. This fo enraged
Alexander, that he killed him with his own hand; but
he was afterwards fo afflicted at it, that he attempted
his own life.
CLIVE (Robert) lord, fon of Richard Clive, Efq;
of Styche near Drayton in Salop, was born in 1725.
Toward the clofe of the war in 1741, he'was fent as
a writer in the Eaft India fervice to Madras ; but be¬
ing fonder of the camp than the compting-houfe, he
foon availed himfelf of an opportunity to exchange
his pen for a pair of colours. He firft diftinguifhed
himfelf at the fiege of Pondicherry in 1748 ; a6ted
under major Laurence at the taking of Devi Cotta in
Tanjore, who wrote of his military talents in high
terms; commanded a fmall party for the taking of
Arcot, and afterward defended that place againft the
French ; and performed many other exploits, which,
confidering the remotenefs of the fcene of aftion,
would require a long detail to render fufficiently in¬
telligible. He was, however, in brief, looked upon
and acknowledged as the man who firft roufed his
countrymen to fpirited aftion, and raifed their repu¬
tation in the Eaft : fo that when he came over to
England in 1753, he was prefented, by the court of
directors, with a rich fword fet with diamonds, as an
acknowledgment of paft, and an incitement to future,
fervices. Captain Clive returned to India in 1755, as
governor of fort St David, with the rank of lieutenant-
colonel in the king’s troops ; when as commander of
the company’s troops, he, in conjun&ion with admiral
Watfon, reduced Angria the pirate, and became ma¬
iler of Geria, his capital, with all his accumulated trea-
fure. On the lofs of Calcutta and the well known
barbarity of the foubah Surajah Dowla, they failed to
Bengal; where they took fort William, in January
1757 ; and colonel Clive defeating the foubah’s army
foon after, accelerated a peace. Surajah Dowla’s per¬
fidy, however, foon produced freih hoftilities, which
ended in his ruin ; he being totally defeated by. colonel
Clive at the famous battle' of Plaifey. The next day
the conqueror entered Muxadabad in triumph ; and
placed Jaffier Ally Cawn, one of the principal gene¬
rals, on the throne : the depofed foubah was foon af¬
ter taken, and privately put to death-by Jaffier’s fon.-
Admiral Watfon died at Calcutta ; but colonel Clive,
commanded in Bengal the two fucceeding years : he
was honoured by the Mogul with the dignity of an
Omrah of the empire; and was rewarded by the new
foubah with a grant of lands, or a jaghire, producing
27,000 !. a-year. In 1760, he returned to England,
where he received the unanimous thanks of the com¬
pany, was elefted member of parliament for Shrewf-
bury, and was raifed to an Irifli peerage by the title
of Lord Clive Baron of Plaffey. In 1764, frefli diftur-
bances taking place in Bengal, lord Clive was efteem-
ed the only man qualified to fettle them, and was ac¬
cordingly again appointed to that preiidenc'y; after be¬
ing honoured with the order of the Bath, and with
the rank of major-general. When he arrived in India,
'he exceeded the moft fanguine expectation, in refto-
ring tranquillity to the province without ftriking a
blow, and fixed .the higheft ideas of the Britilh power
in the minds of the natives. He returned home in
1767; and, in 1772, when a parliamentary inquiry
into the condudl of the Eaft India company was
agitated, he. entered into an able juftification of
himfelf in a mafterly fpeech in the houfe of com¬
mons. He died fuddenly towards the clofe of the year
1774.
CLOACiE, in antiquity, the common fewers of
Rome, to carry off the dirt and foil of the city into
the Tiber ; juftly reckoned among the grand works of
the Romans. The firft common fewer, called Cloaca
Maxima, was built by Tarquinius, fome fay Prifcus,
others Superbus, of huge blocks of ftone joined toge¬
ther without any cement, in the manner of the edi¬
fices of thofe early times ; confifting of three rows of
arches one above another, which at length conjoin
and unite together ; meafuring in the clear 18 palms
in height, and as many in width. Under thefe arches
they rowed in boats ; which made Pliny fay that the
city was fufpended in air, and that they failed, beneath
the houfes. Under thefe arches alfo wrere ways
through which carts loaded with hay could pafs with
eafe. It began in the Forum' Romanum ; meafured
300 paces in length; and emptied itfelf between the
temple of Vefta and the Pons Senatorius. There
were as many principal fewers as there were hills.
Pliny concludes their firmnefs and ftrength from their
ftanding for fo many ages the {hocks of earthquakes,
the fall of houfes, and the vail loads and weights mo¬
ved over them.
CLOACINA, the goddefs of jakes and common
fewers., among the Romans.
I 2
CLOCK,
C L O [ <58 ] C L ♦ O
CLOCK, a machine conRrufiled in fuch a.manner, hour ; the angel opens a door, and falutes the virgin; Clock,
' and regulated fo by the uniform motion of a pendu- and the Holy Spirit defeends on her, &c. In the fe- *—
lum (a), as to meafure time, and all its fubdivifions, cond, two horfemep encounter, and beat the hour on
with great exaftnefs. each other: a door open<jj and there appears on the
The invention of clocks with wheels is referred to theatre the Virgin, with Jefus Chrift in her arms; the
Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, who lived in the time Magi, with their retinue, marching in order, and pre-
ofLotharius fon of Louis the Debonnair, on the ere- lenting their gifts; two trumpeters founding all the
dit of an epitaph quoted by Ughelli, and borrowed by while to proclaim the procdlion. Thefe, however,
him from Panvinius, They were at fir ft called nor- are excelled by two lately made by Entdifti artifts, and
turnal dials, to diftinguilh them from fun-dials, which intended as a prefent from the Eaft India company to
fhowed the hour by the fun’s lhadow. Others aferibe the Emperor of China. The clocks we fpeak of are
the invention to Boethius, about the year 5to. Mr in the form of chariots, in which are placed, in a fine
Derham makes clock-work of a much older Handing ; attitude, a lady, leaning her right hand Upon a part
and ranks Archimedes’s fphere mentioned by Clan- of the chariot, under which is a clock of curious workr
dian, and that of Pofidonius mentioned by Cicero, a- manlhip, little larger than a {hilling, that ftrikes and
mong the machines of this kind: not that either their repeats, and goes eight days. Upon her finger fits a
form orufe were the fame with thofe of ours, but that bird finely modelled, and fet with diamonds and ru-
they had their motion from fome hidden weights or bits, with its wings expanded in a flying pofture, and
fprings, with wheels, orpullies, or fome fuch clock- actually flutters for a confiderable time on touching a
work principle. But be this as it will, it is certain diamond button below it; the body of the bird (which-
the art of making clocks, fuch as are now in ufe, was contains part of the wheels that in a manner give life
either firft invented, or at leaft retrieved, in Germany, to it) is not the bignefs of the 16th part of an inch,
about 200 years ago. The water-clocks, or clepfy- The lady holds in her left hand a gold tube not much,
drre, and fun-dials, have both a much better claim to thicker than a large pin, 00 the top of which isafmali,
antiquity. The French annals mention one of the for- round box, to which a circular ornament fet with dia-
mer kind fent by Aaron, king of Perfia, to Charle- monds not larger than a fixpence is fixed, which,goe&
magne, about the year 807, which feemed to bear round near three hours in a 'conftant regular motion,
fome refembjanca to the modern clocks : it was of Over the lady’s head, fupported by a fmall fluted pil-
brafs, and (bowed fhe hours by twelve little balls of lar no bigger than a quill, is a double umbrella, under
the fame metal, which fell at the end of each hour, -the largeft of which a bell is fixed at a confiderable di-
and in falling ftruck a bell and made it found. ‘There ftance from the clock, and feems to have no connexion,
were alfo figures of 12 cavaliers, which at the end of with it; but from which a communication is fecretly
each hour came forth at certain apertures or win- conveyed to a hammer, that regularly ftrikes the hour,
dows in the fide of the clock, and (hut them a- and repeats the fame at pleafure, by touching a dia-
gain, &c. mqnd button fixed to the clock below. At the feet of
The invention of pendulum-clocks is owing to tire the lady is a gold dog; before which from the point
happy induftry of the laft age : the honour of it isdif- of the chariot are two birds fixed on fpiral fprings; the
puted by Huygens and Galileo. The former, who wings and feathers of which are fet with (tones of va-
has written a volume on the fubjeft, declares .it was rious colours, and appear as if flying away with the
firft put in praftice in the year 1657, and the deferip- chariot, which, from another fecret motion, is con- vf
tion thereof printed in 1658. Becher, de Nova Tem- trived to run in a ftraight, circular,.or any other diree-
poris dimetiendi Theoria, anno 1680, contends for Ga- tion ; a boy that lays hold of the chariot behind, feems;
lileo ; and relates, though at fecond-hand, the whole alfo to pu(h it foYward. Above the umbrella are flow-
hiftory of the in-vention ; adding, that one Trefler, ers and ornaments of precious ftones; and. it terminates-
clock-maker to the then father of the Grand Duke of with a flying dragon fet in the fame manner. The
Tufcany, made the firft pendulum-clock at Florence, .whole is of gold; mod curioufly executed, and embel-
by direftion of Galileo Galilei; a pattern of which lifhed with rubies and pearls.
was brought into Holland. The Academy de’l Ci- Of the general Mechanifm of Clocks, and how they ’
mento fay exprefsly, that the application of the pen- meafure Time. The firft figure of Plate CXXXIX. is .
dulum to the movement of a clock was firft pro- a profile of a clock : P is a weight that fufpended
pofed by Galileo, and firft put in practice by his fon by a rope that winds about the cylinder or barrel C,.
Vincenzo Galilei, in 1649. -^e t^e inventor who he which is fixed upon the axis a the pivots ££ go into
will, it is certain the invention never flouriftied till it holes made in the plates TS, TS, in which they turn
came into Huygens’s hands, who infills on it, that if freely. Thefe plates are made of brafs or iron, and are
ever Galileo thought of fuch a thing, he never brought connected by means offour pillars ZZ; and the whole
it to any degree of perfe&ion. The firft pendulum- together is called the frame.
clock made in England was in the year 1662, by Mr The weight P, if not reftrained, would neceflarily-
Fromantil a Dutchman. turn the barrel C with an uniform accelerated motion,.
Amongft the modern clocks, thofe of Strafburg and in the fame manner as if the weight was falling freely
Lyons are very eminent for the richnefs of their fur- from a height. But the barrel is furniihed with a rat-
niture, and the variety of their motions and figures, chet wheel K K, the right fide of whofe teeth ftrikes
In the firft, a cock claps his wings, and proclaims the againft the click, which is fixed with a ferew to the
wheel
(a) A balance not unlike the fly of a kitchen-jack, was formerly ufed in place of the pendulum.
Hate CXXX1X.
C L O [ 69 1 G L O
©lock, wheel DD, as reprefented in fig. 2. fo that the a&ion
—y— 0f weight is communicated to the wheel D D, the
teeth of which aft upon the teeth of the -fmall wheel J
which turns upon the pivots c c. The communication
or aftion of one wheel with another is called the pitch¬
ing ; a fmall wheel like d is called a piniorirzn& its teeth
are leaves of the pinion. Several things are requifite
to form a good pitching, the advantages of which are
obvious in all machinery where teeth and pinions are
employed. The teeth and pinion leaves fhould be of a
proper fhape, and perfcftly equal among themfelvesr
the fize alio of the pinion fhould be of a juft proportion
to the wheel afting into it; and its place muft be at a
certain diftance from the wheel, beyond or within
which it will make a bad pitching.
The wheel EE is fixed upon the axis of the pinion
d; and the motion communicated to the wheel DD
by the weight is tranfmitted to the pinion r/, confe-
quently to the wheel E E, as likewife to the pi¬
nion e and wheel F F, which moves the pinion y, upon
the axis of which the crown or balance wheel G H is
fixed. The pivots of the pinion f play in holes of the
plates L which.are fixed horizontally to the plates
T S. In a word* the motion begun by the weight is
Iranimitted from the wheel G H to the palettes I K,
and by means of the fork U X rivetted on the pa¬
lettes communicates motion to the pendulum A B,
which is fufpended Upon the hook A. The pendulum
A B defcribes, round the point A, an arc of a circle
alternately going and returning. If then the pendu¬
lum be once put in motion by a pufh of the hand, the
weight of the pendulum at B will make it return upon
itfelf, and it will continue to go aiternately backward
and forward till the refiftance of the ah upon the pen¬
dulum, and the friftion at the point of fulpenfion at A,
deflroys the original impreffed force. But as, at every
vibration of the pendulum, the teeth of the balance-
wheel G H aft fo upon the palettes 1 K (the pivots
upon the axis of thefe palettes play in two holes of the
potence s t), that after one tooth H has communicated
motion to the palette K, that tooth efcapcs; then the
oppofite tooth G afts upon the palette I, and efcapes
in the fame manner; and thus each tooth of the
wheel efcapes the palettes I K, after having commu¬
nicated their motion to the palettes in fuch a manner
that the pendulum, inftead of being ftopt* continues
to move.
The wheel E E,revolves in an hour; the pivot ec of
this wheel pafies through the plate, and is continued
tor; upon the pivot is a wheel N N with a long fock-
et faftened in the centre; upon the extremity of this
focket r the minute-hand is fixed. The wheel N N
afts upon the wheel O ; the pinion of which / afts
upon the wheel fixed upon a focket which turns
along with the wheel N. This wheelmakes its re¬
volution in 12 hours, upon the focket of which the
hour-hand is fixed.
From the above defcription it is eafy to fee, 1. That
the weight p turns all the wheels, and at the fame
time continues the motion of the pendulum. 2. That
the quickncfs of the motion of the wheels is determined
by that of the pendulum. 3. That the wheels point
out the parts of time divided by the uniform motion of
the pendulum.
When the cord upon which the weight is fufpend¬
ed is entirely run down from off the barrel, it is wound
up again by means of a key, which goes on the fquare
end of the arbor at Qj^by turning it in a contrary di-
reftion from that in which the weight defcends. For
this purpofe, the. inclined fide of the teeth of the wheel
R (fig. 2.) removes the click C, fo that the ratchet-
wheel R turns while the wheel D is at reft ; but as
Toon as the cord is wound" up, the click, falls in be¬
tween the teeth of the wheel D, and the right fide of
the teeth again aft upon the end of the click, which
obliges the wheel D to turn along with the barrel;
and the fpring A keeps the click -between the teeth
of the ratchet-wheel R.
We lhall now explain how time is meafured by the
motion of the pendulum ; and how the wheel E, upon
the axis of which the minute-hand is fixed, makes but
one precife revolution in an hour. The vibrations of
a pendulum are performed in a (horter or longer time
in proportion to the length of the pendulum itlelf. A.
pendulum of 3 feet 84 French lines in length, make*
3600 vibrations in an hour: i. e. each vibration is per¬
formed in a fecond of time, and for that reafon it is
called a fecond pendulum. But a pendulum of 9 inches
24 French lines makes 7200 vibrations in an hour, or
two vibrations in a fecond of time, and is called a half
fecond pendulum. Hence, in conftrufting a wheel
whole revolution muft be performed in a given time,
the time of the vibrations of the pendulum which re¬
gulates its motion muft be confidered. Suppofing,
then, that the pendulum AB makes 72; o vibrations in
an hour, let us confider how the wheel E Ihall take up-
an hour in making one revolution. This entirely
depends on the number of teeth in the wheels and
pinions. If the balance-wheel confifts of 30 teeth,
it will turn once in the time that the pendu¬
lum makes 60 vibraiV.ns: for at every turn of the
wheel, the fame tooth afts once on the palette I, and
once on the palette K, which occafions two feparate
vibrations in the pendulum ; and the wheel having 30
teeth, it oecafions twice 30, or 60 vibrations. Con-
fequently, this wheel muft perform 120 revolutions
in an hour; becaufe 60 vibrations, which it occa- .
fions at every revolution, are contained 120 times;
in 7200, the number of vibrations performed by the
pendulum in an hour. Now, in order to determine
die number of teeth for the wheels E F, and their pini¬
ons e it muft; be remarked, that one revolution of
the wheel E muft. turn the pinion e as many times as;
the number of teeth in the pinion is contained in the
number of teeth in the wheel. Thus, if the wheel E
contains 72 teeth, and the pinion e 6, the pinion will
make 12 revolutions in tl^e time that the wheel makes
1 ; for each tooth of the wheel drives forward a tooth,
of the pinion, and when the 6 teeth of the pinion are
moved, a complete revolution is performed ; but the
wheel E has by that time only advanced 6 teeth, and,
has Hill 66 to advance before its revolution be com¬
pleted, which , will occafion u more revolutions of
the pinion. For the fame reafon, the wheel F ha¬
ving 60 teeth, and the pinion y 6, the pinion will;
make JO revolutions while the wheel performs one.
Now, the wheel F being turned by the-pinion makes
12 revolutions for one of the wheel E ; and the pi¬
nion y makes 10 revolutions for one of the wheel F;.
confequently, the pinion f performs 10 times 12 ort
C L O [ 70 ] C L O
■’ck. I2Q revolutions in the time the wheel E performs one.
• But the wheel G, which is turned by the piniort f, oc-
cafions 60 vibrations in the pendulum each time it
turns round ; confequently the wheel G occafions 60
times 120 or 7200 vibrations of the pendulum while
.the wheel E performs one revolution ; but 7200 is the
number of vibrations made by the pendulum in an hour,
and confequently tire wheel E performs but one revo¬
lution in an hour; and fo of the reft.
From this reafoning, it is eafy to difcover how a
clock may be made to go for any length of time with¬
out being wound up : 1. By increafxng the number of
teeth in the wheels; 2. By diminiftiing the number of
teeth in the pinions ; 3. By increafing the length of
, the cord that fufpends the weight; 4. By increa-
iing the length of the pendulum ; and, 5. By add¬
ing to the number of wheels and pinions. But, in
proportion as the time is augmented, if the weight
continues the fame, the force which it communicates
to the laft wheel G H will be diminiftied.
It only remains to take notice of the number of
teeth in the wheels which turn the hour and minute
hands.
The wheel E performs one revolution in an hour j
the,wheel N N, wrhich is turned by the axis of the
wheel E, muft likewife make only one revolution in
the fame time; and the minute-hand is fixed to the
focket of this wheel. The wheel N has 30 teeth, and
acts upon the wheel O, which has likewife 30 teeth,
and the fame diameter; confequently the wheel O
takes one hour to a revolution : now the wheel O car¬
ries the pinion p, which has 6 teeth, and which a&s
upon the wheel yy of 72 teeth ; confequently the pi¬
nion p makes 12 revolutions while the wheel yy makes
one, and of courfe the wheel yy takes 12 hours to one
revolution ; and upon the focket of this wheel the
hour-hand is fixed. All that has been faid here con¬
cerning the revolutions of the wheels, fsV. is equally
applicable to watches as to clocks.
The ingenious Dr Franklin has contrived a clock to
{how the hours, minutes, and feconds, with only three
wheels and two pinions in the whole movement. The
dial-plate (fig. 3.) has the hours engraven upon it in
fpiral fpaces along two diameters of a circle containing
four times 60 minutes. The index A goes round in
four hours, and cotints the minutes from any hour by
which it has paffed to the nixt following hour. The
time, therefore, in the pofition of the index ftrown in
the figure is either 324-minutes paft XII. III. or VIII.;
and fo in every other quarter of the circle it poiats to
the number of minutes after the hours which the in¬
dex laft left in its motion. The fmall hand B, in the
arch at top, goes round once in a minute, and fhows
the fecdnds. The wheel-work of this clock may be
feen in fig. 4. A is the firft or great wheel, containing
160 teeth, and going round in four hours with the in¬
dex A in fig. 3. let down by a hole on its axis. This
wheel turns a pinion B of 1 o leaves, which therefore
goes round in a quarter of an hour. On the axis of
this pinion is the wheel C of 120 teeth; which goes
round in the fame time, and turns a pinion D
of eight leaves round in a minute, with the fecond
hand B of fig. 3. fixed on its axis, and alfo the com¬
mon wheel E of 30 teeth for moving a pendulum
(by palettes) that vibrates feconds, as in a common
clock. This clock is wound up by a line going over Clock,
a pulley on the axis of the great wheel, like a common '——y—
thirty hour clock. Many of thefe admirably fimple
machines have been conftrudled, which meafure time
exceedingly well. It is fubjedl, however, to the in¬
convenience of requiring frequent winding by drawing
up the weight, and likewife to fome uncertainty as to
the particular hour fihown by the index A. Mr Fer-
gufon has propofed to remedy thefe inconveniences by
the following conftru&ion. In the dial-plate of his
clock (fig. 5.) there is an opening, abed, below the
centre ; through which appears part of a flat plate, on
which the 12 hours, with their divifions into quarters,
are engraved. This plate turns round^n 12 hours; -
and the index A points out the true hour, &c. B is
the minute-hand, which goes round the large circle of
60 minutes whilft the plate abed fhifts its place one
hour under the fixed index A. There is another open-
ing, efg, through which the feconds are feen on a
flat moveable ring at the extremity of a fleur-de-lis en¬
graved on the dial-plate. A in fig. 6. is the great
wheel of this clock, containing 120 teeth, and turn¬
ing round in 12 hours. The axis of this wheel bears
the plate of hours, which may be moved by a pin paf-
fing through fmall holes drilled in the plate, without
affefting the wheel-work. The great wheel A turns
a pinion B of ten leaves round in an hour, and car¬
ries the minute-hand B on its axis round the dial-
plate in the fame time. On this axis is a wheel C of
120 teeth, turning round a pinion D of fix leaves in
three minutes; on the axis of which there is a wheel
E of 90 teeth, that keeps a pendulum in motion, vi¬
brating feconds by palettes, as in a common clock,
when the pendulum-wheel has only 30 teeth, and goes
round in a minute. In order to flrow the feconds by
this clock, a thin plate muft be divided into three
times fixty, or 180 equal parts, and numbered 10, 20,
30, 40, 50, 60, three times fucceflively; and fixed
on the fame axis with the wheel of 90 teeth, fo as to
turn round near the back of the dial-plate ; and thefe
divifions .will ftiow the feconds through the opening
efsh> fig- 5- This clock will go a week without
winding, and always fliow the precife hour; but this
clock, as Mr Fergufon candidly acknowledges, has two
difadvantages of which Dr Franklin’s clock is free.
When the minute-hand B is adjufted, the hour-plate
muft alfo be fet right by means of a pin ; and the fmall-
nefs of the teeth in the pendulum-wheel will caufe the
pendulum ball to deferibe but fmall arcs in its vibra¬
tions ; and therefore the momentum of the ball will be
lefs, and the times of the vibrations will be more affec¬
ted by any unequal, impulfe of the pendulum-wheel on
the palettes. Befides, the weight of the flat ring on
which the feconds are engraved will load the pivots of
the axis of the pendulum-wheel with a great deal of
fri&ion, which ought by all poffible means to be avoid¬
ed. To remedy this inconvenience, the fecond plate
might be omitted.
A clock fimilar to Dr Franklin’s was made in Lin-
colnftiire about the end of laft century or beginning of _
this ; and is now in London in the poffefiion of a
grandfon of the perfon who made it.
A clock, fliowing the apparent diurnal motions of
the fun and moon, the age and phafes of the moon,
with tit: lime of her coming to the meridian, and the
time*
C L O t 7> ] . , C ,L 0
times of high and low water, by having only two the fun-plate with the fun S. B has fifty-nine teeth,
J wheels and a pinion added to the common movement, with a folid fpindle for its axis, which turns within the '
was contrived by Mr Fergufon, and defcribed in his Se- hollow axis of A, and carries the moon-plate with the
le&Exercifes. The dial-plate of this clock (fig 7.) con- moon M : both wheth are turned round by a pinion
tains all the twenty-four hours of the day and night. S is C of nineteen leaves, and this pinion is turned round
the fun, which ferves as an hour index, by going round by the common clock-work in eight hours ; and as
the dial-plate in twenty-four hours; and M is the moon, nineteen is the third part of fifty-feven, the wheel A
which goes round in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and
a half, the time of her going round in the heavens from
one meridian to the fame meridian again. The fun is
fixed to a circular plate (fee fig. 8.), and carried round
by the motion of that plate on which the twenty-four
hours are engraven ; and within them is a circle divi¬
ded into twenty-nine and a half equal parts for the days
of the moon’s age, reckoning from new moon to new
moon ; and each day ftands diredfly under the time,
in the twenty-four hour circle of the moon’s coniing to
the meridian ; the XII under the fun {landing for noon,
and the oppofite XII for midnight. The moon M
is fixed to another circular plate (fig. 6.) of the fame
diameter with that which carries the fun, part of which
may be feen through the opening, over which the
fmall wires r and b pafs in the moon-plate. The wire a
{hows the moon’s age and time of her coming to the
meridian, and b {hows the time of high-water for that
day in the fun-plate. The diftance of thefe wires an-
iwers to the difference of time between the moon’s
will go round in twenty-four-hours ; and the wheel B-
in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a half: fifty-
feven being to twenty-four as fifty-nine to twenty-four
hours fifty minutes and a half very nearly. On the
back of the wheel B is fixed an elliptical ring D, which,
in its revolution, raifes and lets down a lever EF. whofe
centre of motion is on a pin at F ; and this, by the up¬
right bar G, raifes and lets down the tide-plate H
twice in the time of the moon’s revolving from the me¬
ridian to the meridian again : this plate moves between
four rollers R, R, R, R. A clock of this kind war
adapted by Mr Fergufon to the movement of an old
watch : the great wheel of a watch goes round in four
hours; on the axis of this he fixed a wheel of twenty
teeth, to turn a wheel of forty teeth on the axis of the
pinion C; by which means that pinion was turned
round in eight hours, the wheel A in twenty-four, and
the wheel B in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a
half.
To this article we fhall fubjoin a brief account of
coming to the meridian and high-water at the place for two curious contrivances. The firft, for giving motion
which the clock is made. At London their difference
is two hours and a half. Above the moon-plate there
is a fixed plate N, fupported by a wire A, fixed to it
at one end and fixed at right angles into the dial-plate
to the parts of a clock by making it to defcend along
an inclined plane, is the invention of Mr Maurice
Wheeler ; and the clock itfelf may be feen in Don
Saltero’s coffee-houfe at Chelfea. DE, fig. 10. is thepiate
at the midnight XII. This plate may reprefent inclined plane on which the clock A B C defcends: CXLIJ-
the earth, and the dot L London, or the place
to which the clock is adapted. Around this plate
there is an elliptic {hade on the moon-plate, the high-
eft points of which are marked high-water, and the
loweft low-water. As this plate turns round below the
plate N, thefe points come fucceffively even with L,
and ftand over it at the times when it is high or low
this confifts externally of a hoop about an inch broad,
and two fides or plates {landing out beyond the hoop
about one-eighth of an inch all round, with indented
edges, that the clock may not Aide, but turn round
whilft it moves down. One of thefe plates is infcribed
with the twenty-four hours, which pafs fucceffively
under the index LP, fig. 11. which is always in a pofi-
water at the given place ; which times are pointed by tion perpendicular to the horizon, and ffiows the hour
the fun S on the dial-plate; and the plate H above
XH-at noon rifes or falls with the tide. As the fun
S goes round the dial-plate in twenty-four hours, and
the moon M in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a
half, it is plain that the moon makes only twenty-eight
revolutions-and a half, whilft the fun makes twenty-nine
and a half; fo that it will be twenty-nine days and a
half from conjun&ion to conjuhftion.. And thus the
wire a ffiifts over one day of the moon’s age on the fun-
plate in twenty-four hours. The phafes of the moon
for every day of her age may be feen through a round
hole m in the moon-plate: thus, at conjunction or
new-moon, the whole fpace feen through m is black; at
oppofition or full moon this fpace is white; at either
quadrature half black and half white ; and at every
pofition the white part r-efembles the vifible part of the
moon for every day of her age. The black ffiaded
fpace N/ F / (fig. 8.) on the fun-plate ferves for thefe
appearances. N reprefents the new moon, F the full
moon, and/her firft quarter, and/her laft quarter, &c.
The wheel-work and tide-work of this clock are repre-
fented in fig. 9. A and B are two wheels of equal
diameters : A has fifty-feven teeth, with an hollow axis
that paftes through the dial of the clock, and carries
on the top of the machine : for this reafon the lower
part of the index, or FI L, is heavieft, that it may pre¬
ponderate the other H P, and always keep it pendu¬
lous, with its point to the vertical hour, as the move¬
ment goes on. Inftead of this index, an image may
be fixed for ornament on the axis g, which with an •
eredled finger performs the office of an index. In or¬
der to defcribe the internal part or mechanifm of this
clock, let L E T Q^be the external circumference of
the hoop, and // the fame plate, on which is placed
the train of wheel-work 1, 2, 3, 4, which is much the
fame as in other clocks, and is governed by a balance
and regulator as in them. But there is no need of a>
fpring and fufee in this clock; their effe&s being o-
therwife anfwered, as we {hall fee. In this machine
the great wheel of 1 is placed in the centre, or upon the
axis of the movement, and the other wheels and parts
towards one fide, which would therefore prove a bias
to the body of the clock, and cauie it to move, even
on an horizontal plane, for fame ftiort diftance ; this -
makes it neceffary to fix a thin plate of lead at C, on
the oppofite part,of the hoop, to reftore the equilibrium-
of the movement. This being done, the machine will '
abide at reft in any pofition on the horizontal plane--
H-H-s;
C I. O . [ 72 1 c L O
HH ; but if that plane be eliaiiged into tlie inclined and thus, when the clock is wound up, the fpring Clock.
^ plane D E, it will touch it in the point D ; but it moves the barrel, and therefore the lever and weight P 1 v'"*"
cannot reit there, becaufe the centre of gravity at M in the fuuation PM. In doing this, the centre of
afting in the diredtion M I, and the point T having gravity is conllantly removed farther from the centre
nothing to fupport it, muil continually defcend, and of the machine, and therefore it mull determine the
carry the body down the plane. But now. if any clock to move upwards, which it will continue to do
weight P be fixed on the other fide of the machine, as long as tl^e fpring is unbending itfelf; and thus the •
duch as (hall remove the centre of gravity from M to weight and its lever PM will preferve the fituation they
the point V in the line L D which paffes through the firfl. have, and do the office of a chain and fufee.
point D, it will then reft upon the inclined plane, as Phil. Tranf. n° 140. or Abridg. vol. i. p. 467.
in the cafe of the rolling cylinder. If this weight By ftat. 9 and to W. III. cap. 28. $ 2. no perfon
P be fuppofed not fixed, but fufpended at the end of {hall export, or endeavour to export out of this king-
an arm, or vedlis, which arm or lever is at the fame dom, any outward or inward box-cafe or dial-plate, of
time faftened to a centrical wheel 1, moving on the axis gold, filver, brafs, or other metal, for clock or watch,
M of the rriachine, which wheel by its teeth (hall com- without the movement in or with every fuch box, &c.
municate with the train of wheels, &c. on the other made up fit for ufe, with the maker’s name engraven
fide, and the power of the weight be juft* equal to the thereon ; nor ffiall any perfon make up any clock or
ftiftion or refiftance of the train, it will remain motion- watch without putting his name and place of a-
lefs as it did before when it was fixed; and confe- bode or freedom, and no other name or place, on e-
quently the clock alfo will be at reft on the inclined very clock or watch ; on penalty of ferfeiting every
plane. But fuppofing the power of the weight P to fuch box, cafe, and dial-plate, clock and watch, not
be fuperior to the reliilance of the train, it will then made up and engraven as aforefaid ; and 20I. one
put it into motion, and of courfe the clock likewife ; moiety to the king, the other to thofe that (hall fue
which will then commence a motion dowrt the plane ; for the fame.
while the weight P, its vedtis PM, and the wheel 1, Clocks, portable, or pocket, commonly denomina-
all conftantly retain the fame pofition which they have ted Watches. See the article Watch.
at firft when the clock begins to move. Hence it is CiocK-Work, properly fo called, is that part of the
eafy to underftand, that the weight P may have fuch movement which ftrikes the hours, fcfr. on a bell ; in
an intrinfic gravity, as fliall caufe it to adt upon the contradiftindtion to that part of the movement of a
train with any required force, fo as to produce a mo- clock or watch which is defigned to meafure and ex-
tion in the machine of any required velocity ; fuch, for hibit the time on a dial-plate,, and which is termed
inftance, as {hall carry it once round in twenty-four Watch-work.
hours: then, it the diameters of the plates ABCSbe , I. Of the Clock-^xt. The wheels compofing this
four inches, it,will deferibe the length of their circum- part are : The great or firft wheel H ; which is moved pi. CXI.
ference, we. 1 2,56 inches ip one natural day ; and by the weight or fpring at the barrel G: in fixteen erfig.
therefore, if the plane be of a fufficient breadth, thirty-hour clocks, this has ufually pins, and is called
fuch a clock may go feveral days, and would fur- the pin-wheel; in eight-day pieces, the fecond wheel
nifh a perpetual motion, if the plane were infinitely I is commonly the pin-wheel, or ftriking-wheel, which
extended. Let SD be drawn through M perpendicu- is moved by the former. Next the ftriking-whecl is
lar to the inclined plane in the point D; alio let LH be* the detent-wheel, or hoop-wheel K, having a hoop
perpendicular to the horizontal line HH, paffing thro’ almoft round it, wherein is a vacancy at which the
D; then is the angle HDE = LDS = DMT; whence clock locks. The next is the third or fourth wheel,
it follows that the greater the angle of the piane’s lie- according to its diftance from the firft, called the war/z-
vation is, tire greater will be the arch D T; and confe- ing-wheel L. The laft is the flying pinion with a
-quently the iurther will the common centre of gravity fly or fan, to gather air, and fo bridle the rapidity
be removed from M; therefore the power of P will be of the clock’s motion. To thefe muft be added the
augmented, and e>f courfe the motion of the whole ma- pinion of report; which drives round the locking-
chine accelerated. Thus it appears, that by duly ad- wheel, called alfo the count-wheel; ordinarily with ele-
jufting the intrinfic weight of P, at firft to produce a ven notches in it, unequally diftant, to make the clock
motion {bowing the mean time as near as poffible, the ftrike’the hours.
time may be afterwards corre&ed, or the clock made Befides the wheels, to the clock part belongs the
to go failer or flower by taifing or depreffingthe plane, rafh or ratch; a kind of wheel with twelve largq fangs,
by means of the ferew at S. The angle to which the running ccncentrical to the dial-wheel, and ferving to
plane is firft raifed ,is about ten degrees. The marquis lift up the detents every hour, and make the clock
of Worcefter is alfo faid to have contrived a watch that ftrike : the detents or ftops, which being lifted up
moved on a declivity. See farther Phil. Tranf. Abr. and let fall, lock and unlock'the clock in ftriking ;
vol. 1. p. 468, &c. or n'J 161. the hammer, as S, which ftrikes the bell R; the ham-
The other contrivance is that of M. de Gennes for mer-tails, as T, by'which the ftriking pins draw back
making a clock afeend on an inclined plane. To this the hammers; latches, whereby the work is lifted up
end let ABC (fig. 12.) be the machine on the inclined and unlocked ; and lifting-pieces, as P, which lift up
plane EDE, and let it be kept at reft upon it, or in and unlock the detents.
cquilibiio by the weight P at the end of the lever PM. The method of calculating the numbers of a piece
The circular area CF is one end of a fpring barrel in of clock-work having fomething in it yery entertain-
the middle of the movement, in which is included a ing, and at the fame time very eafy and uleful, we
fpring as in a common watch. To this end of the ftiallgive the readers the rules relating thereto: I. Re¬
barrel the arm or lever PM is fixed upon the centre M; gard here needs only be had to the counting-wheel,
N° 82. 2 ftriking-
Tlate CXli.
C L O t 73 J C L O
ftriking-wheel, and detent-wheel, which move round 3 minutes, 56 feconds; by which quam
J in this proportion : the count-wheel commonly goes
round once in 12 or 24 hours; the detent-wheel moves
round every ftroke the clock ftrikes, or fometimes but
-once in two ftrokes t wherefore it follows, that,
tity of time every ftar comes round
fooner than it did oh the day before.
Therefore if you mark the precife
moment (hown by a clock or watch
As many pins as are in the pin*wheel, fo many turns when any ftar vanifhes behind a chim-
hath the detent-wheel in one turn of the pin-wheel;
or, which is the fame, the pins of the pin-wheel are
ney, or any other objeft, as feen thro:
a fmall hole in a thin plate of metal.
the quotients of that wheel divided by the pinion of fixed in a window-fliutter; and do this
the detent-wheel. But if the detent-wheel move but
once round in two ftrokes of the clock, then the faid
quotient is but half the number of pins. 3. As many
turns of the pin-wheel as are required to perform the
• ftrokes of 12 hours (which are 78), fo many turns muft
the pinion of report have to turn round the count-wheel
once: or thus, the quotient of 78, divided by the num¬
ber of ftriking-pins, ftiall be the quotient for the pi¬
nion of report and the count-wheel; and this is in
cafe the pinion of report be fixed to the arbor of the
pin-wheel, which is commonly done.
An example will make all plain : The locking-wheel
being 48, the pinion of report 8, the
a r A P‘n-Wheel 78, the ftriking pins are 13,
^ ^ ^ ’ and fo of the reft. Note alfo, that 78
T”’, divided by 13 gives 6, the quotient of
M />n /jo* th? pinion of report. As for the warn-
g' ing-wheel and fly-wheel, it matters lit¬
tle what numbers they have; their ufe
being only to bridle the rapidity of the
motion of the other wheels.
The following rules will be of good fervice in this
calculation, t. To Jirui how manyJlrokes a dock Jlrikes
in otic turn of the fufee or barrel: As the turns of the
great wheel or fufee are to the days of the clock’s
Continuance ; fo is the number of ftrokes in 24 hours,
•biz. 156, to the ftrokes of one turn of the fufee.
, 2. To find how many days a clock will go : As the
ftrokes in 24 hours are to thofe in one turn of the fu¬
fee ; fo ate the turns of the fufee to the days of the
clock’s going.
3. To find the number of turns of the fufee or barrel:
As the ftrokes in one turn of the fufee are to thofe of
3*
35
39
43
47
55
58
\2
6
26
30
34
38
43
46
5°
54
57
6) 60 |
6) 48 |
24 hours ; fo is the dock’s continuance to the turns of ftriking of the hour, £3V.
for feveral nights fucceffively (as fup-
pofe twenty); if, at the end of that tifhe,
the ftar vanifttes as much fooner than it
did the firft night, by the clock, as an-
fwers to the time denoted in the table
for fo many days, the clock goes true:
otherwife not. If the difference between
the clock and ftar be lefs than the table
(hows, the clock goes too fail; if great¬
er, it goes too flow; and muft be re¬
gulated accordingly, by letting down or
raifing up the ball of the pendulum, by
little and little, by turning the fcrew-
nut under the ball, till you find it keeps
true equal time.
Thus, fuppofing the ftar fhould difappear behind a
chimney, any night when it is XIL by the clock; and
that, on the 20th night afterward, the fame ftar
fhould difappear when the time is 41 minutes 22 fe-
Conds paft X, by the clock; which being fubtra&ed
from 12 hours o min. o fee. leaves remaining 1 hour
j8 minutes 38 feconds for the time the ftar is then
fafter than the clock: look in the table, and againft
20, in the left hand column, you will find the acce¬
leration of the ftar to be 1 hour 18 min. 38. fee.
agreeing exa&ly with what the difference ought to be
between the clock and ftar 2 which fhows that the
clock meafures true equal time, and agrees with the
mean folar time, as it ought to do,
II. Of the Watch-^xX. of a clock or watch. This
is that part of the movement which is defigned to
meafure and exhibit the time on a dial-plate ; in con-
tfadiftin&ion to that part which contributes to the
the fufee or great wheel,
4. To fnd the number of leaves in the pinion of report
the axis of the great wheel: As the number of ftrokes
in the clock’s continuance is to the turns of the fufee;
The feveral members of the watch-part are, 1. The
balance, confifting of the rim, which is its circular part;
and the verge, which is its fpindle ; to which belong
, two palettes or leaves, that play in the teeth of the
fo are the ftrokes in 12 hours, viz. 78, to the quo-» crown-wheel. 2. The potence, or pottance, which
is the ftrong ftud in pocket-watches, whereon the low¬
er pivot of the verge plays, and in the middle of which
One pivot of the balance-wheel plays; the bottom of
the pottance is called the foot, the middle part the
nofe, and the upper part the fhoulder. 3. The cock,
which is the piece covering the balance. 4. The re¬
gulator, or pendulum fpring, which is the fmall fpring,
m the new pocket-watches, underneath the balance.
5. The pendulum (fig. 13); whofe parts are, thejverge
palettes 5,5, cocksy^, the rod, the fork *, the flatt 2,
the bob or great ball 3, and the corredor or regula¬
tor 4, being a contrivance of Dr Derham for bring¬
ing the pendulum to its nice vibrations. 6. The
wheels, which are the crown-wheel F in pocket-
pieces, and fwing-wheel in pendulums; ferving to drive
the balance or pendulum. 7. The contrate-wheel E,
which is that next the crown-wheel, &c. and whofe
K teeth
tient of the pinion of report fixed on the arbor of the
great wheel.
5. To find the Jlrokes in the clock's continuance: As 12
is to 7 8 ; fo are the hours of the clock’s continuance
to the number of ftrokes in that time.
By means of the following table, clocks and watch¬
es may be fo regulated as to meafure true equal time.
The ftars make 3(^6 revolutions from
H. M. S. any point of the compafs to the fame
point again in 365 days and one mi-
56 nute ; and therefore they gain a 365th
5 2 of a revolution every 2 4 hours of mean
48jfolar time, near enough for regulating
44iany clock or watch,
39 This acceleration is at the rate of 3
.35 min. 55 fee. 53 thirds, 59 fourths in 24
3 ijhours; or, in the neareft round numbers,
Vol. V. Part I.
C L O [ 74 ] . C L O
teeA and hoop lie contrary to thofe of other wheels ; pendicular line GPI with the minute-wheel, and with Clock,
whence the name. 8. The great, or firft wheel C ; its plane perpendicular to the horizon, as are all the
which is that the fufee B,_ £sV. immediately drives, by others. Thus the minute and hour hands turn on the
means of the chain or ftring of the fpring-box or bar- end of the arbor of the minute-wheel at a, and the fe-
rel A; after which are/the fecond wheel D, third cond,hand on the arbor of the fwing-wheel at
wheel, &c. Laftly, between the frame and dial-plate. Theory and calculation of the Watch-part, as laid down *
is the pinion of report, which is that fixed on the ar- by the Rev. Dr Derham.— i . The fame motion, it is
bor of the great wdieel; and ferves to drive the dial- evident, may be performed either by one wheel and.
wheel, as that ferves to carry the hand. one pinion, or many wheels and many pinions; pro-
Forthe illuftration of this part of the work which lies vided the number of turns of all the wheels bear the
concealed, let ABC (fig. 14.) reprefent the uppermod proportion to all the pinions which that one wheel,
fide of the frame plate, as it appears when detached .bears to its pinion : or, which is the fame thing, if
from the dial-plate: the middle of this plate is perforated the number produced by multiplying all the wheels
with a hole, receiving that end of the arbor of the together, be to the number produced by multiplying
centre wheel which carries the minute hand; near all the pinions together, as that one wheel to that
the plate is fixed the pinion of report of 10 teeth ; one pinion. Thus, fuppofe you had occafion for a
this drives a wheel erf of 40 teeth ; this wheel carries wheel of 1440 teeth, with a pinion of 28 leaves;
a pinion e/of 12 teeth ; and this again drives a wheel you make it into three wheels of 36, 8, and 5, and
with 36 teeth. three pinions of 4, 7, and 1. For the three wheels.
As in the body of the watch the wheels every 36, 8, and 5, multiplied together, give 1440 for the
where divide the pinions; here, on the contrary, the wheels, and the three pinions 4, 7, and 1, multiplied,
pinions divide the wheek, and by that means dimi- together, give 28 for the pinions. Add, that it mat-
11 iih the motion, which is here neceffary; for the hour- ters not in what order the wheels and pinions are fet,
hand, which is carried on a focket fixed on the wheel or which pinion runs in which wheel; only, for con-
g h, is required to move but once round, while the venience fake, the biggeft numbers are commonly put
pinion moves twelve times round. For this pur- todrivethe reft..
pofe the motion of the wheel erf is ^ of the pinion a A 2. Two wheels and pinions of different numbers
Again, while the wheel cd, or the pinion e/, goes may peiform the fame motion. Thus, a wheel of 36
once round, it turns the wheel^A but \ part round ; drives a pinion of 4 ; the fame as a wheel of 45 a pi-
confequently the motion of £ is but-j-of ^ of the mo- nion of 5; or a wheel of 90 a pinion of 10: the
tion of but -f of ^ is -rV ; i. e.,the hour-wheelturns of each being 9.
moves once round in the time that the pinion of re- 3. If, in breaking the train into parcels, any of
port, on the arbor of the centre or minute wheel, the quotients fhould not be liked; or if any other two
makes 12 revolutions, as required. Hence the ftruc- numbers, to be multiplied together, are defired to be
ture of that part of a clock or watch which Ihows the varied ; it may be done by this rule. Divide the two
time may be eafily underttood. numbers by any other two numbers which will mea-
The cylinder A (fig. 13.) put into motion by a furethem; multiply the quotients by the alternate di¬
weight or inclofed fpring moves the fufee B, and the vifors; the produdt of thefe two laft numbers found
great wheel C, to which it is fixed by the line or cord will be equal to the produdt of the two numbers firll
that goes round each, and anfwers to the chain of a given. Thus, if you would vary 36 times 8, divide
watch. thefe by any two numbers which will evenly meafure
The method of calculation is eafily underftood by them: fo, 36 by 4 gives 9; and 8 by 1 gives 8:
the fequel of this article: for, fuppofe the great wheel now, by the rule, 9 times 1 is 9, and 8 times 4 is 32;
G goes round once in 12 hours, then if it be a royal fo that for 36X8, you have 32X9; each equal to 288-
pendulum clock, fwinging feconds, we have 60X60X12 If you divide 36 by 6 and 8 by 2, and multiply as
= 43200 feconds or beats in one turn of the great before, you-have 24X12 = 36X8=288.
wheel. But becaufe there are 60 fwings or feconda 4. If a wheel and pinion fall put with crofs num-
in one minute, and the feconds are fhpwn by. an index bets. Wo big to be cut in wheels, and yet not to be
on the end of the arbor of the fwing-wheel, which in altered by thefe rules ; in feeking for the pinion of re-
thofe clocks is in an horizontal pofition ; therefore, it port, find two numbers of the fame, or a near pro-
is neceffary that the fwing-wheel Ffhould have 30 teeth; portion, by this rule : as either of the two given num-
whence f-L^L°= 720,- the number to be broken into bers is to the other, fo 13 360 to a fourth. Divide
quotients for finding the number of teeth for the other fourth number, as alfo 360, by 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 10,,
wheels and pinions. 15 (each of which numbers exaftly meafures 360),,
In fpring-clocks, the difpofuion of the wheels in or bY any thofe numbers that bring a quotient
the watch part is fucb as is here reprefented in the fi- neareft to an integer. As fuppofe you had 147 for
gure, where the crown-wheel Fis in an horizontal po- the wheel, and 170 for the pinion; which are too;
fition; the feconds not being fhown there by an index, great to ,be cut int0 wheels, and yet cannot be
as is done in tBe large pendulum clocks. Whence in reduced into lefs, as having no other common meafure
thefe clocks the wheels are difpofed in a different man- but unity; fay, as 1.70 : 147 :: 360 : 3 1 1. Or, as 147
ner, as reprefented in fig. 14. where C is the great w'heel, 170 : 1.360 ; 416. Divide, the fourth number and
and D the centre or minute wheel, as before: but 3^° bY one of the foregoing numbers; 38311 and
the contrate wheel E is placed on one fide, and F the 3bo bY ^ g*ves 52 an(^ bo» divide them by 8,.
fwing-wheel-is placed with its centre in the fame per- you have 39 and 45: and if you divide 360 and 416 by
C L 0
8, you have 45 and 52 exaftly. Wherefore, inftead of
' the two numbers 147 and 170, you may take 5-2 and
60, or 39 and 45, or 45 and 52, .
5. To come to pra&ice in calculating a piece of
watch-work : Firfl pitch on the train or beats of the
t 75 1
C L O
the quotient of the pinion of report. 4) 28 ( 7
And as to the numbers, the operation is 
the fame as before, only the dial-wheel 5) 55 (ix
is but 28 ; for its quotient is altered to 7. 5) 45 (9
If you would give numbers to a watch of 5) 40 ( 8
balance in an hour; as, whether a fwift one ol about about xocoo beats in an hour, to have 12
20,000 beats (the ufual train of a common 30 hour
pocket-watch), ora flower of about 16000 (the train
of the new pendulum pocket-watches), or any other
train. Next, refolve on the number of turns the fu-
fee is intended to have, and the number of hours the
piece is to go : fuppofe, e.g-. 12 turns, and to go 30
hours, or 192 hours (i. e. 8 days), Proceed now
to find the beats of the balance or pendulum in one
turn of the fufee ; thus in numbers ; 12 : 16 : : 20000 :
26666. Wherefore, 26666 are the beats in one turn
of the fufe or great wheel, and are equal to the quo¬
tients of all the wheels unto the balance multiplied to¬
gether. Now this number is to be broken into a con¬
venient parcel of quotients; which is to be done thus:
firft, halve the number of beats, viz. 26666, and you
have 13333 ; t^en pitch on the number of the crown¬
wheel, fuppofe 17 : divide 13333 by 17, and you have
784 for the quotient (or turns) of the reft of the
wheels and pinions; which, being too big for one or
two quotients, may .be'beft broken into three. Choole
therefore three numbers; which, when multiplied all
together continually, will come neareft 784 : as fup-
poie 19, 9, and 9, multiplied continually, give 810,
which is fomewhat too much; therefore try again o-
ther numbers, 11, 9, 8: thefe, drawn one into ano¬
ther continually, produce 792 ; which is as near as
can be, and is a convenient quotient. Having thus
contrived the piece from the great wheel to the ba¬
lance, but the numbers not falling out exaftly, as you
firft propofedjconedl the work thus: firft,multiply 792,
the produft of all the quotients pitched upon, by. 1 7
(the notches of the crown-wheel); the produdf is
13464, which is half the number of beats in one turn
of the fufee.: Then find the true number of beats in an
hour. Thus, 16:12:: 13464 : 10098,which is half the
beats in an hour. Then find what quotient is to be
laid upon the pinion of report (by the rule given un¬
der that word). Thus, 16 : 12 :1: 1 2 : 9, the quo¬
tient of the pinion of report. Having thus found
your quotients, it is eafy to determine what numbers
the wheels flrall have, for choofing what numbers the
pinions (hall have, and multiplying the pinions by
Y -/ their quotients, the produA is the num-
f 9 ber for the wheels. ’
‘7
5) 55 (1
5) 45 (
5) 40.1
Thus, the number of
the pinion of report is 4, and its quotient
is 9; therefore the number for the dial-
| wheel muft be 4X9, or 36 : fo the next
_ pinion being 5, its quotient 11, therefore
the great wheel muft be 5X11=55 ; and
' fo of the reft.
Such is the method of calculating the numbers of a
16 hour watch. Which watch may be made to go
longer by leffening the train, and altering the pinion
of report. Suppofe you could conveniently flacken the
train to 16000; then fay, As 4 '6ooo, pf 8000:
13464: : 12:20; fo that this watch will go 20 hours.
Then for the pinion of report, fay (by the rule given
under that word), as 20: 12 : : 12 : 7. So that 7
6) 60 (10
6) 48 ( 8
5) 40 ( 8
5) 33 (6f
*7
turns of the fufee, to go 170 hours, and
17 notches in the crown-wheel; the work
is the fame, in a manner, as in the laft example : and
confequently thus: as .2 : 170: : xocoo: 141666,
which fourth number is the beats in one turn of the
fufee; its half, 70833, being divided by 17, gives
4167 for the quotient : and becaufe this number is too
big for three quotients, therefore choofe four, as 10,
8, 8, 6-|-; whole produA into 17 makes 71808, near¬
ly equal to half the true beats in one turn of the fu¬
fee. Then fay, as 170:12: 71808:5069, which is
half the true train of your watch. And again, 170 :
12 : : I2:444« the denominator of which exprefles
the opinion of report, and the numerator is the num¬
ber of the dial-wheel. But thefe numbers being too
big to be cut in fmall wheels, they muft be varied by
the fourth rule above. Thus :
As 144 : 170 : : 360 : 425 ;
Or. 170: 144: : 360 : 305.
Then dividing 360, and either of thefe 24) 20 (-?-£
two fourth proportionals (as direAed by
the rule), fuppofe by 15; you will have
44 or 4-J; then the numbers of the whole
movement will ftand as in the margin.
Such is the calculation of ordinary
watches, to fhow the hour of the day:
in fuch as Ihow minutes, and feconds,
the procefs is thus:
1. Having refolved on the beats in an hour; by di¬
viding the defigned train by 60, find the beats in a
minute; and accordingly, find proper numbers for the
crown-wheel and quotients, fo as that the minute-
wheel fhall go round once in an hour, and the fecond
wheel once in a minute.
Suppofe, e. g. you ftiall choofe a pendulum of fe-
ven inches, which vibrates 142 ftrokes in a minute,
and 8520 in an hour. Half thefe fums are 71, and
4260. Now, the firft work is to break this 71 into
a good proportion, which will fall into one quotient,
and the crown-wheel. Let the crown-wheel have 15
notches; then 71, divided by 15, gives nearly 5 ; fo
a crown-wheel of 15, and a wheel and pinion whofe
quotient is 5, will go round in a minute to carry a
hand to fttow fecpnds. For a hand to go
round in an hour to fhow minutes, becaufe 8) 40 ( 5
there are 60 minutes in an hour, it is but 
breaking 60 into good quotients (fuppofe 15
10 and 6, or 8 and 74-, £sV.), and it is
done. Thus, 4260 is broken as near as 8) 64 (8
can be into proper numbers. But fince it 8) 60 (7^
does not fall out exaAly into the above- 8) 40 (5
mentioned numbers, you muft correA (as 
before direAed), and find the true number 15
of beats in an hour, by multiplying 15 by
5, which makes 75 ; and~75 ^7 1Tiake3 4500, which
is half the true train. Then find the beats in one turn
of the fufee ; thus, 16:192: : 4500 : 54000; which
laft is half the beats in one turn of the fufee. This
K 2 54000
C L O t 76 1 C L O
Clock, 54000 being divided by 4500 (the true people gratis, hs had been given them before at fix Clodk*
Clodialex, g) I0g (12 numbers already pitched on), the quo- affes and a triens the bufhel. Another, 695, by the cJjfter
8) 64 ( 8 tientwillbe 12; which, not teing'toobig fame, de Judiciis. It called to an account fuch as 01 tr‘f
8) 60 (7t for a fingle quotient, needs not be divided had executed a Roman citizen without a judg-
8) 40 ( 5 into more; and the work will Hand as in ment of the people and all the formalities of a trial.
 -— the margin. As to the hour-hand, the Another, by the fame, to pay no attention to the
15 great wheel, which performs only one re- appearances of the heavens while any affair was be-
volution in 1 2 turns of the minute-wheel, fore the people. Another, to make the power of
will fhow the hour; or it may be done by the minute- the tribunes free in making and propoiing laws,
wheel. Another, to re-ellablifh the companies of artifts which
It is requifite for thofe who make nice aftronomical had been inftituted by Numa, but fince his time abo-
obfervations, to have watches that make fome exa& lifhed.
number of beats per fecond, without any fra&ion ; CLODIUS (Publius), a Roman descended of an
but we feldom find a watch that does. As four illuftrious family. He made himfelf famous for his
beats per fecond would be a very convehient number, licentioufnefs, avarice, and ambition. He committed
we {hall here give the train for fuch a watch, which inceft with his three filters, and introduced himfelf in
would (like moft others) go '^o hours, but is to be women’s clothes into the houfe of Julius Csefar whilll
-wound up once in 24 hours. - Pompeia Caefar’s wife, of whom he was enamoured,.
The fufee and firft wheel to go round in four hours, was celebrating the myfteries of Ceres, where no man
This wheel has 48 teeth, and it turns a pinion of iz was permitted to appear. He was accufed for this
leaves, on whofe axis is the fecond wheel, which goes violation of human and divine laws; but he made him-
round in one hour, and carries the minute-hand. This felf tribune, and by that means fereened himfelf from
wheel has 60 teeth, and turns a pinion of 10 leaves; juftice. He defeended from a patrician into a ple-
on whofe axis is the third wheel of 60 teeth, turning beian family to become a tribune. He was fuch an
a pinion of 6 leaves; on whofe axis is the fourth (or enemy to Cato, that he made him go with praetorian
contrate) wheel, turning round in a minute, and car- power, in an expedition againft Ptolemy king of Cy-
rying the fmall hand that fhows the feconds, on a prus, that by the difficulty of the campaign he might
fmall circle on the dial-plate, divided into 60 parts : ruin his reputation, and dellroy his intereft at Rome
this contrate wheel has 48 teeth, and turns a pinion during his abfence. Cato, however, by his uncommon
of 6 leaves; on whofe axis is the crown or balance- fuccefs fruftrated the views of Clodius. He was alfo
wheel of 15 teeth, which makes 30 beats in each revo- an inveterate enemy to Cicero, and by his influence, he
Jution. banifhed him from Rome, partly on pretence that he
The crown-wheel goes 480 times round in an hour, had punifhed with death and without trial the adhe-
and 30 times 480 make 14400, the number of beats rents of Catiline. He wreaked his vengeance upon Ci-
in an hour. But one hour contains 3600 feconds ; and cero’s houfe, which he. burnt, and fet all his goods to
14400 divided by 3600 quotes 4, the required number fale ; which, however, to his great mortification, no.
of beats in a fecond. one offered to buy. In fpite of Clodius, Cicero was
The fufee muft have turns, to let the chain go recalled and all his goods reftored to him. Clodius .
fo many times round it. Then, as 1 turn is to 4 was fometime after murdered by Milo, whofe defence
hours, fo is 74- turns to 30 hours, the time the watch Cicero took upon himfelf.
would go after it is wound up. CLOGHER, an epifcopal town of Ireland, in the
See further the articles Movement, Turn, &e. county of Tyrone, and province of Ulfler. It fends
And for the hiflory and particular conftruftion of two members to parliament. In a very early age an
Watches properly fo called, fee the article Watch. abbey of reg.ular canons, dedicated to the Virgin Mary,
CLODIA lex, de Cypro, was enadted by the tri- was founded here. St Patrick is faid to have preiided:
bune Clodius, in theyearof Rome 607, to reduce Cy- over the church of Clogher; and having appointed
prus into a Roman province, and expofe Ptolemy St Kertenn.to be his fucceffor, he refigned this go-
king of Egypt to fale in his regal ornaments. It im- verament, and went to Armagh, where he founded his
powered Cato to go with the praetorian power and celebrated abbey. On the 20th of April . 1396, a
fee the audtion of the king’s goods, and commiffion- dreadful fire burnt.to the ground the church, the two ,
ed him to return the money to Rome. Another, de chapels, the. abbey, the court- of the bifhops, and..
Magl/iratibus, 695, by Clodius the tribune. It for- thirty-two other buildings, with all the facerdotal
bad the cenfors to put a fligma or mark of infamy veftments, utenfils, &c. belonging to. the bifhop’s
upon any perfon who had not been actually accufed chapter and church. In the year 1610, on the 24th.
and condemned by both the cenfors. Another, de Re ■ of. July, whilft George Montgomery was bifhop of.
ligione, by the fame, 696, to deprive the prieft of Cy- Clogher, king James annexed this abbey and its reve-
bele, a native of Peffinuns, of his office, and confer the nues to that fee. The fee (valued in the king’s books -
priefthood upon Brotigonus, a Gallogrecian. An- at 350I./fr by extent returned 15th. James I.)
other, de Provinciis,. 695, which nominated the pro- . is reputed to be worth L.4000 annually. W. Long,
vinces of Syria, Babylon, and Perfia, to the conful 7. 30. N. Lat. 54. 16.
Gabinus, and Achaid, Theffaly, Macedon, and Greece, CLOISTER (Clauflrum), a habitation furrounded
to his colleague Pifo, with proconfular power. It with walls, and inhabited by canons or religious, &c.
impowered them to defray the expences of their: In a more general fenfe, cloifter is ufed for a mo-
* march from the public treafury. Another, 695,which nailery of rehgious of either fex. In a more reflrain
required the fame diftribution of corn among the ed fenfe, cloifter is ufed for the principal part of a re¬
gular
CLOCK.
Plate CXL J .
C L O f 77 1 c L O
eionmell, gular mouaftery, confifting of a fquare built around;
^ _ bulinarily between the church, the chapter-houfe, and
"L" 1 tno refedtory ; and over which is the dormitory. The
cloifters ferved for feveral purpofes in the ancient mo-
nafteries. Petrus Blefenfis obferves, that it was here
the monks held, their le&ures: the ledture of morali¬
ty at the north fide, next the church ; the fchool on
the weft, and the chapter on the eaft ; fpiritual medi¬
tation, &c. being referved for the church. Lanfranc
obferves, that the proper ufe of the cloifter was for
the monks to meet in, and converfe together, at cer¬
tain hours of the day.
The form of the cloifter was fquare ; and it had its
name claujirum, from claudo, “ I (hut or clofeas
being inclofed on its four fides with buildings. Hence,
in architedfure, a building is ftill faid to be in form of
a cloift.er, when there are buildings on each of the four
fides of the court.
CLONMELL, the affize town of the county of
Tipperary in Ireland, is fituated on the river Suir, hath
a barrack for two troops of horfe, and is governed by
a mayor, recorder, bailiffs, and town-clerk. The river
is navigable from this town to Carrick and Waterford ;
and there is fome trade carried on here in the woollen
branch, particularly by the quakers, who are very nu¬
merous in this neighbourhood. There is a fpring here
of Spa water, that iffues out of the fide of a rifing
ground, that is, notwithftanding, overlooked by a
pretty fteep hill, on that fide of the river Suir which
is in the county of Waterford. The cures performed
by drinking of this water in, the fcurvy, and other
chronic diftempers, drew thither, fome years ago, a
great refort of people ; but faftiion, which reigns with
an abfolute authority, has brought other waters of late
into higher credit. It was in this town that the celebra¬
ted and Rev. Laurence Sterne was born, on the 24th of
November 1713. The town confifts of four crofs
ftreets, and has a fpacious bridge of 20 arches over
the river Suir; the market houfe is ftrong and well
built; and there is a charter fchool here for forty chil¬
dren, to which the late John Dawfon, Efq; and Sir
Charles Moore, Bart, were confiderable benefactors-;
A Dominican friary was founded at Clonmel!,, in 1269,
and dedicated to St Dominick. In the fame year
Qtho de Grandifon ereCted a Francifcan friary, the
church of which was efteemed one of the moft magni¬
ficent in Ireland ; in it was kept an image of St Fran¬
cis, refpefting the miracles wrought by which many
marvellous ftories are circulated. This town is very
ancient, being built before the invafion of the Danes :
it was formerly defended by a fquare wall. Oliver
Cromwell, who found more refiftance from this place
than any other of his conquefts in the kingdom, de-
molilhed the -caftles and fortifications, of which now
only the rums remain : the chief Gothic church here
is ftill kept in-good repair .
CLOSE, in heraldry. When any bird is drawn in
a coat of arms with its wings clofe down about it,
(i. e. not difplayed), and in a handing pofture, they
blazon it by this word c/o/e j but if it be flying, they
call it volant. See Volant.
Close, in mufic. See Cadence.
CLosE-Hauled, in navigation, the general arrange¬
ment or trim of a fhip’s fails when Are endeavours to
make a progrefs in the neareft direction poffible to-
wards that point of the compafs from which the wind Clofc
blows. In this manner of failing, the keel commonly II
makes an angle of fix points with the line of the wind; ^ * ■
but floops and fome other fmall veffels are faid to fail
almoft a point nearer. All veffels, however, are fup-
pofed to make nearly a point of lee-way when clofe-
hauled, even when they have the advantage of a good
failing breeze and fmooth water. The angle of lee¬
way, however, increafes in proportion to the increafe
of the wind and fea. In this difpofition of the fails,
they are ail extended fideways on the fhip, fo that
the wind, as it croffes the fhip obliquely toward the
ftern from forwards, may fill their cavities. But as
the current of winds alfo enters the fails in an oblique
diredtion, the effort of it to make the fhip advance
is coniiderably diminifhed: fhe will therefore make
the leaft progrefs when failing in this manner. The
fhip is faid to be clofe-haifted, becaufe at this time her
tacks, or lower corners of the principal fails, are drawn
clofe down to her fide to windward, the fheets nauled
clofe-aft, and all the bow-lines drawn to their greateft
extenfion to keep the fails fteady.
Close-Quarters, certain ftrong barriers of wood, .
ftretching acrofs a merchant-fhip in feveral places.
They are ufed as places of retreat when a fhip is
boarded by her adverfary, and are therefore fitted
with feveral fmall loop-holes through which to fire the
fmall arms, and thereby annoy. the enemy and defend
themfelves. They are. like wife furnilhed with feveral
caifons called poavder-chejls, which are fixed upon the
deck, and filled with powder, old-nails, &c. and may
be fired at any time from the clofe-quarters upon the
boarders.
We have known an Englifh merchant-fhip of 16Falconers
guns, and properly fitted with clofe-quarters, defeat
fhe united efforts of. three French privateers who ™artn‘‘
boarded her in the laft war, after having, engaged at
fome diftance nearly a day and a half, with very few
intervals of reft. Two of the cruifers were. equipped .
with twelve guns each, and the other with eight. The
FrenchTailors were, after boarding, fo much expofed
to continued fire of mufquetry and coehorns charged
with grenadocs, that a dreadful feene of carnage en- 4
fued, in which the decks were foon .covered with the
dead bodies of the enemy, feveral of which the board¬
ers, in their hurry to efcape, had left behind.
GLOT-bird : a fpecies ofFaiNGiLLA
CLOTH, in commerce, a manufafture made .of
wpol, wove in the loom. j
Cloths are of divers qualities, fine, or coarfe. The
goodnefs of cloth, according to fome, confifts in the
following particulars: 1. That the wool be of a good .
quality, and well dreffed. 2. It muft be. equally fpun,
carefully obferving that the thread of the warp be
finer and better twilled than that, of the woof. 3. The
cloth muft be well wrought, and beaten on the loom,
fo as to. be every where equally compact.. 4. The
wool muft not be finer at one end of the piece than in.
the reft. 5. The lifts muft be fufficiently ftrong, of
the fame length with the fluff, and muft con!:ft of
good wool, hair, or oftrich-feathers ; or, what is ftill.
better, of Daniih dog’s hair. 6. The cloth muft be .
free from knots and other imperfedlions. 7..It muft
be well fcoured with fuller’s earth, well fulled with
the bell white foap, and afterwards walhed in clem?
water^
CL O [
Sloth, water. 8. The hair or nap muft be well drawn out
""""v ' with the teazel, without being too much opened.
9. It muft; be (horn clofe without making it thread¬
bare. 10. It muft be well dried. 11. It muft not be
tenter-ftretched/ to force it to its juft dimenfions.
12. It muft be prefled cold, not hot prefled, the latter
being very injurious to_woollen cloth.
Manufacturing of white Cloths which are intended for
■dyeing. The beft wool for the manufacturing of cloths
are thofe of England and Spain, efpecially thofe of
Lincolnfhire and Segovia. To ufe thofe wools to the
beft advantage, they muft be fcoured, by putting them
into a liquor fomewhat more than lukewarm, com-
pofed of three parts fair water and one of urine. Af¬
ter the wool has continued long enough in the liquor
to foak, and diflblve the greafe, it is drained and well
waflied in running water. When it feejs dry, and has
no fmell but the natural one of the Iheep, it is faid to
be duly fcoured.
After this, it is hung to dry in the ihade; the heat
of the fun making it harfh and inflexible : when dry,
it is beat with rods upon hurdles of wood, or on cords,
to cleanfe it from duft and the grofler filth; the more
it is thus beat and cleanfed, the fofter it becomes, and
the better for fpinning. After beating, it muft be well
picked, to free it from the reft of the filth that had
efcaped the rods.
It is now in a proper condition to be oiled, and
carded on large iron cards placed flopewife. Olive oil
is efteemed the beft for this purpofe: one fifth of which
ftiould be ufed for the wool intended for the woof, and
•a ninth for that defigned for the warp. After the
wool has been well oiled, it is given to the fpinners,
who firft card it on the knee with fmall fine cards, and
then fpin it on the wheel, obferving to make the thread
of the warp fmaller by one third than that of the woof,
and much compadter twifted.
The thread thus fpun, is1 reeled, and made into
fkeins. That defigned for the woof is wound on little
tubes, pieces of paper, or rufhes, fo difpofed as that
they may be eafily put in the eye of the fhuttle. That
for the warp is woufld on a kind of large wooden
bobbins, to difpofe it for warping. When warped,
it is ftiffened with fize; the beft of which is that made
of ftireds of parchment; and when dry, is given to the
weavers, who mount it on the loom.
The warp thus-mounted, the weavers, who are two
to each loom, one on each fide, tread alternately on
the treddle, firft on the right ftep, and then on the
left, which raifes arid lowers the threads of the warp
equally; between which they throw tranverfely the
fhuttle from the one to the other : and every time
that the flruttle is thus thrown, and a thread of the
woof inferted within the warp, they ftrike it conjumft-
ly with the fame frame, wherein is faftened the comb
or reed, between whpfe teeth the threads of the warp
are pafled, repeating the ftroke as often as is necef-
fary.
The weavers having continued their work till the
whole warp is filled with the woof, the cloth is fi-
niftred; it is then taken off the loom by unrolling it
from the beam whereon it had been rolled in propor¬
tion as it was wove ; and now given to be cleanfed of
the knots, ends of threads, ftraws, and other filth,
which is done with iron nippers.
3
78 ] G L O
In this condition it is carried to the fullery, to be Cloth
fcoured with urine, or a kind of potter’s clay, w. U II
fteeped in water, put along with the cloth in the Cloud,
trough wherein it is fulled. The cloth being again *
cleared from the earth or urine, is returned to the
former hands to have the feffer filth, fmall ftraws, &c.
taken off as before: then it is returned to the fuller
to be beat and fulled with hot water, wherein a
fuitable quantity of foap has been diffolved ; after ful¬
ling, it is taken out to be fmoothed or pulled by the
lifts lengthwife, to take out the wrinkles, crevices, &c.
The fmoothing is^ repeated every two hours, till
the fulling be finiftied, and the cloth brought to its
proper breadth : after which it is waftted in clear wa¬
ter, to purge it of the foap, and given wet to the
carders to raife the hair or nap on the right fide with
the thiftle or weed. After this preparation the cloth-
worker takes the cloth, and gives it its firft cut or
ftiearing : then the carders refume it, and after wet-
ting, give'it as many more courfes with the teazle,
as the quality of the fluff requires, always obferving
to begin againft the grain of the hair, and to end with
it; as alfo to begin with a fmoother thiftle, proceed¬
ing ftill with one fharper and (harper, as far as the
fixth degree!
After thefe operations, the cloth being dried, is re¬
turned to the cloth-worker, who iheers it a fecond
time, and returns it to the carders, who repeat their
operation as before, till the nap be well ranged on the
furface of the cloth, from one end of the piece to the
other.
The cloth thus wove, fcoured, napped, and ftiorn, is
fent to the dyer; when dyed, it is waihed in fair water,
and the worker 'takes it again wet as it is, lays the
nap with a brufti on the table, and hangs' it on the
tenters, where it is ftretched both in length and breadth
fufficiently to fmooth it, fet it fquare, and bring it to
its proper dimenfions, without draining it too much ;
obferving to brufti it afrefti, the way of the nap, while
a little moift, on the tenters.
When quite dry, the cloth is taken off the tenters,
and brufhed again on the table, to finifti the laying of
the nap : after which it is folded, and laid cold under
a prefs, to make it perfectly fmooth and even, and
give it a glofs.
Laftly, the cloth being taken out of the prefs, and
the papers, &c. for glofiing it removed, it is in a con¬
dition for fale or ufe. With regard to the manufac¬
ture of mixt cloths, or -thofe wherein the wools arc
firft dyed, and then mixt, fpun, and wove of the co¬
lours intended, the procefs, except what relates to
the colour, is moftly the ” fame with that juft repre-
fented.
Cloth made from Vegetable Filaments. See Bark
and Filaments.
Incomlujlible Cloth. See Asbestos.
GLOTHO, the youngeft of the three Parcs,
daughters of Jupiter and Themis. She was fuppo-
fed to prefide over the moment that we are born. She
held the diftaff in her hand and fpun the thread of -
life, whence her name xxa&uv, to fpin. She was re-
prefented wearing a crown with feven ftars, and cover¬
ed with a variegated robe.
CLOUD, a colleftion of vapours fufpended in the
atmofphere.
That
C L O [ 7? ] C L O
That the clouds are formed from the aqueous va- impofiible to lay down any rational theory of the for-
pours which before were fo clofely united with the mation of clouds upon this principle.
atmofphere as to be invilible, is univerfally allowed:
»- but it is no eafy matter to account for the long couti-
But whether the clouds are produced, /. e. the in-
   7  r      vifible vapours floating in the atmofphere cpndeofedt3n pr^)tjj’.
nuance of fome very opaque clouds without dtflolviug ; fo as to become vifible, by means of eledkricity or not, gioufly e-
or to give a reafon why the vapours, when they have it is certain that they do contain the elec trie fluid m-lcctufkd.
once begi
to condenfe, do not continue to do fo till prodigious and inconceivable quantities, and many very
they at lafl fall to the ground in the form of
fnow, &c. Under the article Barometer, n° 23.
we have hinted at the general caufe of the formation
terrible and deftrudtive phenomena have been occa-
fioned by clouds'very highly electrified. The moft ex-
    o traordinary inftance of this kind perhaps on record
of clouds; namely, a feparatien of the latent heat happened in the ifland of Java in the Eafl; Indies in ^
from the water whereof the vapour is compofed. The Auguft 1772. On the nth of that month, at mid-Terrible
confequence of this feparation, as is undeniably proved night, a bright cloud was obferved covering a mountain delhudtion
by Dr Black, muft be the condenfation of that vapour, in the diitridt called Chert Ion, and at the fame time feve-
fuch cafe, it will firft ap- ral reports were heard like thofe of a gun. The people jn java,
who dwelt upon the upper .parts of the mountain not
in fome degree at leaft :
pear as a fmoke, mift, or fog ; which if interpofed be¬
twixt the fun and earth, will form a cloud ; and the being able to fly fail enough, a great part of the cloud,
fame caufes continuing to aft, the cloud will produce almolt three leagues in circumference, detached itfelf
rain or fnow. But though the feparation of this latent under them, and was feen at a diftance rifing and falling
heat in a certain degree is the immediate caufe of the like the waves of the fea, and emitting globes of fire
formation of clouds, the remote caufe, or the changes fo luminous, that the night became as clear as day.
produced in the atmofphere, whereby fuch a fepara- The effefts of it were aftonilhing; every thing was de-
tion may be induced, are much more difficult to be ftroyed for feven leagues round ; the houfes were de-
t alwayi
difeovered. In common obfervation, we fee that va¬
pour is moft powerfully condenfed by cold fubftances,
.fuch as metals, water, &c. But.cold alone cannot in
all cafes caufe the condenfation of the atmofpherical
molifhed ; plantations were buried in the earth ; and
2140 people loft their lives, befides 1500 head of cat¬
tle, and a vaft number of horfes, goats, &c.
Another inftance of a very deftruftive cloud, the elec- By a
Id. vapours, otherwife the nights behoved to be always trie qualities of which will at prefent fcarcely be doubt-in the ifland
foggy or cloudy, owing to the vapours, raifed through- ed, is related by Mr Brydoue, in his Tour throughof Maita'
out the day by the heat of the fun, being condenfed Malta. It appeared on the 29th of Oftober 1757.
by the fuperior coldnefs of the night. Great rains About three quarters of an hour after midnight, there
will happen in very warm weather, when the union of was feen to the fouth-weft of the city of Melita, a
the vapours with the atmofphere ought rather to be
promoted than diffolved, if cold was the only agent in
their condenfation. The ferenity of the atmofphe
great black cloud, which, as it approached, changed its
colour, till at laft it became like a flame of fire mixed
with black fmoke. A dreadful noife was heard on its
alfo, in the moft fevere frofts, abundantly fhows that approach, which alarmed the-whole city. It pafled
fome other caufe befides mere heat or cold is concerned over the port, and came firft on an Englifh fhip, which
in the formation of clouds, and condenfation of the
atmofpherical vapours.
an inftant was torn in pieces, and nothing left but
the hulk ; part of the malls, fails., and cordage, were
The eleftriq fluid is now fo generally admitted as carried to a confiderable diftance along with the cloud,
an agent in all the great operations of nature, that it The fmall boats and felloques that fell .in its way were
■ is no wonder to find the formation of clouds attributed all broken to pieces and funk. The noife increafed
to it. This hath accordingly been given by S. Bee- and became more frightful. A centinel terrified at its
caria as the caufe of the formation of all clouds what- approach ran into his box.; but both he and it were
foever, whether of thunder, rain, hail, or fnow. The lilted up and carried into the fea, where he perilhed.
firft, he thinks, are produced by a very great power of It then traverfed a confiderable part of the city, and
eleftricity, and the others by. one more moderate. But laid in ruins almoft every thing that flood in it® way.
though it is certain that all clouds, or even fogs and Several houfes were laid level with the ground, and-
rain, are eleftrified in fome degree, it ftill remains a it did not leave one fteeple in its pafiage. The bells
queftion, whether the clouds are formed in confequence
of the vapour whereof they are compofed being firft
eleftrified, or whether they become eleftrified in con¬
fequence of its being firft; feparated from the atmo-
of fome. of them, together with the fpires, were car¬
ried to a confiderable diftance; the roofs of the
churches demolilhed and beat down, &c. It went off
x w x at; the north-eaft point of the city, and demolilhing
fphere, and in fome meafure condenfed. This hath the Lght-houfe, is faid to have mounted up into the
not yet, as far as we know, been afeertained by the
experiments of Beccaria, or any other perfon ; and in¬
deed, notwithftanding -the multitude of eleftrical dif¬
air with a frightful noife ; and pafled over the fea to
Sicily, where it tore up fome trees, and did other da¬
mage ; but nothing confiderable, as its fury had been
coveries that have lately been made, there feems to be moitly fpent at Malta. The number of killed and
little or no foundation for afeertaining it. Eleftricity wounded amounted to near 200 ; and the lofs of flap
's known to be in many cafes a promoter of evapora- ping, &c; was very confiderable.
tion ; but no experiments have yet been brought to
prove, that eleftrified air parts with its moifture more
The effefts of thunder-ftorms, and the vail quantity
of eleftricity collefted in the clouds which produce
readily than fuch as is not eleftrified ; fo that, till the thefe ftorms, are fo well known, that it is fuperfluous...
properties of eleftrified air are farther inveftigated, it is to mention them. It appears, however, that even
{Cloud.
C L O [
thefe clouds are not fo highly electrified as to produce
' their fatal effects on thofe who are immerfed in them.
It is only the difcharge of part of their eleftricity up¬
on fuch bodies as are either not electrified at all, or
Inftance of not highly eleCtrified as the cloud, that does all the
tw6 people mifchief. We have, however,, only the following in-
involved inftance on record, of any perfon’s being.immerfed in
^l*h"n<fer* the body of a thunder-cloud. Profeffor SaufTure,
8o ]
C L O
for fome time. The reafon of this moft probably is,
that they are impelled by two oppofite ftreams of air
nearly of equal ftrength ; by which means their velo¬
city is greatly retarded. In fuch cafes both the aerial
currents feem to afcend to a very confiderable height;
for Meff. Charles and Roberts, when endeavouring to
avoid a thunder-cloUd in one of their aerial voyages,
could find no alteration in the courfe of the current,
and young Mr Jalabert, when travelling over one of though they afcended to the height of 4000 feet from
the high Alps, were caught among clouds of-this
kind; and to their aftonifhrrient found their bodies
fo full of electrical fire, that fpontaneous flafhes darted
from their fingers' with a crackling noife, and the fame
g kind of fenfation. as when ftrongly ele&rified by art.
■Height of The height of clouds in general is not great; the
the clouds, fummits of Very high mountains being commonly quite
free from them, as Mr Brydon experienced in his jour¬
ney up mount iEtna: hut thofe which are moft high¬
ly eleftrified defcend loweft, their height being often
not above feven or eight hundred yards above the
the furface of the earth. In fome cafes the motions
of the clouds evidently depend on their electricity, in¬
dependent of any current of air whatever. Thus, in
a calm and warm day, we often fee fmall clouds meet¬
ing each other in oppofite directions, and fetting out
from fuch ftiort diftances, that we cannot fuppofe any
oppofite winds to be the caufe. Thefe clouds, when
they meet, inftead of forming a larger one, become much
lefs, and fometimes vanilh altogether ; a circumftance
undoubtedly owing to the difcarge of oppofite elec¬
tricities into each other. This ferves alfo to throw
ground ; nay, fometimes thunder-clouds appear a£tu- fome light on the true caufe of the formation of clouds;
•’SeeTfe-ally to touch the ground with one of their edges* :
&r-. but the generality of clouds are fufpended at t^e height
of a mile, or little more, above the earth. Some,
however, have imagined them to arife to a moft incre¬
dible and extravagant height. Maignan of Thouloufe,
in his Treatife of Perfpeftive, p.-93, gives an account
of an exceeding bright little cloud that appeared at
for if two clouds eleCtrified, the one pofitively and the
other negatively, deftroy each other on contaft; it
follows, that any quantity of vapour fufpended in the
atmofphere, while it retains its natural quantity of
eleCtricity, remains invifible, but becomes a cloud when
eleCfrified either plus or minus. A difficulty, however,
ftill occurs; viz. in what manner a fmall quantity of
midnight in the month of Auguft, which fpread itfelf vapour furrounded by an immenfe oceam of the fame
almoft as far as the zenith. He fays that the fame
thing was alfo obferved at Rome; and from thence
concludes, that the cloud wras a collection of vapoufs
raifed beyond the projection of the earth’s ffiadow,.
and of confequence illuminated by the beams of the
fun. This, however, can by no means be credited;
and it is much more probable that this cloud owed its
fplendor to eleCtricity, than to the reflection of the
folar beams.
Their vari- In the evenings after fun-fie t, ahd mornings before
ous colours fun-rife, we often obferve the clouds tinged with beau-
accounted tiful colours. They are moftly red; fometimes orange,
or‘ yellow, or purple ; more rarely bluiffi ; and feldom or
ever green. The reafon of this variety of colours, ac¬
cording to Sir Ifaac Newton, is the different fize of
the globules into which the vapours are condenfed.
This is controverted by Mr Melville, who thinks that
the clouds refleCt the fun’s light precifely as it is tranf-
mitted to them through the atmofphere. This reflects
the moft refrangible rays in the greateft quantity; and
therefore ought'tp tranfmit the leaft refrangible ones,
red, orange, and yellow, to the clouds, which accord¬
ingly- appear moft ufually of thofe colours. In this
opinion he was greatly confirmed by obferving, when
for.
kind of matter, can acquire either more or lefs eleCtri¬
city than that which furrounds it: and this indeed we
feena not as yet to have any data to folve in a fatisfac-
tory manner. ti
The ffiapes of the clouds are likewife undoubtedly Their
owing to their eleCtricity; for in thofe feafons in which fliaPss‘
a great commotion has been excited in the atmofphe-
rical eleCtricity, we ftiall perceive the clouds affuming
ftrange and whimfical ffiapes, which vary almoft every'
moment. This, as well as the meeting of fmall clouds '
in the air, and vaniffiing upon contaCt, is an almoft in¬
fallible fign of thunder. l4
Befides the phenomena of thunder, rain, &c. the Cennec* .
clouds are intimately connected with thofe of wind,tion of
and always .a flu me a particular ffiape when a ftrongc ou s W1!
continued wind is about to'enfue; though it is remark¬
able, that in the Itrongeft winds we ffiall often obferve
them ftationary. Sometimes alfo, on the approach of
a cloud, we ffiall find a fudden and violent gull of wind
arife ; and at others, the wind, though violent before,
ffiall ceafe on the approach of a cloud, and recover its
ftrength as foon as the cloud is pall. This connection
of the clouds with wind is moft remarkable in moun¬
tainous countries, when the peaks are fufficiently high
he was in Switzerland, that the fnowy fummits of the to have their tops involved in clouds. A very remark-
Alps turned more and more reddiffi after fun-fet, in the
fame manner as the clouds ; and he imagines, that the
femitranfparency of the clouds, and the obliquity of
their iituation, tend to make the colours in them much
more rich and copious than thofe on the tops of fndwy
mountains.
Of the »(■ The motions of the clouds, though fometimes di-
tions of reCted by the wind, are not always fo, efpecially when
clouds, thunder is about to enfue. In this cafe they feem to
move very llowly, and often to be abfolutely ftationary the whole furfai
N° 82. 4
able mountain of this kind is met with at the Cape of
Good Hope, from the clouds on whofe top, accord¬
ing to the relations of travellers, the winds iffue forth
as if they had been confined in a bag ; and fomething
fimilar has been obferved of mountains in other parts
of the world.
The ules of the clouds are evident; as from themTheirufc
proceeds the rain which refreffies the earth; and with¬
out which, according to the prefent fyftem of nature,
°f the earth mult be a mere defart.
They
C L O [ 81
1 They are likewife of great ufe as a fcreen interpofed
between the earth and the fcorching rays of the fun,
which are often fo powerful as to deftroy the grafs and
other tender \regetables. In the more fecret operations
of nature alfo, where the eleftrical fluid is concerned,
the clouds bear a principal (hare ; and ferve efpecially
as a medium for conveying that fluid from the atmo-
fphere into the earth, and from the earth into the at-
mofphere : in doing which, when electrified to a great
degree, they fometimes produce very terrible effects; of
which inftances have been already given.
CLOVE-tree, in botany. See Caryophyllus.
Clove, a term ufed in weights of wool. Seven
pounds make a dove. In Effex, eight pounds of cheefe
and butter go to the clove.
Clote July-flower. See Dianthus.
CLOVER-grass, in botany. See Trifolium ;
and Agriculture, n°i77, 179.
CLOUGH, or Draught, in commerce, an allow¬
ance of two pounds in every hundred weight for the turn
of the fcale, that the commodity may hold out weight
when fold out by retail.
CLOVIO (Giorgio Giulio), hiftory and portrait
painter, was born in Sclavonia in 1498. Having in
the early part of his youth applied himfelf to literature,
his genius prompted him to purfue the art of painting
for a profeflion ; and at 18 years of age he went to
Rome, where he fpent three years to perfeft his hand
in drawing, and devoted himfelf entirely to painting
in miniature. His knowledge of colouring was efta-
bliflied by the inftru&ions of Julio'Romano, and his
tafte of compofition and defign was founded on the ob-
fervations he made on the works of Michael Angelo
Buonaroti. By thofe affiftances he proceeded to fuch
a degree of excellence in portrait as well as in hiftory,
that in the former he was accounted equal to Titian,
and in the latter not inferior to Buonaroti. He died
in 1578. His works are exceedingly valuable, and
are at this day numbered among the curiofities of Rome.
Vafari, who had feen the wonderful performances of
Clovio with inexpreffible aftonifhment, enumerates
many of his portraits and hiftorical compofitions, and
feems to be almoft at a lofs for language fufficiently ex-
preffive of their merit. He mentions two or three
pictures on which the artift had beftowed the labour
of nine years: but the principal picture reprefented
Nimrod building the Tower of Babel; which was fo
exquifitely finiftied, and fo perfeCt in all its parts, that
it feemed quite inconceivable how the eye or the pen¬
cil could execute it. He fays it is impoffible to ima¬
gine any thing fo admirably curious; whether one con-
fiders the elegance of the attitudes, the richnefs of the
compofition, the delicacy of the naked figures, the
perfpeClive proportion of the objeCts, the tender di-
ftances, the fcenery, the buildings, or other ornaments;
for every part is beautiful and inimitable. He alfo
takes notice of a Angle ant introduced in one of the
pictures of this mafter; which, though exceedingly and
incredibly fmall, is yet fo perfeCt, that even the moft
minute member was as diftinCt as if it had been painted
of the natural fize.
CLOVIS I. was the real founder of the French mo¬
narchy ; for he was the firft conqueror of the feveral
provinces of Gaul, poflefled before his time by the Ro¬
mans, Germans, and Goths. Thefe he united to the
Vol. V. Part I.
] C L U
then fcanty dominions of France, removed the feat of CUut*
government from Sciflbns to Paris, and made this the c, |
capital of his new kingdom. He died in 511, in the 1 .*
46th year of his age and 31ft of his reign. See (H'fl.
of) France.
CLOUTS, in gunnery, are thin plates of iron nail¬
ed on that part of the axle-tree of a gun-carriage which
comes through the nave, and through which the linfpin
goes.
CLOYNE, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Cork and province of Munfter. W. Long. 8. o.
N Lat. 51. 46. It is but a fmall place, though an
epifcopal refidence. A church was built, and a bilhop-
ric ereCted here, by St Colman, who died on the 4th
of November 604 ; and in 707 an abbey was alfo found¬
ed here. In 1430, the biihopric was united to that of
Cork ; and the union continued till the I ith of No¬
vember 1638, when Dr George Synge was confecra-
ted bilhop of Cloyne ; fince which time this fee has
been goyerned by its own prelates, one of whom was
the celebrated Berkeley.—This fee is not taxed in
the king’s books; but is nowreputedto be worth L.2500
a-year.—The chapter of Cloyne is compofed of a dean,
chanter, chancellor, treafurer, an archdeacon, and
fourteen prebendaries. The diocefe is divided into four
rural deaneries, and the collegiate church of St Mary
of Youghal is united to the biihopric. The cathedral is
a decent Gothic building. The nave is about 120 feet
long; having lateral aifles, befides the crofs aides, di- •
vided by Gothic arches, five on each fide. In the
choir there is an excellent organ. The bifhop’s pa¬
lace, which was rebuilt at the beginning of the prefent
century, is large and convenient. To the north-weft;
of Cloyne is a reputed holy well, dedicated to St Col¬
man, which is much frequented on the 24th of Novem¬
ber, being the patron-day.
CLUE of a sail, the lower corner; and hence
Civ E-Garnets, are a fort of tackles faftened to the .
clues, or lower corners of the main-fail or fore-fail, to
trufs them up to the yard as occafion requires, which
is ufually termed clueing up the fails.
Clue-Lines are for the fame purpofe as clue-garnets;
only that the latter aie confined to the courfes, where¬
as the former are common to all the fquare fails. See
thefe ropes as reprefented in the article Ship.
CLUNIA (anc. geog.), a principal town of the
Hither Spain, a Roman colony, with a conventus juri-
dicus, on the Durius, to the weft of Numantia. Now
Corunna del Conde.
CLUNIUM (anc. geog.), a town of Corfica, near
Baftia. Now St Catharine.
CLUNY, orCLUGNY, a celebrated abbey oPBene-
diftine monks, in a city of that name ; being the head
or chief of a congregation denominated from them.
It is fituated in the Mafonnois, a little province of
France, on the river Gnme ; aHd was founded by
William. Duke of Berry and Aquitain ; or. as others
fay, by the Abbot Bernon, fupported by that Duke,
in the year 910.
This abbey was anciently fo Very fpacious and mag¬
nificent, that in 1245, after the holding of the firit
council of Lyons, Pope Innocent IV. went to Cluny,
accompanied with the 2 patriarchs of Antioch and
Conftantinople, 12 Cardinals, 3 archbifhops, 15 bifliops,
and a great number of abbots; who’were ail enter-
L tained,
Herrings,
where
found.
fhoal of
them.
C L U [8
tained, without one of the monks being put out of
their place : tho’ S. Louis, Blanche his mother, the
Duke of Artois his brother, and his fifler, the Empe¬
ror of Connantinople, the fons of the kings of Arra-
gon and Caftile, the Duke of Burgundy, 6 counts, and
a great number of lords, with all their retinues, were
there at the fame time.
Cluny, at its firlt ere&ion, was put under the im¬
mediate proteftion of the apoftolic fee ; with exprefs
prohibition to all fecular and ecclefiaftie powers, to dif-
turb the monks in the poffeffion of their effects, or
the election of their abbot- By this they pretended
to be exempted from the jurifdi&ion of bifhops; which
at length gave the hint to other abbeys to infill on the
fame. •
Clnny is the head of a very numerous and extenfive
congregation : in efFedl, it was the firil congregation
of divers monafteries united under one chief, lb as only
to conllitute one body, or, as they call it, one order,
that ever arofe.
This order of monks was brought into England by
William Earl of Warren, fon-in-law to William the
Conqueror, who built a houfe for them at Lewes in
Suffex about the year 1077. There were 27 priories
and cells of this order in England, which were govern¬
ed by foreigners, afterwards made denizens.
CLUPEA, or Herring, in ichthyology, a genus
belonging to the order of abdominales. The upper jaw
isfurnifhed with a ferrated myftache ; the branchioltege
membrane has eight rays; a fcaly ferrated line runs
along the belly from the head to the tail; and the
belly-fins have frequently nine rays. There are 11
ipecies, ■u/'sz.
1. Theharengus, or common herring, has no fpots,
and the under jaw is longer than the upper one. A
herring dies immediately after it is taken out of the
water 5 whence the proverb arifes, As dead as a her¬
ring. The meat is every where in great etleem, being
fat, foft, and delicate; efpecially if it is drefied as foon
as caught, for then it is incomparably better than on the
next day.
The herring was unknown to the ancients. Not-
withftanding the words xrj>-y-“- and ,*«■«<: are by tranf.
latbrs rendered halec, the charafters given to thofe fifh
are common to fuch numbers of different fpeciesas ren¬
der it impoffible to fay which they intended.
Herring.s are found from the highefl northern lati¬
tudes, yet known as low as the northern coails of
France ; and except one inftance, brought by Dod, of
a few being once taken in the bay of Tangier, none
are ever found more foutherly. They are met with
in vaft fhoals on the coaft of America, as low as Ca¬
rolina. In Chefapeak-bay is an annual inundation of
thofe filh, which cover the fhore in fuch quantities as
to became a nuifance. We find them again in the feas
of Kamptfchatka, and' probably they reach. Japan ; for
Kempfer mentions, in his account of the fifh of that
country, feme that are congenerous. The great win¬
ter rendezvous of the herring is within the arctic circle:
there they continue for many months in order to re¬
cruit themfelves after the fatigue of Tpawning; the feas
within that fpace fwarming with infect food in a far
greater degree than thofe of our warmer latitudes.
This mighty army begins to put itfelf in motion in the
fpring: we diflinguifh this vail body by that name ;
]
C L U
for the word herring comes from the German heer> Clupea.
“ an army,” to exprefs their numbers. They begin  v—#
to appear off the Shetland ifles in April and May;
thefe are only the forerunners of the grand fhoal which
comes in June: and their appearance is marked by
certain figns, by the numbers of birds, fuch as gannets
and others, which follow to prey on them ; but when
the main body approaches, its breadth and depth is
fuch as to alter the appearance of the very ocean. It
is divided into diflinbl columns of five or fix miles in
length, and three or four in breadth, and they drive
the water before them with a kind of rippling: fome-
times they fink for the fpace of ten or fifteen minutes,
and then rife again to the furface ; and in fine wea¬
ther refleft a variety of fplendid colours like a field of
the mofl precious gems ; in which, or rather in a much
more valuable, light fhould this ftupendous gift of Pro¬
vidence be confidered by the inhabitants of the Britifh
ifles.
The firfl check this army meets in its march fouth-
ward is from the Shetland ifles, which divide it into
two parts; one wing takes to the eafl, the other to
the wellern fhores of Great Britain, and fill every bay
and creek with their numbers ; others pafs on to¬
wards Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of her¬
rings : they then pafs through the Britifh Channel,
and after that, in a manner difappear. Thofe which
take towards the weft, after offering themfelves to the
Hebrides, where the great ftationary fifhery is, pro¬
ceed to the north of Ireland, where they meet with a
fecond interruption, and are obliged to make a fecond
divifion : the one takes to the weftern fide, and is
fcarce perceived, being foon loft in the immenfity of
the Atlantic ; but the other, that paffes into the Irifh
fea, rejoices and feeds the inhabitants of moft of the
coails that border on it. Thefe brigades, as we may
call them, which are thus feparated from the greater
columns, are often capricious in their motions, and do
not fhow an invariable attachment -to their haunts.
Were we inclined to confider this partial migration Wonderfall
in a moral light, we might refledl with veneration and i:iftindl of f
awe on the mighty power which originally impreffedthefe crea*
on this moft ufeful body of his creatures the inftinct ture3'
that directs and points out the courfe, that bleffes and
enriches thefe iflands, which caufes them, at certain
and invariable times, to quit the vaft polar deeps, and
offer themfelves to our expefting fleets. That bene¬
volent Being has never been known, from the earlieft
account of time, once to withdraw this bleffing from
the whole ; though he often thinks proper to deny it
to particulars, yet this partial failure (for which we f«e
no natural reafon) fhould fill us with the moft exalted
and grateful fenfe of his Providence for impreffmg fuch
an invariable and general inftindt on thefe fifh towards
a fouthward migration when the whole is to be bene¬
fited, and to withdraw it when ©nly a minute part is to
fuffer.
This inftinft was given them, that they might re¬
move for the fake of depofiting their fpawn in warmer
feas that would mature and vivify it more affuredly
than thofe of the frozen.zone. It is not from defeft
of food that-they fet themfelves in motion; for they
come to us full of fat, and on their return are almoft
univerfally obferved to be lean and miferable. What
their food is near the Pole we are not yet informed ;
but
when in
v«nted.
C L U [
C'.upca. but in our feas they feed much on the onlfcus marinus,
' a cruftaceous infeft, and fometimes on their own
fry.-
They are full of roe in the end of June, and conti¬
nue in perfection till the beginning of winter, when
they depofit their fpawn. The young herrings begin
to approach the flrores in July and Auguft, and are
then from half an inch to two inches long: thole in
i.idYouiijiones Yorkfhiie are called herring file. Though we have no
^ kty particular authority for it, yet as very few young her-
rings are found in our feas during winter, it feems moil
certain that they muft return to their parental haunts
beneath the ice, to repair the vaft deftruction of their
race during fummer by men, fowl, and fifh. Some of
the old herrings continue on our coaft the whole year:
the Scarborough iifhermen never put down their nets
but they catch a few : but the numbers that remain are
Mot worth comparifon with thofe that return. See
Herring- Fishery.
The Dutch are moil extravagantly fond of this fiih
when it is pickled. A premium is given to the firfl:
bufs that arrives in Holland with a lading of this their
ambrolia, and a vaft price given for each keg. There
is as much joy among the inhabitants on its arrival, as
j the Egyptians {how on the firft overflowing of the
'icMing of Nile. Flanders had the honour of inventing the art
of pickling herrings. One William Beauklen of Bi-
verlet, near Sluys, hit on this ufeful expedient: from
him was derived the name pickle, which we borrow from
the Dutch and Gernian. Bauklendied in 1397. The
emperor Charles V. held his memory in fuch venera¬
tion for the fervice he did to mankind, as to do his
tomb the honour of a viiit. It is very Angular that
moft nations give the name of their favourite difh to
the facetious attendant on every mountebank. Thus
the Dutch call him pickle herring ; the Italians, maca¬
roni ; the French, jean pottage; the Germans, bans
veurfl, that h, jack faufage ; and the Englilh dignify him
with the name of jack pudding.
iSfSprattus, 2. The fprattus has 13 rays in the back fin. It is a
n where native of the European feas, and has a great refem-
.bijjfound. blance to the herring, only it is of a lefs fize. They
come into the river Thames below bridge in the begin¬
ning of November, and leave it in March; and are, du¬
ring that feafon, a great relief to the poor of the capi¬
tal. At Gravefend and at Yarmouth, they are cured
like red-herrings: they are fometimes pickled, and are
little inferior in flavour to the anchovy, but the bones
will not diffolve like thofe of the latter.
3. The alofa, or Jhad, has a forked fnout, and black
B ound™ ^ fp°ts on the fides. According to Belonius and Haf-
leiquift, this is a fifh of pafiage in the Nile. The laft
fays,' it js found in the Mediterranean near Smyrna,
and on the coaft of Egypt near Rofetto ; and that in
the months of December and January it afeends the
Nile as high as Cairo, where the people ftuff it with
8 pot marjoram ; and when dreffed in that manner, it
'he fineft will very nearly intoxicate the eater. In Great Bri-
'.hahit the tain the Severn affords this fiih in higher perfection
evern. tjlan any otjler rjver. makes its firft appearance
there in May, but in very warm feafons in April; for
its arrival fooner or latter depends much on the tem¬
per of the air. It continues in the river about two
months, and then is fucceeded by a variety which we
Shall have occafion to meatioa-hereafter.
83 1 C L U
The Severn fhad is efteemed a very delicate fiih Clupea,
"about the time of its firft appearance, efpecially in that c t
part of the river that flows by Gloucefter, where they v
are taken in nets, and ufually fell dearer than falmon :
f>me are fent to London, where the fiih-mongers di-
ftinguiih them from thofe of the Thames by the French
name alofe. Whether they fpawn in this river and the
Wye is not determined, for their fry has not yet been
afeertained. The old fiih come from the fea into the
river in full roe. In the months of July and Auguft,
multitudes of bleak frequent the river near Gloucefter;
fome of them are as big as a fmall herring, and thefe
the fiihermen erroneoufly fuppofe to be the fry of the
ihad. Numbers of thefe are taken near Gloucefter, in
thofe months only, but none of the emaciated ihad arc
ever caught in their return.
The Thames Iliad does not frequent that river till
the latter end of May or beginning of June, and is
efteemed a very courfe and infipid fort of fiih. The
Severn ihad is fometimes caught in the Thames, though
rarely, and called aids (no doubt alofe, the French
name) by the fiihermen in that river. About the fame
time, and rather earlier, the variety called, near Glou¬
cefter, the tmoaite, makes its appearance ; and is taken iVane de.
in great numbers in the Severn, and is held in asferibed.
great difrepute as the fhad of the Thames. The dif¬
ferences between each variety are as follows : the true
ihad weighs fometimes eight pounds; but their ge¬
neral fize is from four to five. The tmoaite, on the
contrary, weighs from half a pound to two pounds,
which it never exceeds. The tivaite differs from a
ihad only in having one or more round black fpots on
the fides : if only one, it is always near the gill ; but
commonly there are three or four, placed one under
the other. I9
4. The encraficohs, or ancljovy, has its upper jaw Anchovy
longer than the under one, and is about three inches ^e^cr^e^*
long. They are taken in vaft quantities in the Medi-
- terranean, and. are brought over here pickled. The
great fiihery is at Georgia a fmall iile weft of Leg¬
horn. See ^wAuy-FisHERY.
The other fpecies are, 5. The atherinoides has a
ihining line on each fide, and fmall belly-fins. It is a
native of Surinam. 6. The thriffa has 28 rays in the fin
at the anus. It is found in the Indian ocean. 7. The
fima has yellow fins, thofe of the belly being very
fmall. The mouth is flat ; the upper jaw is very
fhort; the body is of a ihining filver colour ; and the
fins are yellow. It is a native of Afia. 8. The fternr-
da has no belly-fins, and the body is broad. It is a
native of Surinam. 9. The myftus is fhaped like a
fword, and the fins at the anus are united. It is
found in the Indian ocean. 10. The tropica has a
wedge-like tail, and a white, broad, compreffed body.
It is found at Afcenfion iiland. 11. The finenfis is very
like the common herring, but broadei-. It has no teeth,
and is a native of China.
CLUSIA, the balsam-tree : A genus of the
-monogynia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
.thofe plants the order of which is doubtful. The
calyx is tetraphylloiis or hexaphyllous, with its leaf¬
lets oppofite and imbricated ; the corolla tetrapetalous,
or hexapetalous; the ftamina numerous. The calyx
and corolla of the female as in the male ; the nectu-
L 3 rium
C L U [ 84 ] c L Y
• Clufina rium of anthers or glandules coalited, including the
Clutia gerraen• The capfule is quinquelocular, quinquevalved,
t,, ^ ' and full of pulp. There are four fpecies, all natives
©f America. The moft remarkable is the flava. This
is pretty common in the Britifh American iflands,
•where the trees grow to the height of 20 feet, and
Ihoot out many branches on every fide, furnilhed with
thick, round, fucculent leaves placed oppofite. The
flowers are produced at the ends of the branches, each
having a thick fucclent cover. After the flowers are
paft, they are fucceeded by oval fruit. From every
part of thefe tr ees there exudes a kind of turpentine,
which is called in the Weft Indies hog-gum ; becaufe
they fay, that when any of the wild hogs are wound¬
ed, they repair to thefe trees, and rub their wounded
parts againft the ftem till they have anointed tbemfelves
with this turpentine, which heals their wounds. Thefe
plants are very tender, and in this country muft be
kept conftantly in a ftove ; and fparingly watered, e-
fpecially in winter ; for they naturally grow in thofe
parts of the . iflands where it feldom rains, and confe-
quently cannot bear much moifture. They may be pro¬
pagated from cuttings, which muft be laid to dry for a
fortnight or three weeks, that the wounded parts may
be healed over, otherwife they will rot. The belt
time for planting thefe cuttings is in July, that they
may be well rooted before the cold weather comes on
in autumn.
CLUSINA palus, (anc. geog.) a lake of Tuf-
cany, extending north-weft between Clufium and Ar-
retium, and communicating with the Arnus and Cla-
nis. Now Ch'iana Palude.
CLUSINI fontes, (Horace), baths in Tufcany,
in the territory of Clufium, between this laft to the
north, and Acula to the fouth, at the diftance of eight
miles from each. Now Bagni dl S. Cafciana.
CLUSIUM, anciently called Camars, (Virgil, Li¬
vy) ; a town of Tufcany, at the fouth end of the Palus
Clufina, where it forms the Clanis ; the royal reli-
dence of Porfena, three days journey from-Rome to
the north, (Polybius). Clufinus the epithet. Clufini
Veter.es the people. Now Chiuji. E. Long. 13. Lat.
43.—Clujium Novum, was a town of Tufcany, near the
fprings of the Tiber, in the territory of Arretium ;
where lies the Ager Clufinus; now called Cafentino.
Clufini Novi, the people, (Pliny).
CLUTIA, in botany : A genus of the gynandria
order, belonging to the dicecia clafs of plants; and in
the natural method ranking under the 38th order, Tri-
cocca. The male calyx is pentaphyllous, the corolla
pentapetalous: the calyx and corolla of the female as
in the male; the ftyles are three, and the capfule is
trilocular with a Angle feed. There are three fpecies,
all of them natives of warm climates. They are ever¬
green ftirubby plants, riling fix or eight feet high,
garnilhed \yith fimple leaves, and greeniih-white quin-
quepetalous flowers. They are propagated by cuttings
in fpring or fummer, planting them in pots of light
earth, plunged in a hot-bed. The plants muft always
be kept in a ftove.
MeTual Dr'Wright, in his account of the medicinal plants
'Journal, ©f Jamaica, fays that the clufia elutheria is the fame
veil. Vlli. as the .cafcarilla and eleatheria of the Ihops. Other
^art 3' medical writers have fuppofed them to be diftindl
* . barks, and they are fold in the Ihops as different pro*
duttions. Linnseus’s croton cafcariila, Dr Wright ob- Cluvier,
ferves, is the wild rofemary Ihrub of Jamack, the bark _ i
of which has none of the fenfible qualities of the caf- ~v"
carilla.
CLUVIER (Philip), in Latin Cluverius, a cele¬
brated geographer, born at Dantzic in 1580. He tra¬
velled into Poland, Germany, and the Netherlands, in
order tq ftudy law ; but, being at Leyden, Jofeph
Scaliger perfuaded him to give way to his genius for
geography. Cluvier followed his advice, and for this
purpofe vifited the greateft part of the European ftates.
He was well verfed in many languages ; and where-
ever he went, obtained illuftrious friends and protec¬
tors. * At his return to Leyden, he taught there with
great applaufe; and died in 1623, aged 43. He
wrote, I. De tribus Rheni alveis. 2. Germania an-
tiqua. 3. Sicilia antiqua. 4. Italia antiqua. 5. In-
troduBioin univerfam Geographiam. All juftly efteemed.
CLYDE, a river in Scotland, which, arifing in An-
nandale, falls into the fea over againft the ifle of Bute.
Next to the Tay, it is the largeft river in Scotland;
and is navigable for fmall craft up to Glafgow. The
canal, which joins the Forth, falls into it a little below
that city. The cataradl called the Frith of the Clyde,
oppofite to Lanark, is a great natural curiofity, and
the firft feene of the kind in Great Britain. This tre¬
mendous Iheet of water for about a mile falls from
rock to rock. At Stone-byers, the firft fall is about
60 feet; the laft, at Cory-Lynn, is over folid rock,
nqt lefs than 106 feet high. At both thefe places
this great body of water exhibits a grander and more
interefting fpedlacle than imagination can poffibly con*
ceive.
At Cory-Lynn,'the falls are feento moft advantage
from a ruinous pavilion in a garden, placed in a lofty
fituation. The cataradf is full in view, feen over the
tops of trees and buflres, precipitating itfelf, for an
amazing way, from rock to rock, with fhort interrup¬
tions, forming a rude Hope of furious foam. The fides
are bounded by vaft rocks, clothed on their tops with
trees : on the fummit and very verge of one is a ruin¬
ed tower, and in front a wood oyer-topt by a verdant
hill. A path conducts the traveller down to the be¬
ginning of the fall, into which projects a high rock,,
in floods infulated'by the water ; and from the top is a
tremendous view of the furious ftream. In the cliffs
of this favage retreat the brave Wallace is faid to
have concealed himfelf, meditating revenge for his in¬
jured country.
On regaining the top, the walk is formed near the
verge of the rocks ; which on both iides are perfectly
mural and equidiftant, except where they overhang
the river is pent up between them at a diftance far be¬
neath ; not running, but rather Aiding along a ftoney
bottom Hoping the whole way. The fummits of the
rock are wood’ed ; the fides fmooth and naked; the
ftrata narrow and regular,' forming a ftupendous natu¬
ral mafonry. After a walk of above half.a mile on the
edge of this great chafm, on a fudden appears the
great and bold fall of Boniton, in a foaming-ftieet, far-
prqje&ing into a hollow, in which the Ayater lhowrs a
violent agitation, and a wide extending milt arifes from .
the furface. Above that is a fecond great fall; two
leffer fucceed: beyond them the river winds, grows
more tranquil,, and is. feen for a confiderable way,
bounded.
C L Y [ 85 ] C N E
Clymene bounded on one fide by wooded banks, on the other by
II. rich and fwelling fields.
, Clytia. The great fall of Stone-byers, firft mentioned, has
more of the horrible in it than any of the others,
and is feen with more difficulty : it confilts of two
precipitous cataracts falling one above the other into a
vaft chafm, bounded by lofty rocks, forming an ama¬
zing theatre to the view of thofe who take, the pains to
defcend to the bottom. Between this and Cory-Lynn
there is another fall called Dundojjlin.
CLYMENE, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of
Oceanus : who, being ‘beloved by Apollo, he had by
her Phaeton, Lampatia, Egle, and Phebe. See Phae-
CLYPEOLA, treacle-mustard: A genus of the
filiculofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
39th order, Slliquofa. The filicula is emarginated,
orbiculated, compreffed plane, and deciduous. There
are two fpecies, both natives of France, Italy, and the
warm parts of Europe, but hardy enough to bear the
winters in this country. One of them is an annual, and
the other a perennial plant; both are low. and herba¬
ceous, bearing fpikes of white flowers. They are pro¬
pagated by feeds, which ffiould be fown in autumn
where they are to remain.
CLYSSUS, an extract prepared, not from one, but
feveral bodies mixed together: and, among the mo¬
derns, the term is applied to feveral extracts prepared
from the fame body, and then mixed together.
CLYSTER, is a liquid remedy, to be injefted
chiefly at the anus into the larger inteftines. It is
ufually adminiftered by the bladder of a hog, ffieep, or
ox, perforated at each end, and having at one of the
apertures an ivory pipe faftened, with pack-thread. But
the French, and fometimes the Dutch, qfe a pewter
fyringe, by which the liquor may be drawn in with
more eafe and expedition than in the bladder, and like-
wife more forcibly expelled into the large inteftines.
This remedy ffiould never be adminiftered either too
hot or too cold, but tepid; for either of the former
will be injurious to the bowels.
Clyfters are fometimes ufed to nouriffi and fupport a
patient who can fwallow little or no aliment, by reafon
of fome impediment in the, organs of deglutition ; in
which cafe they may be made of broth, milk, ale, and
decodtions of barley and oats with wine. The Engliffi
introduced a new kind of clyfter, made of the finoke
of tobacco, which has been ufed by feveral other na¬
tions, and appears to be of confiderable efficacy when
other clyfters prove ineffectual, and particularly in the
iliac paffion, in the hernia incarcerata, and for the re¬
covery of drowned .perfons.
CLYTEMNESTRA, in fabulous hiftory, the
daughter of Jupiter and Leda. She married Agamem¬
non ; but while that prince was at the fiege of Troy,
ffie had an amorous intrigue with iEgifthus, whom fire
engaged to murder Agamemnon at his return to his
dominions. Her fon Oreftes, however, revenged the
death of his father by killing iEgifthus, with his mo¬
ther Clytemneftra ; but was afterwards haunted by the
Furies as long as he lived.
CLYTIA, or Clytie, daughter of Oceanus and
Tethys, beloved by Apollo. She was deferred by her
lover, who paid his addreffes to Leucothoe; and this Ciieorunv
fo irritated her, that fire difcovered the whole intrigue c.,j|jus
to her rival’s father. Apollo defpifed her the more. ' .
for this; and ffie pined away, and was changed into a
flower, commonly called a fun-Jlo'wer, which ftill turns
its head toward^ the fun in his courfe in token of her
love.
CNEORUM, widow-wail : A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 38th order,
Tricocce. The calyx is tridentated; there are three equal
petals, and a tricoccous berry. There is but one fpe¬
cies, a little evergreen and very ornamental ffirub, adorn¬
ed with Ample leaves, and tripetalous flowers of a pale
yellow colour. It is propagated from feeds, and requires
no other care than to be kept free from weeds.
CNICUS, blessed-thistle : A genus of the po-
lygamia asqualis order, belonging to the fyngenelia'
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compojita. The calyx is ovate, im¬
bricated with fpinous-branched fcales^ and encircled
with braftese. The florets are equal. There are fe-
ven fpecies, of which the only remarkable one is that
ufed in medicine under the name of carduus lenediSus.
This is an annual plant cultivated in gardens: it flow¬
ers in June and July, and perfefts it feeds in autumn.
For medical purpofes the plant ffiould be gathered
when in flower, dried in the (hade, and kept in a very
dry airy place, to prevent its rotting or growing moul¬
dy, which it is very apt to do. The leaves have a pe¬
netrating bitter tafte, not very ftrong or durable, ac¬
companied with an ungrateful flavour, which they are
in a great meafure freed from by keeping. Water ex¬
tracts in a little time, even without heat, the lighter
and more grateful parts of this plant; if the digeftion
is continued for fome hours, the difagreeable parts are
taken up ; a ftrong decoftion is very naufeous and of-
fenfive to the ftomach. Rectified fpirit gains a very
pleafant bitter tafte, which remains uninjured in the
extradb. The virtues of this plant are little known in
the prefent praCtice. The naufeous decobtion is fome¬
times ufed to provoke vomiting ; and a ftrong infufion
to promote the operation of other emetics, But this
elegant bitter, when freed from the offenfive parts of
the herb, may be advantageoufly applied to other pui1-
pqfes. Dr Lewis informs us, that he has experienced
excellent effeCts from a light infufion of carduus in lofs
of appetite, where the ftomach-was injured by irregu¬
larities. A ftronger infufion made in cold or warm
water, if drunk freely, and the patient kept warm, oc-
cafions a plentiful fweat, and promotes all the fecre-
tions in general. The feeds of the plant are alfo con-
fiderably bitter, and have fometimes been ufed with the-
fame intention as the leaves.
CNIDUS, (anc. geog.) a Greek town of Caria;
fituated on a horn or promontory of a peninfula, It
had in front a double port, and an ifiand lying before
it in form of a theatre, which being joined to the con¬
tinent by moles or caufeways, made Cnidus a Dipo-
lis or double town, (Strabo), becaufe a great number
of Cnidians inhabited the iiland. Paufanias mentions •
a bridge which joined the ifland to the continent.—.■
Cnidiiy the people. Cnidius, the epithet.— Cnidia Ve~-
mis, a principal divinity of- the Cnidians, (Horace),-
*• Her
GOA C 86 ] C O A
Cnoffus, Her ftatuc was executed by Praxiteles ; and fo exqui-
Coach. fitely done, and fo much admired, that people came
v from a]l pavts to view it, (Pliny). Of this place was
Eudoxus, the famous aftronomer and geometrician,
who had here an obfervatovy, (Strabo).
CNOSSUS, or.CNOsus., anciently called Caratos,
from a cognominal river running by it ; a city of
Crete, 23 miles to the eaft of Gorlina, (Pcutinger).
Here flood the fepulchre of Jupiter, the famous laby¬
rinth, and the palace of Minos a very ancient king; here
happened the adventure of Ariadne his daughter with
“Thefeus, called Gnofis, (Ovid). Its port-town was
Heracleum, on the eaft fide of the ifland.
COACH, a vehicle for commodious travelling, fn-
fpended on leathers, and moved on wheels. In Bri¬
tain, and throughout Europe, the coaches are drawn
by horfes, except in Spain, where they ufe mules. In
a part of the eaft, efpecially the dominions of the great
Mogul, their coaches are drawn by oxen. In Den¬
mark they fometimes yoke rein-deer in their coaches ;
though rather for curiofity than ufe. The coachman
is ordinarily placed on a feat, raifed before the body of
the coach. But the Spanilh policy has difplaced him
in that country by a royal ordonnance ; on occafion of
the Duke d’Olivares, who found that a very import¬
ant fecret, whereon he had conferred in his coach,
had been overheard and revealed by his coachman:
-iince that time the place of the Spanifh coachman is the
fame with that of the French ftage-coachman and our
poftilion, viz. on the firft horfe on the left.
The invention of coaches is owing to the French ;
yet coaches are not of any great antiquity, even in
France, fcarce reaching beyond the reign of their
Francis I. Their ule, at their firft rife, was only for
the country: and authors obferve, as a thing very An¬
gular, that there were at firft no more than two coach¬
es in Paris j the one that of the queen, and the other
that of Diana natural daughter of Henry II. The firft
courtier who had one was Jean de Laval de Bois Dau¬
phin; whofe enormous bulk difablcd him from travel¬
ling on horieback. One may hence judge how much
variety, luxury, and idlenefs, have grown upon our
hands in later days; there being now computed in that
fame city no lefs than 15,000 coaches.
Coaches have had the fate of all other inventions, to
be brought by degrees to their petfe&ion ; at pre-
fent they feem to want nothincr, either with regard
to eafe or magnificence. Louis XIV. of France made
feveral fumptuary laws for reftraining theexcefiive rich-
nefs of coaches, prohibiting the ufe of gold, filver, &c.
therein ; but they have had the fate to be negle&ed.
By the aft 25 Geo. III. c. 47. former duties on
cbaches, &c. are repealed, and the following charged
in lieu thereof, namely : For every coach, berlin, lan-
.dau, chariot, calaftr, with four wheels, chaife marine,
chaife with four wheels, and caravan, or by whatever
name fuch carriages may be called, kept by any perfon
Tor his own ufe, or to be let out to hire (except hack¬
ney coaches), ftiall be paid the yearly fum of L. 7.
And for every calaftr, chaife, chair, gig, or whiikey,
or by whatever name they are known or called, having
two or three wheels, to be drawn by one or more hor¬
fes, that ftrall be kept by any perfon for his own ufe,
-or to be let out to hire, the yearly fum of L. 3, 10s.
Every maker of coaches, chaife, chariots, &c. rauft,
from and after the fifth day-of July 1785, take out at Coach ]
the excife office in London, or of their agents in the Qoaj|u|a.
country, a licence to be renewed annually at leaft ten ti;jn ’ ;
days before the expiration of the former, for which they i—y—„
muft pay 20s. They muft alfo pay 20s duty for every
four-wheeled carriage newly built for fale, and 10s. for
every two-wheel carriage. Thefe duties are alfo pay¬
able to thecomrniffioners of the excife in town, or their
agents in the country.
Coach-makers in Scotland are to take out their li¬
cences and pay the duties to the commilfiouers of ex¬
cife in Edinburgh, or their agents in the country of that
part of Great Britain.
Every coach-maker neglefting to take out a licence,
and renewing the fame annually, forfeits L. 10; and
neglefting or refufing to fettle every fix weeks, in the
manner particularly direfted by the aft, is a forfeiture
of L 20.
Hadney-CoACHESy thofe expofed to hire, in the
ftreets of London, and fome other great cities, at rates
fixed by authority.
One thoufand hackney-coaches are allowed in Lon¬
don and Weftminfter; which are to be licenfed by com*
milfioners, and to pay a duty to the crown. They are
all numbered, having their numbers engraved on tin
plates fixed on the coach-doors. Their fares or rates
are fixed by aft of parliament; and by a late aft have
been increafed in confequence of a new weekly tax. !
Stage-CoACHKs, are thofe appointed for the convey¬
ance of travellers from one city or town to another.
The mailers of ftage-coaches are not liable to an ac¬
tion for things loft by their coachmen, who have mo-
ney given them to carry the goods, unlefs where fuch
mailer takes a price for the fame.
Perfons keeping any coach, berlin, landau, or other
carriage with four wheels, or any calalh, chaife, chair,
or other carriage with two wheels, to be employed as
public ftage coaches or carriages, for the purpofe of
conveying pafiengers forhire to and from different places,
lhall pay annually 5 s. for a licence ; and no perfon fo
licenfed lhall by virtue of one licence keep more than
one carriage, under the penalty of L. 10.
Mail-CoACHns, are ftage-coaches of a particular con-
ftruftion to prevent overturns; and for a certain confi-
dei ation carry his Majefty’s mails, which are protefted by
a guard, and fubjeft to the regulations of the poll-office.
They are pointed as to their time of arrival and depar-.
ture, areueftrifted to four infide palfengers, and from
experience have proved very beneficial to the commerce
and correfpondence of this country. * John Palmer, Efq;
who has the merit of the invention, and been indefati¬
gable in bringing the eftablilhment to a permanent foot¬
ing, has been greatly patronifed by government; and
got, as the reward of his fervice,a handfome appointment
in the general poll-office London.
Coach, or Couch, is alfo a fort of chamber or apart¬
ment in a large Ihip of war near the Hern. The floor
of it is formed by the aftmoft part of the quarter-deck,
and the roof of it by the poop: it is generally the ha- *
bitation of the captain.
COADUNATE, in botany, an order of plants in
the fragment a melhodi naturalis of Linnaeus, in which he
has thefe genera, viz. annona, liriodendrum, magno¬
lia, uvaria, michelia, thea.
COAGULATION, in chemiftry, is performed by
fix
5
C O A
[ 87 ]
C O A
oatrulum fix different agents; and by each of thefe in feveral that the fubftance employed in the operation contained
H J^^s-,ai-f. 1 T+- io u/ir)n Kv ril. T.alrlv. the* innammahle nrinrinl-1 nf rottl.
different manners. 1. It is performed with water, by
congealing, cryftallizing, and precipitating, as in the
mercurius vitae and fome other pieparations. 2. With
oil, which, by the force of fire, unites with fulphur,
falcs, and metals. 3. With alcohol, upon the (pint
of fal ammoniac, the white of eegs, the ferum of the
blood, &c. 4. With acid and alkali growing; folid to¬
gether, as in the tartarum vitriolatum. 5. With fixed
alkali, as in milk. And, 6. With acid falts ; as in
milk, ferum, and the whites of eggs.
COAGULUM, is the fame with what in Englifii flame or foot.
oil. Laftly, the inflammable principle of coal, altho’ "
it proceeds from oil, certainly is not oil; but pure
phlogifton ; fince coal added to vitriolic acid can form
fulphur, to phofphoric acid can form phofphorus,
&c. and fince oil can produce none of thefe effects
till it has been/decompofed and reduced to the ftate
of coal. Bcfides, the phenomena accompanying the
burning of coal are different from thofe which happen
when oily fubftances are burnt. The flame of char¬
coal is not fo bright as that of oil, and produces no
we call runr.et, or rather the curd formed thereby.
COAKS. For the exciting of intenfe heats, as
for the fnelting of iron ore, and for operations where
the acid and oily particles would be detrimental, as the
drying of malt, foffil-coals are previoufly charred, or
reduced to coah; that is, they are made to undergo an
All the phlogifton of coal is not burnt in the open
air, particularly when the combuftion is flow. One
part of it exhales without decompofitton, and forms a
vapour, or an invifible and infenfible gas. This va¬
pour (which is, or at leaft contains a great deal of,
fixed air) is found to be very pernicious, and to affedt
operation fimilar to that by which charcoal is made, the animal fyftem in fuch a manner as to occafion
By this operation coals are deprived of their phlegm,
their acid liquor, and part of their fluid oil. Coaks,
therefore, confift of the two moft fixed conftituent
parts, the heavy oil and the earth, together with the
acid concrete fait, which, though volatile, is diflblved
by the oil and the earth.
COAL, among chemifts, fignifies any fubftance
containing oil, which has been expofed to the fire in
clofe veffels, fo that all its volatile principles are ex¬
pelled, and that it can fuftain a red heat without fur¬
ther decompofition. Coal is commonly folid, black,
very dry, and confiderably hard. The fpecific cha-
radier of perfedt coal is its capacity of burning with
accefs of air, while it becomes red-hot and fparkles,
fometimes with a fenfible flame which gives little light,
with no fmoke or foot capable of blackening white
bodies.
Coal is capable of communicating its inflammable
principle, either to the vitriolic acid with which it
forms fulphur; or to the nitrous acid contained in
nitre, which it inflames; or to metallic earths, which
it reduces into metals, But the phlogifton cannot pafs
from coal to form thefe new,combinations without the
affiftance of red-heat. Coal feems to be an unalte¬
rable compound in every inftance but thofe mentioned,
of burning in the open air, and of communicating its
phlogifton to other bodies: for it may he expofed in
elofe veffels to the moft violent and long continued fire
without fuffering the leaft decompofition. No difpofi-
tion to fufe, nor any diminution of weight, can be per¬
ceived. It is a fubftance exceedingly fixed, and per¬
haps the moft refradlory in nature. It refifts the adiion
of the moft powerful menftrua, liver of fulphur alone
excepted. Coal is evidently a refult of the decompofi¬
tion of the compound bodies from which it is obtain¬
ed. It confifts of the greateft part of the earthy prin-
death in a very fhort time. For this reafon it is dan¬
gerous to remain in a clofe place,, where charcoal or
any other fort of coal is burnt. Perfons ftruck by
this vapour are ftunned, faint, fuffer a violent headach,
and fall down fenfelefs and motionlefs. The beft me¬
thod of recovering them Is by expofure to the open
air, and by making them fwallow vinegar, and breathe
its fteam.
Amongft coals, fome differences are obfervable,
which proceed from the difference of the bodies from
which they are made : fome coals, particularly, are
more combuftible than others. This combullibility
feems to depend on the greater or lefs quantity of fa-
line principle they contain ; that is,- the more of the
faline principle it contains, the more eafily it dtcom-
pofes and burns. For example, coals made of plants
and wood containing much faline matter capable of
fixing it, the aihes of which contain much alkaline fait,
burn vigoroufly and produce much heat; whereas the
coals of animal matters, the faliae principles of which are
volatile, and cannot be fixed but in fmail quantity, and
the afhes of which contain little or no fait, are fcarcely
at all combuftible. For they not only do not kindle fo
eafily as charcoal does, nor ever burn alone, but they
cannot be reduced to aflies, without very great trouble,
even when the moft effeftual methods are ufed to faci¬
litate the combuftion. The coal of bullocks blood has
been kept for fix hours very red in a ftrallow crucible,
furrounded with burning charcoal, and conftantly ftir-
red all the time, that it might be totally expofed to
the air ; yet could it not be reduced to white, or even
grey, aflies: It ftill remained very black, and full of
pblogifton. The coals of pure oils, or of concrete
oily fubftances and foot, which is a kind of coal rat'fed
during inflammation, are as difficultly reduced to aflies
as animal coals. Thefe coals contain very little faline
ciple of thefe compound bodies, with which apart of matter p and their aflies yield no alkali. The coals
the faline principles, and fome of the phlogifton of
the decompofed oil,, are fixed and combined very inti-
mately. Coal can never be formed but by the phlogi- fome of them
fton of a body, which has been in an oily ftate : hence of nitre,
it cannot be formed by fulphur, phofphorus, metals,
nor by any other fubftance the phlogifton of which is
not in an oily ftate. Alfo every oily matter treated
with fire in clofe veffels, iurnifties true coal; fo that
whenever a-charry refiduum is left, we may be certain
which are fo difficultly burnt, are alfo lefs capable of
inflaming with nitre than others more combuftible; and
in a great meafure refift the action
COAL, in mineralogy, a kind of folid inflammable
fubftance, fuppofed to be of a bituminous nature, and
commonly ufed for fuel. Of this fubftance there are
various fpecies.
i. Pit-coal (Liihmthrax)> is a black, folid, com-
C O A [ 8-8 ] C O A
pact, brittle mafs, of moderate hardnefs, lamellated
ftru&ure, more or lefs fliining, but feldom capable of
a good polifh ; and does not melt when heated. Ac¬
cording to Kirwan, it confxfts of petrol or afphaltum,
intimately mixed with a fmall portion of earth chiefly
argillaceous ; feldom calcareous ; and frequently mixed
with pyrites. A red tinfture is extrafted from it by
fpirit of wine, but cauftic alkali attacks the bituminous
part. From fome forts of it a varnifli may be made
by jneans of fat oils. Fixed alkali has never been
found in any kind of it, nor fulphur, unlefs when it
happens to be mixed with pyrites.—None of the va¬
rious kinds are found to be ele&rics^rye (a).
The varietiespflithanthrax,enumerated byCronftedt,
are, i. With a fmall quantity of argillaceous earth arid
vitriolic acid. It is of a black colour, and Aiming texture:
it burns, and is moftly confumed in the fire, but leaves,
however, a fmall quantity of alhes. 2. Slaty coal.
2. Culm coal, called holm, by the Swedes, has a
greater portion of argillaceous< earth and vitriolic acid,
with a moderate proportion of petrol. It has the
fame appearance with the foregoing, though its tex¬
ture is more dull: it burns with a flame, without be¬
ing cpnfumed, but leaves behind it a flag of the fame
bulk with the original volume of the coal. The fol¬
lowing is Mr Kirwan's defcription of it from the me¬
moirs of the Stockholm academy. “ Its fra&ure has
a rougher fe&ion than the cannel coal; its fpecifie
gravity from 1300 to 1370. The beft kind affords
by diftillation, at firft fixed air, then an acid liquor,
afterwards inflammable air, and a light oil of the na¬
ture of petrol; then a volatile alkali; and laftly pitch-
oil. The refidirum is nearly three quarters of the
whole; and being flowly burnt, affords 13 per cent,
of afhes, which confift moftly of argillaceous earth ;
and about three hundredth parts of them are magne¬
tic. It is found in England, and among fome alu¬
minous ores in Sweden.”
3. Slate-coal contains fuch a quantity of argillaceous
earth, that it looks like common flate;, however, it
burns by itfelf with a flame. M. Magellan is of opi¬
nion that this is the bituminous fubftance already de-
fcribed (fee Clay, p. 51.) This fchiftus is of a dark
bluifti rufty colour; when thrown on the fire it burns
with a lively flame, and almoft as readily as the oily
wood of dry olive tree, or lignum vitae ; emitting the
very difagreeable fmell of petrol. Such large quarries
N° 83.
of it are found near Purbeck in Dorfetftiire, that the
poorer part of the inhabitants are thence fupplied with
fuel. From the appearance of this flaty coal, Cron-
ftedt has been induced to fuppofe that the earth of
all kinds of coal is argillaceous, though it is not fo
eafy to diftinguifti it after being burnt.1 The pit-coals,
he fays, contain more or lefs of the vitriolic acid ; for
which reafon the fmoke arifing from them attacks fil-
ver in the fame manner as fulphur does, let the coals
be ever fo free from marcafite, which, however, is of¬
ten imbedded or mixed with them.
4. Cannel coat (Jtmpelites), is of a dull black co¬
lour ; breaks eafiy in all direftions; and, if broken
tranfverfely, prefents a fmooth conchoidal furface. It
burns with a bright lively flame, but is very apt to
fly in pieces in the fire ; however it is faid to be en¬
tirely deprived of this property byimmerfion in water
for fome hours previous to its being ufed. It contains
a confiderable quantity of petrol in‘a lefs condenfed ftate
than other coals. Its fpecific gravity-is about 1.270.
This kind of coal, being of an uniform hard texture,
is eafily turned on a lath, and takes a good polifli. Hence
it is ufed for making various toys, which appear almoft;
as well as if made of the fineft jet.
5. Kilkenny coal is the lighteft of any; .its fpecific
gravity being only about 1400. It contains the lar-
geft quantity of afphaltum; burns with lefs fmoke and
flame, and more intenfely, though more flowly, than
the cannel-coal. The quantity of earth it contains
does not exceed one twentieth part of its weight; but
this kind of coal is frequently mixed with pyrites. It
is found in the county of Kilkenny, belonging to the
province of Leinfter in Ireland. The quality of it as
burning without fmoke, is proverbially ufed as an en¬
comium on the county.
6. Sulphureous coal confifts of the former kinds mix¬
ed with a very confiderable portion of pyrites; whence
it is apt to moulder and break when expofed to the
air, after which water will aft upon it. It contains
yellow fpots that look like metal; burns with a ful-
phureous fmell, leaving behind it either flag or ful-
phureous afhes> or both. Its fpecific gravity is 1500
or more.
7. Bovey coal (Xylanthrax), is of a brown or
brownifh black colour, and of a yellow laminar tex¬
ture. Its laminse are frequently flexible when firft
dug, though they generally harden when expofed to
the
(a) “ The varieties of this coal (fays Mr Magellan) are very numerous according to the different fub-
ftances with which it is mixed ; but in regard to their ceconomical ufes, only two kinds are taken notice of by
the Britifti legiflature, vi%. culm and caking coals. The caking coals, in burning, Ihow an incipient fufion,
fo that their fmalleft pieces unite in the fire into one mafs; by which means the fmalleft pieces, and even the
mere duft of this kind, are almoft equally valuable with the largeft pieces. The other fort called culm, does not
fufe or unite in the fierceft fire ; fo that the fmall coal, being unfit for domeftic purpofes, can only be ufed in
burning limeflone.
“ It fliould be an eafy matter for any perfon to diftinguhh culm from fmall caking coal, either by try¬
ing to make fire with it in a common grate, without interpofing any other fuel between it; when if it
kindles, it is a caking coal; if not, it is culm: Or by putting fome of thefe fmall fragments of coal
on an ignited iron fliovel; if they melt and run together, they belong to the caking kinds; if not, they
are culm. But it feems that coal merchants are now in the cuftom of calling culm the powdery parts of pit-
coal, of whatfoever kind they may happen to be. The reafon of this is, that there is a difference in the duty
payable by culm and by caking coals. There never Was any difficulty, however, on the fubjeft ; nor would
there be any difficulty in collefting the tax, were it not for the infufferable ignorance and love of defpotic op-
preffion which generally pervades the underling officers of the revenue.”
'
C OAL MHSTE S .
Plate CALII.
tSit&e/Ai/*}/?/. //irAt/cuAitrl/frtA
C O A [ 89 1 C O A
the air. It confifts of wood penetrated with petrol when made on a large fcale. Thefe ovens are fo con- Coal,
or bitumen, and frequently contains pyrites, alum, trived, as to admit an under fupply of air; and the , Coa!er>-
and vitriol. According to the German chemifts its coals, after being kindled, decompofe themfelves by a • v
a/hes contain a little fixed alkali; but Mr Mills differs flow but incomplete combuflion, which does not de-
from them on this fubjeft. By diftillation it yields a ftroy the ingredients. The refiduum left in the oven
fetid liquor mixed with a volatile alkali and oil; part proves to be moft excellent cinders or coaks ; whilft
of which is foluble in fpirit of wine, and part of a mi- the volatile parts, which otherwife would be'difiipated
neral nature, and infoluble. It is found in almofl all ip the air, are feparated and condenfed in refervoirs
the countries of Europe.
Thefe are the moll confiderable varieties of coals'
commonly known; but we muft not imagine that
each of them is to be met homogeneous in thofe places
where they are found. On the contrary, the differ¬
ent qualities~and proportions of their ingredients make
a vail number of other varieties, fit for different pur-
pofes, according to the quality and quantity of thofe
they contain. Thus, various kinds of coals are often
found mixed with one another under ground; and
fome of the finer forts fometimes run like veins be¬
tween thofe of a coarfer kind. Thus, M. Magellan
obferved in the fine coals employed in a curious ma¬
nufactory, at Birmingham, that they produced a much
clearer flame than he had ever obferved from common
coal; yet, on inquiry, he found that thefe were
picked out from the common coals of the country,
through which they ran in veins, and were eafily dif-
tinguifhed by the manufacturers, though they did
not afford fufficient indications of a fpecific differ¬
ence. The purpofe to which they were applied was
the moulding rods of tranfparent and coloured glafs
into the fhapes proper for common buttons; which
they performed with aflonifhing expedition.
1'ourcroy remarks, that this foffil bitumen, when
heated in contaCl with a body in combuflion, and ha¬
ving a free accefs of air, kindles the more flowly and
with the greater difficulty in proportion as it is more
weighty and compaCt. When once kindled, it emits
a flrong and durable heat, and burns for a long time
before it is confumed. The matter that is burned,
and produces the flame, appears very denfe, and feems
united to fome other fubftance which retards its de-
ftruCtion. On burning, it emits a particular flrong
fmell, which is not at all fulphureous when the coal
contains no pyrites. When the combuflible, oily,
and other volatile parts of the coal are diffipated, if
the combuflion be then flopped, the remainder is
found to be reduced to a true charred flats., and-is
called coak. This fob fiance is capable of exci ting the
moll intenfe hea,t, for which' purpofe it is ufed in me-
tallurgic works all over Britain.
“ It is well known (fays M. Magellan), that the
Englifh method of burning pit-coal into Aw/' has been
a moft profitable lid happy acquiTitidn for the fmelt-
ing our ores, and for many other metallurgical and
chemical proceffes in this ifland. But the ingenious
and advantageous undertaking of lord Dundonald, by
which he tuills to a very confiderable profit the mines
of coals in his and other eftates, building ovens of a
proper conftru&ion for burning pit-coal into coak,
and at the fame time for1 colledling, in feparate re¬
ceptacles, the volatile alkali, oil, tar, and pitch, which
were generally loft by the ufual method, deferves to
be noticed, as it affords a very remarkable inflance of
the great Ioffes to mahkirtt^r for want of carefully at¬
tending to every refult from great proceffes of art
Vol. V. Part I.
or receptacles of capacious fize, placed at proper di-
ftances beyond the reach of fire. Monf. Faujas de
St Fond, who vifited thefe works in a trip he made
to Scotland, undertook to eredl a fimilar kind of oven
in France : and it is rather lingular, that he endeavours
to eftablifh a'claim of having difeovered the fame pro¬
ceffes before he faw them in Scotland ; as if it did not
refledl a greater honour on his induftry, to carry back
to his country fome ufeful knowledge, than to return
as ignorant as our Englifh travellers,” &c;
On fubjedling pit-coal of any kind to diftillation in
clofe veffels, it firft yields a phlegm or watery liquor ;
then an ethereal or volatile oil; afterwards a volatile
alkali; and laftly, a thick and greafy oil: but it is re¬
markable, that, by re&ifying this lafl oil, a tranfparent
thin and light oil of a ftraw colour is produced, which
being expofed to the air becomes black like animal
oils. From this and other obfervations, the general
opinion is, that all coals, bitumens, and other oily
fubftances found in the mineral kingdom, derive their
origin from vegetables buried in the earth ; fince it is
well known that only organifed bodies have the power
of producing oily and fat fubftances. “ The amazing
irregularities, gaps, and breaks (fays M. Magellan) of
the ftrata of coals, and of other foffile fubftances, e-
vince that this globe has undergone the moft violent
convulfions, by which its parts have been broken, de¬
tached arid overturned in different ways, burying large
tradts of their upper furfaces, with all the animal'
and vegetable produdlions there exifting, at the time
of thofe horrible cataftrophes, whofe epoch far pre¬
cedes all human records. And it is eafy to-be con¬
ceived, that the various heaps and congeries of thefe
vegetable and animal fubftances, remaining for ages
and ages in the bowels of the earth, have obtained va¬
rious confiftencies, and ftill produce thofe oily and bi¬
tuminous juices, which find way to gufh out, leaving
behind their thickeft parts on_ the fame places where
they are found, and in many others where the induftry
of mankind nefver will be able to penetrate.” '
Goal-Mine. See Coalerv.—Malicioufly fetting
fire to coal-mines is felony, by flat. 10. Geo’. II. c. 32.
i 6.
Small Coal, a fort of charcoal prepared from the
fpray and brufhwood ftripped off from the branches of
coppice wood, fometimes bound in bairns for that pur¬
pofe, and fometimes charred without binding, in which
cafe it is called “ coming it together.” t
COALERY, Coaliery, or Colliery.; a coal-HiTtory of
work, or place where Coals are dug. coals.
It is generally agreed, that our canriel-coal * is the * See Am-
lapis ampelites of the Romans 5 though it feems to Mo¬
have been ufed by them only for making toys, brace¬
lets, &c. But of that common fuel which we .denomi¬
nate coals, the native Romans were entirely ignorant.
It is certain that they are not, as fome have imagined,
the lapis obiidianus of Pliny, about which there have
M been
c a a [90
Coalerr. been great difputesf: nor the Gagates, or Jet, which
]
C O A
others, again, have taken for the lap's obfidianus;
cap a6XVI" though the lightnefs and texture (how plainly that it is
Auguftus not either ftone or coal. In fadl, there are no beds of
placed the it in the compafs of Italy. The great line of that fuel
fcfur ele°f ^eems to fweep away round the globe, from north-eaft
phants " to fouth-weft ; not ranging at a diitance even from the
made of it fouth-eafterly parts of our ifland, as is generally ima-
jn the ton- gined, but aftually vifiting Brabant and France, and
cord^ C°n" yet avo‘^‘ng Italy.
But the primaeval Britons, appear to have ufed it.
And in the precindts of Manchefter particularly, which
are furniihed with an inexhaulfible abundance of it,
they eould not have remained unapprifed of the agree-
Whitaicr s able combuttible around them. The cun-ents there
aF” ? "n foeqnently bring down fragments of coal from the
ancejer. jjjQuntabis ; and in the long and winding courfe of
them through the parifh, the Britons would fobn mark
the (hiuing ftones in the channels ; and by the aid of
accident, or the force of reficftion, find out the utility
of them. But we can advance dill nearer to a cer¬
tainty. Several pieces of coal were difcovered fome
years ago in the fand under the Roman way to Rib-
ehefter, when both were dug up at the conftrudtion of
a houfe in Quay-ftreet. The number of pieces, feve-
ral of them as large as eggs, was not lefs than 40 ;
and a quantity of flack was dug up with them. Thefe
circumitances (how the coals to have been lodged upon
the fpot, before the road of the Romans covered it.
That ground being In the neighbourhood of .]\lance~
1 i. e. '' the nion\, the Britons had there repofited a quantity of
place of coals, probably for the ufe of the garrifon ; and many
tents. An o£ tjie fmaqer fragments, and fome of the flack, were
tilh'fown*17 buried in the fand upon which they were laid. And
t c fire of that the Britons in general were acquainted with this
which was fuel, is evident from its appellation amongft us at pre-
Caftlefidcf Ient:> which is not Saxon, but Britilh ; and fubfifts a-
atManchef-mong ^ fob*1 in their 0 gual, and among the Gornifli
ter. in their iolan, to this day.
•fThe extenfive beds of fuel, therefore, with which the
kingdom of England and the precindts of Manchefter
Tire fo happily ftored, were firft noticed by the (kill,
and firft opened by the labour of the Britons; and
fome time before the arrival of the Romans among us.
And the nearer quarries in the confines of Bradford,
Newton, and Manchefter, would naturally attract the
notice, and invite the inquiries, of the Britons, before
any others. The current of the Mfdlock, w*hich
wadies the fides of them, would bring down fpecimens
of the riches within, lodge many of them about the
Caftlefield, and allure the Britons fuccefiively to a col-
ledtion of the one and a fearch after the other.
But, even for ages after the difeovery, wood continu¬
ed to compofe the general firing of the nation. In 852,
3 grant was made of fome la; ds by the abbey of Peter¬
borough, under the refervation of certain boons and
payments in kind to the monaftery ; as, one night’s
entertainment; 10 veffels of Welfli and two of com¬
mon ale ; 60 cart-loads of wood ; and 12 of pit-coal
where we.fee the quantity of coal was only one cart¬
load to five of wood. The latter naturally continued
the principle article of cur fuel as long as the forefts
and thickets prefented themfclves fo ready to the
hand : and fuch it continued till a very late period.
The firft public notice of the former is mentioned by-
Mr Hume to have been in the time of Henry III. who Coaleryi
in the year 1272, granted a charter to the town of——v—
Newcaftle, giving the inhabitants a licence to dig coals:
and the firft ftatute relating to ibis article was the
9 Henry V. c. 10. ordaining all keels in the port of
Ncwcaftk to be meafured by commiflioners, before
carriage of coals, on pain of forfeiture. They were not
brought into common vife till the reign of Cnatles L ;
and were then fold for about 17 s. a chaldron. In Canpbdl't
fome years after the reftoration,* there were about
200,000 chaldrons burnt in London ; in 1670, about
270,00c chaldrons ; and at the revolution, upwards of
300,000 chaldrons 5 and at prefent, full 6oo,oco are
annually confirmed there. There is, befides, an im-
menfe coniumption in other parts of Britain, and in
Ireland. In Scotland, they fupply their own confump-
tion, and alfo export.. In Ireland, though they have
coal, yet they takg annually to the value of 3.0,000 1.
from England, and 12,0001. from Scotland,
The mod remarkable coalery, or coal-work, that we
have ever had in this ifland, was that wrought at Bur-
rowftounnefs, under the fea. The veins of coal were
found to continue under the bed of the fea in this place,
and the colliers had the courage to work the vein near
half w*ay over ; there being a mote half a mile from the
(bore, where there was an entry that went down into
the coal-pit, under the fea. This -was made into a.
kind of round key or mote, as they call it, built fo as to
keep out the fea, which flowed there twelve feet. Here
the coals were laid, and a firip, of that draught of wa¬
ter, could lay her fide to the mote, and take in the
coal.—This lamous colliery belonged to the earl of
Kincardine’s family. The frefli water which fprung
from the bottom and fides of the coal pit, w*as always
drawn out upon the (bore by an engine moved by wa¬
ter,that drew it forty fathom. This coal-pit continued
to be wrought many years to the great profit of the
owners, and the wonder of all that faw it; but, at
laft, an unexpected high tide drowned the whole at
once : the labourers had not time to efcape, but perilh-
ed in it.
There are feveral other countries.in Europe which
poffefs confiderable coal-mines; as France, Liege,
Germany, and Sweden. Alfo on the other fide of the
Atlantic ocean, there has been coal difcovered, and
wrought; in Newfoundland, Cape-Breton, Canada, and , j
fome of the New-England provinces. But in all thefe Exceiifcnfe. p
countries, the coal is of a quality much inferior to the of the Bri. 1
Britifti, and entirely unfit to be ufed in many manu-hlh coals; :
failures ; fo that they are obliged to import great
quantities from Britain for the ufe of their manufac¬
tures of Iron, &c. ^ i
Our inland coal tfade, that is, carrying coals from Importance^
Newcaftle, Sundeiland, Blith, and other adjacent of the cqal- j
places in the north of England, as alfo from the frith tra(lei
of Edinburgh in Scotland, and other places-thereabouts,
to the city of London, and to the port-towns on the
coaft all the way, as well on this fide of Newcaftle,
north, as up the channel as high as Portfmouth weft,
is a prodigious artiele, and employs abundance of (hip¬
ping and feamen;. in fo much that, in a time of ur¬
gent necefiity, the coalery navigation alone has been,
able to fupply the government with a body of feamea
for the royal navy, able to man a confiderable fleet at
a very (hurt vvaming, and that without difficulty, when
e ° A [ 5
Coilery. no otlier branch of trade would do the like. Likewife
-v  the Whitehaven coaleries in Cumberland, belonging to
Sir James Lovvther, furniflr feveral counties in Ireland
with coals, and conftantly employ upwards of 2000
feamen ; which alfo is a noble nurfery for the navy of
this kingdom. And not only do the pit-coals fuffi-
ciently fupply 'all the ports, but, by [means of thofe
potts and the navigable rivers, all the adjacent coun¬
ties very far inland.
In fhort, coals, though not an exclufive, yet may,
with propriety, be ilyled a peculiar bleffing to Britain
from their great plenty, their acknowledged excel¬
lence, and their being found in fuch places as are
conveniently fituated for exportation. Nor is there
any danger of the export-trade being leffened even by
the feveral duties that have been laid upon them ; for
the foreign confumpt being founded in neeefiity with
regard to manufa&ures, and in ceconomy where they
are ufed for convenience (wood and turf being dearer
than coals with the duty), we need be in no fear of
the markets declining. There is as little room to be
alarmed from an apprehenfion of their being exhaufled,
as the prefent works are capable of fupplying us for a
long feries of years, and there are many other mines
ready to be opened when thefe fhall fail. Befides,
there are known to be coals in many parts of the three
kingdoms, which hitherto they have had no encourage¬
ment to work.
Befides the value of this commodity as a conveni-
ency of life, as an article of commerce, and as giving
rife to a nurfery of feamen for the increafe of the
marine ; other important advantages deferve to be no¬
ticed. Coals are in many refpe&s, and in a very high
degree, ufeful to the landed intereft ; not only by rai¬
ling exceedingly the real value, and of courfe the pr.r-
chafe, of thole lands in which they are found, and thofe
* Thefe are through which it is neceffary to pafs* from the works
emphatical-to the places where they are embarked, but from the
ly fly led general improvements they have occafioned ; fo that
airfare'let’ veT f£W counties aye now better cultivated than Nor¬
at as high thumberland, and the fame effe&s they have had in a
rents as" any greater or lefs degree in other places. Thoufands of
landed pro- laborious people are employed in and about the mines;
Britain" thoufands more in conveying them to the ports, and’
on board the fhips; to fay nothing of thofe that draw
their fubfiftence from the carriage of them by land to
fupply families, &c. •> There are alfo great numbers
that live in a fuperior ftation ; as Rewards, direftors,
fa&ors, agents, book-keepers, &c. To thefe we may
add the extraordinary encouragement given to inge¬
nious artifts who have invented, and the numerous
workmen continually employed about thofe feveral
curious and coftly machines which, for a variety of
purpofes in this bufinefs, are in continual ufe, and of
courfe in continual wear : we may join to thefe the
multitudes that obtain their living from the many ma¬
nufactures in which they are employed, and which
could not be carried on but by the help and cheapnefs
©f coals. Laftly, the produce of coals exported, which
amounts to a very confiderable fum, befides being pro¬
fitable to the owners, merchants, and mariners, is fo
much'clear gain to the nation.
It might be expe&ed, that a trade fo beneficial to
individuals, and to the nation in general, and which
has been gradually increafing for feveral centuries paft,
i ] ’ C O A
would have been rJ .-anced by this time to very great Cealery.
perfection, and reduced to a regular fyftem. But, in
one very effential refpeCt, it is found to be quite other-
wife. The art of working coal-mines in the moll pro¬
fitable manner is indeed highly improved : but the fun¬
damental of the art, that of fearching for and difeo-
vering coal in any diftriCt of country where it has not
yet been found, has never, that we know of, been
treated in a fyilematic manner. The reader, there¬
fore, will not be difpleafed to find this defed fupplied
in the courfe of the prefent article, together with a
detail of all the other operations in the bufinefs of
coaleries.
The terreftrial matters which compofe the folid situation of
parts of the earth are difpofed in ilrata, beds, or lay-the (irata.
ers, the under furface of one bearing againtt or lying
upon the upper furface of that below it, which lait bears
or lies on the next below in the fame manner.
Thefe ftrata confill of very different kinds of mat¬
ter, fuch as free ftone, lime-Rone, metal-Hone or whin-
Rone, coal, See. as will be particularly fpecified in the
fcquel.
Some of thefe Rrata are of a confiderable thicknefs,
being often found from loo to 200 feet or upwards,
nearly of the fame kind of matter from the fuperior
to the inferior furface ; and others are found of the
leaR thicknefs imaginable, one inch or lefs.
Ail thefe'flrata are divided or parted from each o-
ther laterally, either by their even, fmootb, polifhed
furfaces, with very thin lamina of foft or dufly matter
betwixt them, called the parting, which renders them
eafy to feparate ; or elfe only by the furfaces clofely
conjoined to each other, without any vifible matter in-
terpofed betwixt them; yet the different fubRance of
each Rratum is not in the leaR intermixed, though
fometimes they adhere fo Rrongly together, that it is
very diflicuit to part or disjoin them : in this laR pafe
they are faid to have a lad parting.
Befides this principal divifion or parting laterally,
there are, in fome flrata, fecondary divifions or part¬
ings alfo laterally, feparating or approaching towards
a feparation, of the fame Rratum, into parts of dif¬
ferent thickneffes, nearly parallel to each other, in the
fame manner as the principal partings divide the dif¬
ferent Rrata from each other : but thefe fecondary
ones are not fo Rrong or viiible, nor make fo effe&ual
a parting, as the principal ones do ; and are only met
with in fuch Rrata, as are not of an uniform hardnefs,
texture, or colour, from the upper to the under fur¬
face.
There are other divifions or partings, called bacls,
in almoR every Rratum, which crofs the former late¬
ral ones longitudinally, and cut the whole Rratum
through its two furfaces into long rhomboidal figures.
Thefe again are croffed by others called cutters, run¬
ning either in an oblique or perpendicular direction
to the lafl mentioned backs, and alfo cut the Rratum
through its two furfaces. Both thefe backs and cut¬
ters generally extend from the upper or fuperior flra-.
turn down through feveral of the lower ones ; fo that
thefe backs and cutters, together with the lateral
partings before mentioned, divide every firatum into
innumerable cubic, prifmatic, and rhomboidal figures,
accprding to the thicknefs of the Rratum, and the po-
fition and number of the backs and cutters. They
M 2 fometimes
C ° A [
, Coa‘ery- > fomctimes have a kind of thin partition of daily or
v ‘ foft matter in them, and fometimes none, like the firil
mentioned partings ; bat the fofter kind of flrata ge¬
nerally have more backs and cutters -than the harder
kind, and they do not extend or penetrate through the
others.
Plate To explain this a little further, let A, B, C, D, E,
CXLII. F, G, (fig. i.) reprefent the principal partings before
mentioned, or the upper and under furfaces of any
ftratum; then a, b, c, d, e, f, will reprefent the fe-
condary lateral partings nearly parallel to the princi¬
pal ones : g, h, i, k, 1, m, the longitudinal partings cal¬
led backs ; n, o, p, q, r, s, the crofs partings called
cutters, croffing the laft mentioned ones either oblique¬
ly or perpendicular.
In all places where the ftrata lie regular, they are
divided and fubdivided in the manner above men¬
tioned ; and fometimes in this manner extend through
a pretty large diftridt of country : though it is often
otherwife ; for their regularity is frequently interrupt¬
ed, and the ftrata broken and difordered, by fui\dry
chafms, breaches, or fiffures, which are differently de¬
nominated according to their various dimenfions, and
the matters with which they are filled, vi%. dikes,
hitches, and troubles, which {hall be explained in order.
Dikes. Dikes are the largeft kind of fiffures. They feem to
be nothing but a crack or breach of the folid ftrata,
occafioned by one part of them being broken away and
fallen from the other. They generally run in a ftraight
line for a confiderable length, and penetrate from the
furface to the greateft depth ever yet tried, in a di-
redlion fometimes perpendicular to the horizon, and
fometimes obliquely : the fame kind of ftrata are found
lying upon each other in the fame order, but the whole
of them greatly elevated or depreffed, on the one fide
of the dike as on the other. Thefe fiffures are fome¬
times two or three feet wide, and fometimes many
fathoms. If the fiffure or dike be of any confiderable
width, it is generally filled with heterogeneous mat¬
ter, different from that of the folid ftrata on each fide
of it. It is fometimes found filled with clay, gravel,
or fand; fometimes with a confufed mafs of different
kinds of ftone lying edgeways; and at other times
with a folid body of free-ftone, or even whin-ftone.
When the fiffure is of no great width, as fuppofe two
or three feet only, it is then ufually found-filled with
a confufed mixture of the different matters which
compofe the adjoining ftrata, confolidated into one
mafs. If the dike runs or ftretches north and fouth,
and the fame kind of ftrata are found on the eaft fide
of the dike, in a fituation with refpedl to the horizon
IO or 20 fathoms lower than on the other fide, it is
then faid to be a dip-dike or downcajl-dike of 10 or 20
fathoms to the call ward ;—or counting from the eaft
fide, it is then faid to be a rife-dike or upcaft of fo
many fathoms weftward. If the ftrata on one fide
are not much higher or lower with refpedl to the ho¬
rizontal line, than thofe on the other, but only broken
off and removed to a certain dillance, it is then faid
to be a dike of fo many fathoms thick; and from the
matter contained between the two fides of the fiffure
s or dike, it is denominated a clay-dike, feme-dike, &c.
Hitches. -A- Ditch is only a dike or fiffure of a fmaller degree,
by which the ftrata on one fide are not elevated or
feparated from thofe on the other fide above one fa-
92 ] C O A
thorn. Thefe hitches are denominated in the fame Coalery.
manner as dikes, according to the number of feet they ' r-—*
elevate or deprefs the ftrata.
There are dikes (though they are not often met
with in the coal-countries) whole cavities are filled
with fparr, the ores of iron, lead, vitriol, or other me¬
tallic or mineral matters ; and it is pretty well known*
that all metallic veins are nothing elfe than what in
the coal- countries are called dikes.
The ftrata are generally found lying upon each
other in the fame order on one fide of the dike as on
the other, as mentioned above, and nearly of the fame
thickneffes, appearing to have been, originally a con¬
tinuation of the fame regular ftrata, and the dike only
a breach by fome later accident, perpendicularly or
obliquely down through them, by which one part is
removed to a fmall diftance, and depreffed to a lower
fituation than the other. But this is not the only al¬
teration made in the ftrata by dikes ; for generally to
a confiderable diftance on each fide of the dike, all the
ftrata are in a kind of {battered condition, very ten¬
der, eafily pervious to water, and debafed greatly in
their quality, and their inclination to the horizon often
altered. ?
Troubles may be denominated dikes of the fmalleft Troubles*
degree ; for they are not a real breach, but only an
approach towards it which has not taken a full effect.
The ftrata are generally altered by a trouble from
their regular fite to a different pofition. When the
regular courfe of the ftrata is nearly level, a trouble
will caufe a fudden and confiderable afeent or defeent:
where they have, in their regular fituation, a certain
degree of afeent or defeent, a trouble either mcreafeth
it or alters it to a contrary pofition : and a trouble has,
thefe effedls upon the ftrata in common with dikes,
that it greatly debafeth them from their original qua¬
lity ; the partings are feparated; the backs and cutters
disjoined, and their regularity difordered ; the original
cubic and prifmatic figures, of which the ftrata were,
compofed, are broken, and the diflocation filled with
heterogeneous matter; and the whole ftrata are re¬
duced to a fofter and more friable ftate.
The ftrata are feldom or never found to lie in a
‘true horizontal fituation ; but generally have an inch- g
nation or defeent, called the dip, to fome particular Dip and
part of the horizon. If this inclination be to the eaft- ' >& of the
ward, it is called an eajl dip, and a wef rife ; and ac-^rata“
cording to the point of the compafs to which the dip
inclines, if is denominated, and the afeent or rife is
to the contrary point. This inclination or dip of the
ftrata is found to hold every where. In fome places, it
varies very little from the level; in others, very con-
fiderably ; and in fome fcr'much, as to be nearly in
a perpendicular direction : but whatever degree of
inclination the ftrata have to the horizon, if not inter¬
rupted by dikes, hitches, or troubles, they are always
found to lie in the firft regular manner mentioned.
They generally continue upon one uniform dip until
they are broken or difordered by a dike, hitch, or
trouble, by which the dip is often altered, fometimes
to a different part of the horizon, and often to an oppo-
fite point; fo thaton one fide of a dike, hitch, or trouble,
if the ftrata have an eaft dip, on the other fide they
may have an eaft rife, which is a weft dip ; and in ge¬
neral, any confiderable alteration in the dip is never,
met
C o A [ 93 ] C O A
Coaslery. met with, but what is occafionedby the circumftances
l~,—^ laft mentioned.
To illuftrate what has been faid, fee fig. 2. where
ab c d, &c. reprefeats a courfe of ftrata lying upon each
other, having a certain inclination to the horizon.
A B, is a downcaft-dike, which depreffeth the ftrata
obliquely to ef g h, &c. lying upon each other in the
fame order, but altered in their inclination to the
horizon. C D reprefents a clay or free-ftone dike,
where the ftrata are neither elevated nor deprefied,
but only broken off and removed to a certain diftance.
EF, reprefents a hitch, which breaks off and depref¬
feth the ftrata only a little, but alters their inclination
to the horizon. 'GH, reprefents a trouble, where the
ftrata on one fide are not entirely broken oft’ from thofe
on the other, but only in a crufhedand irregular fitua-
tion.
As fome particular ftrata are found at fome times to
Increafe, and at other times to diminiih, in their thick-
neffes, whilft others remain the fame, confequently
they cannot be all parallel; yet this increafe and dimi¬
nution in their thickneffes comes on very gradually.
The ftrata are not found difpofed in the earth ac¬
cording to their fpecific gravities: for we often find
ftrata of very denfe matter near the furface; and per¬
haps at 50 or even too fathoms beneath, "we meet
with ftrata of not half the fpecific gravity of the firft.
A ftratum of iron ore is very often found above one
of coal, though the former has twice the gravity of
the latter; and, in fhort, there is fuch an abfolute un¬
certainty in forming any judgment of the difpofition
of the ftrata from their fpecific gravities, that it can?
not.in theleaft be relied upon.
It has been imagined by many, that hills and val*
lies are occalioned by thofe breaches in the ftrata be¬
fore mentioned called dikes : but this is contradi&ed
by experience. If it was fo, we ftiould meet with
dikes at thelkirts of the hills, and by the fides of val¬
leys, and the fea-fhore t but inftead of that, we ge¬
nerally find the ftrata lying as uniformly regular un¬
der hills and valleys, and beneath the bottom of the
fea (as far as has been yet tried), as in the moft cham-
paign countries. It may happen, indeed, that a.dike
is met with in fome of thefe places; but that being
only a cafual circumftance, can never be admitted as
a general caufe. Whatever, irregularities are occa-
fioned in the folid ftrata by dikes, or other breaches,
are commonly covered over, and evened by thofe beds
of gravel,‘clay, fand,. or foil, which lie uppermoft,
and form the outward furface of the earth. Where-
ever thefe fofter matters have been carried off, or
removed by accident, as on the tops of hills and the
fides of valleys, there the folid ftrata are expofed, and
the dip and rife and other circumftances of them may
be examined; but no certain conclufions can be drawn,
merely from the.unevennefs and inequalities of the out¬
ward furface.
The preceding obfervations, upon the general dif¬
pofition of the folid ftrata, are equally applicable to
the ftrata of coal as to thofe of ftone or other matter.
Defa iption We fhall next give an account of the feveral ftrata
of the ftra- of coal, and of ftone and other matters, which are
ta connec- ufually connefted with coal, and are found to have a
coalWUil particular affinity with it: and, for the fake of diftinc-
tion,, fhall arrange them into fix principal claffes,
3..
which will include all the varieties of ftrata that have Coalery.
been found to occur in all thofe diftri&s of country ——v—-
both in Scotland and England where coal abounds.
1. Of Whin-Jlone ] The ftrata of what is denomi¬
nated whin-ftone are the’hardeft of all others; the an¬
gular pieces of it will cut glafs ; it is of a very coarfe
texture, and when broke acrofs the grain exhibits the
appearance of large grains of fand half vitrified; it
can fcarcely be wrought, or broke in pieces, by com¬
mon tools without the affiftance of gun-powder; each
ftratum is commonly homogeneous in fubftance and
colour, and cracked in the rock to a great depth. The
moft common colours of thefe ftrata are black or dark
blue, yet there are others of it afh-coloured and light
brown. Their thicknefs in all the coal countries is
but snconfiderable, from fix or five feet down to a few
inches; and it is only in a few places they are met
with of thefe thickneffes. In the air it decays a little,
leaving a brown powder; and in the fire it cracks, and
turns reddifh brown. Limeftone, and what is called
lajlard limejione, is fometimes, though rarely, met with
in coaleries. It is a well known ftone; but from its re-
femblance in hardnefs and colour is often miftaken for
a kind of whin. Sometimes, particularly in hilly
countries, the folid matter next the furface is found
to be a kind of foft or rotten whin ;=—but it may be
noted, that this is only a mafs of heterogeneous mat¬
ter difpofed upon the regular ftrata ; and that beneath
this, all the ftrata. are generally found in as regular an
order as where this heterogeneous matter does not oc-
2. Of PoJl-Jlone.~\ This is a free ftone of the hard-
eft kind, and next to the limeftone with refpeft to
hardnefs and folidity. It is of a very fine texture ; and
when broken appears as if compofed of the fineft fand.
It is commonly found in a homogeneous mafs, though
variegated in colour ; and, from its hardnefs', is not
liable to injury from being expofed to the weather.
Of this kind of ftone there are four varieties, which
may be diftinguifhed by their colour; the moft com¬
mon is white poll, which in appearance is like Port¬
land ftone, but confiderably harder ; it is fometimes
variegated with ftreaks or. fpots of brown, red, or
black. »
Grey poll is alfo very common ; it appears like a
mixture of fine black and white fand : it is often va¬
riegated with brown and black ftreaks; the laft men¬
tioned appear like fmall clouds compofed of particles
of coal.
Brown or yellow poll is often met with of differ¬
ent degrees of colour ; moft commonly of the colour of
light ochre or yellow fand : it is as hard as the reft, and
fometimes variegated with white and black ftreaks.
Red poll is generally of a dull red colour: this is
but rarely met with ; it is often ftreaked with white
or black..
All thefe lie in ftrata of different thickneffes; but
commonly thicker than any other ftrata whatever : they
are feparated from each other, and from other kinds
of ftrata, by partings of coal, fand, or foft matter of dif¬
ferent colours which are very diftinguifhable.
3. Of Sandflone.'] Thh is a free ftone of a coarfer
texture than poll, and not fo hard ; is fo lax as to be
eafily pervious to water; when broke, is apparently
of a coarfe fandy fubftance ; is friable and moulders to
fandi
C O A [ 94 1 C O A
L Poa'ery. fund when expofed to the wind and rain ; has frequent- diilinguilhable into three kinds, according to their de- r .
v""' ' ly white fhining fpangles in it, and pebbles or other grees of inflammability.
fmall ftones inclofed in its mafs. Of this, there are i. The leafl: inflammable kinds are thofe known by
two kinds commonly met with, diftinguifhed by their the name of Weljh cod, which is found in Wales ; Kil-
colours, grey and brown, which are of different fhades, kenny coal, which is found near Kilkenny in Ireland ;
lighter or darker in propoition to the mixture of and Hind or deaf coal, which is found in many parts of
♦v,*.™ Jt is moft generally found in ftrata of Scotland and England. This coal takes a conliderab're
white in them,
confiderable thicknefs, without many fecondary part¬
ings ; and Tometimes, though rarely, it is fubdivided
into layers as thin as the common grey flate. It has
generally fandy or foft partings.
4. Of Mdal-fone. ] This is a tolerable hard ftratum,
being in point of hardnefs next to fand-ftone ; gene-
degree of heat to kindle it, but when once thoroughly
ignited will burn a long time ; it remains in the fire
in feparate pieces without flicking together or caking ;
it produceth neither flame nor fmoke, and makes no
cinder, but burns to a white flony flagg; it makes a
hot glowing fire like charcoal or cinders; and emits
rally folid, compact, of confiderable weight, and of effluvia of a fuffocating nature which renders it unfit
an argillaceous fubftance, containing many nodules or for burning in dwelling-boufes, its chief ufe being
balls of iron ore, and yellow or white pyrites ; its part- amongfl maltfters, dyers, &c. for drying theircommo-
ings, or the iurfaces of its ftrata, are hard, polifhed, and dities. 2. Open burning coal, foon kindles, making a
fmooth as glafs. When broke, it has a dull dufky ap- hot pleafant fire, but is foon confumed : it produceth
pearance (though of a fine texture), like hard dried both fmoke and flame in abundance ; but lies open in
clay mixed with particles of coal. Though hard in the the fire, and does not cake together fo as to form cin-
mirre or quarry, when expofed to the frefh air it falls ders, its furface being burnt to afhes before it is tho-
into very fmall pieces. The moft ufual colour of this roughly calcined in the midft; from this it has its
ftone is black; butv there are feveral other lighter co- name of an open burning coal\ it burns to white or
lours, down to a light brown or grey. It is eafily di- brown afhes very light Of this kind is cannel-coal,
ftinguifhed from free-ftone by its texture and colour, jett, parrot, fplint, and moil of the coals in Scotland,
as well as by its other charafteriftics. It lies in ftrata 3. Clofe burning coal, kindles very quickly, makes a
of various thickneffes, though feldoni fo thick as the very hot fire, melts and runs together like bitumen,
two laft mentioned kinds of ftone. the very fmalleft culm making the fineft cinders, which
5. Of Shiver. ] This ftratum is more frequently met being thoroughly burnt are porous and light as a pu-
with in coaleries than any other. There are many va- mice ftone, and when broke are of a fhining lead co-
rieties of it, both in hardnefs and colour ; but they all
agree in one general chara&eriftlc. The black colour
is moft common ; it is called by the miners blaclJhiver,
black mettle, or Me as. It is fofter than metal-ftone,
and in the mine is rather a tough than a hard fub-
ftance, is not of a folid or compaft matter, being ea¬
fily feparable, by the multitude of its partings, &c.
into very fmall parts, and readily abforbing water.
The fubftance of this ftratum is an indurated bole,
commonly divided into thin lamina of unequ. I thick-
loui ; it makes a more durable fire than any other
coal, and finally burns to brown or reddith coloured
heavy afhes. Of this kind are the NewCaftle and fe¬
veral other of the Englifh coals, and the fmithy coals
of Scotland. The open burning and the clofe burn¬
ing coal mixed together, make a more profitable fire
for domeftic ufes than either of them feparate.
In all thofe diftrifts of country where coal is found,
there are generally feveral ftrata of it; perhaps-all the
different kinds above mentioned will be found in fome,
nefles, which break into long fmall pieces when ftruck and only one of the kinds in others ; yet this one kind
with 'force ; and, on examination, they appear to be may be divided into many different learns or ftrata,
fmall irregular rhomboides : each of thefe fmall pieces by beds of fhiver or other kinds of matter interpofing,
has a polifhed glaffy furface ; and, when broke crofs fo as to give it the appearance of fo many feparate
the grain, appears of a dry, leafy, or laminated tex- ftrata. io
ture, like exceeding fine clay: it is very friable ; feels All thefe ftrata above defcribed, with their feveral The order-
to the touch like an un&uous fubftance ; and diffolves varieties, do not lie or bear upon each other in thewhich
in air or water to a fine pinguid black clay. There order in which they are defcribed, nor in any certain^e*
are almoft conftantly found inclofed in its ftrata or invariable order. Though there be found the fame
lumps or nodules of iron ore ; often real beds of the kinds of ftrata in one coalery or diftrift as in another,
fame. yet they may be of very different thickneffes. In
There are other colours of this ftratum befides black, fome places there are moft of the hard kinds, in others
The brown or dun fhiver is very frequently met with ; moft of the fofter ; and in any one diftrift it rarely
it agrees with the above defcription in every thing but happens that all the various kinds are found ; for fome
colour. Grey fhiver is alfo very common : it feems to kinds, perhaps, occur only once or twice, whilft others
be only a mixture of the black and dun ; and by the occur zo or 20 times before we reach the principal
different degrees of mixture of thefe colours others ftratum of coal.
are produced. It lies in ftrata fometimes of confider- In order to explain this, fuppofe the ftrata in thd pja.e
able thicknefs, at other times not exceeding a few pit at A (fig. 3.) lie in the order a, b, c, d, &c. they cXLII.
feet: they are commonly parted from each other by may be fo much altered in their thickneffes, by rea-
lamina of fpar, coal, or foft matter. fon of fome of them increafing affd others diminifh-
6. Of Coal.~\ Referring the reader, for the fcientific ing, at the diftance of B, that they may be found there
divifion of co'als, to Ampelitf-s, Lithanthrax, and of very different thickneffes; or if they are examined
the preceding articks, we fhall here confider them as in a pit at D, by reafon of its lower fituation, and the
3 ftrata
C O A [ 95 ] C O A
flrata tfcere not being a continuation of thofe in the If the folid ftrata ate not expofed to view, neither Coaler?.
' other places, they may be very different both in their in the hills nor valleys of the ground under examina-
order and thickneffes, and yet of the fame kinds.
Though they be thus found very different in one
coalery or diltrifif from what they are found to be in
another, wich refpedb to their thickneffes, and the or¬
der in which they lie upon each other, yet we never
meet with a ftratum of any kind of matter but what
belongs to fome of thofe above deferibed.
To illuftrate how the various llrata lie in fome places,
and how often the fame ftratum may Occur betwixt
the furface ar.d the coal, we ftiall give the following
example. The numbers in the left hand column re¬
fer to the claffes of ftrata before deferibed, to which
each belongs. The fecond column contains the names
of the ftrata ; and the four numeral columns to the
right hand, exprefs the thicknefs of each ftrauun,- in
fathoms, yards, feet, and inches.
Example.
Soil and gravel
Clay mixed with loofe Hones
Coarfe brown End-(tone, with foft part¬
ings - . - -
White poll, with Hi ivory partings
Black {hirer orbleas, with iron-ftone halls
Coarfe fpliiity coal
Soft grey fniytr - ■ ■
Brown and grey poll, freaked with black
Black Ihiver, with beds and balls of iron-
ftotie
Grey and black mettle-done
White and brown poft
Black and grey {hivef, lb caked with white
Soft grey land-done, with fliivery partings
Yellow and white poft, with fandy partings^
filackand dun Ihiver, with iron-done balls
White poft ftreaked with black, and black
^partings -
Grey Ihiver, with iron-ftone balls
Brown and black mettle ftone
Hard Caty black Ihiver
Coal, hard and fine fpllnt
Soft black fhiver - -
Coal, fine and clear -
Hard black Ihiver
Total Fathoms
Methods <
fearching
for coal.
In this inftance the fpeeies of fand-ftone only oc¬
curs twice, poft five times, whilft the Ihiver occurs no
kfs than nine times.
To apply the foregoing obfervations to pra&ice.
Suppofe it was required to examine whether there
was coal in a piece of ground adjoining to, or in the
neighbourhood of, other coaleries.
■j[ In the fir ft place, it is proper to be informed, at
fome of the adjacent coaleries, of the number and kinds
of ftrata 5 the order in which they lie upon each other;
to what , point of the horizon, and in what quantity,
they dip ; if any dikes, hitches, or troubles, and the
courfe they ftretch. Having learnt thefe circumftan-
ces, fearch in the ground under examination where
the ftrata are expofed to view, and compare thefe
with the other. If they be of the fame kinds, and
nearly correfpond in order and thicknefs, and be lying
in a regular manner, and agree by computation with
the dip and rife, it may fafely be concluded the coal is
there; and the depth of it may be judged from the
depth of the coal in the other coalery, below any par¬
ticular ftratum which is vifible in this.
tiotj, then fearch in the adjoining grounds; and if the Ru*e
fame kind of ftrata are found there as in the adjacent
coalery, and there is reafon, from the dip and other
circumltances, to believe that they ftretch through the
ground to be examined ; it may then be concluded that
the coal is there, as well as thefe other ftrata.
Suppofe a coakry is on the fide of a hill at A, fig. 3. Pbte
and you would fearch for a coal at B, on the other fide
of the hill, but in a much lower fituation ; by obferving
the feveral ftrata lying above the coal at A, and the
point to which they dip, which is direftly towards B
(if clear of dikes), you may expe& to find the fame
kind of ftrata on the other fide of the hill, but much
lower down, Accordir.gly, if fome of the ftrata are
vifible in the face of the precipice C, they may be
compared with fome of thofe in the pit at A. Or, if
they are not to be feen there, by fearching in the op-
pofite hill, they may perhaps be difeovered at the place
F ; where, if they be found in the manner before men¬
tioned, and there be reafon-to believe they extend re¬
gularly from the firft place to this, it is more than pro¬
bable the coal, as well as thefe ftrata, will be found in
the intei mediate ground.
If the ground to be examined lie more to the rife Rule 3d,
of the coal, as at E, which being fuppofed to be on a
flat, perhaps the folid ftrata there may be wholly co¬
vered by the gravel, clay, &c. of the eutward furface
lying upon them : In this cafef by meafuring the ho¬
rizontal diftance and the defeent of ground from A
to E, and computing the quantity of afeent or rife of
the coal in that diftance : by comparing thefe toge¬
ther, it may be judged at what depth the coal will be
found there, allowing that it lie regular. Thus, fup-
pofe the coal at A 80 yards deep, the diftance from
A to E 500 yards, and that the coal rifes 1 yard im
10 yards of horizontal diftance :
Then, from the depth of the pit 80
Dedu& the defeent of ground from A to
E, fuppofe - - - 24
This remainder would be the depth, if the
coal was level - - 56
But as the coal rifes x in 10 feet, then de-
du£t what it rifes in 500 yards, which is 50
And the remainder is the depth of that
coal at E ... 6 Yards.
Or fuppofe that the place at B is 500 yards the Rule 4th.
contrary way, or to the full dip of the coal at A ; if a
view of the folid ftrata cannot be obtained, then by
proceeding in the fame manner as before, the depth
of the coal at that place may be computed. Thus,
To the depth of the coal at the pit A 80
Add the defeent or inclination of the coal
in 500 yards, which, as before, is 50
This fum would be the depth, if the ground
was level - - 130
But as the ground defeends towards B,
dednft the quantity of that, which fup¬
pofe - . - 80
Remains the depth of the coal at B
50 Yard's.
Iff
C O A L 0 ] C O A
Coalcry. If the place to be examined be neither to the full dip
l—nor full rife, but in fome proportion towards either,
the fame method may be purfued, computing how
much the coal rifes or dips in a pertain diftance in that
direftion.-
If there is known to be a dike in the workings of
the pit at A, which elevates or deprefleth the ftrata
towards the place under examination, then the quan¬
tity of the elevation or depreffion mud be according¬
ly added to or deduced from the computed depth of
the coal at that place. Suppofe there is an upcaft dike
of 10 fathoms or 20 yards towards B, then deduft 20
from 50, the depth before computed, there will remain
30 yards or 15 fathoms for the depth of the coal at B.
But it often happens that coal is to be fearched for,
in a part of the country, at fuch a confiderable di-
ftance from all other coaler ies, that by reafon of the
intervention of hills, valleys, unknown dikes, &c. the
connexion or relation of the ftrata with thofe of any
other coalery cannot be traced by the methods laft
mentioned; in which cafe a more extenfive view muft
be taken of all circumftances than was neceflary in the
former; and a few general rules founded on the fore¬
going obfervations, and on conclufions drawn from
them, will greatly aflift in determining fometimes with a
great degree of probability, and fometimes with abfolute
certainty, whether coal be in any particular diftrid of
country or not.
».ule5th. The proper ftep to be taken in fuch a cafe, is
to take a general view of that diftrid of country in¬
tended to be fearched, in order to judge, from the out¬
ward appearance or face of the country, which parti¬
cular part out of the whole is the moft likely to con¬
tain thofe kind of ftrata favourable to the produdion
of coal; and confequently fuch particular part being
found, is the moft advifable to be begun with in the
examination.
Though the appearance of the outward furface
gives no certain or infallible rule to judge of the kinds
of ftrata lying beneath, yet it gives a probable one ;
Mountain- for ;t j6 generally found, that a chain of mountains or
tjons' Ua" rihng to a great height, and very fteep on the
’fides, are commonly compofed of ftrata much harder
and of different kinds from thofe before deferibed
•wherein coal is found to lie, and therefore unfavour¬
able to the produdion of coal; and thefe mountainous
•fituations are alfo more fubjed to dikes and troubles
than the lower grounds: fo that if the folid ftrata com-
pofing them gave even favourable fymptoms of coal,
yet the laft circumftance would render the quality
bad, and the quantity precarious. Aand, on the whole,
it may be obferved, that mountainous fituations are
found more favourable to the produdion of metals
than of coal. It is likewife genetelly found that thofe
finis and diftrids abounding with valleys, moderately rifing hills,
valleys. and interfperfed with plains, fometimes of confider¬
able exent, do more commonly contain coal, and
thofe kinds of ftrata favourable to its produdion, than
either the mountainous or champaign countries; and
a country fo fituated as this laft deferibed, efpecially
if at fome confiderable diftance from the mountains,
ought to be the firft part appointed for particular ex¬
plains. amination. Plains, or level grounds of great extent,
generally fituated by the fldes of rivers, or betwixt
83.
fuch moderate rifing grounds as laft deferibed, are Coalery.
alio very favourable to the produdion of coal, if the ——
folid ftrata, and other circumftances in the higher
grounds adjoining, be conformable ; for it will fcarce-
ly be found, in fuch a fituation, that the ftrata are fa¬
vourable in the riiing grounds, on both Tides of the
plain, and not fo in the fpace betwixt them. Though
plains be fo favourable, in fuch circumftances, to the
produdion of coal, yet it is often more difficult to be
difeovered in fuch a fituation, than in that before de-
deferibed; becaufe the clay, foil, and other lax mat¬
ter, brought off the higher grounds by rains and other
accidents, have generally covered the furfaces of fuch
plains to a confiderable depth, which prevents the ex¬
ploration of the folid ftrata there, unlefs they be ex-
pofed to view by digging, quarrying, or fome fuch
operation.
That part of the diftrid being fixed upon which
abounds with moderate hills and valleys as propereft
to begin the examination at, the firft ftep to be taken is
to examine all places where the folid ftrata are ex-
pofed to view (which are called the crops of the ftra¬
ta), as in precipices, hollows, &c. tracing them as ac¬
curately and gradually as the circumftances will allow,
from the uppermoft ftratum ot higheft part of the
ground to the very undermoft: and if they appear to
be of the kinds before deicribed, it will be proper to
note in a memorandum book their different thickneffes;
the order in which they lie upon each other; the point
of the horizon to which they dip or incline, and the
quantity of that inclination ; and whether they lie in
a regular Hate. This fhould be done in every part of
the ground where they can be feen : obferving at the
fame time, that if a ftratum can be found in one place,
which have a connedion with fome other in a fecond
place, and if this other has a connedion with another
in a third place, &c.; then, from thefe feparate con-
nedions, the joint correfpondence of the whole may
be traced, and the ftrata, which in fome places are co¬
vered, may be known ; their correfpondence with
thofe which are expofed j view.
If by this means the crops of all the ftrata cannot
be feen (which is often the cafe), and if no coal be_
difeovered by its crop appearing at the iurface; yet
if the ftrata that have been viewed confift of thofe
kinds before deferibed, and are found lying in a regu¬
lar order, it is fufficiently probable that coal may be
in that part of the diftrid, although it be,concealed
from fight by the furface of earth or other matter.
Therefore, at the fame time that the crops of the ftrata Ru]e
are under examination, it will be proper to take notice
of all fuch fprings of water as feem to be of a mineral
nature, particularly thofe known by the name of iron
water, which bear a mud or fediment of the colour of
ruft of iron, having a ftrong aftringent taffe. Springs
of this-kind proceed originally from thofe ftrata which
contain beds or balls of iron-ore ; but by reafon of
the tenacity of the matter of thofe ftrata, the water
only difengages itfelf flowly from them, defeending
into fome more porous or open ftratum below, where,
gathering in a body, it runs out to the furface in fmall
ftreams or rills. The ftratum of coal is the moft ge¬
neral refervoir of this water; for the iron-ftone being
lodged in different kinds of Ihiver, and the coal com¬
monly
C O A
i Coalery. monly connefted with fome of them, it therefore de-
fcends into the coal, where it finds a ready paflage
through the open backs and cutters. Sometimes, in¬
deed, it finds fome other ftratum than coal to colleft
and tranfmit it to the furface; but the difference is
eafily diftinguifhable; for the ochrey matter in the
water, when it comes from a ftratum of coal, is of a
darker rufty colour than when it proceeds from any
other, and often brings with it particles and fmall
pieces of coal; therefore, wherever thefe two cir-
cumftances concur in a number of thefe kind of fprings,
L 97 1
C O A
fparingly interfperfed in the fuperior ftratum, and if Coalery.
the angles are much fretted or worn off, and very little —v—^
of other kinds of mineral matter connefted with them;
it may then be concluded, that they have come from
a ftratum of coal-fituated at a greater diftance than
in the former cafe; and by a ftrift fearch and an ac¬
curate comparifon of other circumftances, that parti¬
cular place may be difcovered with as much certainty as
the other.
After the place is thus difcovered, where the ftra¬
tum of coal is expefted to lie concealed, the next pro-
fituated in a dire&ion from each other anfwerable to per ftep to be taken, is to begin digging a pit or hole
the ftretch or to the inclination of the ftrata, it may be
certain the water comes off coal, and that the coal lies
in a fomewhat higher fituation than the apertures of the
fprings.
There are other fprings alfo which come off coal,
and are not diftinguiftiable from common water, other-
wife than by their aftringency, and their having a blue
fcum of an oily or glutinous nature fwimming upon
the furface of the water. Thefe, in common with the
others, bring out particles of coal, more efpecially in
rainy feafons when the fprings flow with rapidity.
When a number of thefe kinds are fituated from each
other in the dire&ion of the ftrata, as above defcri-
bed; or if the water does not run forth as in fprings,
but only forms a fwamp, or an extenfion of ftagnant
water beneath the turf; in either cafe, it may be de¬
pended upon that this water proceeds from a ftratum
of coal.
R . , If the ftratum of coal is not expofed to. view, or
7 ‘ cannot be difcovered by the firft method of fearching
for the crpp, although the appearance of the other
ftrata be very favourable, and afford a ftrong proba-
there perpendicularly down to find the coal. If the
coal has no folid ftrata above and beneath it, but be
found only embodied in the clay or other lax matter,
it will not be there of its full thicknefs, nor fo hard
and pure as in its perfeft ftate when enclofed be¬
twixt two folid ftrata, the uppermoft called the rooft
and the undermoft called the pavement, of the coal:
in fuch fituation therefore it becomes neceffary, either
to dig a new pit, or to work a mine forward until the
ftratum of coal be found included bgtwixt a folid roof
and pavement, after which it need not be expe&ed to
increafe much in its thicknefs: yet as it goes deeper
or farther to the dip, it moft likely will improve in its
quality ; for that part of the ftratum of coal which lies
near the furface, or only at a fmall depth, is often de-
bafed by a mixture of earth and fundry other impuri¬
ties, walked down from the furface, through the backs
and cutters, by the rains; whilft the other part of the
ftratum which lies at a greater depth is preferved pure,
by the other folid ftrata above it intercepting all the
mud walhed from the furface.
The above methods of inveftigation admit of many
bility of coal being there ; and if the laft-mentioned different cafes, according to the greater or lefs number
method of judging of the particular place where the of favourable circumftances attending each of the modes
crop of the coal may lie, by the fprings of water iffu- of inquiry ; and the refult accordingly admits every
ing from it, ftiould, from the deficiency of thofe fprings degree of probability, from the moll diftant, even up
or other circumllances, be thought equivocal, and to abfolute certainty. In fome fituations, the coal
not give a iatisfadlory indication of the coal; then a will be difcovered by one method alone; in others, by
further fearch may be made in all places where the a comparifon of certain circumftances attending each
outward furface, or the ftratum of clay or earth, is method; whilft in fome others, all the circumftances
turned up by ploughing, ditching, or digging, particu- that can be colle&ed only lead to a certain degree of
larly in the lower grounds, in hollows, and by the
fides of ftreams. Thefe places Ihould be ftriftly exa¬
mined, to fee if any pieces of coal be intermixed with
probability.
In the laft cafe, where the evidence is only proba¬
ble, it will be more advifable to proceed in the fearch
the fubftance of the fuperior lax ftrata ; if any fuch be by boring a hole through the folid ftrata (in the man-
found, and if they be pretty numerous and in detached
pieces, of a firm fubftance, the angles perfect or not
much worn, and the texture of the coal diftinguifti¬
able, it may be concluded, that the ftratum of coal to
which they originally did belong is at no great dif¬
tance, but in a fituation higher with refpeft to the
horizon; and if there be alfo found along-with the
hereafter defcribed), than by digging or finking a
pit, it being both cheaper and more expeditious ; and
in every cafe, which does not amount to an abfolute
certainty, this operation is neceffary, to afcertain the
real exiftence of the coal in that place.
We ftiall now fuppofe, that having examined a cer¬
tain diftridt, fituated within a few miles of the fea c
pieces of coal other mineral matter, fuch as pieces of fome navigable river, that all the circumftances which
fhiver or freeftone, this is a concurrent proof, that it offer only amount to a probability of the coal being
has come only from a fmall diftance. Though the two there, and that boring is neceffary to afcertain it; we
fore-mentioned methods ftiould only have produced a fhall therefore defcribe the operation of boring to* the
ftrong probability, yet if this laft mentioned place, coal; then the method of cmaring it from water, com-
where the pieces of coal, &c. are found in the clay, monly called -winning it; and all the fubfequent ope-
be in a fituaUon. lower than the fprings; when this rations of working the Coal and raifing it tothefur-
circumftnnce is joined to the other two, it amounts Jo face, leading it to the river oi^harbour, and finally
Irttlp lpf<; tlinn a moral • pertain t tr of .-.f ,, ™ 1 j _ n • ^
little lefs than a moral certainty of the ftratum of coal
being a very little above the level of the fprings. But
if, on the contrary, thefe pieces of coal are found more
Von. V. Parti.
putting it. on board the fhips.
Suppofe that the ground, A, B, C, D, fig. 4. has0f boring
been examined, and from the appearance of the It rata
N where
C O A t 93 1 C O A
C'oalery. wlitre t’ftcy sit vifible (as at the precipice D, and fe-
veral other places), they are found to be of thofe kinds
ufuaI1y connedted with coal, and that the point to
which they rife is diredfly weft, towards A, but the
ground being fiat and covered to a confiderable depth
with earth, the ftrata capnot be viewed in the
low grounds; therefore, in this and all fimilar fituations,
the firft hole that is bored for a trial for coal (hould be
on the weft fide of the ground, or to the full rife of
the ftrata as at A, where, boring down through the
ftrata 1, 2, 3, fuppofe 10 fathoms, and not finding
coal, it will be better to bore a new hole than to pro¬
ceed to a great depth in that; therefore, proceeding fo
far to the eaftward as 33, where the lira turn 1, of the
firfthole, is computed to be 10 or 12 fathoms deep, a
fecond hole may be bored, where boring down through
the ftrata 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, the ftratum 1 is met with, but
no coal; it would be of no ufe to bore farther in this
hole, as the fame ftrata would be found which were
in the hole A ; therefore, proceeding again fo far to
the eaftward, as it may be computed the ftratum 4 of
the fecond hole will be met with at the depth of 10 or
12 fathoms, a new hole may be bored at C; where,
boring through the ftrata 9, iq, ij, i?, the coal is
met with at 13, before the hole proceed fo deep as
the ftratum 4 of the former. It is evident, that, by
this method of procedure, neither the coal nor any o~
ther of the ftrata can be paffed over, as the laft hole is
always bored down to that ftratum wftiieh was ntareft
the furface in the former hole. '
The purpofes; for which boring is ufed are nume¬
rous, and fojne of them of the utmoft importance in
coaleries. In coaleries of great extent, although the
coal be known to extend through the whole grounds,
yet accidental turns, and other alterations in the dip,
to which the coal is liable, render the boring of three
or more holes neceflary, to determine exadlly to what
point of the horizon it dips or inclines, before any ca¬
pital operation for the winning of it can be undertaken;
becaufe a very fmall error in this may occalion the lofs
af a great part of the coal, or at kalt incur a double
cxpence in recovering it.
Suppofe A, B, C, D, fig. 5. to be part of an exten-
five field of coal, intended to be won or laid dry by
a fire-engine; according to the courfe of the dip in
adjoining coaleries, the point C is the place at which
the engine ftiould be creeled, becaufe the coal dips in
dire&iqn of the line AC, coufequently the level line
would be in the direction CD ; but this ought not to
be trufted to. Admit two holes, 1, 2, be bored ta
the coal in the direftion of the fuppofed dip, at 300
yards diftance from each other, and a third hole 3 at
200 yards diftance from each of them: fuppofe the
coal is found, at the hole 1, to be 20 fathoms deep; at
the hole 2, 10 fathoms deeper; but at the hole 3, only
8 fathoms deeper than at 1. Then to find the true
level line and dip of the coal, fay, As 10 fathoms the
dip from 1 to 2, is to 200 yards the diftance, fo is 8
fathoms, the dip from 1 to 3, to 16c yards, the dif¬
tance from one on the line 1 2, to a, the point upon a
level with the hole 3. Agairt fay, As 8 fathoms, the
dip from x tq 3, is to 200 yards the diftanee ; fo is
10 fathoms, the dip from 1 to 2, to 250 yards, the
diftance from 1, in dftejftiop of the line x, 3, to 3, the
point upon a level with the hole 2. Then, let fall the
5
perpendicular 1, c, which will be the true dire&ion of Coalery. !
the dip of the coal, iliftcad of the fuppofed line AC;    ^
and by drawing E D, and D F, parallel to the other
hues, the angle D, and no other place, is the deepeil
part of the coal, and the place where the engine
ftiould be erefted. If it had been erefted at the angle
C, the level line would have gone in the direftion c b,
by which means about one third part of the field of
coal would have been below the level of the engine,
and perhaps loft, without another engine was erected
at D.
Boring not only ihows the depth at which the coal
lies, but its exaCf thicknefs; its hardnefs; its quality,
whether clofe burning or open burning, and whether
any foul mixture in it or not; alfo the thicknefs, hard¬
nefs, and other circumftances of all the ftrata bored
through; and from the quantity of water met with in
the boring, fome judgment may be formed of the fize
of an engine capable of drawing it, where an engine
is neceftary. When holes are to be bored for thefe
purpofes, they may be fixed (as near as can be guef-
fed) in fuch a fit nation from each other, as to fuit the
places where pits are afterwards to be funk; by which
means moft of the expencc may be faved, as fhtfe
pits would otherwife require to be bored, when fink¬
ing, to difeharge their water into the mine below..
There are many other ufes to which boring is applied,
as will be explained hereafter.
For thefe reafons, boring is greatly pradtifed in-Eng¬
land, and is brought to great perfe&ion ; and as the
operation is generally entrufted to a man of integrity,
who makes it his profeliion, the accounts given by him.
of the thicknefs and other circumftances of the ftrata,
are the moft accurate imaginable, and are trufted to
with the greateft confidence; for as very few gentle¬
men ehoofe to take a leafe of a new coalery which
has not been fufficiently explored by boring, it is ne-
crilary the accounts fhould be faithful, being the only
ride to guide the landlord in letting his coal, and the
tenant in taking it. In Scotland it is not fo generally
pra<ftifed; nor are there any men of character who
are profeffed borers, that operation being commonly
left to any common workman; whence it happens that
it never has been in any efteem, the accounts given by
them being fo imperfect and equivocal as not to merit
any confidence.
The tools or inftruments ufed in boring are very
fimple. The boring rods are made of iron from 3 ta
4 feet long, and about one inch and a half fquare, with
a ferew at each end, by which they are ferewed toge¬
ther, and other rods added as the hole increafes in
depth. The chiffel is about 18 inches long, and two
and a half broad at the end, which being ferewed.
on at the lower end of the rods, and a piece timber
put through an eye at the upper end, they are prepa¬
red for work. The operation is performed by lifting
them up a little, and letting them fall again, at the
fame time turning them a little round; by a conti¬
nuance of which'motions, a round hole is fretted or
worn through the hardeft ftrata. When the chifiel is ^
blunt, it is taken out, and a fcooped inftrument call¬
ed a wimble put on in its Head ; by which the difft or
pulverjfed matter which was worn off the ftratum in
the laft operation is brought up. By this fubftance,
the borers know exactly the nature of tlxe ftratu'ra
they
0 O A [ 99 ] C O A
they are boring in ; ami by any alteration in the ing; after which it may be continued in the manner Coalerf,
• working of the rods (which they are fenfible of by of a mine about three feet wide, and three feet add a
handling them), they perceive the lead variation of the half high, through the folid ftrata, taking Care alj. along
ftrata. The principal part of the art depends upon
keeping the hole clean, aud obferving every variation
of the llrata with care and attention.
The tftablifhed price of boring in England is 5 s.
per fathom for the firft five fathoms, 1 o s. per fathom
for the next five fathoms, and 15s per fathom for the
next five fathoms; and fo continually incr^aiing 5 9.
per fathom at the end of every five fathoms; the borer
finding alhkinds of boring iniiruments, and taking his
chance of the hardnefs of the ftrata, except above one
foot in thicknefs of whin occur, when the former price
ceafes, and he is paid per day. ♦
It is exceedingly uncommen to meet with a ftratum
®of coal w'hich is naturally dry, or whofe fubtenanean
fprings or feeders of water are fo very fmall as to re¬
quire no other means than the labour of men to draw
off or conduct thereaway; for it moft commonly hap¬
pens, that the ftratum-of coal, and the ether ftrata ad¬
jacent, abound fo much in feeders of winter, that, be¬
fore accefs can be had to the coal, fome other methods
muft be purfued to drain or conduit awray thefe feed¬
ers : therefore, after the deepeft part of the coal is
difeovered, the next confideration is of the heft me¬
thod of draining it, or, in tin
-winning the coal.
to keep the bottom upon a level, and to fecure the
roof, fides, and bottom, by timber or building, in all
places where the ftrata are not ftrong enough to f(ip-
port the incumbent weight, or where they are liable
to decay by their expofare to the frefh air. If the
mine has to go a very long way before it reach the
Coal, it may be neceffary to fink a fmall pit, for the
convenience of taking out the ItoneA and rubbiih pro*
duced in working the mine, as well as to fupply frdh
air to the workmen ; and if the air Ihould afterwards
turn damp, then fquare wooden pipes made of dales
clofely jointed (commonly called air-boxes), may be
fixed in the upper part of the mine, from the pit-bot¬
tom all the way to the end of the mine, which will
caufe a fufficient circulation of frefh air for the work¬
men ; perhaps in a great length it will be found pro¬
per to fink another or more pits upon the mine, and
by proceeding in this manner it may be carried for*
ward until it arrive at the coal; and after driving a
mine in the coal a few yards to one fide, the firft coal*
pit may be funk.
If a level is found impra&tcable, or for particular
reafons unadvifabk ; then a fire-engine*, or fome o-,S(!e ^
miner’s language, of ther machine, will be neceffary, which ihould he fixed ficie steal*.
upon the deepeft part of the coal, or at leaftf-fo ivcengine.
If the coal lies in fuch an elevated fituation, that a towards the dip as will drain a fufficient extent of
part of it can be drained by a level brought up from coal, to1 continue for the time intended to work the
the lower grounds, then that will be the moft natural coalery ; and whether a fire-engine, or any other
method ; but whether it be the moft proper or not,
depends'upon certain circumftances. If the fituation
of the ground be fuch, that the level would be of a
great length, or have to come through very hard ftrata,
and the quantity of coal it would drain, or.the profits
expe&ed to be produced by that coal, fhould be ina¬
dequate to the expeneeof carrying it up; in fuch cafe
fome other method of winning might be more proper.
Or fuppofe, in another cafe, it be found, that a lord
tan be had to a coalery, which will coft L. 2000, and
require five years to bring it op to the coal, and that
it will drain 30. acres of coal when completed; yet if it
be found that a fire engine, or fome other machine,
can be erected on that coalery, for the fame font of
money, .in one year, which will drain 50 acres of the
fame coal, then this laft would be a more proper me¬
thod than the level ; becaufe four years profit would
be received by this method before any could come in
by the other;' and after the 30 acres drained by the
level is all wrought,, a machine of fome kind would
machine, is ufed, it will be of great advantage to have
a partial level brought up to the engine-pit, if the fi*
tuation of the ground will admit it at a imall charge,
in order to receive and cofrvey away the water with-
ont drawing it fo high as to the fwrfafoe: for if tile pit
Was 30 fathoms deep to the coal, and if there was a
partial level, which received the writer tlic fathom*
only below the furffaee, the engine by this mean*
would be emfbied to draw i-6th part more water than
without it; and if there were any feeders of water
in the pit above this level, they might be conveyed
into it, where they would be difeharged without be*
ing drawn by the engine.
The engine-pit may be from feven to nine fest
wide; and whether it be circular, oval, or of any
other form, is not very material, provided it be fuf*
ficiently ftrong, though a circular fortrt i'S'Aloft gene¬
rally approved. If any feeders of water are met
with a few fathoms from the furfacc, it will be pro*
per to make a circular or fpiral cutting about one foot
vertheleis be neceffary to drain the remaining 20 actes; deep, and a little hollowed in the bottom, round the
fo that erecting a machine at firft would be on all ac- circumference of the pit, in order to receive and cow-
counts the moil advffable. - ~ duct the water down, without ftying over the pit and
Where a level can be drove, in a r'eafonable time,- incommoding the workmen. If the ftrata are of fo
and at an adequate expeuce, to drain a ftifficicut tract tender or friable'a nature as not to bear tllis'opera-*
of coal, it is then the moft eligible method of winning; tion, or if the water leaks through themy ’then it will
becaufe the charge of upholding it is generally lefs-than be neceffary to infert in the fortmsntioned cutting, a
that of upholding fire-engines or other machines. circular piece of timber called a crib, hollowed iu> the
If a level is judged propereft after conlrderation of fame manner to- coHebt the water; and a fecond may
every neceffary circumliance, it may be begun at the be inferted two or three yards below the firft, with a
place appointed in the manner of an open ditch, about
three feet wide, and carried forward until it be about
fix or feveri feet deep from the furface, taking care to
fecure the bottom and Tides by timber-work or build-
floping nitch down- the wall'or fide of the pit, to cow*
vey the water from the former into it; proceeding by
fome of thefe methods until the pit is funk 15 or ad
fathoms; at which place it would be proper to fix a
N z ciftera
C O A [ loo
y. ciftem or refervoir, for the firft or upper fet of pumps
to ftand in; for if the pit be 30 fathoms as fuppofed,
it would be too great a length for the pumps to be all
in one fet from bottom to top ; therefore, if any ex¬
traordinary feeders are met with, betwixt 15 and 20
fathoms deep, it would be beft to fix the ciftern where
it may receive them, and prevent their defcending to
the bottom; obferving that the upper fet of pnmps be
fo much larger than the lower one, as the additional
feeders may require; or if there are no additional
feeders, it ought then to be a little fmaller.
After the upper ciftern is fixed, the operation may
be purfued by the other fet of pumps in much the fame
manner as has been defcribed, until the pit is funk to
the coal; which being done, it would be proper to
fink it fix or eight feet deeper, and to work fome coal
out from the dip fide of the pit, to make; room for a
large quantity of water to colleft, without incommo¬
ding the coal-pits when the engine is not working.
It would exceed the proper bounds of this article, to
enumerate all the accidents to which engine-pits are
liable in finking; we (hall therefore only recite a few
which feem important.
If a quickfand happen to lie above the folid ftrata,
next the furface, it may be got through by digging
the. pit of fueh a widenefs at the top (allowing for the
natural flope or running of the fand) as to have the
prsperffize of the pit on the uppermoft folid ftratum ;
where fixing a wooden frame or tube as the timber-
work of the pit, and covering it round on the out-
fide with, wrought clay up to the top, the fand may
again be thrown into the excavation round the tube,
and levelled with the furface.
If the quickfand fhould happen to lie at a confider-
able depth betwixt the clay and folid ftrata, then a
ftrong tube of timber clofely jointed and fliod with
iron, of fuch a diameter as the pit will admit, may be
let down into it; and by fixing a great weight upon
the top, and by working out the fand, it may be made
to fink gradually, until it. come to the rock or other
folid ftratum below ; and when all the fand is got
out, if it be lightly calked and fecured it will be fuf-
ficient..
It fometimes happens, that a ftratum of foft matter,
1
C O A
exhaling from fome in an infenfible manner, whilft Coalery.
from others it blows with as great impetuofity as a
pair of bellows.- When this inflammable air is per¬
mitted to accumulate, it becomes dangerous by taking
fire, and burning or deftroying the workmen, and
fometim.-s by its explofion will blow the timber out of
the pit, and do confiderable damage. If a confider-
able fupply of frefli air is forced down the pit by air-
boxes and a ventilator, or by dividing the pit into two
by a clofe partition of deals from top to bottom, or by
any other means, it will be driven out, or fo weakened,
that it will be of no dangerous confequence : or when
the inflammable air is very ftrong, it may be fafely car¬
ried off by making a clofe iheathin'g ot lining of thin
deals quite round the circumference of the pit, from
the top of the folid ttrata to the bottom, and length¬
ening it as the pit is funk, leaving a Imall vacancy be¬
hind the ftieathing; when the combuftible matter,
which exhales from the ftrata, being confined behind
thefe deals, may be vended by one or two finall leaden
pipes carried from the fheathing to the furface; fo
that very little of it can tranfpire into the area of the
pit. If a candle be applied to the orifice of the pipe
at the furface, the inflammable air will inftantly take
fire, and continue burning like an oil-lamp until it be
cxtingui/hed by fome external caufe. Upon the whole,
every method fhould be ufed to make the pit as ftrong
in every part, and to keep it as dry as poffible ; and
whenever any accident happens, it Ihould. be as ex-
peditioufly and thoroughly repaired as poffible, before
any other operation be proceeded in, left an additional
one follow, which would more than double the difficulty
of repairing it.
The firft operations, after finking the engine-pit, are 14 .
the working or driving a mine in the coal, and fink-
ing the firft coal-pit. The fituatiou of the firft coal¬
pit ffiould be a little to the rife of the engine-pit, that
the water which colle&s there , may not obftrutf the
working of the coals every time the engine flops:
and it fhould not exceed the diilance of 20, 30, or 40
yards; becaufe when the firft mine has to be driven a
long way, it becomes both difficult and expenfive. If
there be not a fufficient circulation of freih air in the
mine, it may be fupplied by the before defcribed air-
lying betwixt two hard folid ones, produces fo large a boxes and a ventilator, until it arrive below the in¬
quantity of water as greatly to incommode the opera¬
tions. In fuch a cafe, a frame-work of plank, ftrength-
ened with cribs and clofely calked, will flop back the
whole or the greateft part of it, provided the two ftra¬
ta which include it are of a clofe texture; or let an ex¬
cavation of about two feet be made in the foft ftratum,
quite round the circumference of the pit; and let that
tended coal pit, when the pit may be bored and funk
to the coal, in the manner before mentioned.
After the pit is thus got down to the coal, the next
confideration fhould be of the beft method of working
it. The moft general practice in Scotland is to ex¬
cavate and fake away a part only of the ftratum of
coal in the firft working of the pit, leaving the other
be filled clofe up betwixt the hard ftrata, with pieces of part as pillars for fupporting the roof; and after the
dry fir-timber about ten inches fquare inferted endwife,
and afterwards as many wooden wedges driven in to
them as they can be made to receive ; if this be well
finifhed, little or no water will find a paffage through
it.
It rarely happens that any fuffocating damp or foul
air is met with in an engine-pit; the falling of water,
and the working of the pumps, generally caufing a fuf¬
ficient circulation of frefh air. But that kind of com¬
buftible vapour, or inflain .Table air, which will catch
fire at a caudle is often met with. It proceeds from
the partings, backs, and cutters, of the folid. ftrata,
4.
coal is wrought in this manner to fuch a diltance from
the pit as intended, then thefe pillars, or fo many of
them as can be got, are taken out by a fecond work?
ing, and the roof and other folid ftrata above permit?
ted to fall down and fill up the excavation. The
quantity of coal wrought away, and the fize of the
pillars left in the firft. working, is-proportioned to the
hardnefs and ftrength of the coal and other ftrata adja?
cent, compared with the incumbent weight of the fupe-
rior ftrata.
The lame mode of working.is purfued in-moft.parts
of England, differing only as the circumftances el the
coalery
c O A [ i
Coalery. coalery may require : for the Engltfh coal, particularly
A.ii ■ — jn thenotthern counties, being of a fine tender tex¬
ture, and of the clofe-burning kind, and alfo the roof
and pavement of the coal in general not fo llrong as
in Scotland, they are obliged to leave a larger propor¬
tion of coal in the pillars for fupporting the roof, du¬
ring the firft time of working ; and, in the fecond work¬
ing, as many of thefe pillars are wrought away as can
be got with fafety.
The Scots coal in general being very hard, and of
the open-burning kind, it is neceffary to work it in
fuch a manner as to produce as many great coals as
pofiible, which is beft effefted by taking away as high
a proportion of the coal as circumftances will allow in
the fit ft working; on the contrary, the Englifti coal
being very tender cannot poffibly be wrought large,
nor is it of much importance how fmall they are, be¬
ing of fo rich a quality; fo that a larger proportion
may be left in pillars in this coal than could with pro¬
priety be done in the other; and, when all circumftan¬
ces are confidered, each method feems well adapted to
the different purpofes intended.
The ancient method of working was, to work away
as much of the coal as could be got with fafety at one
working only ; by which means the pillars were left fo
fmall as to be crulhed by the weight of the fuperior
ftrata, and entirely loft. As great quantities of
coals were loft by this method, it is now' generally ex¬
ploded, and the former adopted in its place ; by which
a much larger quantity of coal is obtained from the
fame extent of ground, and at a much lefs expence in
the end.
The exaft proportion of coal proper to be wrought
away, and to be left in pillars at the firft working,
may be judged of by a comparifon of the circumftan¬
ces before mentioned. If the roof and pavement are
both ftrong, as well as the coal, and the pit about 30
fathoms deep, then two-thirds, or probably three-
fourths, may be taken away at the firft working, and
one-third or one-fourth left in pillars. If both roof
and pavement be foft or tender, then a larger pro¬
portion muft be left in pillars, probably one-third or
near one-half; arid in all cafes the hardnefs or ftrength
of the coal muft be confidered. If tender, it will re¬
quire a larger pillar than hard coal; becaufe, by being
expofed to the air after the firft working, a part of it
will moulder and fall off, by which it will lofe much
of its folidity and refiftance.
The proportion to be wrought away and left in
pillars being determined, the next proper Hep is to
fix upon fuch dimenfions of the pillars to be left, and
of the excavations from which the coal is .to be taken
away, as may produce that proportion. In order to
form a juft idea of which, fee a plan of part of a pit’s
CXLII workings (fig- 6 ), fuppoled to be at the depth of 30
fathoms, and the coal having a moderate rife. A, re-
prefents the engine-pit; B, the coal-pit; A a B, the
mine from the former to the latter ; B C, the firft
working or excavation made from the coal-pit, com¬
monly called the ’winning mine or ’winning headway,
nine feet wide ; lbib, &c. the workings called rooms,.
turned off at right angles from the others, of the width
of i 2 feet; c cc c, &c.. the workings called throughers
or thirlings, 9 feet wide, wrought through at right
angles.from one room to another; ddd, &c. the pil-
ox ] c o A
lars of coal left at the firft working for fupporting the Coalery,
roof, »8 feet long and 12 feet broad ; DD, two large
pillars of coal near the pit bottom, 15 or 20 yards long,
and 10 or 15 broad, to fupport the pit, and prevent its
being damaged by the roof falling in; ee, the level
mine wrought in the coal from the engine-pit bottom,
4 or five feet wide ; f f, &c. large pillars of coal left
next the level, to fecure it from any damage by the
roof falling in ; gg, a dike which depreffeth the coal,
I fathom ; h h, &c. large pillars and barriers of coal
left unwrought, adjoining to the dike where the roof
is tender, to prevent its falling down. The coal ta¬
ken out by the firft working in this pit is fuppofed to-
be one-third of the whole ; and allowing the rooms
12 feet wide, and the thiilings 9 feet wide, then the
pillars will require to be 12 feet wide and 18 feet long;,
for if one pillar be in a certain proportion to its ad¬
joining room and thirling, the whole number of pillars
will be in the fame proportion to the whole number
of rooms and thirlings in the pit. Suppofe ABCD,
(fig. 7.), to be a pillar of coal 18 feet long and c 2 feet
broad, its area will-be 2x6 fquare feet; ACHE, the
adjoining thirling, 12 feet by 9 feet, and its area 108-
fquare feet; BAEFG, the adjoining room, 27 feet long
and 12 feet broad, and its area 324 fquare feet; which
added to 108 gives 432 fquare feet, or two-thirds-
wrought, and 2 16 fquare feet left, or one-third of the
whole area F G H D.
It is proper to obferve, that in the profecution of
the workings, the rooms to the right of the winning
headway fhould be oppofite to'the pillars on the left;
and the firft, third, and fifth pillar, or the fecond,
fourth, and fixth, adjoining to the faid headway, fhould
be of fuch a length as to overlay the adjoining thir¬
lings; as, in the plan, the pillar 2 overlays the thir¬
lings 1 and 3 ; and the pillar 4, overlays the thir¬
lings 3 and 5 ; this will effedlually fupport the roof
of the main road B C, and will bring the other pillars-
into their regular order, by which means each pillar
will be oppofite to two thirlings. Alfo a larger pro¬
portion of coal than common fhould be left in all
places which are intended to be kept open after the
feconji working; fuch as the pit-bottoms, air-courfes,
roads, and water-courfes, or where the roof is ten¬
der, as it generally is near dikes, hitches, and troubles;
and if the roof fhould continue tender for a confider-
able fpace, it will perhaps be found proper to. leave a
few inches of coal adhering to the roof, which, toge¬
ther with a few props of timber fixed under it, may
fupport it effectually for a long time. The level mine
e e, and the winning headway BC, fhould be wrought
forward a confiderable length before the other rooms,,
in order to be drove through any. dikes that might in-
terpofe ; otherwife the progrefs of the workings might
probably be flopped a confiderable time, waiting until
a courfe of new rooms were procured on the other
fide of the dike. Suppofe the dike gg, fig. 6 to de-
prefs the coal fix feet or one fathom, and that it rifes
in the fame manner on the under fide of the dike as it
does on the upper fide ; in fuch a cafe, the only reme¬
dy would be to Work or drive a level mine through the
ftrata of ftone from the engine-level at e, over the
dike, until it interie&the coal at i; and from thence to.
drive a new level mine in the coal at i i, and a new.
winning headway iL In order to gain a new fet o£
roomjj.
C O A i 102 ] C O A
rooms, and to fupply frefh air to this new operation, a
fmall mine might be drove from the room b, and a hole
funk down upon the level room i i; therefore, if the
level mine e e was not drove fo far forward as to have
all thefe operations completed before the rooms and
other workings were intercepted by the dike, the
working of the pit might ceafe until thefe new places
were ready.
If there be two or three ilrata or feams of coal in
the fame pit (as there often are) having only a ftratum
of a few feet thick lying betwixt them, it is then ma¬
terial to obferve, that every pillar in the fecond feam
be placed immediately below one in the firft, and
every pillar in the third feam below one in the fe¬
cond ; and in fuch a fituation the upper ftratum of coal
ought to be firft wrought, or elfe all the three toge¬
ther: for it would be unfafe to work the lower one
iirft, left the roof fhould break, and damage thofe lying
above.
It fometimes becomes neceflary to work the coal
lying to the dip of the engine or the level; which coal
is confequently drowned with water, and muft there¬
fore be drained by fome means before it can be wrought.
If the quantity of water proceeding from it be incon-
iiderable, it may then be drained by fmall pumps laid
tipon the pavement of the coal, and wrought by men
or horfes, to raife the water up to the level of the en¬
gine-pit bottom: or if the feeders of water be more
eoofiderable, and the fituation be fuitable, the work¬
ing rod of thefe pumps might be connected with thofe
in the engine-pit; by which means the water would be
raifed up to the level: but if the quantity of water be
very great; or if, from other circumftances, thefe me¬
thods may not be applicable ; then the engine-pit may
be funk as deep below the coal as may be needfary,
and a level ftone mine drove from its bottom to the dip
of the ftrata, until it interfeft the ftratum of coal, from
whence a new level mine might be worked, which would
efi’edlually drain it. Suppofe A B, fig. 8. to be a fec-
tion of the engine-pit; B C, the coal drained by the
engine ; B D, the coal to the dip of the engine in¬
tended i.o be drained ; then if the engine-pit be funk
deeper to E, a ftone mine may be wrought in the di-
re&ion E D„ until it interfedf the co|l at D, by which
the water will have a free pafiage to the engine, and
the coal will be drained.
If there be another ftratum of coal lying at fuch a
depth below the firft as the engine-pit is intended to
be funk to, the upper feam may in fome fituations be
conveniently drained, by driving a mine in the lower
feam of coal from E to F; and another in the upper
one from B to D; and by boring a hole from D to F,
the water will defeend to F, and, filling the mine EF,
rife up to the engine-pit bottom at E, which is upon
a level with D.
Whenever it is judged neceffaty to work the pil¬
lars, regard muft be had to the nature of the roof.
If the roof is tender, a narrow room may be wrought
through the pillar from one end to the other, leaving
only a {hell of coal on each fide for fupporting the roof
the time of working. Suppofe AB CD, fig. 7. to be
a pillar of coal 18 feet long and 12 feet broad : if the
roof is not ftrong, the room 1, 2, 3., 4, of eight feet
wide, may be wrought up through that pillar, leaving
3 ihell of two feet thick on each fide ; and if it can be
fafely done, a part of thefe {hells may alfo be wrought
away, by working two places through them as at 5 and
6. By this means very little of the coal will be loft ;
for two-thirds of the whole being obtained by the firft
working, and above two-thirds of the pillar by the fe¬
cond working, the lofs upon the whole would not ex¬
ceed one-tenth : but it may be obferved, that fome pil¬
lars will not produce fo great a proportion, and per¬
haps others cannot be wrought at all ; fo that, upon
the whole, there may be about one-eighth, one-feventh,
or in fome fituations one-fixth part of the coal loft. If
the roof be hard and ftrong, then as much coal may be
wrought off each fide and each end of the pillar' as can
be done with fafety, leaving only a fm«dl piece Handing
in the middle; and when^he roof is very ftrong, fome¬
times feveral pillars may be taken entirely out, without
any lofs-of coal: and in general this laft method is at¬
tended with lefs lofs, and produces larger coals, than
the former.' In all cafes it is proper to begin working
thofe pillars firft which lie fartheft from the pit bottom,
and to proceed working them regularly away towards
the pic; but if there be a great -number of pillars
to the dip of the pit, it is the fafeft method to work
thefe out before thofe to the rife of the pit are begun
with.
There is no great difference in the weight of differ¬
ent kinds of coals, the lighteft being about 74 pounds
avoirdupois, and the heavieft about 79 pounds the cu¬
bic foot; but the moft ufual weight is 75 pounds the
foot, which is 18 hundred weight and 9 pounds the
cubic yard. The ftatute chalder is 51 hundred weight;
or when meafured is as follows: 268.8 cubic inches to
the Winchefter gallon; 4-’- gallons to the coal peck,
about 3 pounds weight; 8 coal pecks to the boll, about
247-3- pounds; and 24 bolls to the chalder, of 53 hundred
weight. If one coal meafuring exaftly a cubic yard
(nearly equal to 5 bolls) be broken into pieces of a mo¬
derate fize, it will meafure feven coal bolls and a half.
If broken very/mall, it will meafure 9 bolls; which
{hows, that the proportion of the weight to the mea¬
fure depends upon the fize of the coals; tlierefore ac¬
counting by weight is the moil rational method.
A Table of the weight and quantity of coal contained
in one acre Scots fnealure, allowing one fixth part
to be loft below ground, in feams of the following
thickneffes.
Thickeets of coal.
3«35
4602
S369
6136
6903,
7670
8437
92°4
Quantity in chalders.
US*
1447
X736
203 5
23H
2603
2892
3181
347°
We {hall next mention forae of the various methods
of bringing the coals from the rooms and other work¬
ings to the pit bottom. Where the ftratum of coal is
of a fufficient thicknefs, and has a moderate rife and
dip, the coals are moft advantageoufly brought out by
horfes, who draw out the coals in a tub or balket pla¬
ced
C O A
Coalcry. ced upon a iledge : a horfe by this means will bring out
w—y—» feofl! four eight hundred weight of coals at once,
according to the quantity of the afcent or defcent. In
fome coalen'es they have accefs to the workings by a
mine made for them, Hoping down from the furface of
the earth to the coal; and where that convenience is
wanting, they are bound into a net, and lowered down
the pit. If the coal be not of fuch a height as to ad¬
mit horfes, and has a moderate rife like the laft, then
men are employed to bring out the coals : they ufually
draw a balket of four or Hve hundred weight of coals,
fixed upon a fmall four-wheeled carriage. There are
fome fituations in which neither horfes nor men can be
properly ufed; particularly where the coal has a great
degree of defcent, or where many dikes occur: in fuch
a cafe the coals are bell brought out by women called
bearers, who carry them in a kind of bafket upon their
backs, ufually a hundred, or a hundred weight and a
half, at once.
When the coals are brought to the pit bottom, the
bafkets are then hooked on to a chain, and drawn up
the pit by a rope to the furface, which is hell effected
by a machine called a gin, wrought by horfes. There
art other kinds of gins for drawing coals, fome wrought
by water, others by the vibrating lever of a fire-engine;
but either of thefe laft is only convenient in fome par¬
ticular fituations, thofe wrought by horfes being in
moft: general ufe. After the coals are got to the fur¬
face, they are drawn a fmall diftance from the pit, and
laid in feparate heaps: the largeft coals in one heap, the
fI,-.filer pieces called chews in another, and the culm or
pan-coal in a feparate place.
OF cruthes There is an accident of a very dangerous nature to
and fitts. which all coaleries are liable, and which has been the
ruin of feveral: it is called n crujh, or a jitt. When
the pillars of coal are left f© fmall as to fail, or yield
under the weight of the fuperior ftrata; or when the
pavement of the coal is fo loft as to permit the pillars
to fink into it, which fometimes happens by the great
weight that lies upon them ; in either cafe the folid
flratum above the coal breaks and falls in, crulhes the
pillar to pieces, and clofeth up a great extent of the
workings, or probably the whole coalery. As fuch an
accident feldom comes on fuddenly, if it be perceived
in the beginning, it may fometimesbe (topped by build¬
ing large pillars of ftone amongft the coal pillars: but
if it has already made fome progrefs, then the beft me¬
thod is to work away as many of the coal pillars ad¬
joining to the cruftr as may be fufficient to let the roof
fall freely down ; and if it makes a breach of the folid
ftrata from the coal up to the furface, it will very pro¬
bably prevent the crulh from proceeding any farther in
that part of the coalery. If the crulh begins in the rife
part of the coalery, it is more difficult to Hop it from
proceeding to the dip, than it is to Hop it from going
to the rife when it begins in a contrary part,
foul air. Another circumftance proper to be taken notice of
is the foul or adulterated air fo often troublefome in
coaleries. Of this there are two kinds : the black
damp or ftyth, which is of a fufibcating nature ; and
the inflammable or combuftible damp. Without Hay¬
ing to inquire, in this place, into the origin and effects
of thefe damps, it may be fufficient to obferve, that,
in whatever part of any coalery a conftant fupply or
a circulation of freffi air is wanting> there fome of
[ lot ]
C O A
thefe damps exift, accumulate in a body, and become Coale y.
noxious or fatal: and whenever there is a good circu- '■—y—**
lation of frefirair, they cannot accumulate, being mixed
with and carried away by the ftream of air as fall
as they generate or exhale from the ftrata. Upon
.thefe principles are founded the feveral methods of
ventilating a coalery. Suppofe the workings of the
pits A andB (fig. 6.) to be obnoxious to the inflammable Plue
damps; if the communication was open betwixt the CXMl,
two pits, the air which went down the pit A would
proceed immediately along the mine a, and afeend out
of the pit B ; for it naturally takes the neareft direc¬
tion : fo that the air in all the workings would be Hag-
nant; and they would be utterly inacceffible from the
accumulation of the combuftible damp. In order to
expel this, the air mull be made to circulate through
all the different rooms by means of collateral air-
courfes made in this manner: The pafiage or mine a
mutt be clofed up or Hopped by a partition of deals, or
by a wall built with bucks or Hones, to prevent the air
palling that way. This building, is called a Jlopping.
There muft alfo be ftoppi'ngs made in the thirlings-
I II, &c. betwixt the pillars ff, &c. which will di-
reft the air up the mine ee,^until it arrive at the in-
nermoft thirling 2, which is to be left open for its paf-
fage. Tnere muft all'o be Hoppings made at the fide of
the mine a at mm, and on both lides of the main head¬
way BC at bb. See. then returning to the innermoft thir¬
ling 2, proceed to the third row of pillars, and build
up the thirlings 2 2, See. leaving open the thirling 3
for a paflage for the air; and proceeding on to the
fifth row of pillars, build up fh the fame manner the
Hoppings 3 3, Sec. leaving open 4 for an air courfe :
and by proceeding in this manner to Hop up the thir¬
lings or paflages in every other row of pillars, the cur¬
rent of frclh air will circulate through and ventilate the
whole workings, in the dire&ion pointed to by the fmall
arrows in the plan, clearing away all the damps and
noxious vapours that may generate. When it is arrived
at C, it is conduced acrofs the main headway, and car¬
ried through the other part of the pit’s workings iathe
fame manner, until it return through n n to the pit B,
where it afeends; and as the rooms advance farther,
other Hoppings are regularly made.
In fome of thofe ftoppings, on the fides of the main
headway, there muft be doors to admit a paffage for
the bringing out of the coals from the rooms to the pit,
as at 5 5 : thefe doors mull be conftantly Ihut, except
at the time of paffing through them.
There are other methods of difpofing the ftoppings
fo as to ventilate the pit; but none which will fo ef-
fe&ually difperfe the damps as that dt-feribed above.
If the damps are not very abundant, then the courfe
of ftoppings tit, &c. in the level mine, and the others
at bbb. Sec. in the main headway, without any oth.ers^
may perhaps be fufficient to keep the pit clear. If at
any time the circulatiori of the frelh air is not bviik
enough, then a large lamp of fire may be placed at the
bottom of the pit B, which, by rarefying the air there,
will make a quicker circulation. ^
Moft of the larger coaleries fend their coals to theofleading
Ihips for the coafting trade or exportation ; and, as the and ft ip-
quantity is generally very large, it would take a greater Fing thli
number of carts than could conveniently be obtained at'"031*"
all times to carry them; be fides the corfiiderable expence
■ ' . ' of
C O A [ 104 1 C O A
Coalery, 0f that manner of carriage: they therefore generally
Coallier. u^e waggons> f°r carrying them along waggon-ways,
■ - laid with timber ; by which means one hone will draw
from two to three tuns at a time, when in a cart not
above half a tun could be drawn.
The firft thing to be done in making a waggon-way
is to level the ground in fuch a manner as to take off
all fudden afcents and defcents: to effedt which, it is
fometimes neceflaiy to cut through hills, and to raife
an embankment to carry the road through hollows.
The road fhould be formed about 1 2 feet wide ; and
no part Ihould have a greater defcent than of one yard
perpendicular in 10 of a horizontal line, nor a greater
afcent than one yard in 30. After the road is formed,
pieces of timber, about fix feet long and fix inches
diameter, calledJleepers, are laid acrofs it, being 18 or
24 inches diftant from each other. Upon theie fleepers
other pieces of timber, called rails, of four or five inches
fquafe, are laid in a lateral direction, four feet diftant
from each other, for the waggon-wheels to run upon ;
which being firmly pinned to the'fleepers, the road may
then be filled with gravel and finifhed.
The waggons have four wheels, either made of fo-
lid wood or of call iron. The body of the carriage is
longer and wider at the top than at the bottom; and
ufually has a kind of trap door at the bottom, which,
being loofed, permits the coals to run out without any
trouble. The Gze of a waggon to carry 50 hundred
weight of coals is as follows:
Feet. Inches.
Length of the top, - 7 9
Breadth of the top, - 50
Length of the bottom, " 5 0
Breadth of the bottom, - 2 6
Perpendicular height, - 4-3
Where the pits are fituated at fome confiderable dir
fiance from the harbour, it becomes neceflary to have
a ftore-houfe near the Hupping place, where the coals
may be lodged, until the • lighters or fhips are ready
to take them in. The waggon-way fhould be made
into the ftore- houfe, at fuch a height from the ground,
as to permit the coals to run from the waggons down
a fpout into the veflels ; or elfe to fall down into the
flore-houfe, as occafion may require.
This kind of ftore-houfe is well adapted to difpatch
and faving expence : for a waggon-load of coals may be
delivered either into the ftore-houfe @r veflels inftant-
ly with very little trouble : and if the coals were ex-
pofed to the effefts of the fun and rain, they would be
greatly injured in their quality ; but being lodged un¬
der cover of the ftore houfe, they are preferred.
COALESCENCE, the union or growing together
of two bodies before feparate. It is principally ap¬
plied to fome bones in the body, which are feparate
during infancy, but afterwards grow together; or to
fome morbid union of parts, which ftiould naturally
be diftinft from each other. Thus there is a coalef-
ceuce of the fidesof the vulva, anus, and nares ; of the
eye-lids, fingers, toes, and many others parts.
COAL LIE R, a veffel employed to carry coals from
one port to another; chiefly from the northern parts
of England to the capital, and more foutherly parts,
as well as to foreign markets. This trade is known
to be an excellent nurfery for feamen ; although they
83.
are often found, from the conftitution of their climate, Coamings,
not to be fo well calculated for fouthent navigation. n ^
COAMINGS, in {hip-building, are thofe planks, °a * .
or that frarr.forming a border round the hatches,
which raife them up higher than the reft of the deck.
Loop-holes for mufltets to (hoot out at, are often made
in the coamings, in order to clear the deck of the ene¬
my when the Ihip is boarded.
COANE, among the Cireeks, a name given to a
peculiar fpecies of tutia or tutty,'which was always
found in a tubular form. It had its name from
a word ufed to exprefs a fort of cylindric tube, into
which the melted brafs was received from the furnace,
and in which it was fuffered to cool. In cooling, it
always depofited a fort of recrement on the fides of the
veflel or tube, and this was the tutty called coane.
COAST, a fea-fhore, or the country adjoining to
the edge of the lea. Dr Campbell, in his political
furvey of Great Britain, confiders an extenfive fea-
coaft as qf great advantage to any kingdom ; and con-
fequently that this ifland hath many conveniences re-
fulting from the extent of its coafts, fuperior to other
kingdoms which are much larger. The chief advan¬
tages arifing from an extenfive fea-coaft are, that
thus there is a convenient opportunity for exportation
and importation to or from all parts of the kingdom.
Thus, a number of cities are formed on the coafts }
by this means the internal parts are improved, &c.
The extent of the fea-coafts of Arabia, he looks upon
as the genuine fource of wealth and fplendour to the
ancient inhabitants of that peninfula ; the fame was
the inftrument of the greatnefs of ancient Egypt, of
Phoenicia, &c. In ftiort, according to him, no coun¬
try or city can for any length of time be flourifhing
unlefs it hath a confiderabie connexion with the fea.
“ It is indeed true (fays he) that the wifdom and in-
dqftry of man, taking hold of fome peculiar circum-
ftances, may have rendered a few inland cities and
countries very fair and flouriftiing. In ancient hifto-
ry we read of Palmyra, and the diftiidt round it, be¬
coming a luxuriant paradife in the midft of inhofpita-
ble deferts. But this was no more than temporary
grandeur; and it has now lain for fome ages in ruins.
The city and principality of Kandahar was in like
manner rendered rich and famous, in confequence oi
its being made the centre of the Indian commerce}
but, long ago declining, its deftru&ion has been com¬
pleted, in our days, from that dreadful defolatiori
which Thamas Kouli Khan fpread through Perfia and
the Indies. Here, in Europe, many of the large ci¬
ties in Germany, which for a time made a great figure
from the freedom and induftry of the inhabitants, and
diffufed eafe, plenty, and profperity, through the di-
ftricts dependent on them, which of courfe rendered
them populous, are now fo much funk, through inevi¬
table accidents, as to be but ftiadows of what they
were ; and though they ftill continue to fublift, fubfift
only as the melancholy monuments of their,own mif-
fortunes. We may therefore, from hence, with great
certainty, difeern, that all the pains and labour that
can be bellowed in fupplying the defedl of fituation
in this refpedl, proves, upon the whole, but a tedious,
difficult, and precarious expedient. But, however,
we muft at the fame time admit, that it is not barely
the
C O A C 105 1 COB
Cape-Coaft the poffeffion even of an extended coaft that can pro-
Jj. duce all thefe defirable cffe(3;s. That coaft rtiuft like-
. Cca“ing- w;fe bc diftinguifhed by other natural advantages;
fuch as capes and promontories, favourably difpofed
to break the fury of the winds ; deep bays, fafe roads,
and convenient harbours. For, without thefe, an ex¬
tended coaft is no more than a maritime barrier againft
the maritime force of other nations ; as is the cafe in
many parts of Europe: and is one of the principal
reafons why Africa derives fo little benefit from a fitu-
ation which has fo promifing an appearance; there
being many confiderable tracts upon its coafts, equally
void of havens and inhabitants, and which afford not
the fmalleft encouragement to - the attempting any
thing that might alter their prefent defolate condition.
It is, however, a lefs inconvenience, and in fome cafes
no inconvenience at all, if, in the compafs of a very
extended coaft, there (hould be fome parts difficult or
dangerous of accefs, provided they are not altogether
inacceffible.—The fea coaft of Britain, from the figure,
in fome meafure, of the ifland, but chiefly from the
inlets of the fea, and the very irregular indented line
which forms its ftiore, comprehends, allowing for thofe
finuofities, at leaft 800 marine leagues : we may, from
hence, therefore, with fafety affirm, that in this refpett
it is fuperior to France, though that be a much larger
•country; and equal to Spain and /Portugal in this
circumftance, though Britain is not half the fize of
that noble peninfula, which is alfo Angularly happy in
this very particular.”
Cape-Coast, the name of the chief Britifti fettle-
ment on the coaft of Guinea in Africa. The name is
thought to be a corruption of Caho Corfo, the ancient
Portuguefe appellation. This cape is formed by an
angular point, waffied on the fouth and eaft by the
fea, on which ftands the Englifli fort. Here the Por¬
tuguefe fettled in 1610, and built the citadel of Cape
Coaft upon a large rock that projects into the fea. A
few years afterwards they were diflodged by the Dutch,
to whom this place is principally indebted for its
ftrength. In 1664 it was demoliffied by Admiral
Holmes, and in 1665 the famous Dutch Admiral De
Ruyter was ordered by the States to revenge the in-
fults of the Englifh. With a fquadron of 13 men of
war, he attacked all the Englifh fettlements along the
coaft ; ruined the fa&ories; and took, burnt, and funk all
the {hipping of the Englifh Company: however, after
all his efforts, he was baffled in his attempts on Cape
Coaft. By the treaty of Breda it was confirmed to
the Engliffi, and the king granted a new charter in
1672 ; on which the Company applied all their at¬
tention to the fortifying and rendering it commo¬
dious.
COASTING, in navigation, the aft of making a
progrrfs along the fea-ceaft of any country. The
principal articles relating to this part of navigation
are, the obferving the time and direftion of the tide :
knowledge of the reigning winds; of the roads and
havens ; of the different depths of the water, and qua¬
lities of the ground.
Coasting-Pilot, a pilot who by long experience has
become Efficiently acquainted with the nature of any
particular coaft, and of the requifites mentioned in the
preceding article, to conduft a fhip or fleet from one
part of it to another.
Vol.V. Parti.
COAT, or coat of arms, in heraldry, a habit worn
by the ancient knights over their arms both in war and
tournaments, and ftill borne by heralds at arms. It
was a kind of fur-coat, reaching as low as the navel,
open at the fides, with Ihort fleeves, fometimes furred
with ermine and hair, upon which were applied the
armories of the knights embroidered in gold j.:i fil-
ver, and enamelled with beaten tin coloured black,
green, red, and blue ; whence the rule never to apply
colour on colour, nor metal on metal. The coats of
arms were frequently open, and diverfified witn bands
and fillets of feveral colours, alternately placed, as we
ftill fee cloths fcarleted, watered, &c. Hence they
were called devifes, as being divided and compofed of
feveral pieces fewed together; whence the words
falfe, pale, chevron, bend, croft, faltier, lozenge, &c.
which have fince become honourable pieces, or ordi¬
naries of the (hield. See Cross, Bend, Chevron,
&c.
Coats of arms and banners were never allowed to be
worn by any but knights and ancient nobles.
Coat, in anatomy. See Tunic and Eve.
Coat of Mail, a kind of armour made in form of a
Ihirt; confifting of iron rings wove together netwife.
See Mail.
CO ATI, in zoology, a fynonime of a fpecies of Vi-
verra, and Ursus.
COAT1MUNDI, a variety of the above.
COATING, among Chemifts. See Chemistry,
n° 580.
Coating of Vials, Panes of Glafs, &c. among elec¬
tricians, is ufually performed by covering the outfide
of th" vial with tinfoil, brafs or gold-leaf, See. and fil¬
ling its infide with loofe pieces of brafs-leaf, by which
means it becomes capable of being charged. See E-
LECTRICITY.
COATZONTECOXOCHITL, or Flower with
the viper's head, in botany, a Mexican flower of in¬
comparable beauty. It is compofed of five petals or
leaves, purple in the innermoft part, white in the mid¬
dle, the reft red but elegantly ftained with yellow and
white fpots. . The plant which bears' it has leaves re-
fembling thofe of the iris, but longer and larger; its
trunk is fmall and Him; this flower was one of the
moft efteemed amongft the Mexicans. The Linceau
academicians of Rome, who commented on and pub-
lifhed the Hiftory of Hernandez in 1651, and fa .v the
paintings of this flower, with its colours, executed in
Mexico, conceived fuch an idea of its beauty, that they
adopted it as the emblem of their very learned academy,
denominating it Eior di Lince. See Plate CXLIII.
COBALT, one of the femimetals, according to
Cronftedt, of a whitiih-grey colour, nearly refembling
fine hardened fteel, and of the fpecific gravity of 6.000 ;
but according to others, of a bluifh grey, or eddiih
white colour, and of the fpecific gravity of 7.700. It
is as difficult of fufion as copper, or even gold ; and
when well purified, fcarcely yields to iron itfelf :n this
refpeft. When {lowly cooled, it cryftallizes, forming on
its furface fmall bundles of needles, or needle-formed
prifms, laid on one another, and united into bundles;
greatly refembling, according to Mongez, a mafs of
{haken bafaltes. In order to fucceed -in this cryftalli-
zation, it is Efficient to melt the cobalt in a crucible
till it Effers a kind of ebullition ; and, after having
O taken
COB [ ic6 ] COB
taken it from the fire, to incline the veflel while the
furface of the femimetal is congealing. By this incli¬
nation the portion of metal itill fufed is poured out,
and that which adheres to this kind of geode formed
by the cooling of the furfaces of the cobalt is found'
covered with the cryftals fought for. When melted
with borax it affords a blue glafs, which is the moft
obvious method of diftinguifhtng its ores amongft all
others. It cannot be calcined without confiderable
difficulty ; and the calx, though black in appearance,
is in reality of a deep blue. This calx melted with
borax, or potaffi and filiceous fand, affords the blue
glafs called fmah, very much ufed in enamel painting
and tinging of other glafs, being the moft fixed of all
colours in the fire.
Cobalt, when calcined along with the calx of arfe-
nic in a gentle heat, affumes a red colour. The fame
is naturally produced by way of efflorefcence, and is
then called the bloom or flowers of cobalt. When co¬
balt and arfenic are melted in a ftrong fire, they burn
with a blue flame. It does not mix either with mer¬
cury by any means hitherto known, nor will it form
any union with bifmuth without the addition of fome
medium. It is eafily foluble in fpirit of nitre, and
the folution either in this or any other acid is of a
red colour ; and it is obfervable that the colour of the
acid folutions of this femimetal, inftead of fading by
dilution with water, becomes more vivid. It is pre¬
cipitated of a pale red colour from its folutions by a-
cid of fugar, which has the greateft attraclion for'it j
though acid of forrel likewife precipitates it.
Cronftedt, in fpeaking of this femimetal, makes men¬
tion of native cobalt; but other mineralogifts affure
us that it has never been found perfe&ly pure in the
bowels of the earth. What paffes for fuch, is faid by
Kirwan to be mineralized by arfenic. That called
the grey cobalt ore comes neareft to the purity of the
native femimetal, but always holds fome quantity of
arfenic and iron. It is found in Sweden, Saxony,
Norway, and England, particularly at Mendip hills in
Somerfetfliire, and in Cornwall, where Dr Lewis, fays
it has lately been dug up in large quantities. Here
it is fometimes found in conjunction with bifmuth,
and fometimes. without it, refembling very much in
appearance the Saxon ores from Schnuberg in Mifnia,
and produces thefineft blue colours by proper manage¬
ment. An arfenicated grey cobalt ore has alfo been
found at Chatelaudren in France.
This kind of ore is folid, heavy, and compact, fome¬
times dull and fometimes of a bright appearance, cry-
ftallized frequently in a teffular and fometimes in a
dendritical form; being generally hard enough to
ftrike fire with fteel, when an arfenical fmell is per¬
ceived. It grows black in the fire, is foluble with ef-
fervefcence in the nitrous acid, from which it may be
precipitated by the marine, and affords the Sympathetic
Ink mentioned under the article Chemistry, n° 822.
This and the blue colour communicated by it to glafs
are indeed the two charafteriitics by which the ores
of cobalt are diftinguiflied from other arfenical ores.
The moft common ore of cobalt is that called the
black or vitreous ore, and Kobalt Mulm or Schlaken Ko-
lalt by the Germans. It is found in a loofe powdery
form, fometimes refembling lamp-black, fometimes
ef a grey colour, in which ftate it is called cobalt
ochre ; but when in fcoriform half vitrified maffes, it Cobalt,
obtains the name of vitreous or glafly ore. When this v—"'*
kind of ore contains any fulphur or arfenic, they are
only mechanically mixed with it. A fmall portion of
copper, however, is fometimes found in k. It is fre¬
quently embodied in ftones or fands of a black colour;
fometimes it is contained in argillaceous earths of a
blue or green colour. Talc, chalk, and gypfum, im¬
pregnated with it, are called by the fame name ; and
by fome fpiegel cobalt.
3. Cobalt mineralifed by the arfenical acid, is found'
either loofe and pure, or mixed with chalk or gypfum,.
or indurated and cryftallized in tetrahedral cryftals.
It is alfo found-in a ttalacftitical foVmu. It melts eafily,
and then becomes blue. It frequently invefts other
cobaltic ores ; and is found fometimes in ftone and
fand. From the experiments of Bergman it appears,
that the arfenical acid, and not the calx of arfenic, en¬
ters into this combination.; for cobalt is never red but
when united to an acid. Flowers of cobalt, minera¬
lized by arfenic without any filver, and intermixed
with galena, have alfo been difcovered in France.
The flowers or effiorefcence of cobalt are often-
found of a red colour, like other earths,, fpread very thin
on the cobalt ores ; and is, when of a pale colour, erro-
neoufly called flowers of bifmuth. A white cobalt earth
or ochre is faid to have been found, and examined by a
celebrated mineralogift, who found it to referable the
cobalt flowers in every refpedl except the colour; and
indeed it is poffible that in thefe flowers the colour
might by length of time, or fome other accident, have
loft their colour. The indurated flowers of cobalt are
commonly cryftallized in form of deep red femitranf-
parent rays or radiations. It is found at Schnuberg,
in Saxony.
Cobalt, mineralifed by fulphurated iron, is of a colour
nearly refembling tin or filver. It is fometimes found
in large maffes, fometimes in grains cryftallized of a dull
white colour, and frequently has the appearance of m'fl-
pickle. It has no mixture of arfenic. By calcination it
becomes black and not red, which diftinguifhes it front
the pyrites ; and it contains fo little fulphur, that none
can be extrafted from it. When diffolved in aqua
regia the folution is yellow, but becomes green when,
boiling hot ; which alternation, fays Kirwan, is pecu¬
liar to marine cobalt. A coarfe grained kind of this
ore, found in Sweden, becomes flimy in the fire, and
fticks to the iron rods employed in ftirring it while
calcining. The flaggy kind contains a large quantity
pf iron, and affords a very beautiful colour as well as
the former.
Cobalt mineralized by fulphur, arfenic, and iron,
has a great refemblance to the harder kinds of grey
cobalt ore, formerly mentioned; but it is never
hard enough to ftrike fire with fteel, and fometimes
may even be fcraped with a knife. The moft Ihining
kinds of this and the former fpecies are called cobalt
giants.
The great confumption of cobalt is for the perma*.
nent blue colour which it communicates to glaffes and
enamels, either upon metals, porcelains, or earthen
wares of any kind. It is the fame blue prepared in a
very cheap way by the Dutch, chiefly from the coarfe
glafs or blue glafs of cobalt, and called a%ur de Hol-
lande by the French, and which is employed by laun-
dreffes,.
*
COB [
'Cubult dreffes. But although cobalt is applied to few or no
t other purpofes, the quantities consumed in this way
■ afford fufficient profit to thofe who have cobalt mines
in their poffeffion.
Ores of cobalt, as has already been faid, are met
with in many parts of Europe. The greateft quanti¬
ties are found near Schnuberg in the diftrift of Mif-
Saxony ; alfo at St Andreafberg in the Upper
107 ] c o c
town of Germany, in the ele&orate of Triers or Tre- Coholi
ves, feated at the confluence of the rivers Rhine and,, Jl
Mofelle, in a fertile country, with mountains covered Cc>cclne!la*f
with vineyards. It is the ufual retidence of the elec- v ^
tor of Treves, to whom it belongs. Over the Rhine
is a bridge of twelve arches, built for the convenience
of the inhabitants of Coblentz and the adjacent places.
A ferry machine is conllantly going from the city to
Hartz, where large quantities have been met with for the other fide of the Rhine, where there is a little
upwards of 30 years paft. Formerly an iron ore only town and very ftrong caltle built on an eminence
was found in this place ; but about the beginning of named the rock of honour. This machine is erefted on
the 14th century, on finking deeper, it was lucceeded
by a very rich ore of filver ; which alfo being in
length of time exhaufted, gave place to cobalt ores.
Some pieces, however, are ftill found in thefe mines,
that contain filver and gold.
The general method of preparing cobalt ores in the
large way feems confined to Saxony alone; from
whence all other parts of the world, even the Eaft In¬
dies, are conftantly fupplied. It is fuppofed that the
Chinefe, and more particularly the Japanefe, had for¬
merly mines of excellent cobalt, with which the fine
two boats, in the form of a large fquare gallery, en-
compaffed with balluftrades; and carries a tall flag-
ftaff, on which are difplayed the arms of the electorate
of Treves. It is put in motion by the ferry-man’s-
pulling a rope, which is fixed to a ftandard on each
fide the river. The caitle appears to be almoft inac-
cefiible to an enemy, and entirely commands the city
of Coblentz. The archbifhop’s palace ftands at the
foot of this rock, and the arlenal at a little diltance.
E. Long. 7. 18. N. Lat. 50. 24.
COBOB, the name of a difh among the Moors. It
blues of their ancient porcelains were painted-; but it is made of feveral pieces of mutton wrapt up in the
appears that thefe mines are now exhaufted, and that cawl, and afterwards roafted in it; the poorer people,
the inferior blues of their prefent wares are painted i:.— —1 —.l-.
•with the Saxon zaffre imported to them by the Dutch.
For the management of the ore in fuch a manner as
to fit it for giving the defired colour, fee the article
ZaffrE.
When cobalt is united to bifmuth, by means of nic¬
kel, the’compound is called fpeifs. This name is alfo
inftead of the meat, ufe the heart, liver, and other-
parts of the entrails, and make a good dilh, though
not equal to the former.
COBOOSE, in fea-language, is derived from the
Dutch kamluis, and denotes a fort of box, refembling
a fentry-box, ufed to cover the chimneys of fome mer¬
chant ftrips. It generally ftands againft the barricade,
given to a mixture of cobalt, nickel, bifmuth, fulphur, on the fore-part of the quarter deck. It is called in
and arfenic.
In Germany and Saxony, the word cobalt is applied
to the damps, arfenical vapours, and their effedts on
the miners; which has induced the vulgar to apply it
to an evil fpirit whom they fuppofe to dwell in the
mines,
the Weft Indies cobre vega.
COBURG, a town of Germany in the circle of
Franconia, and capital of a territory of the fame name,
with a famous college, a fort, and a caftle. This town,
with its principality, belongs to the houfe of Saxony,
and the inhabitants are Proteftants. It is feated on
Reguhts of Cobalt, a kind of femimetal prepared the river Itch, in E. Long. 1 u 5. N. Lat. 50. 20.
from cobalt, of a whitilh colour inclining to red. See COBWEB, in phyfiology, the fine net-work which
Zaffre, and Chemistry, n° 1294, &c. fpiders fpin out of their own bowels, in order to catch
COBBING, a punilhment fometimes inflifted at their prey. SccAranea.
fea. It is performed byftrikingthe offender a certain COCCEIUS (John), profeffor of theology at Bre-
number of times on the breech with a flat piece of men, was founder of a fedt called Cocceiqns: thev held,
wood called the cobbing-board. It is chiefly ufed as a amongft other lingular opinions, that of a vifible reign
punilhment to thofe who quit their ftation during the
period of the night-watch.
COBIT1S, the loache, in ichthyology, a genus
of fifties belonging to the order of abdominaies. The
eyes are in the upper part of the head; the bran-
of Chrift in this world, after a general converlkm of
the Jews and all other people to the true Chriftian
faith, as laid down in the voluminous works of Coc-
ceius. He died in 1699, aged 66.
, .. . COCCINELLA, in zoology, a genus of infefis of the Plate
chioftege membrane has from four to five rays; and order of coleoptera ; the characters of which are thefe : CXLIIL
the body is nearly of an equal thicknefs throughout. The antennae are fubclavated: the palpi .are longer than
The fpecies are five 5 three of which are natives of the antenme, the laft articulation hcart-llraped; the body
Europe The loache is found in feveral of our fmail is hemifpheric ; the thorax and elytra are margined ;
the abdomen is flat. This genus is divided into fec-
tions, from the colour of the elytra, and of the fpots
with which they arc adorned. The females, impreg¬
nated by the males, depofit their eggs, which turn to
fmail larvae, flow in their progrefs, and are enemies to
the plant-loufe. Thofe larvae are frequently round upon
leaves of trees cove red. with plant-lice On the point
of being metamorphofed, they fettle on a leaf by the
hinder part of their body, then bend and fwell them-
felves, forming a kind or hopk. The Ikin extends,
time the chryfalis
open*
rivers, keeping at the bottom on the gravel; and is,
on that account, in fome places called the groundling ;
It is frequent in the ftream near Amefbury in Wiit-
Ihire, where the fportfmen,. through frolic, fwallow it
down alive in a glafs of white-wine.
COBLE, a boat ufed in the turbot filhery, twenty
feet fix inches long, and five feet broad. It is about
one tern burthen, rowed with three pair of oars, and
admirably conftrufted for encountering a mountainous
fea.
COBLENTZ, an ancient, handfome, and ftrong grows hard ; and in a fortnigh
O 2
C O C I 108 1 C O C
Coccolobo opens along the back. The infeft in its perfect ftate
Coccus recc*ves t^le impreflions of the air, that gives its elytra
. 0I~CU8, a greater degree of confiftence. It feldom flies, and
cannot keep long on the wing. Of all the different
larvae of the coccinella, the moft curious is the white
hedgehog, a name given it by M. de Reaumur on ac¬
count of the Angularity of its figure, and the tufts of
hair which render it remarkable. It feeks its food on
the leaves of trees. After a fortnight, it fettles on one
fpot, and without parting with its fur, turss to a
chryfalis; three weeks after which, it becomes a
coccinella. The flough appears nowife impaired by
its transformation. M. de Reaumur has obferved it
on a plum-tree. It is likewife found upon the rofe-
tree.
When the coccinellas firft arrive at the ftate of per¬
fection, the colours of their elytra are very pale, nearly
bordering upon white or cream colour; and the elytra
are very foft and tender, but Icon grow hard, and
change to very lively brilliant colours. Their eggs
are of an oblong form, and of the colour of amber.
COCCOLOBO, in botany: A genus of the tri-
gynia order, belonging to the o&andria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 12th or¬
der, Holoracete. The calyx is quinquepartite and co¬
loured ; there is no corolla; the berry is formed of the
calyx, and is monofpermous. The fpecies called uvifera,
or fea-fuk grape, grows upon the fandy fhores of moft of
the Weft India iflands, where it fends up many woody
Items, eight or ten feet high, covered with a brown
fmooth bark, and furnifhed with thick, veined, fhining,
orbicular leaves, five or fix inches diameter, ftanding
upon fhort foot-ftalks. The flowers come out at
the wings of the ftalks, in racemi of five or fix inches
long ; they are whitifh, have no petals, but each is
compofed of a monophyllous calyx, cut at the brim
into five oblong obtufe fegments, which fpread open,
continue, and furround feven or-eight awl-fhaped fta-
ihina, and three fhort ftyles, crowned with- Ample ftig-
Hiata. The germen is oval, and becomes a flefhy fruit,
wrapped round by the calyx, and includes an oval nut
or ftone. Thefe plums are about the fize of goofe-
berries, of a purple red colour, and a tolerable good
flavour. There are fome other fpecies of this genus
whofe fiuits are eaten by the inhabitants where they
grow, but they are fmaller and not fo well tailed.
COCCOTHRAUSTES, in ornithology, the trivial
name of a fpecies of Loxia.
COCCULUS In dig us, the name of a poifonous
berry, too frequently mixed with malt-liquors in or¬
der to make them intoxicating; but this praftice is
exprefsly forbidden by adt of parliament. It is the fruit
of the Menispermvm Cocculus. Filhermen have a way
of mixing it with pafte: this the fifh fwallow greedily,
and arc thereby rendered lifelefs for a time and float
on the water. The good women ufe it with ftavefacre,
for deftroying vermin in childrens heads,
yiate COCCUS, in zoology, a genus of infefts belonging
CX-LIII. to the order of hemiptera. The roftrum proceeds
from the breaft ; the belly is briftly' behind ; the
wings of the male are eredl; and the female has no
wings. The fpecies are 22, denominated principally
from the plants they, frequent. The moft remarkable
fpecies are :
1. The coccus hefperidum, or green-houfe bug, which
is oval, oblong, of a brown colour, covered with a kind Coccu*.
of varnilh : it has fix legs ; with a notch and four v~~
briftles at the tail. It infefts orange trees and other
fimilar plants in green-houfes. When young, it runs
upon the trees 5 but afterwards fixes on fome leaf,
where it hatches as infinity of eggs, and dies. The
male is a very fmall fly.
2. The coccus phalaridis. The male of this fpe-
eies is fmall. Its antennas are long for its'fize. The
feet and body are of a reddilh colour, nearly pink, and
fprinkled with a little white powder. Its two wings,
and the four threads of its tail, are fnow white, and
of thofe threads two are longer than the reft. It is to
be found upon the fpecies of gramen which Linnaeus
calls phalarls. The female contrives, along the ftalks
of that dog-grafs, little nefts, of a white cottony fub-
ftance, in which (he depofits her eggs. The fmall
threads of her tail are fcarce perceptible.
3. The coccus cafti, a native of the warmer parts
of America, is the famous cochineal animal, fo highly
valued in every part of the world for the incomparable
beauty of its red colour, which it readily communi¬
cates to wool and filk, but with much more difficulty
to linen and cotton. This infeft, like all others, is of
two fexes, but exceedingly diffimilar in their appear¬
ance. The female, which alone is valuable for its co¬
lour, is ill-fliaped, tardy, and ftupid : its eyes, mouth,
and antennae, are fixed fo deep, and are fo concealed
in the folds of the (kin, that it is impoffible to diftin-
guiffi them without a microfcope. The male is very
fcarce, and is fufficient for 300 females or more ; it
is adlive, fmall, and flender, in comparifon with the
female ; its neck is narrower than the head, and ftill
narrower than the reft of the body. Its thorax is of
an elliptic form, a little longer than the neck and head
put together, and flattened below; its antennae are
jointed, and out of each joint iffue long flender hairs
that are difpofed in pairs on each fide. It has fix
feet, each formed pf diftinft parts. From the pofte-
rior extremity of its body two large hairs or briftles
are extended, which are four or five times the length of
the infect. It bears two wings that are fixed to the
upper part of the thorax, which falls like the wings of
common flies when it walks or refts. Thefe wings,,
which are of an oblong form, are fuddenly diminiftied
in breadth where they are connected to the body.
They are ftrengthened by two oblong mufcles, one of
which extends itfelf on the outfide all round the wing;
and the other, which is internal and parallel to the
former, feems interrupted towards the fummit of the
wings. The male is of a bright red; the female of a
deeper colour. They are bred on a plant known in
Oaxaca in New Spain, and all thqfe parts where it
abounds, by the name of nopal, or nopalleca, the Indian
fig-tree. See Cactus.
The cochineal was formerly imagined to be a fruit
or feed of fome particular plant; an error which pro¬
bably arofe from an ignorance of the manner in which
it is propagated ; but at prefent every one is convin¬
ced of its being an infeft, agreeably to its name, fig-
nifying a wood-loufe, which generally breeds in damp
places, efpecially in gardens. Thefe infects, by rol¬
ling themfelves up, form a little ball fomething lefs
than a pea : and in fome places are knowm by the
name of baquilas de San Anton, i. e. St Anthony’s
1 little
C O C L 109 ] COG
Coccus. Httlc cows: and fuch is the figure of the cochineal,
“""v"-—' except that it has not the faculty of rolling itfelf up;
and its magnitude, when at its full growth, does not
exceed that of a tick common in dogs and other ani¬
mals.
The juice of the plant on which thefe infe&s breed,
is their foie nourifhment, and becomes converted into
their fubftance ; when, inftead of being thin and wa-
terilh, and to all outward appearance of little or no
ufe, it is rendered of a moil beautiful crimfon colour.
The plant is in May or June in its moft vigorous
ftate, and at this moft favourable feafon the eggs are
depoiited among the leaves. In the ihort fpace of
two months, from an animalcule, the infedt grows
up to the fize above mentioned : but its infant ftate
is expbfed to a variety of dangers ; the violent blafts
of the north wind fweep away the eggs from the fo¬
liage of the plant; and, what is..equally fatal to their
tender conftitutions, ihowers, fogs, and frofts, often
attack them, and deftroy the leaves, leaving the care¬
ful cultivator this only refource, namely, that of ma-
r king fires at certain diftances, and filling the air with
fmoke, which frequently preferves them from the fatal
effedts of the inclemency of the weather.
The breeding of cochineal is alfo greatly obftrufted
by birds of different kinds, which are very fond of
thefe infedts; and the fame danger is to be appre¬
hended from the worms, &c. which are found among
the plantations of nopals : fo that unlefs conftant care
be taken to fright the birds away from the plantation,
and to clear the ground of thofe various kinds of ver¬
min which multiply fo fall in it, the owner will be
greatly difappointed in his expedtations.
When the infedts afe at their full growth, they
are gathered and put into pots of earthen ware; but
much attention is requifite to prevent them from get¬
ting out, as in that cafe great numbers of them would
be loft ; though there is no danger of it, where -they
are at liberty on the nopal leaves, thofe being their
natural habitation, and where they enjoy a plenty of
delicious food: for though they often remove from
one leaf to another, they never quit the plant; nor is
it uncommon to fee the leaves entirely covered with
them, efpecially when they are arrived at maturity.
When they have been confined fome time in thefe
pots, they are killed and put in bags. The Indians
have three different methods of killing thefe infedts;
one by hot water, another by fire, and a third by the
rays of the fun : and to thefe are owing the feveral
gradations of the colour, which in fome is dark, and
in others bright; but all require a certain degree of
heat. Thofe therefore who ufe hot water are very
careful te give it the requifite heat, and that the quan¬
tity of water be proportioned to the number of infedls.
The method of killing the creatures by fire is to put
them on (hovels into an oven moderately heated for
that intention ; the fine quality of the cochineal de¬
pending on its not being over dried at the time of kil¬
ling the infedts: and it muft be owned, that among
the feveral ways made ufe of to deftroy this valuable
creature, that of the rays of the fun feems to bid faireft
for performing it in the moft perfedt manner.
Befides the precaution requifite in killing the cochi¬
neal, in order to preferve its quality, it is equally ne-
ceffary to know when it is in a proper ftate for being
removed from the leaves of the nopal; but as e.vpe- Coccus rt
rience only can teach the cultivator this neceffary cri- u—v—J
terion, no fixed rule can be laid down. Accordingly,
in thofe provinces where the cultivation of thefe in¬
fers is chiefly carried on, thofe gathered by Indians
of one village differ from thofe gathered in another;
and even thofe gathered by one peifon in the fame
village, are often different from thofe gathered by
another; every individual adhering 'to his own me¬
thod.
The cochineal-infedt may, in fome circumftances,
be compared to the (ilk-worm, particularly in the man¬
ner of depofiting its eggs. The infedts deftined for
this purpofe are taken at a proper time of their growth,
and put into a box well clofed, and lined with a coarfe
cloth that none of them be loft : and in this confine¬
ment they lay their eggs and die. The box is kept
clofe (hut till the time of placing the eggs on the no¬
pal, when, if any motion is perceived, it is a fufficient
indication that the animalcule has life, though the egg*
is fo minute as hardly to be.perceived; and this is the
feed placed on the foliage of the nopal, and the quan¬
tity contained in the (hell of a hen’s egg is fufficient
for covering a whole plant. It is remarkable that this
infedt does not, or at lead in any vifible manner,
injure the plant, but extradls its nourilhment from
the moft fucculent juice, which it fucks by means
of its probofeis through the fine teguments of the
leaves.
The principal countries where the cochineal infedts
are bred, are Oaxaca, Tlafcala, Chulula, Nueva Gal-
licia, and Chiapa, in the kingdom of New Spain ; and
Hambato, Loja, and Tucuman in Peru: but it is only
in Oaxaca that they are gathered in large quantities,
and form a branch of commerce, the cultivation of
thefe little creatures being there the chief employ¬
ment of the Indians.
Though the cochineal belongs to the animal king¬
dom, of all others the moft liable to corruption, yet it
never fpoils. Without any other care than merely
that of keeping in a box, it has been preferred for
ages. In drying, it lofes about two-thirds of its weight.
When dried, it is forted into large entire grains, and
fmall or broken ones: the firft are called by the Spa*
niards gratia, the latter gratulla. In trade, four forts
are diitinguiffied, Maftique, Campefchane, ‘Tetrafchale,.
and JylveJier ; of which, the firft is accounted the beft,
and the la ft the word. The three firft are named
from the places where they are produced; the latter
from its being found wild without any culture.
In medicine, cochineal has been ftrongly recom¬
mended as a fudorific, cardiac, and alexipharmac; but
practitioners have never obferved any confiderable ef¬
fects from it. Its principal confumption is among
dyers. See the article Dyeing.
4. The coccus ilicis, or that forming the kermes
grains., inhabits the quercus coccifcra of the fouthern
parts of Europe. Mr Hellot of the French Academy
of Sciences, in his Art of Dyeing, chap. x ?. fays it is
found in the woods of Vauvert, Vendeman, and Nar*
bonne; but more abundantly in Spain, towards Ali-
cant and Valencia. It not only abounds in Valencia,
but alfo in Murcia, Jaen, Cordova, Seville, Eftrema-
dura, la Mancha, Serranias de Cuenca, and other
places*
Ire
C O C [ II
In Xixona and Tierra de Relleu, there is a diftri&
called De la Gram, where the people of Valencia firft
began to gather it, whofe example was followed all
over Spain. It has fome years produced 30,000 dol¬
lars (5000 1.) to the inhabitants of Xixona.
Both ancients and moderns feem to have had very
confufed notions concerning the origin and nature of
the kermes; fame confidering it as a fruit, without a
juft knowledge of the tree which produced it; others
taking it for an excrefcence formed by the pun&ure of
a particular fly, the fame as the common gall obferved
upon oaks. Tournefort , was of this number. Count
Marfigli, and Dr Nifole a phyfician of Montpelier,
made experiments and obfervations, with a view of
further difeoveries; but did not perfe&ly fucceed.
Two other phyficians at Aix in Provence, Dr Emeric
and Dr Garidel, applied themfelves about the fame
time, and with greater fuccefs; having finally difeo-
vered that the kermes is in reality nothing elfe but the/
body of an infeA transformed into a grain, berry, or
hulk, according to the courfe of nature.
The progrefs of this transformation muft be confi-
dered at three different feafons. In the firft ftage, at
the beginning of March, an animalcule, no larger than
a grain of millet, fcarce able to crawl, is perceived
flicking to the branches of the tree, where it fixes it-
felf, and foon becomes immoveable ; at this period it
grows the moft, appears to fwell and thrive with the
fuftenance it draws in by degrees. This ftate of reft
feems to have deceived the curious obferver, it then
refembling an excrefcence of the bark; during this
period of iis growth, it appears to be covered with a
down, extending over its whole frame like a net, and
adhering to the bark; its figure is convex, not unlike
a fmall floe; in fuch parts as are not quite hidden by
this foft garment, many bright fpecks are perceived of
a gold colour, as well as ftripes running acrofs the
body from one fpace to another. At the fecond ftage,
in April, its growth is completed; its drape is then
round, and about the fize of a pea: it has then acquired
more ftrength, and its down is changed into duft, and
feems to be nothing but a hulk or a capfule,. full of a
reddifh juice not unlike difcoloured blood. Its third
fl;ate is towards the end of May, a little fooner or la¬
ter according to the warmth of the climate. The
hulk appears replete with fmall eggs, lefs than the feed
of a poppy. Thefe are properly ranged under the
belly of the infeft, progreffively placed in the neft of
down that covers its body, which it withdraws in, pro¬
portion to the number of eggs : after this work is
performed, it foon dies, though it Hill adheres to its
pofuion, rendering a further fervice to its progeny,
and Ihieldihg them from the inclemency of the wea¬
ther, or the hoftile attacks of an enemy. In a good
feafon they multiply exceedingly, having from 1800
to 2COO eggs, which produce the fame number of ani¬
malcules. When obferved with the microfcope in July
or Auguft, we find, that what appeared as duft, are io
many eggs or open capfules, as white as-fnow, out
of each of which iffues a gold-coloured animalcule, of
the lhape of a cockroach, with two horns, fix feet,
and a forked tail. In Languedoc and Provence the
poor are employed to gather the kermes, the women
letting their nails grow for that purpofe, in order to
pick them off with greater facility.
° ] COG
The cuftom of lopping off the boughs is very injn-
'dicious, as by this means they deftroy the next year’s
harveft. Some women will gather two or three pounds
a-day : the great point being to know the places where
they art moft likely to be found in any quantity, and
to gather them early with the morning-dew, as the
leaves are more pliable and tender at that time than
after they have been dried and parched by the rays of
the fun : ftrong dews will occaflonally make them fall
from the trees fooner than ufual: when the proper
feafon paffes, they fall off of themfelves, and become
food for birds, particularly, doves. Sometimes there
will be a fecond production, which is commonly of a
lefs fize with a fainter tinge. The firft is generally
found adhering to the bark, as well as on the branches
and ftalks; the fecond is principally on the leaves, as
the worms choofe that part where the nutritious juice
preferves itfelf the longeft, is moft abundant, and can
be moft eafily devoured in the ftiort time that remains
of their exiftence, the bark being then,drier and hard¬
er than the leaves.
Thofe who buy the kermes to fend to foreign parts,
fpread it on linen ; taking care to fprinkle it with vi¬
negar, to kill’the worms that are within, which pro¬
duces a red duft, which in Spain is feparated from the
hulk. Then they let it dry, palling it through a
fearce, and make it up into bags. In the middle of
each, its proportion of red duft, put in a little leather
bag, alfo belongs to the buyer; and then it is ready
for exportation, being always in demand on the Afri¬
can coaft. The people of Hmojos, Bonares, Villalba,
and other parts of the kingdom of Seville, dry it on
mats in the fun, ftirring it about, and feparating the
red dull, which is the fineft part, and being mixed
with vinegar goes by the name of pqftel. The fame is
done with the hulks; but thefe have but half the va¬
lue of the duft. The kermes of Spain is preferred on
the coaft of Barhary, on account of its goodneis. The
people of Tunis mix it with that ofTetuan, for dyeing
thofe fcarlet caps fp much ufed in the Levant. The
Tunifiaris export every year above 150,000 dozen of
thefe caps, which yields to the Dey a revenue of
150,000 hard dollars (33,7501.)/er annum for duties;
fo that, excluiive of the ules and advantages of kermes
in medicine, it appears to be a very valuable branch of
commevce in Spain.
5. The coccus lacca, or gum-lac animal, is a native
of the Eaft Indies. The head and trunk form one
uniform, oval, compreffed, red body, of the lhape and
magnitude of a very fmall loufe, confifting of twelve
tranfvtrft; rings. The back is carinite ; the belly flat;
the antennae half the length of the body, filiform, trun¬
cated, and diverging, fending off two, often three, deli¬
cate, diverging hairs, longer than the antennae: the
mouth and eyes could not be feen with the naked eye.
The tail is a little white point, fending off two hori¬
zontal hairs as long as the body. It has three pair of
limbs, half the length of the infeft.
This is its defeription in that ftate in which it fai¬
lles forth from the womb of the parent in the months
of November and December. They traverfe the
branches of the trees upon which they were produced
for fome time, and then fix themfelves upon the fuc-
culent extremities of the young branches. By the
middle of January they arc all fixed in their proper
2 fitua-
Goccuk
C O C [II
fituationa } tliey appear as plump as before, but fhow
no other marks of life. The limbs, antennae, and fetae
of the tail are no longer to be feen. Around their
edges they are environed with a fpiffid fubpellucid li¬
quid, which feems to glue them to the branch : it is
the gradual accumulation of this liquid, which forms
a complete cell for each ihfefl, and is what is called
gum lacca. About the middle of March the cells are
completely formed, and the infeft is in appearance an
oval, fmooth, red-bag, without life, about the fize of
a fmall cuchanical infeft, emarginated at the obtufe
end, full of a beautiful red liquid. In October and
November we find about 20 or 30 oval eggs, or rather
young grubs, within the red fluid of the mother.
When this fluid is all expended, the young infe&s
pierce a hole through the back of their mother, and
walk off one by one, leaving their exuviae behind,
which is that white membranous fubftance found in
the empty cells of the Hick lac.
The infefts are the inhabitants of four trees: I. Fi¬
cus religiofa, Lirinal; 2: Ficus indica, L'wn'A; 3. Plafo,
Hortus Malalarici; and 4. Rhamnus jujuba, Linruci.
The infedts generally fix themfelves fo dofe toge¬
ther, and in fuch nunrbers, that fcarcely one in fix can
have room to complete her cell: the others die, and
are eat up by various infefts. The extreme branches
appear as if they were covered with a red dull, and
their fap is fo much exhaufted, that>they wither and
produce no fruit, the leaves drop off, or turn to a dirty
black colour. Thefe infedfs are tranfplanted by birds:
if they perch upon thefe branches, they mull carry off
a number of the infedts upon their feet to the next tree
they reft upon. It is worth obferving, that thefe fig-
trees when wounded drop a milky juice, which inftant-
ly coagulates' into a vifcid ropey fubftance, which,
hardened in the open air, is fimilar to the cell of the coc¬
cus lacca. The natives boil this milk with oils into a
bird-lime, which will catch peacocks or the largeft
birds.
A red medicinal gum is procured by incifion from
the plafo tree, fo fimilar to the gum lacca, that it may
readily be taken for the fame fubftance. Hence it is
probable, that thofe infedts have little trouble in ani-
malizing the fap of thefe trees in the formation of their
cells. The gum lacca is rarely feen upon the rham¬
nus jujuba ; and it is inferior to what is found upon
the other trees. The gum lacca of this country is
principally found upon the uncultivated mountains on
both fides the Ganges, where bountiful nature has pro¬
duced it in fuch abundance, that was the confumption
ten times greater the markets might be fupplied by
this minute infedf. The only trouble in procuring the
lac is in breaking down the branches, and carrying
them to market. The prefent price in Dacca is about
twelve (hillings the hundred pounds weight, although
it is brought from the diftant country of Affam. The
beft lac is of a deep red colour. If it is pale, and
pierced at top, the value diminiflies, becaufe the in-
fedls have left their cells, and confequently they ‘can
be of no ufe as a dye or colour, but probably they are
better for varnifhes.
This infedil and its cell has gone under the various
names of gum lacca, lack, loc tree. In Bengal, la ;
and by the Englifli it is diftinguifhed into four kinds,
[ ] c o c
differently demominated : for which, and their feveral
ufes, fee the article Lacca.
In the figure, a reprefents the infedf at its birth ;
b ditto, big with young; both the natural fize.
y The embyro before birth inclofed in its membrane j.
i The coccus, with two hairs from each antenna;
s Ditto, with three hairs from each antenna; thefe
three figures are magnified.
6. Coccus Polonicus, an infedl which may properly
enough be called the cochineal of the northern part of
the world. As the cochineal loves only the hot cli¬
mates, this creature affedls only the cold ones. It i*
colkdted for the ufe of dyers: but the crops of it are
much fmaller, more difficultly made, and the drug it~
felf greatly inferior to the true cochineal. It is com¬
monly known by the name of coccus Polonicus, or the
fcarlet grain of Poland. That country is indeed the
place where it is gathered in the greateft abundance^
but it is not the only one where it is found. It is to
be. met with in many of the northern countries ; and
poffibly may be found in fome of the more temperate
ones, where it is not yet known ; as it is very much
hid by nature from the eyes of common obfervers.
It is found affixed to the root of a plant, and ufually
to plants of that fpecies from thence called polygonum,
coccferum; though authors have informed us of the
fame berry, as it is often called, being found at the
roots of the moufe-ear, rupture-wort, pimpernel, and
pdlitory of the wall; and that it is in no other than
fandy places that it is found at the roots of thofe plants.
Breynius, in 1731, printed at Dantzick a very curious
account of this production, which proves it inconte-
ftably to be an animal. Towards the end of June the
coccus is in a fit ftate for being gathered. Every one
of the creatures is then nearly of a fpherical form, and
of a fine violet colour. Some of them, however, are
not larger than poppy feeds, and others of the lize of
a pepper corn ; and each of them is lodged, either in
part or entirely, in a fort of cup like that of an acorn.
More than half the furface of the body of the animal
is covered by this cup. The outfide of the covering
is rough,, and of a blackiffi brown ; but the infide is
fmooth, polifhed, and finning. On fome plants they
find only one or two of thefe, and on others more
than forty ; and they are fometimes placed near the
origin of the (talks of the plants.
Breynius began his obfervations on the animals in this
ftate, feveral of them being put into veffels of glafs; and
by the 24th of July, there was produced from every one
of them a hexapod, or fix-legged worm, with two an¬
tennas on its head. Several of thefe were kept a fort¬
night, and (bowed no inclination to eat any thing. They
run about, however, very fwiftly for fome time; but then
began to be more quiet, drew up their bodies (horter,
and ceafed to run about any longer. They were now
of a purple colour ; but in this ftate, though they did
not walk about, they were fubjeft to various contor¬
tions. At length, when they were become wholly
motionlefs, their bodies became covered with a fine
down : this was white, and formed them a perfedt
covering, which was fometimes of a fpherical, and
fometimes of an irregular figure: it was always,
however, very elegant; and the downy matter plain¬
ly enough tranfpired out of the animal’s body. The
creatures.
COG L
■ ereaturfs remained in this ftate of reft, and covered
with this down, for five or fix days; but at the end of
that time, every one of them laid more than 150 eggs.
Thefe eggs were depofited upon the paper on which
the animals were placed, and were enveloped in fome
meafure by a downy matter. When the creatures
had laid all their eggs, they died ; and about the 24th
of Auguft there came from every egg a fmall infeft,
which to the eye fcarce feemed any other than a red
point; it might, however, be obferved very plainly
to move about. Thefe young animals lived about a
month, wholly without fuftenance. Mr Breynius was
induced at firft to believe, that thefe animals came to
be in a ftate to produce perfeft eggs, without any
congrefs with the male; but farther obfervations con¬
vinced him of the error of this opinion. He faw af¬
terwards a fort of very fmall flies with two white
wings bordered with red, produced from feveral of the
cocci. Thefe flies are plainly of the fame kind with
the male gall-infefts.
It has before been obferved, that thefe cocci differ
in fize. The flies are produced by the fmall ones not
bigger than a poppy feed; the others produce the worms
before deferibed: and one obfervation of Mr Brey
nius’s affords a plain proof that thefe flies are the male
infefts of the fpecies; fince all thofe of the females,
which had been a day or two accompanied by thofe
flies, quickly covered themfelves with down and be-
ghn to lay their-eggs ; whereas thofe which 'had not
this commerce with the flies remained in the fame
ftate, or elfe got only a very thin and flight covering
of down, and never laid any eggs. The manner of
this creature’s life, however, from its being hatched,
to its being found in the ftiape of a berry at the roots
of the plants, is yet unknown : and how they affumfe
the fliape of a ball lodged in a cup, muft require a nice
obfervation to difeover.
The proper time for gathering this infeft, as we
have already obferved, is about the end of June, when
it is quite full of of purple juice. .Thofe who gather
it have a hollow fpade with a fliort handle ; then, ta¬
king hold of the plant with one hand, they raife it out
of the ground with the tool held in the other ; after
which they very quickly and dexteroufly detach the
infers, and replace the plant in the ground, where it
again takes root. The coccus is then feparated from
the earth by means of a fieve ; and in order to prevent
them from turning into worms, they fprinkle them
with very cold water or vinegar. Laftly, they are kill¬
ed by expofure to the fun, or keeping them for fome
time in a warm place ; but this muft be done with cau¬
tion, as too hafty drying would fpoil the colour.
Sometimes they fepavate the infefts from the veficles
with their fingers, and form them into balls ; but by
this operation the price is greatly increafed.
We are informed by Bernard de Bemith, from whom
this account is taken, that the harveft of coccus was
farmed out to the Jews by fome Polilh lords, who had
poffeflions in the Ukraine ; that it was ufed by them,
as well as the Turks and Armenians, for dyeing
not only wool and filk, but the tails and manes of
their horfes; that by its'means the Turkifli women
dyed the tips of their fingers of a beautiful carnation ;
and that it was formerly ufed by the Dutch along with
an equal quantity of cochineal, the coccus being pur-
N° 83.
112 1 c o c
chafed at a very dear rate ; that beautiful paints mayCoceygam
be prepared from this infedf and pounded chalk, See. ,l.
All this, however, M. Macquer fuppofes to have been Coch,Iw-
exaggerated, as he never could produce with it any
other than lilach, flelh-colour, or crimfon ; and he
found it, morever, vaftly more expenfive than cochi¬
neal, as not yielding one-fifth part of the colour.
Hence this drug is almoft entirely fallen into difufe,
being fcarce known in any of the European cities re-
maikable for having good dyers.
COCCYGjEUS musculus. See Anatomy,
Table of the mufcles.
COCCYX, or Coccygis os. See Anatomy,
n° 35-
COCHIN, a Dutch fettlement on the coaft of Ma¬
labar in N. Lat. 90.58. E. Long. 75. 58.—The town
is not unpleafant, though it falls far ftiort of their fcttle-
ment at Columbo in the ifland of Ceylon. The for¬
tification is irregular, but ftrong enough to refill any
of the Indian powers, and has 40 or 50 cannon facing
the fea. The people in this town and the country
adjacent are fubje£l to a Itrange diforder of the legs
called Cochin or elephant legs, in which the fwelled limb
is fometimes of fuch an enormous bulk as to have
greatly the appearance both in fliape and fize of the
leg of an elephant. According to Mr Ives, this dif¬
order feems to be merely an cedematous fwelling, oc-
cafioned by an impoverilhed ftate of the blood and
juices. The perfons afflifted^with this diftemper very
feldom apply to European furgeons, and thus are
rarely, if ever cured. Indeed, our author obferves,
that their application would probably be of little avail,
as the only thing that could be preferibed would be an
alteration from the pooreft to the moll cordial and
nutritious diet; and the Indians are fo invincibly wedded
to their own cuftoms, that they would fooner die tharf
break through them. Of this lie fays there were feveral
inftances in their long paffage to Bengal, during which
dome of the Sepoys perilhed for want of food, rather
than lave themfelves by partaking of the (hip’s pro-
vifions after their own had been expended. Moll of
thofe affli&ed with the diforder we fpeak of, are un¬
able to call any afliftance, being the very pooreft of
the people, whp live entirely upon a kind of filh called
Sardinias, without being able to purchafc even the
fmalleft quantity of rice to eat along with it; their
drink is alfo mere water, unlefs they fometimes pro¬
cure a draught of the Ample unfermented juice called
toddy. Cochin is the principal place from whence the
Dutch import their pepper into Europe.
Cochin-China, a kingdom of Afia, bounded on
the north by Tonquin ; on the eaft, by the fea of
China; on the fouth, by the Indian ocean; and on the
weft, by Cambodia, and a ridge of mountains inhabited
by a favage people called Kemois, who live indepen¬
dent of any government. Little of the hiftory of thi*
kingdom is known. M. le Poivre, a French traveller,
informs us, that about half a century before the French
firft arrived in thefe diftant regions, a prince of Ton¬
quin, as he fled from his fovereign, by whom.he was
purfued as a rebel, had with his foldiers and adherents
croffed the river, which ferves as a barrier between
Tonquin and Cochin-China. The fugitives, who were
warlike and civilized men, foon expelled the fcatter-
ed inhabitants, who wandered about without any fo-
ciety
C O C [ 113 ] c o c
'Cpvhsn-' clcty or form of government, and founded a newking-
^na‘ dom, which foon grew rich and populous. During.
v the reigns of the firit fix’kings, no nation could be hap¬
pier than the Cochin-Chinefe. Their monarchs go¬
verned them as a father does his family, eftablifhing
no laws but thofe of nature, to which they themfelves
were the firft to pay obedience. They honoured and
encouraged agriculture, as the moft ufeful employment
of mankind ; and required from their fubjects only a
fmall annual free-gift to defray the expence of their
defenfive war againft the Tonquinefe, who were their
enemies. This impofition was regulated, by way of
poll-tax, with the great eft- equity. Every man, able
to till the ground, paid into the prince a fmall fum
proportioned to the ftrength of his conftitutior), and
the vigour of his arm ; and nothing more.
Cochin-China continued happy under thefe princes
for mpre than a century; but the difeovery of gold¬
mines put a ftop to the above mild regulations. Luxury
immediately took place. The prince began to defpife
the iimple habitation of his anceftors, and caufcd a fu-
perb palace to be built a league in circumference,
furrounded with a wall of brick in the model of that
of Pekin, and defended by 1600 pieces of cannon.
Not content with this, he would needs have a winter
palace, an autumn palace, and a fummer palace. The
old taxes -were by no means fufficient to defray thefe
expences; new ones were devifed; and oppreflion
and tyranny every where took place. His courtiers,
to flatter their prince, gave him the title of the king
of heaven, which he ftill continues to affume. When
fpeaking of his fubjefts, he ftyles them his child¬
ren, but by no means behaves as if he was their fa¬
ther : for our author informs us, that he has feen
whole villages newly abandoned' by their inhabitants,
who were haraffed with toil and infupportable ex¬
actions ; the neceffary confequence of which was,
that their lands returned / to their former uncultivated
ftate.
M. le Poivre reprefents the Cochin-Chinefe as gentle,
hofpitable, frugal, and induftrious. There is not a
beggar in the country; and robbery and murder are
abfolutely unknown. A ftranger may wander over
the kingdom from one end to the other (the capital
excepted) without meeting with the flighteft infult.
He will be every where received with the moft eager
curiofity, but at the fame time with the greateft be¬
nevolence. A Cochin-Chinefe traveller, who has not
money fufficient to defray his expences at an inn, en¬
ters the firft houfe of the town or village he arrives at,
and waiting the hour of dinner, takes part with the
family, and goes away when he thinks proper, with¬
out fpeaking a word, or any perfon’s putting to him
a Angle queftion.
The country of Cochin-China is much of the fame
temperature with that of Tonquin; though rather mild¬
er, as lying nearer the fea. Like Tonquin, it js an¬
nually overflowed, and confequently fruitful in rice,
which requires no other manure than the mud left by
the inundations. They have fugar-canes, and the
fame kinds of fruits common to other parts of India.
The country produces no grapes, and therefore they
drink a liquor brewed from rice. They have vaft
woods of mulberry-trees, which run up as faft as our
hemp. Their fllk is ftronger than that of China, but
Vot. V. Part I.
not fo fine. They have the heft timber in the world, Cochin,
particularly a fort which abounds in the mountains,, c'u:ia-
and is called the incorruptible tree; becaufe it never rots
under earth or water, and is fo folid that it ferves
for anchors. .There are two Linds, black and red.
The trees are very tall, ftraight, and fo big that two
men can fcarce fathom them. They have alfo on the
mountains of the Kemois a tree of the moft fragrant
feent, which is fuppofed to be the fame with lignum
aloes. This, being reckoned the heft produft of the
country, is engroffed by the king, and is fold from five
to 16 ducats per pound. It is highly valued both in
China and Japan, where the logs of it are fold for
zoo ducats a pound, to make pillows for the king and
nobility ; and among thofe Indians which continue to
burn their dead, great quantities of it are ufed in the
funeral piles. The young trees called aquila, or eagle-
wood, are every one’s property, which makes the old
ones called calamba fo fcarce and dear. They have
oak, and large pines, for the building of ffiips; fo that
this country is of the fame ufe to China that Norway
is to Britain. In general, they, have the fame kind of
trees and plants that are to be met with in Tonquin.
The have mines &f gold, as well as diamonds ; but
the laft they do not value fo highly as pearl. They
alfo efteem their coral and amber very much. In all
the provinces there are great granaries filled with
rice, in fome of wdiich that grain is kept upwards of
30 years. One of the greateft rarities in thefe parts,
efpecially in. grand entertainments, is a ragout made
of the eatable birds nefts, which fome fay are found
only in Cochin-China, and others in four ifiands that
lie fouth of its coaft. See IJirds-Nests.
The merchants of Cambodia, Tonquin, China, Ma¬
cao, Manila, Japan, and Malacca, trade to Cochin-
China with plate, which they exchange for the com¬
modities of the country. The Portuguefe are the moft
favoured here of any Europeans. The Cochin-Chinefe
themfelves, not being inclined to travel, feldom fail
out: of fight of their own Ihore, but purchafe many
trifles from foreigners at great rates, particularly combs,
needles, bracelets, glafs pendants, BV. They are very
fond of. our hats, caps, girdles, (hirts, and other
clothes; and, above all, fet a great value on coral.
The country is faid to have 700 miles of coaft, with
many large inlets of the fea, and above 60 convenient .
landing places ; which, however, according to Captain
Hamilton, are but feldoth vifited by ftrangers..
_ The people of this country have a great affinity
with thofe of Tonquin, with whom they have a com¬
mon origin, and from whom they differ very little in
their manner of living, as well as their manners and
cuftoms, all of which they have in a great meafure
borrowed from the Chinefe. The principal exports
of the country are filk, fugar, ebony, and calamba-
■wood ; gold in duft or in bars, which is fold for only
ten times'its weight iufilver; and copper and porce¬
lain brought from China and Japan. From this coun¬
try alfo are exported the birds-nefts efteemed fuch
a delicacy at athe table. They are found in four
iflands lituated near the coafts of Cochin-China, to the
eaftward of which are five other fmaller ones, where
are found prodigious numbers of turtles, the flefh of
which is fo delicate that the Tonquinefe and people
of Cochin-China frequently fight defperate battles,
c o c [ 114 3 c o c
in order to take them from one another.—The com¬
modities which fell jmoft readily in this country are,
falt-petre, fulphur, lead, fine cloths, and barred or
flowered chintz. Pearls, amber, and coral, were for¬
merly in great requeft, but at prefent only the two
laft are faleable; and even thefe will not anfwer un-
lefs the beads of coral be round, well poliihed, and
of a beautiful red colour; the amber mult alfo be ex¬
tremely clear, the beads of an equal fize, and not
larger than an hazel nut.
The only money current in Cochin-China is that of
Japan, which is paid and received by weight. The
money of the country is of copper, and as large as our
counters; of a round figure, and having an hole in
the middle by which the pieces may be ftrung like
beads. Three hundred of thefe are put on one fide,
and as many on the other, which in Cochin China
pafs for a thoufand; becaufe in 600 are found ten
times 60, which make'a century among almolt all the
people of the eaft. There is, however, fcarce any
country in which merchants are more apt to be de¬
ceived with regard to the value of money than Co¬
chin-China ; owing to the pieces being unequal in fi¬
gure and quality, and the difficulty of determining
their value, which is regulated only by a few charac¬
ters ftamped upon them. The dealers muft therefore
be at pains to have honelt and fltilful people to afcer-
tain the value of the pieces they receive; otherwife
they run a great rifle of being deceived in their va¬
lue, as the Cochin-Chinefe make a great merit of be¬
ing able to cheat an European.
European merchants complain, according to M.
Grofier, unjuftly of the demands made in Cochin-
China for entrance, clearance, and anchorage. The
duties indeed are very trifling, amounting only, even
thofe of the cuftomhoufe, to 4 per cent.; but no¬
thing can be removed from, a Ihip which arrives there
until Ihe has firft been infpected, when the cuftom¬
houfe officers unload her, weigh and count the fmalleft
pieces, and generally take what they look'upon to bemoft
valuable, in order to fend it to the king- The monarch
takes what he thinks proper, and returns the value; but
the grandees are faid to keep part of the goods alfo,
without paying any thing for them. Thus the ordi¬
nary goods, which, had they been accompanied with
the more valuable part of the cargo, would have found
a ready market, can now fcarcely be difpofed of;
though our author is of opinion, that the matter is
not altogether without remedy. When the Dutch
fent to this country, veffels loaded with cloths, lead,
and faltpetre, their cargoes were fuffered to remain
entire, becaufe they had taken the precaution to pay
every year a certain fum for each veffel that entered.
Other nations, by endeavouring to avoid the payment
of this duty, entirely deftroyed their commerce : the
people of Cochin-China, however, for fome years
paft, have been much more moderate in their demands ;
and whatever their exactions may be, they are far lefs
exorbitant than thofe of the Tonquinefe.
M. Grofier obferves, that a falfe report has gained
ground in Europe, that when a trading vefifel happens to
run a-ground in Cochin-China, or to be driven into any
of its harbours by ftrefs of weather, the king feizes
the cargo if the rudder be broken. He affures us,
however, that, £0 far from this being the cafe, a vef¬
fel in diftrefs is much fafer on the coafts of Cochin- Cochineal,
China than, almoft any where elfe. Barks are imme- Cochlea. ^
diately fent to the relief of the crew, and people em- " v
ployed to< drag the fea with nets in order to recover
the goods that are loft; and, in (hort, neither labour
nor expenees are fpared to put the fhip in the bell
condition poffible. Only two things can hurt the
trade of foreigners at Cochin-China, one of which
may be eafily avoided. This regards the clearing out
of veflels. Thus, while the mafter is waiting on the
evening before his departure, or on the day fixed' for
failing, in order to receive his difpatches, it often hap¬
pens that he lofes his voyage, which may prove the.
ruin of a trader. For this reafon, care muft be taken
to folicit a clearance a month before; by which means-
one is always certain of obtaining it, and departing,
on the day appointed. The other difficulty is ocea->
fioned by the neceffity of felling goods on credit,.,
which are feldom paid at the ftipulated time. This,
however, is contrary to the inclination of the prince ;
for every merchant who can convey to him an account
of thefe unjuft delays, is fure to be paid, and fometimes
even with intereft.
COCHINEAL, or Cocheneel, a drug ufed by
tire dyers, effr. for giving red.colours, efpeeially crim-
fons and fcarlets, and for making carmine; and like-
wife in medicine as a cardiac, cordial, fudorific, alexi-
pharmac, and febrifuge.
The cochineal, in the ftate in which it is brought
to us, is in fmall bodies of an irregular figure, ufually
convex, and ridged and furrowed on one fide, and con¬
cave on the other.. |The colour of the beft is a purpliftv
grey, powdered over with a fort of white dull. All
that the world knew of it for a long time was, that it
was gathered from certain plants in Mexico; and
therefore it was naturally, fuppofed to be a feed, till
in the year. 1692 Father Plumier gave Pomet an ac¬
count of its being an animal. And this, though then
difregarded, has been confirmed by fubfequent obfer-
vations. Indeed, to determine the point, we have-
now the means in our own hands, even in this part of
the world.—We need only moiften and foak in wa¬
ter, or in vinegar, a number of cochineals till they
are fwelled and diftended, to know that every one is.
the more or lefs perfect body of. an infe£t ; the moft
imperfect and mutilated fpecimens always fhow the
rings of the body ; and from.obferving others, it will,
be eafy to find the number and difpofition of the legs;,
parts, or even whole ones, being left on feveral,, and
often complete pairs. In this way the legs, anten¬
nae, and probofeis, may be difeovered. See.Coccus
above.
M*.Macquer obferves, that the cochineal of Sylvef--
tre is gathered in the woods of Old and New. Mexico.
•The infedt lives, grows, and multiplies on the uncul¬
tivated opuntias, which grow there in great abun.r
dance. It is there expofed to the inclemencies of
the weather, and dies naturally. The colour is. more
durable than that o£ the common cochineal, but lefs
bright: but there is no-advantage in nfing it; for,
though.cheaper, a greater quantity is.requifite.
COCHLEA, the ftrell-fnail, in. zoology. See He¬
lix.
Cochlea, in Anatomy. See Anatomy, p. 765.
col. 1.
COCHLEARIA,
C O C [ 115 ] c o c
Cotliieifia COCHLEARIA, scurvy-grass : A genus of
i ,11 the filiculofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia
■Cocintum, cja£-g 0£ plants . ail^ in the natural method ranking
^ under the 39th order, Siliquofa. The filicula is emar-
ginated, turgid, and fcabrous; with the valves gib¬
bous and obtufe. There are fix fpecies ;• the moft re¬
markable of which are, 1. The angelica, or garden
fcurvy-grafs, grows naturally on the fea-fhore, in the
north of England and in Holland; but is cultivated
for ufe in the gardens near London. It hatha fibrous
root, from which arife many round fucculent leaves,
which are hollowed like a fpoon; the ftalks rife from
fix inches to a foot high: thefe are brittle, and gar-
nifhed with leaves which are oblong and finuated. The
flowers' are produced in clufters at the end of the
branches, confifting. of four fmall white petals which
are placed in the form of a crofs; and are fucceeded
by fhort, roundifh, fwelling, feed-veflels, having two
cells divided by a thin partition. In each of thefe are-
lodged four or five roundifh feeds. 2. The armoracia,
or horfe-fadifh, is fo well known as to need no defcrip-
tion.
The firfl is propagated by feeds, which are to be
fown in July, in a moift fpot of ground; and when
the plants are come up, they fhould be thinned, fo as to
be left at about fix inches diftance each way. The
plants that are taken out may be tranfplanted into
other borders. In the fpring thefe plants will be fit
for ufe; thofe that are left will run up to feed in
May, and perfect their feeds in June. If the feeds
are fown in the ipring, they feldom grow well. The
horfe-radifh is propagated by cuttings or buds from
the fides of the old roots. The bell feafon for this
work is in October or February; the former for dry
lands, the latter for moift.
Ufes. Scurvy-grafs is a pungent ftimulating medi¬
cine ; capable of diflblving vifcid juices, opening ob-
ftruciions of the vifcera and the more diftant glands,
and promoting the more fluid fecretions. It is parti¬
cularly celebrated in fcurvies, and is the principal
herb employed in thefe diforders in the northern
countries. Horfe-radifh root has a quick pungent
fmell, and a penetrating acrid tafte ; it never thelefs
contains in certain veflels a fweet juice, which fome-
times exfudes on the furface. By drying it lofes all
its acrimony, becoming firft fweetifh, and then almoft
infipid : if kept in a cool place in fand, it retains its
•qualities for a confiderable time. The medical effects
of it are to ftimulate the folids, attenuate the juices,
and promote the fluid fecretions: it feems to extend
its.adlion through the whole habit, and to affedt the
■minuteft glands. It has frequently done fervice in
fome kinds of fcurvies, and other chronic diforders
.proceeding from a vifcidity of the juices or obftruc-
tions of the excretory dufts. Sydenham recommends
it likevvife in dropfies, particularly thofe which fol¬
low intermittent fevers. Both water and redlified
fpirit extract the virtues of this root by infufion, and
elevate them in diftillations : along with the aqueous
fluid an effential oil rifes, poflefiing the whole tafte and
pungency of the horfe-radifh.
COCHLITES, in natural hiftory, an appellation
given to the petrified fhells of the cochleae or fnails.
COCINTUM (anc. geog-), a promontory of the
Bruttii, reckoned the long eft in Italy ; and which
Holftenius and Vofiius have reftored to Ovid, reading
Cocintia for Ceurania, Metam. XV. v. 704.—Cocintum,
alfo a town, 22 miles to the fouth of Scylaceum, al¬
moft on the fpot where now Stilo ftands; from which
the oppolite promontory Cocintum is commonly called
Capo dc Stilo.
COCK, in zoology, the Englifh name of the males
of gallinaceous birds, but more efpecially ufed for the
common dunghill cock. See Phasianus.
Black Cock. ? n-. „ „ ^
Cock of the Wood. 3
CocK-Chaffer. See Scarab^us.
CocK-Paddle, Lump-fjh, or Sea-owl. See Cyclop-
terus.
CocK-Pit, a fort of theatre upon which game-cocks
fight.
It muft appear aftonifhing to every refledling mind,
that a mode of diverfion fo cruel and inhuman as that
of cock-fighting fhould fo generally prevail, that not
only the ancients, barbarians, Greeks, and Romans,
fhould have adopted it; but that a practice fo favage
and heathenifh fhould be continued by Chriftians of all
forts, and even purfued in thefe better and more en¬
lightened times.
The ancient Greeks and Romans, as is well known,
were wont to call all the nations in the world barba¬
rians ; yet certainly, if we confider the many inftances
of cruelty praftifed among them, there was very little
reafon for the diftindtion. Human facrifices were com¬
mon both to them and the barbarians; and with them
the expofing of infants, the combats of men with wild
beails, and of men with men in the gladiatorial feenes,
were fpedlacles of delight and feftivlty.
The iflanders of Delos, it feems, were great lovers
of cock-fighting ; and Tanagra a city in Boeotia, the
ifle of Rhodes, Chalcis in Eubcea, and the country of
Media, were famous for their generous and magnani¬
mous race of chickens. The kingdom of Perfia was
probably included in the laft, from whence this kind
of poultry was firft brought into Greece ; and if one
may judge of the reft from the fowls of Rhodes and
Media, the excellency of the broods at that time con¬
fided in their weight and largenefs (as the fowls of
thofe countries were heavy and bulky), and of the na¬
ture of what our fportfmen call Jhakebags or turnpokes.
The Greeks, moreover, had fome method of preparing
the birds for battle, by feeding; as may be colledted
from Columella.
It fhould feem, that at firft cock-fighting was partly
a religious and partly a political inftitution at Athens;
and was there continued for the purpofe of improving
the feeds of valour in the minds of their youth ; but
was afterwards abufed and perverted both here and in
the other parts of Greece to a common paftime, with¬
out any moral, political, or religious intention, and as
it is now followed and pradlifed among us.
At Rome, as the Rorfians were prone to imitate the
Greeks, we may expedt to find them following their
example in this mode of diverfion, and in the worft
way, viz. without any good or laudable motives; fince,
when they took and brought it to Rome, the Greeks
had forgotten every thing that was commendable in it,
and had already perverted it to a low and unmeaning
fport. Signior Hyam thinks the Romans borrowed
the paftime from Derdanus in Afia; but there is little
P 2 reafon
Cock
li
Cock-Pit.
c o c r n
reafon for making them go fo far from it, when it was
fo generally followed in Greece, whole cuiloms the Ro¬
mans were addifted to borrow and imitate. However,
it is probable, they did not adopt this opinion very
early. It may be gathered from Columella, that the
Romans did not uie the 1'port in his time. This au¬
thor . ftyles cock fighting a Grecian diverfion; and
fpeaks of it in terms, of ignominy, as an expenfive a-
mufement, unbecoming the frugal houfeholder, and of¬
ten attended with the ruin of the parties that followed
it. The words are remarkable. “ Nos enim cynfe-
mus inftitufre ve&igal induftrii patris familias, non ri-
xofarum avium laniftse, cujus plerumque totum patrimo-
nium pignus aleae, viftor gallinaceus pydles abitulit
Where he deferibes, as we think, the manner, not of
the Romans, but of the Greeks, who had in his time
converted the diverfion of cock-fighting into a fpecies
of gaming, and even to the total ruin of their families,
as happens but too often in England at this day. The
Romans, however, at laft gave into the cuflom, tho’
not till the decline of the empire. The firfl caqfe of
contention between the two brothers Bafiianus and
Geta, fons of the emperor Septimus Severus, happen¬
ed, according to Herodian, in their youth, about
the fighting of their cocks ; and if the battling be¬
tween thefe two princes was the firft inftance of it,
probably they had feen and learned it in Greece, whi¬
ther they had often accompanied the emperor their fa¬
ther.
It is obfervable, that cocks and quails pitted for the
purpofe of engaging one another, a outrance, or to the
laft: gafp, for diverfion, are frequently compared, and
with much propriety, to gladiators. Hence Pliny’s
expreffion, Gallorum-—-—ceu gladiatorum ; and that of
Columella, rixojarum avium lanijla; lanijla being the
proper term for the mailer of the gladistors. Confe-
quently one would expeft, that when the bloody
feenes of the amphitheatre were difearded, as they were
foon after the Chriftian religion became the ellablifti-
ment of the empire, the wanton ftiedding of mens
blood in fport, being of too cruel and favage a na¬
ture to be patronifed and encouraged in an inftitution
fo harmlefs and innocent as the Chriftian was, one
might juftly expeft that the opruyo/eama. and the
Ipvopctxvia. would have ceafed of courfe. The fathers
of the church are continually inveighing againft the
fpe£tacles of the arena, and upbraiding their adverfa-
ries with them. Thefe indeed were1 moie unnatu¬
ral and ftiocking than a main of cocks; but this,
however, had a tendency towards infufing the like fero¬
city and implacability in the breafts and difpofitions
©f men.
Befides, this mode of diverfion has been in faft the
bane and deftruftion of thoufands here, as well asthofe
oflani/laavium, “cock-feeders,” mentioned by Columel¬
la, whofe patrimonial fortunes were totally dilfipated
and dellroyed by it.
The cock is not only an ufeful animal, but fiately in
his figure, and magnificent in his plumage. “ Imperi-
tant fuo-geneti, fays Pliny, et rtgnum, in quacunque hint
domo, exercent ” Ariftophanes compares him to the
king of Perfia ; moft authors alfo take notice of the
“ fpe&atiffimum infigne, ferratum, quod eorum verti-
cem regitc corona: modo exornat.” His tendernefs to¬
wards his brood is. fucb, that, contrary to the cuftom
6 ] c p c
of many other males, he will fcratch and provide for Cock-Pit.
them with an alfiduity almoft equal to that of the hen;  v—^
and his generofity is fo great, that, on finding a hoard
of meat, he wall chuckle the hens together, and with¬
out touching one bit himfelf will relinquifti the whole
,of it to them. He was called'/A bird, P^>’v' by
many of the ancients ; he was highly efteemed in feme
countries, and in others was even held facred, info-
much that one cannot but regret that a creature fo ufe¬
ful and noble, ftiouid, by a ftrange fatality,'be fo enor-
moufly abufed by us. It is true, our a^exTpvopcavix, or
the maflacre of Shrove Tuefday, is now in a declining
way ; and, in a few years, it is to be hoped will be
totally di fit fed* but the cock-pit (till continues a re¬
proach to the humanity of Englifhmen, and to their
religion ; the pureft, the tendereft, and moft compaf- ■
fionate, of all others, not excepting even the Brach-
mannic.
It is unknown when the pitched battle firft entered
England ; but it was probably brought thither by the
Romans, The bird was here before Gaefar’s arrival,
but no notice of his fighting occurs earlier than the
time of William Fit/-Stephen, who wrote the life of
archbifhop Becket, fome time in the reign of Henry IL
and deferibes the cocking as a fport of fchool-boys on
Shrove Tuefday. From this time at leaft the diver¬
fion, however abfurd, and gven impious, was continued
amongft us. It was followed, though difapproved and
prohibited 39 Edward III. ; alfo in tire reign of
Henry VIII ; and A. D. 1569. It has by fome been
called a royal diverjion ; and, as every one knows, the
cock-pit at Whitehall was ere&ed by a crowned head,
for the more magnificent celebration of it. There was
another pit in Drury-lane, and another in Javin-ftreet.
It was prohibited, however, by one of Oliver’s adts,
March 3 r. 1664. What aggravates the reproach and
difgrace upon Engliftimen, are thofe fpecies of fight¬
ing which are called the battle-royal and the Welfh-main,
known no where in the world but there ; neither in
China, nor in Perfia, nor in Malacca, nor among the
favage tribes in America. Thefe are feenes fo bloody
as almoft to be too fhocking to relate; and yet, as
many may not be acquainted with the horrible nature
of them, it may be proper for the excitement of our
averfion and deteftation to deferibe them in a few
words. In the former, an unlimited number of fowls
are pitted, and when they have flaughtered one ano¬
ther for the diverfion (Z>« boni!') of the otherwife ge¬
nerous and humane Engliftiman, the fingle furviving;
bird is to be efteemed the vidfor, and carries away the
prize. The Wellh-main confifts, we will fuppofe of
16 pair of cocks ; of thefe, the 16 conquerors are pit¬
ted a fecond time ; the 8 conquerors of thefe are pitted
a third time ; the 4 conquerors the fourth time ; and
laftly, the two conquerors of thefe are pitted the fifth
time; fo that (incredible barbarity!) 31 cocks are
fure to be moft inhumanely murdered for the fport and
pleafure, the noife and nonfenfe, the ’ profane curfing
and fwearing, of thofe who have the effrontery to call
themfelves, with all thefe bloody doings, and with all
this impiety about them, Chrijlians; nay, what with
many is a fuperior and diftindt charadter, men of be¬
nevolence and morality. But let the morality and be¬
nevolence of filch be appretiated from the following
inftance recorded as authentic in the obituary of the
Gentleman’s
C O C [ i
Cock-Pit, Gentleman’s Magazine for April 1789. “ Died,
*Cockhurne. April 4. at Tottenham, John Ardefoif, Efq; a young
v ,man of large fortune, and in the i'plendor of his
carriages and horfes rivalled by few country gentle¬
men. His tible was that of hofpitnlity, where it may
be faid he facriiiced too much to conviviality ; but if
he had his foibles, he had his merits alfo that far out¬
weighed them. Mr Ardefoif was very fond of cock-
fighting ; and had a favourite cock upon which he had
won many profitable matches. The lait bet he laid
upon this cock he loft .; which fo enraged him, that he
had the bird tied to a fpit and roafted alive before a
large fire. The fcreams of the miserable animal were
fo affefting, that fome gentlemen who were prefent
attempted to interfere ; which fo enraged Mr Ardefoif,
that he feized a poker, and with the moft furious ve¬
hemence declared, that he would kill the firft man who
interpofed ; but, in the midft of his paffionate afle-
verations, he fell down dead upon the fpot. Such,
we are allured, were the circumftances which attended
the death of this great pillar of humanity.”
Cock-pit, of a fliip of war, the apartment of the
furgeon and his mates; being the place where the
wounded men are dreffed in time of battle, or other-
wife. It is fituated under the lower deck.
COCKBURHE (Mrs Catharine), a moft accom-
pliihed lady and celebrated writer, was the daughter of
Captain David Trotter, a native of Scotland, and a fea-
commander in the reign of King Charles II. She was
born in London, Auguft 16. 1679, and baptized in
the Proteftant church, according to which fhe was bred
up in her infancy a Proteftant; but being a fprightly,
ingenious, and beautiful child, (he was particularly ca-
refild by fome confiderable families among the Papiils.
This favour naturally wrought a good opinion of fuch
friends; and.entering into an intimacy with them as
fhe grew up, (he became an eafy conqueft to their faith,
in which (he continued many years. In rite mean time
her genius ripened apace, ahd (hot forth proofs of her
talents for poetry, even before (he had-pafled her child¬
hood. In her 17th year,(he produced a tragedy call¬
ed Agnes de Caftro, which was adted in 1695. This
performance, and fome verfes addrefied to Mr Con¬
greve upon his Mourning Bride in 1697, brought her
into the acquaintance or that gentleman. Thus en¬
couraged in her firft attempt, her Mufe brought upon
the ftage three plays more, before the death of Mr
Dryderi in 1701, to whofe memory (he joined with fe-
veial other ladies in paying a tribute of verfe. How¬
ever, poetry and dramatic writing was not the moft
diftinguifhe’d of Mifs Trotter’s talents ; (he had a re¬
markable philofophic turn, and equal to fuch refearches.
Mr Locke’s Eflay on Human Underitanding came out
during this interval: that famous philofopher had
dreffed out logic and metaphyfics in fuch a new' mode
as was very agreeable to the tafte of the fex 'in gene¬
ral, and particularly engaged the attention and admi¬
ration of our young authorefs. She had begun to pro-
je£l a defence of the Effay againft fome remarks of Dr
Burnet of the Charter-houfe, which was finilhed fo
early as the beginning of . December 1701. She had
. but lately pafil-d the 2 2d year of her age ; and the ma-
fterly way in which the piece was drawn, muft needs
have given fingular pleafure to her great champion, who
accordingly expreffed his fatisfa&ion by a prefent of
17 1  c °,.c
books to his fair defendrefs. Philofophy fojourns in Cockhume,
the neighbourhood of religion ; thefe philofophic re-
veries would naturally lead a thoughtful mind to that , n‘°j‘ ~ .
fubjeft ; and taking into her confideration the tenets
of her prefent faith, (he began to difeover their inde-
fenfible grounds: (he therefore reloived to renounce it,
and publifhed a vindication of her change in 1707 ;
and returning to the eil&blifhed church of Scotland,
(he changed her condition likewife the next year,
1708 ; and was married to Mr Cockburne, a learned
divine of that church. The duties of a wife and mo¬
ther called Mrs Cockburne from her books and pen
many years; and domeftic cares engaging her atten¬
tion, we hear nothing of her as a writer till 1726,
when her zeal for Mr Locke’s opinions drew her again
into public light. She exerciled her pen afterwards
as occafion oflered ; attd in r739 fire entered into the
controverfy concerning the foundation of moral duty
and obligation. In that controverfy The wrote two
treatifes, the firft of which fire tranfmitted in manu-
feript to Mr afterwards Dr Warburton, the late btfirop
oi Glouccfter, who publiflied it, with a preface of his
own, in 1747. Mrs Cockburne furvived this publica¬
tion two years only. She died in 1749, and was in¬
terred at Long Horfley, near her hufband, who died
the year before her, with this (hort fentence upon the
tomb, “ Let their works praife them in the gates.”
Prov. xxx. yi. Her works were collefted and pub-
liftted in 1751, in two volumes 8vo, with an account
of her life prefixed.—This colled!ion is an inconteftable
proof of the author’s genius. But her abilities as a
writer will not be feen without attending to the pecu¬
liar circumftances in which her writings were produced:,
her early youth, for inftance, when (he wrote fome ;
her very advanced age, and ill (late of health, when (he
drew up others ; the uneafy fituation of her fortune
during the jvhole courfe of her life ; and an interval of
near 20 years, in the vigour of it, fpent in the cares-
of a family, without the leaft leifure for reading or
contemplation ; after which, with a mind fo long di¬
verted and encumbered, refuming her ftudies, (he in-
ftantly recovered its entire powers ; and, in the hours
of relaxation from domeflic employments, purfued to
the utmoft limits fome of the deepelt refearches the
human underftanding is capable of. Her chara&er is
that of a moft uncommon lady,no lefs celebrated for her
beauty in her younger years, than for her genius and
■ accompliflrments. She was (mail of ftature, but had a
remarkable livelrnefs in her eyes, and a delicacy of com¬
plexion which continued to her death.
COCKERMOUTH, a town of Cumberland in
England, fituated in W. Long. 3. 12. N. Lat. 54. 35.
It is a large town irregularly built, with broad iireets.
It is walhed by the Derwent on the weftern fide ;
divided in two by the Cocker; and the parts are con-
ne&ed by a ftone-brrdge of one (ingle arch. The num¬
ber of inhabitants is between three and four thoufand :
the manufa&ures are (balloons, worded (lockings, and
hats ; the laft exported from Glafgow to the Weft
Indies. It is a borough-town, and the right of vo¬
ting is veiled by burges tenure in certain houfes: this
is alfo the town where the county eleftions are made.
—Here is a caftle (eated on an artificial mount on a
bank above the Derwent. It has a fquare building,
and (Lengthened with feveral fquare towers : on each.
3 fidei
c o c [ n
Cocket, fide of the inner gate are two deep dungeons capable
Cotk‘e~ of holding 50 perfons in either ; they are vaulted at
' top, and have only a fmall opening in order to lower
through it the unhappy prifoners into this dire prifon ;
and on the outfide of each is a narrow flit with a flope
from it, down which were fliot the provifions allotted
for the wretched inhabitants. This caftle was found¬
ed by Waldof, firft lord of Allerdale, and fon of Gof-
patrick earl of Northumberland, cotemporary with
William the Conqueror. Waldof redded firit at Pap-
caftle, which he afterwards demoliflied ; and with the
materials built that at Cockermouth, where he and his
family long refided ; but feveral arms over the gate¬
way, which Cambden fays are thofe of the Millionst
Humfranmlles, Lucies, and Piercies, evince it to have
belonged in latter times to thofe families. It appears
that it was firft granted by Edward II. to Anthony
de Lucie, fon of Thomas de Multon, who had afl'um-
ed that name, becaufe his mother was daughter and
co-heirefs to Richard de Lucie; and afterwards, by
marriages, this caftle and its honours defeended to the
Humfranvilles, and finally to the Percies. In 1658,
it was garrifoned for the king; and being befieged
and taken by the rebels, was burnt, and never after¬
wards repaired.—Cockermouth is now in the poffef-
fion of the Lowther family, who have here a great
property in coal-works. The town fends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
COCKET, is a feal belonging to the king’s cuftom-
houfe, or rather a fcroll of parchment fealed and deli¬
vered by the officers of the cuftoms to merchants, as a
warrant that their merchandifes are cuftomed.
It is alfo ufed for the office where goods tranfport-
ed were firft entered, and paid their cuftom, and had
a cocket or certificate of difeharge.
COCKLE, in ichthyology. See Cardium.
Cockle,or Shirle,in mineralogy,a fpeciesof ftones
of the garnet kind, belonging to the filiceous clafs. It
is called Schoerlus by Bergman, Lapis corneus cryJlalU-
zatus by Wallerius, and Stannum cryflaUis columnaribus
by Linnaeus, It is hard and heavy, Ihooting into cry-
ftals of a prifmatic figure, principally of a black or
green colour. The name cockle for thefe kinds of
itones is an old Cornilh word; but is fometimes alfo
applied to very different fubftances. The term Jbirl
is adopted from the Germans. The Englifh mineral
name of call has alfo been ufed by fame authors as fy-
nonimous with cockle, and thefe are even confounded
together at the mines ; but the call, definitively fpeak-
ing, is the fame with the fubftance called ’wolfram by
the Germans.
The fpecific gravity of thefe ftones is between 3000
and 3400, though always in proportion to their diffe¬
rent folidities. They crack in the fire, and are very
difficult to be fufed ; refifting both microcofmic fait
and mineral alkali. They cannot totally be diffolved
in aqua fortis ; but the diffolved part is precipitated
in a gelatinous form on the addition of an alkali. On
a chemical analyfis they are found to contain filiceous
earth, argil, calcareous earth, andiron; which la ft is
found in a much greater quantity when they are o-
paque than when tranfparent. According to Berg¬
man, fome contain 55 parts of filiceous earth, 39 of
argillaceous, and fix of pure calcareous earth : but fome
contain ten or twelve ©f magnefia. In Britain they
8 ] COG
are chiefly found in Cornwall, about the tin mines, and
fome fine cryftallized kinds have been brought from
Scotland. The varieties are,
1. The fchoerlus martialis, or cockle mixed with
iron. It is of a green colour, and found in moft of
the Swediih iron mines. It is coarfe, and without any
determinate figure.
2. The fpatofus, or fparry cockle, is found in fome
places of a deep green colour; whence authors have
called it the mother of emeralds. Its fpecific charac¬
ter is, that it always breaks in a cubic or rhomboidat
form. In fome parts of Sweden it is found of a pale
green, white, or black colour, and of a brown colour
in Weftmoreland in England. It frequently occurs in
the fcaly lime-ftones, and its colour changes from a
deep green to white, in proportion as it contains more
or lefs iron.
3. Fibrous cockle refembles threads of glafs. Thefe
are either parallel, or like rays from a centre, in which
laft cafe it is calledJlarred cockle. Its colours are black,
green, white, blackifli green, and light green; all
which are to be met with in Sweden. In Weftman-
land it is found along with a fteel-grained lead ore ;
and here the whole is called gran-ris-malm, or pint-ore,
from its refemblance to the branches of that tree.
Cronftedt obferves, that the ftru&ure of this fubftance
has caufed it to be fometimes confounded with the
afbeftus, and that to this fpecies belong moft of the
fubftances called imperfed ajbejli. The ftriated cockle,
compared with the afbefti, is of a fhining and angular
furface, though this fometimes requires the aid of a
magnifying giafs to difeover it; always fomewhat tranf¬
parent; and is pretty eafily vitrified before the blow¬
pipe, without being confumed as the pure afbefti feem
to be.
4. Cryftallifed cockle is found of black, deep-green,
light-green, and reddifh-brown in Sweden, and fome
other European countries. Near Bafil in Switzerland
is found, though very rarely, a ftone called taujfjlein,
belonging to this variety. It is of a reddifh-brown
colour, and confifts of two hexagonal cryftals of cockle
grown together in the form of a crofs, which is worn
by the Roman Catholics as an amulet, and called by
them lapis crucifer, or the crofs-ftone. This form,
however, is not peculiar to the cockle, for both Wer¬
ner and Bergman mention cryftals of mountain-cryftal
joined together in the fame manner.
This variety was lately found by M. Fichtel on the
Carpathian mountains, cryftallifed in prifms, and em¬
bodied in limeftone. It effervefees flightly with acids,
and contains 61.6 of filex, 21.6 of calcareous earth,
6.6 of argil, 5 of magnefia, 1.6 of iron, and three
of water. The reddifh-brown prifmatic fhirlfrom Ve-
fuvius contains 48 of filex, 40 of argil, five of calx,
one of magnefia, and five of iron. Other kinds, how¬
ever, have afforded 50 per cent, of filiceous earth, 30
of argillaceous, one or two of magnefia, and 18 or
20 of iron. The white fort probably contain lefs iron,
but all become reddifh by calcination. Cronftedt in¬
forms us that he has heard of lead being melted out of a
kind of cockle from Rodbeck’s Eng at Umea in Lap-
land ; and he alfo thinks it very probable, that fome of
the cockles found in the Englifh tin mines may contain
tin. Some cryftals of cockle are more fufible than any
fort of ftone whatever; thefe aie always glaffy and ii>
4 mitranfparent.
c o c L i>9 ] c o c
CorkBey mitranfparent. The precife figure of the Cockle, tho’
E always prifmatical, is uncertain : that from Yxfio, at
■ °^OS Nya Kopparberg, is quadrangular; the French kind has
nine fides or planes, and the tauffftein is hexagonal.
COCKNEY, a very ancient nickname, for a citizen
of London. Ray fays, an interpretation of it is, A
young perfon coaxed or cocquered, made a wanton, or
refile cock, delicately bred and brought up, fo as when
arrived at man’s eftate to be unable to bear the leaft:
hardihip. Another, A perfon ignorant of the terms of
country ceconomy, fuch as a young citizen, who ha¬
ving been ridiculed for calling the neighing of a horfe
laughing, and told that it was called neighing, next
morning, on hearing the cockcrow, to (how inftruction
was not thrown away upon him, exclaimed to his for¬
mer iuftru&or, How that cock neighs 1 whence the ci¬
tizens of London have ever fince been called cock-
neighs, or cockneys. Whatever may be the origin of
this term, we at leaft learn from the following verfes,.
attributed to Hugh Bagot earl of Norfolk, that it was
in ufe in the time of king Henry II.
Was I in my caftle at Bungay,
Faft by the river Waveney,
I world not care for the r ing of cockney.
(/. e the. king of London.)
The king of the cockney occurs among the regula¬
tions for the fports and (hows formerly held in the
Middle Temple,, on Childermas-day, where he had his
officers, a mat dial, conllable, butler, See.— See Dug-
dale’s Orlglnes Jurid'ic'wles, p. 247.
COCKROACH. See Blatta. In Captain Cook’s
laft voyage, the (hips, while at Huaheine, were infeft-
ed withn incredible numbers of thefe creatures, whom
it was found impofiible by any means to deftroy. E-
very kind of food, when ex-pofed only for a few mi-
i nates, was covered with thefe noxious infe£ls,.and pier¬
ced fo full of holes, that it refembled an honey-comb.
They were particularly deilructive to birds which had
been (luffed for curiofities, and were fo fond of ink,
that they ate ouLthe writing on labels. Books, how¬
ever, were fecured from their ravages by the clofenefs
of the binding, which prevented them from getting in
between the leaves. They were of two kinds, the Blat¬
ta Orient alts, and Germanica.
COCKSWAIN, or Cockson, an officer on board
a man of war, who hath the care of the boat, or (loop,,
and all things belonging to it. He is to be always ready
with his boat’s gang or crew, and to man the boat on
all occafions. He fits in the (tern of the boat, and (leers
and hath a whiftle to call and encourage his men.
CQCLES, (Pub. Horat.) a celebrated Roman, who
alone oppofed the whole army of Porfenna at the
head of a bridge, while his companions behind him
were cutting off the communication with the other
(bore. When the bridge was ddlroyed, Codes, tho’
wounded by the darts of the enemy, leapt into the
Tiber, and fwam acrofs it with hia arms. A brazen
(latue was raifed to him in the temple of Vulcan, by
the conful Publicola, for his eminent fervices.
COCOA, in botany. See Cocos.
COCONATO, a town of Piedmont in Italy, fa¬
mous for being the birth-place of Columbus, who firft
difeovered America: E. Long. 8. o. N. Lat. 44. 50.
Plate COCOS, in botany : A genus belonging to the na-
CXLIII. tural order of Palma:. The calyx of the male is tripar¬
tite ; the corolla tripetalous, with fix (lamina. The
calyx of the female quinquepartite; the corolla tri¬
petalous ; the ftigmata three, and the plum coriace¬
ous. There is only one fpecies known, which is
cultivated in both the Indies, and is of the greateft.
ufe to the inhabitants. It is fuppofed to be a native
of the Maidive and feme defert iflands in the Eall In¬
dies ; and from thence to have been.tranfported to all
the warm parts of America : for it is not found in any
of the inland parts, nor any where far diftant from
fettlements. The tree frequently rifes 60. feet high.
The body of the trunk, which generally leans to one
fide, occafioned, as is fuppofed, by -the great weight
of nuts it fuftains when young, is the exa£l (hape of
an apothecary’s large iron peftle, being of an equal?
thicknefs at top and at bottom, but fbmewhat fmaller
in the middle ; its colour is of a pale brown through¬
out, and the bark fmooth. The leaves or branches are
often 14 or 15 feet long, about 28 in number, winged,
of a yellow colour, ftraight and tapering. The pinna:
or partial leaves are green, often three feet long next
the trunk, but diminiftiing in length toward the extre¬
mity of the branches. The branches are failened at
top by brown Itringy threads that grow out of them,
of the lize of ordinary pack-thread, and are interwo¬
ven like a web. The nuts hang at the top of the
trunk, in chillers of a dozen in each. Each nut, next
the (lem, has three holes clofely (lopped ; one of them
being wider, and more eafily penetrated than the reft.
When the kernel begins to grow, it incrufts the infide
of the nut in a bluiftr, jelly-like fubftance; as this grows
harder, the inclofed liquid, diililled into the nut from-
the roots, becomes fomewhat acid ; and the kernel, as
the nut ripens, becomes ilill more (olid; and at length
lines the whole infide of the nut for above a quarter
of an inch thick, being as white as fnow, and of the
flavour of an almond. The quantity of liquor in a-
full grown nut is frequently a pint and upwards. The
bulky tegument of the nut coniills of itrong, tough,,
ftringy filaments, which, when removed from the
fruit, refemble coarfe oakhum, and may perhaps be
conveniently enough ufed as fuch. The (hells of thefe.
nuts, being tipped witli iilver, are frequently ufed for.
drinking bowls. The bark of the tree may be wrought
into cordage, and the leaves into bafleets, brooms, ham¬
mocks in form, of nets, mats, facks, and other ufeful
utenfils. The liquor contained in the (hell is a mod-
cooling wholefome beverage in thofe fultry climates,
and the white kernel a moil agreeable food. The Mal-
dive cocoa-nut is efteemed, by the inhabitants of thefe.
iflands, as a powerful antidote againlt the bites of fer-
pents and other poifons. The cocoa-nut tree is pro¬
pagated by planting the nuts; which, in fix weeks or
two months time, will come up, provided they are.
frefli and thoroughly ripe ; but this is what few of.
them are when brought into this country ; for they al¬
ways gather them before they are ripe, that they may
keep during their paffage. The bed way, therefore,,
would be to gather fuch nuts as are thoroughly ripe,
in their native country, and plant them in a tub of dry
fand, in order to keep them from the vermin during
their paffage. Here they will frequently fprout,
which will be an advantage, as they may then be im¬
mediately planted in pots of earth, and plunged in the
bark-dove.
Cocos.
COCTION,.
C O C [ i;
fCodlion COCTION, a general term for all alterations made
n ll'. in bodies by the application of fire or heat.
0 ia' . COCYTUS, one of the rivers of hell, according to
the theology of the poets. It has its name ra
xmxueiv, from groaning and lamenting. Hence Milton,
Cocytus-nam’d of lamentation loud,
Heard on the rueful fcream.
It was a branch of the river Styx ; and flowed, ac¬
cording to Horace, with a dull and languid ftream.
COD, in ichthyology. See Gadus and Fishery.
Cod is alfo a term ufed, in fome parts of the king¬
dom, for a pod. See Pod.
Coo-Cape, a promontory on the coafl: of New Eng¬
land, near the entrance of Bofton harbour. W. Long.
69. 50. N. Lat. 42. o.
CODDY-moddy, the Englifli name of a fpecies of
Larus.
CODE (codex),'z. collection of the laws and confti-
tutions of the Roman emperors, made by order-of
Juttinian. The word comes -from the Latin codex,
“ a paper book;” fo called a codicibus, or eaudicibus ar-
horum, “ the trunks of treesthe bark whereof
being (tripped off, ferved the ancients to write their
books on.
The code is accounted the fecond volume of the ci¬
vil law, and contains twelve books; the matter of
which is nearly the fame with that of the digefts, ef-
pecially the firft eight books: but the ftyle is neither
fo pmi, nor the method fo accurate, as that of the di¬
gefts ; and it determines matters of daily ufe, where¬
as the digefts difcufs the more abftrufe and fubtle
quettions of the law, giving the various, opinions of
the ancient lawyers. Although Juftinian’s code is di-
itinguiftied by the appellation of code, by way of emi¬
nence, yet there were codes before his time ; fuch
were, 1. The Gregorian code, and Hermogenean code;
collections of the Roman laws, made by two famous
lawyers, Gregorius and Hermogenes, which included
the conftitutions of the emperors from Adrian to Dio-
clefian and Maximinus. 2. The Theodofian code, com-
prifed in 16 books, fonned out of the conftitutions
of the emperors from Conftantine the Great to Theo-
dofius the Younger : this was obferved almoft over all
the weft, till it was abrogated by the Juftinian code.
There are alfo feveral later codes, particularly the
ancient Gothic, and thofe of the French kings; as the
code of Euridic, code-Lewis, code-Henry, code-Mar-
chande, code des Eaux, &c.; and the prefent king of
Pruflia has lately publifhed a code, which comprifes
the laws of his kingdom in a very fmall volume.
CODEX, in antiquity, denotes a book or tablet on
v which the ancients wrote. See Codex.
Codex alfo denoted a kind of puniftiment by means
of a clog or block of wood, to which flaves who had
offended were tied faft, and obliged to drag it along
with them; and fometimes they fat on it clofely bound.
CODIA, among botanifts, fignifies the head of any
plant, but more particularly a poppy head ; whence its
fyrup is called diacodium.
Codia, in botany: Agmusof the digynia order,
belonging to the o&andria clafs of plants. The calyx
is tetraphyllous, with fmall oblong horizontal leaves;
the corolla confifts of four very fmall linear petals;
the ftamina are eight filaments twice as long as the
calyx ; the antherae are roundilh.
10 ] COG
CODICIL, is a writing, by way of fupjftement to Codicil
a will, when any thing is omitted that the teftator II
would have added, or wants to be explained, altered,, C°d ^
or recalled. . , ' *
CODLIN, an apple ufeful in the kitchen, being the
mod proper for baking.
CODLING, an appellation given to the cod-fifli
when young. See Gadus.
CODON (KWfc..), in antiquity, a cymbal, or rather
little brafs bell, refembling the head of a poppy. They
were faftened to the trappings and bridles of horfes.
Codon, in botany: A genus of the monogynia or¬
der, belonging the decandria clafs of plants. The
calyx is decempartite, with the fegments alternately
long and (hort; the corolla campanulated, with the
limb decempartite and equal; the nedlarium decem-
locular, of ten feales inferted into the heels of the fta¬
mina; the feed-cafe bilocular; the feeds hairy, roundifh,
in a dry coloured pulp.
CODRINGTON (Chriftopher), a brave Englifli
officer, and not lefs diftinguiflied for his learning and
benevolence; was born at Barbadoes in the year 1668,
and educated at Oxfprd; after which he betook him-
felf to the army ; and, by his merit and courage, foon
recommending himfelf to the favour of king William,
was made a captain in the fifft regiment of foot-guards.
He was at the fiege of Namur in 1695; and, upon the
conclufion of the peace of Ryfwiek, was made captain-
general and governor in chief of the Leeward and
Caribbee iflands. However, in 1701, feveral articles
were exhibited againft him to the ' houfe of commons
in England; to which he publifhed a diftindl and par¬
ticular anfwer, and was honourably acquitted of all
imputations. In 1703, he ftiowed great bravery at the
attack of Gaudaloupe: but at laft he refigned his go¬
vernment, and lived a ftudious retired life; for a few
years before his death, he chiefly applied himfelf to
church-hiftory and metaphyfics. He died at Barba- •
does, on the 7th of April 1710, and was buried there
the day following; but his body was afterwards brought
over to England, and interred, on the 19th of June
1716, in the chapel of All-Souls College, Oxford. By
his laft will, he bequeathed his plantations in Barba¬
does, and part of the ifland of Barbuda, to the fociety
for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts; and left
a noble legacy to All-Souls College, of which he had
been a fellow. This legacy confided of his library,
which was valued at 6000 /.; and 10,000 /. to be laid
out, 6000 in building a library, and 4000 in furnilh-
ing it with books. He wrote fome of the poems in
the Mufa Anglican^, printed at London in 1741.
CODRUS, the 17th and laft king of Athens, fon
of Melanthus. When the Heraclidae made war againft
Athens, the oracle faid that the victory would be
granted to that nation whofe king was killed in battle.
The Heraclidas upon this gave drift orders to fpare
the life of Codrus; but the patriotic king difguifed
himfelf and attacked one of the enemy, by whom he
was killed. The Athenians obtained the viftory, and
Codrus was defervedly called the father of his coun¬
try. He reigned 21 years, about 2153 years before
the Chriftian era. To pay more honour to his me¬
mory, the Athenians made a refolution that no man
after Codrus (hould reign in Athens under the name of
king.
COECUM,
COE [ 121
Coecum COECUM, or bund-gut. See Anatomy, n° 93.
II Dr Mufgrave gives us an account, in the Philofo-
C<*lu*‘ phical Tranfaciions, of the coecum of a dog being cut
out without any prejudice to the animal. Mr Giles
gives us another of the coecum of a lady being dillend-
ed, fo as to form a tumor that held almoft three cho-
pins of a thin}i greyilh, almoft liquid fubftance, of which
the died. And Mr Knowler a third, of a boy’s coecum
being vaftly extended and fluffed with cherry-ftones,
which likevvife proved mortal.
COEFFICIENTS, in algebra, are fuch numbers or
known quantities as are put before letters or quanti¬
ties, whether known or unknown, and into which they
are fuppofed to be multiplied. Thus, in 3 x, a x, or
.tx; 3, a and l>, are the coefficients of x ; and in 6 a,
■<yb; 6, and 9, are the coefficients of a and 6. See
Algebra.
COELESTIAL, or Celestial, in general, de¬
notes any thing belonging to the heavens: thus we fay,
calejiuil ob fervations, the ccelejlial globe, Cfr.
COELIAC artery, in anatomy, that artery which
iffues from the aorta, juft below the diaphragm. See
Anatomy, n'J 123.
Cof.liac Vein, in anatomy, that running tlirough the
inteftinum refhim, along with the cceliac artery.
CQELIMONTANA Porta (Pliny), one of the
gates of Rome, fituated at the foot of mount Ccelius;
and hence its name: thought to be the ancient Afinaria
by fome ; but this others doubt. By this gate Alaric
with his Goths is faid to have entered and plundered
Rome.
COELIOBRIGA (anc. gcog.), a town of the
Bracari in the Hither Spain, to the fouth of Bracara
Augufta, the north of the Durius, and not far from
the Atlantic; a municipium (Coin). Now thought
to be Barcelps, a town.of Entre Minho y Ducro. W.
Dong. 9. 15. Lat. 41. 20.
COELIUS mons, one of the feven hills of Rome ;
fo called from Codes, a Tufcan captain, who came to
the affiftance of Romulus againft the Sabines, (Diony-
fius Halicarnaffeus). Called alfo Shierculanus, or Shier-
eelulanus, from the oaks growing on it; and Augujlus,
by Tiberius (Tacitus, Suetonius). To the eaft it had
the city walls, on the fouth the Coeliolus, to the weft
the Palatine, and on the north the Efquilue.
COELIOLUS, a part of mount Ccelius to the
fouth, called Minor Ccelius (Martial); having the city
walls on the eaft, the Aventine to the fouth, on the
weft and north the valley through which the rivulet of
the Appia runs.
COELOMA, among phyficians, a hollow ulcer,
feated in the tunica cornea of the eye.
COELOS portus (anc. geog.), a town of the
Cherfonefus of Thrace, to the fouth of Seftos ; where
the Athenians eredled a trophy, after a fea vidfory over
the Lacedemonians (Diodorus Siculus).
COELOSYRIA, in the larger fenfe of the word,
was the name ;of the whole country lying fouthward
of Seleucia, and extending as far as Egypt and Arabia :
but this word is principally applied to the valley lying
between Libanus and Antilibanus. This word occurs
only in the apocryphal writings of the Old Tefta-
ment.
COELUS (Heaven), in Pagan mythology, the fon
of -dither and Dies or Air and Day. According to
Vol.V. Parti.
] COE
Hefiod, he married Terra or the Earth: on whom he Coemetery
begat A urea or the Mountains, the Ocean, &c. But p l
having at length imprifoned the Cyclops, who were 0<ea‘' »
alfo his children, his wife, being offended, incited her
fon Saturn to revenge the injury done to his brothers ;
and, by her affiftance, he bound and caftrated Ccelus,
when the blood that flowed from the wound produ¬
ced the three furies, the giants, and the wood-nymphs;
and the genital parts being thrown into the fea, im¬
pregnated the waters, and formed the goddefs Venus.
This deity was called by the Greeks Uranus.
COEMETERY. See Cemetery.
COEMPTIONALES, among the Romans, an ap¬
pellation given to old Haves, which were fold in a lot
with others, becaufe they could not be fold alone.
COENOBITE, a religious who lives in a convent,
or in community, under a certain rule; in oppofttion
to anachoret, or hermit, who lives in folitude. The
word comes from the Greek communis; and
■V®-, vita, “ life”. Caffian makes this difference be¬
tween a convent and a monajlery, that the latter may be
applied to the refidence of a iingle religious or reclufe;
whereas the convent implies aulobites, or numbers of
religious living in common. Fleury fpeaks of three
kinds of monks in Egypt; anachorets, who live in
folitude; coenobites, who continue to live in commu¬
nity' ; and farabaiies, who are a kind of monks-errant,
that ftroll from place to place. He refers the inllitu-
tion of coenobites to the times of the apoftles, and
makes it a kind of imitation of the ordinary lives of
the faithful at Jerufalem. Though St Pachomius is
ordinarily owned the inllkutor of the coenobite life; as
being the iirft who gave a rule to any community.
COENOBIUM, xjr.o.Si'/v, the ftate of living in a fb-
ciety, or community, where all tilings are common.
Pythagoras is thought to be the author or iirft infti-
tutor of this kind of life ; his difciples, though fome
hundreds in number, being obliged to give up all their
private eftates, in order to be annexed to the joint
•ftock of the whole. The Effeniaus among the Jew*
and Platoniits are faid to have lived in the fame man¬
ner. Many of tire Chriftians alfo have thought this
the moft perfesft kind of fociety, as being that in which
Chrifl and his apoftles chofe to live.
COESFELDT, a town of Germany, in Weftpha-
lia, and in the territories of the biflrop of Munfter,
where he often refides. It is near the river Burkel,
E. Long. 64. 2. N. Lat. 51. 58.
COEVORDEN, one of the ftrongeft towns in the
United Provinces, in Overyffel, fortified by the fa¬
mous Cohorn. It was taken by the bifhop of Munfter,
1673 ; and the Dutch retook it the fame year. It is
furrounded by a morafs. E. Long. 6. 41. N. Lat.
52. 40.
COFFEA, the Coffee Tree: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentatrdria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
47th order, Stdlata. The corolla is funnel-fhaped;
the ftamina above the tube ; the berry inferior, dilper-
mous ; the feeds arillated, or having a proper exterior
covering dropping oft' of its own accord. There is
but one fpecies, fuppofed to be a native of Arabia
Felix. It feldom rifes more than 16 or 18 feet in
height; the main Item grows upright, and is covered
with a light brown bark ; the branches are produced
Q__ hori-
C O F [ 122 ] C O F
horizontally and ©ppofite, croffing each other at every
'joint ; fo that every fide of the tree is fully garnifhed
with them, and they form a fort of pyramid. The
leaves alfo ftand oppofite; and when fully grown are
about four or five inches long, and two broad in the
middle, decreafing toward each end ; the borders are
waved, and the furface is of a lucid green. The flowers
are produced in clutters at the roof of the leaves, fit¬
ting clofe to the branches; they are tubulous, and
fpread open at the top, where they are divided into
five parts ; they are of a pure white, and have a very
grateful odour, but are of fhort duration. The fruit,
which is the only ufeful part, refetnbles a cherry. It
grows in clutters, and is ranged along the branches
under the axilla; of the leaves, of fhe fame green as the
•laurel, butfomething longer. When it comes to be of
a deep red, it is gathered for the mill, in order to be
manufactured into thofe coffee-beans now fo generally
known. The mill is compofed of two wooden rollers
furnifhed with iron plates 18 inches long, and 10 or
12 in diameter. Thefe moveable rollers are made to
approach a third which is fixed, and which they call
the chops. Above the rollers is a hopper, in which
they put the coffee, from whence it falls^between the
rollers and the chops, where it is ftripped of its firft
Ikin, and divided into two parts, as may be feen by the
form of it after it has undergone this operation ; being
flat on the one fide and round on the other. From
this machine it falls into a brafs fieve, where the fltin
drops between the wires, while the fruit Aides over
them into balkets placed ready to receive it: it is then
thrown into a veffel full of water, where it foaks for
one night, and is afterwards thoroughly wafhed. When
the whole is finilhed, and well dried, it is put into an¬
other machine called the peeling-mill. This is a wood¬
en grinder, turned vertically upon its trendle by a
mule or horfe. In palling over the coffee it takes off
the parchment, which is nothing but a thin Ikin that
detaches itfelf from the berry in proportion as it grows
dry. The parchment being removed, it is taken out
of this mill to be put into another, which is called the
‘ixunnoiving-mill. This machine is provided with four
pieces of tin fixed upon an axle, which is turned by a
flave with confiderable force; and the wind that is
made by the motion of thefe plates clears the coffee
of all the pellicles that are mixed with it. It is after¬
wards put upon a table, where the broken berries,
and any filth that may remain among them, are fe-
parated by negroes, after which the coffee is fit for
fale.
The coffee-tree is cultivated in Arabia, Perfia, the
Fall Indies, the Ifle of Bourbon, and feveral parts of
America. It is alfo raifed in botanic gardens in feve¬
ral parts of Europe. Prince Eugene’s garden at Vi¬
enna produced more coffee than was fuffieient for his
own confumption. It delights particularly in hills and
mountains, where its root is almoft always dry, and
its head frequently watered with gentle fliowers. It
prefers a weftern afpeft, and ploughed ground with¬
out any appearance of grafs. The plants ftiould be
placed at eight feet diftance from each other, and in
holes twelve or fifteen inches deep. If left to them-
felves, they would rife to the height of f6 or x 8 feet,
as already obferved ; but they are generally ftinted
to five, for the conveniency of gatheiing their fruit
with the greater eafe. Thus dwarft, they extend
their branches fo, that they cover the whole fpot
round about them. They begin to yield fruit the third
year, but are not in full bearing till the fifth. With the
fame infirmities that moft other trees are fubject to,
thefe are likewife in danger of being deftroyed by a
worm or by the fcorching rays,of the fun. The
hills where the coffee-trees are found have generally
a gravelly or chalky bottom. In the laft, it languifhes
for fome time and then dies: in the former, its roots,,
which feldom fail of ftriking between ttones, obtain
nouriftiment, and keep the tree alive and fruitful for
30 years. This is nearly the period for plants of the
coffee-tree. The proprietor, at the end of this period,
not only finds himfelf without trees, but has his land
reduced, that it is not fit for any kind of culture ; and
unlefs he is fo fituated, that he can break up a fpot of
virgin land, to make himfelf amends for that which is
totally exhaufted by the coffee-trees, -his lofs is irre¬
parable.
The coffee produced in Arabia is found fo greatly
to excel that raifed in the American plantations or
elfewhere, that the cultivation of the tree is now but
feldom pradii fed in any of the Britifli colonies. Large
plantations of this kind were formerly made, in fome
of them; and it was propofed to the parliament to
give a proper encouragement for cultivating this com¬
modity there, fo as to enable the planters to under¬
fell the importers from Arabia. Accordingly, there
was an abatement of the duty payable oh all coffee
imported from our colonies in America, which at that
time was fuppofed to be fufficient encouragement for
this kind of commerce ; but the inferiority of the A-
merican coffee to the Arabian hath almott ruined the
projeft. Mr Miller propofes fome improvements in
the method of cultivation. According to him, the
trees are planted in too moift a foil, and the berries
are gathered too foon. They ought, he fays, to be
permitted to remain on the trees till their /kins are
/hrivelled, and they fall from the trees when fhakem
This will indeed greatly dimini/h their weight, but
the value of the commodity will thereby be" increafed
to more than double of that which is gathered fooner.
In Arabia, they always /hake the berries off the trees,
fpreading cloths to receive them, and only take fuch
as readily fall at each time. Another caufe may be
the method of drying the berries. They are, he ob-
ferves, very apt to imbibe moifture, or the flavour of
anything placed near them. A bottle of rum placed
in a clofet, in which a canifter of coffee-berries clofely
flopped was /landing on a/helf at a confiderable di—
ftance, in a few days fo impregnated the berries as to
render them very difagreeable : the fame hath alfo
happened by a bottle of fpirit of wine Handing in the
fame clofet with coffee and tea, both which were in a
few days fpoiled by it. Some years ago, a coffee^
/hip from India had a few bags of pepper put on
board, the flavour of which was imbibed by the coffee*
and the whole cargo fpoiled. For thefe reafons, Mr
Miller direfts that coffee-berries (hould never be brought
over in /hips freighted with rum, nor laid to dry
in the houfes where fugars are boiled or rum diftilled.
When they are fully ripe, they /hould be /haken off
when the trees are perfeftly dry, and fpread upon
cloths in the fun to dry, carrying them every evening
1. under;
C O F [ 123 ] C O F
under cover, to prevent the dews er rain from falling
on them. When perfe&ly dry, they Ihould have their
outer fkins beaten off, and then be carefully packed up
in cloths or bags three or four times double.
The coffee-tree, as we have already obferved, is
fometimes cultivated in European gardens; but for
this it requires the afliftance of a ftove. It makes a
fine appearance at all feafons of the year (being an
evergreen), but efpecially when in flower, and when
the berries are red, which is generally in the winter,
fo that they continue a long time in that ftate. It is
propagated from the berries; but they muft be plant¬
ed immediately when gathered from the tree, for they
lofe their vegetative quality in a very fhort time : when
fent abroad by the poll, they have conft^tly failed in
thofe that have been a fortnight on their journey ; fo
that where thefe trees are defired, the young plants
muft be fent, if it be at any diftance from the place
where they grow. The' frefh berries may be planted
in fmaft pots, and plunged into a hot-bed of tanners
bark. If the bed be of a proper temperature, the
young plants will appear in a month or five weeks
time ; and in fix weeks more, will be ready for tranf-
planting into feveral pots. During fummer, they muft
be frequently watered; but not in too great plenty,
otherwife the roots will be apt to rot. The firft fign
of the plants being difordered is their leaves fweating
out a clammy juice ; after which they are over-run
with infedts, that cannot be deftroyed till the plants
have recovered their health ; fo that on the firft ap¬
pearance of thefe infedts, the trees fhould be removed
into frefh earth, and all poflible care taken to recover
them. The diforders incident to them, generally pro¬
ceed either from their having been put into large pots,
or from the earth about them being too ftiff or over¬
watered. The moft proper foil for them is that
of a kitchen-garden, which is naturally loofe, and not
fubjedt to bind, efpecially if it has conftantly been
well wrought and dunged.
Coffee alfo denotes a kind of drink, prepared from
thofe berries; very familiar in Europe for thefe loo
years, and among the Turks for 170.
Its original is not well known. Some afcribe it to
the prior of a monaftery; who being informed by a
goat-herd, that his cattle fometimes browzing on the
tree would wake and caper all night, became curi¬
ous to prove its virtue : accordingly, he firft tried it
on his monks, to prevent their fleeping at matins.
Others, from Sehehabeddin, refer the invention .of
coffee to the Perfians: from whom it was learned in
the 15th century by Gemaleddin, mufti of Aden, a city
near the mouth of the red fea ; and who having tried
its virtues himfelf, and found that it diffipated the
fumes which opprefled the head, infpired joy, opened
the bowels, and prevented fleep, without being in¬
commoded by it, recommended it • firft to his der-
vifes, with whom he ufed to fpend the night in prayer.
Their example brought coffee into vogue at Aden ;
the pi ofeffors of the la> for ftudy, artifans to work,
travellers to walk in the night, in fine every body
at Aden, drank coffee. Hence it paffed to Mecca;
where firft the devotees, then the reft of the people,
took it. From Arabia Felix it paffed to Cairo. In
1511, Kahie Beg prohibited it, from a perfuafion that
it inebriated, and inclined to things forbidden. But
Sultan Caufou immediately after took off the prohibi- Coffee,
tion ; and coffee advanced from Egypt to Syria and —-’-v"*-
Conftantinople. The dervifes declaimed againft it
from the Alcoran, which declares, that coal is not of
the number of things created by God for food. Ac¬
cordingly, the mufti ordered the coffee-houfes to be
{hut; but his fucceffor declaring coffee not to be coal,
they were again opened. During the war in Candia,
the affemblies of news-mongers making too free with
ftate affairs, the grand vifir Cuproli fuppreffed the
coffee-houfes at Conftantinople: which fupprefiion,
though ftill on foot, does not prevent the public ufe
of the liquor there. Thevenot, the traveller, was
the firft who brought it into France ; and a Greek
fervant, named Pafqua, brought into England by Mr
Dan. Edwards, a Turky merchant, in 1652, to make
his coffee, firft fet up the profeffion of coffee-man, and
introduced the drink into this ifland.
The word coffee h originally Arabic: the Turks pro¬
nounce it caheuh, and the Arabians raiiwa/;; which fome
authors maintain to be a general name for any thing
that takes away the appetite, others for any thing that
promote appetite, and others again for any thing that
gives ftrength and vigour.—The Mahometans, it is
obferved, diftinguilh three kinds of cahuah. The firil
is wine, or any liquor that inebriates: the fecond is
made of the pods that contain the coffee-berry ; this
they call the Sultan's coffee, from their having firft
introduced it on account of its heating lefs than the
berry, as well as its keeping the bowels open : the
third is that made with the berry itfelf, which alone
is ufed in Europe, the pods being found improper for
tranfportation. Some Europeans w'ho imported the
pods called them the flower of the coffee-tree. The
deep brown colour of the liquor occafioned its being
called fyrup of the Indian mulberry, under which fpe-
cious name it firft gained ground in Europe.
The preparation of coffee confifts in roafting, or gi¬
ving it a juft degree of torrefa&ion on an earthen or
metalline plate, till it have acquired a brownifh hue
equally deep on all fides. It is then ground in a mill,
as much as ferves the prefent occafion. A proper quan¬
tity of water is next boiled, and the ground coffee put
into it. After it has juft boiled, it is taken from the
fire, and the decoftion having flood a while to fettle
and fine, they pour or decant it into difhes. The or¬
dinary method of roafting coffee amongft us is in 'a tin
cylindrical box full of holes, through the middle
whereof runs a fpit: under this is a femicircular
hearth, whereon is a large charcoal-fire: by help of
a jack the fpit turns fwift, and fo roafts the berry ;
being now and then taken up to be fhaken. When the
oil rifes, and it is grown of a dark brown colour, it
is emptied into two receivers made with large hoops,
whofe bottoms are iron plates: there the coffee is
ftiaken, and left till almoft cold ; and if it look bright
and oily, it is a fign it is well done.
Very different accounts have been given of the me¬
dicinal qualities of this berry. To determine its real
effefts on the human body, Dr Percival has made fe¬
veral experiments, the refult of which he gives in the
following words: “ From thefe obfervations we may^^
infer, that coffee is {lightly aftringent, and antifeptic; Vol. II.
that it moderates alimentary .fermentation, and isP-11?1
powerfully fedative. Its action on the nervous fyftem
Q^2 pro-
C 0 F [ 124 1 C O F
Coffee, probably cStpends on the oil it contains; which re-
Coffef* ceives its flavour, and is rendered mildly empyreu-
matic, by the procefs of roafting. Neumann obtained
by difl illation from one pound of coffee, five ounces
five drachms and a half of water, fix ounces and half
a drachm of thick fetid oil, and four ounces and two
drachms of a caput mortnum. And it is well known,
that rye, torrefied with a few almonds, which furnifh
the neceffary proportion of oil, is now frequently em¬
ployed as a fubftitute for thefe berries.
“ The medicinal qualities of coffee feem to be de¬
rived from the grateful fenfation which it produces in
the ftomach, and from the fedative powers it exerts
on the vis vit*. Hence it affifts digeflion, and re¬
lieves the headach ; and is taken in large quantities,
with peculiar propriety, by the Turks and Arabians;
becaufe it countera&s the narcotic effedis of opium, to
the ufe of which thofe nations are much addidted.
“ In delicate habits, it often oceations watchfulnefs,
tremors, and many of thofe complaints which are de¬
nominated nervous. It has been even fufpedted of
producing palfies; and from my own obfervation, I
fhould apprehend, not entirely without foundation,
Slare affirms, that he became paralytic by the too li¬
beral ufe of coffee, and that his diforder was remo¬
ved by abftinencc from that liquor.
“ The following curious and important obferva¬
tion is extradted from a letter with which I was ho¬
noured by Sir John Pringle, in April 1773: “ On
reading your fe&ion concerning coffee, one quality
occurred to me which I had obferved of that liquor,
confirming what you have faid of its fedative virtues.
It is the beft abater of the paroxyfms of the per iodic
aflhma that I have feen. The coffee ought to be of
the heft Mocco, newly burnt, and made very ftroog
immediately after grinding it. I have commonly or¬
dered an ounce for one difh ; which is to be repeated
frefh after the interval of a quarter or half an hour;
and which I direft to be taken without milk or fugar.
The medicine in general is mentioned by Mufgrave,
in his treatife De arthritide anomala : but I firft heard
of it from a phyftcian in this place, who having once
pradtifed it in Litchfield, had been informed by the
old people of that place, that Sir John Floyer, during
the latter year of his life, kept free from, or at leait
lived eafy under, his aflhma, from the ufe of very
flrong coffee. This dif’eovery, it feems, he made af¬
ter the publication of his book upon that difeafe.”
Since the receipt of that letter, I have frequently di-
redted coffee in the afthma with great fuccefs.”
COFFER, in architedlure, a fquare depreflure or
finking in each interval between the modillions of the
Corinthian cornice ; ordinarily filled up with a rofe ;
fometimes with a pomegranate, or other enrichment.
Coffer, in fortification, denotes a hollow lodger
tnent, athwart a dry moat, from 6 to 7 feet deep,
and from 16 to 18 broad; the upper part made of
pieces of timber raifed two feet above the level of
the moat; which little elevation has hurdles laden
with earth for its covering, and ferves as a parapet
with embrafures: the coffer is nearly the fame with
the caponiere, excepting that this laft is fometimes
made beyond the counterfcarp on the glacis; and the
Coffer always in the moat taking up its whole breadth,
which the caponiere does not. It differs from the
traverfe and gallery, in that thefe latter are made by ColTerer,
the befiegers, and the coffer by the befieged. The *-0^n'
befieged generally make life of coffers to repulfe the v
befiegers when they endeavour to pals the ditch. To
fave tbemfelves from the fire of thefe coffers, the be¬
fiegers throw up the earth 011 that fide towards the
coffer.
COFFERER of the King's household, a princi¬
pal officer in the court, next under the comptroller.
He was likewife a white-flaff officer, and always a
member of the privy council. He had a fpecial charge
and overfight of the other officers of the houfehold.
He paid the wajfes of the king’s fervants below flairs,
and for proviiions as dire&ed by the board of green
cloth. This office is now fupprefied, and the bufmefs
of it is tranfafled by the lord fteward, and paymaller
of the houfehold. He had L. too a-year wages, and
L. 400 a-year board-wages.
COFFIN, the chefl in which dead bodies are put
into the ground.
The fepulchral honours paid to the manes of de¬
parted friends in ancient times, demand attention,
and are extremely curious. Their being put into a
coffin has been particularly confidered as a mark of
the higheft diftin&ion. With us the pooreft people
have their coffins. If the relations cannot afford them,
the parifli is at the expence. On the contrary, in
the eafl they are not at all made ufe of in our times;
Turks and Chriflians, as Thevenot affures us, agree
in this. The ancient Jews feem to have buried their
dead in the fame manner: neither was the body of’
our Lord, it fhould feem, put into a coffin ; nor that
of Elifha, 2 Kings xiii. 21. whofe bones were touched
by the corpfe that was let down a little after into his
fepulchre. However, that they were anciently made
ufe of in Egypt, all agree ; and antique coffins of f ane,
and fycomore-<wood, are ftill to be feen in that country ;
not to mention thofe faid to be made of a kind of
pafleboard ; formed by folding or glueing cloth to¬
gether a great many times, curioufly plaftered, and
then painted with hieroglyphics. Its being an ancient
Egyptian cultom, and not praftifed in the neigh¬
bouring countries, were, doubtlefs, the caufe that the
facred hiftorian exprefsly obferves of Jofeph, that he
was not only embalmed, but put into a coffin too * ; «Gen.hj6a
both being managements peculiar to the Egyptians.
Bifhop Patrick, in his commentary on this paffage,
takes notice of thefe Egyptian coffins of fycamore
vyood, and of pafteboard ; but he doth not mention
the contrary ufage in the neighbouring countries*
which was requifite, one might fuppofe, in order fully
to illuftrate the place : but even this perhaps would
not have conveyed the whole idea of the facred au¬
thor. Maillet apprehends that all were not inclofed
in coffins who were laid in the Egyptian repofitoriea
of the dead ; but that it was an honour appropriated
to perfons of figure : for after having given an ac¬
count of feveral riches found in thofe chambers of
death, he addsf, “ But it mull not be imagined thatj Let. vi?.
the bodies depofited in thefe gloomy apartments vverep. 281.
all inclofed in chefs, and placed in niches. The
greatdl part were Amply embalmed and fwathed af¬
ter that manner which every one hath fome notion
of; after which they laid them one by the fide of
another without any ceremony. Some were even laid
in
COG [ i
Coffin In thefe tombs without any embalming at all; or fuch
H a flight one, that there remains nothing of them in
, °^nate‘ the linen in which they were wrapped, but the bones,
and thofe half rotten. It is probable, that each
conliderable family had one of thefe burial-places to
themfelves; that the niches were defigned for the
bodies of the heads of the families; and that thofe of
their domeftics or flaves had no other care taken of
them than the laying them on the ground, after ha¬
ving been embalmed, or even without that; which,
without doubt, was alfo all that was done even to the
heads of families of lefs diftindtion.” After this he
gives an account of a way of burial, pra&ifed anci¬
ently in that country, which had been but lately difco-
vered ; and which confided in placing the bodies, af¬
ter they were fwathed, upon a layer of charcoal, and
covering them with a mat, under a depth of fand of
feven or eight feet.
That tojjim then were not univerfally ufed in E-
gypt, is undoubted from thefe accounts ; and probably
they were only perfons of diftin&ion who were buried
in them. It is alfo reafonable to believe, that in
times fo remote as that ,pf Jofeph, they might be
much lefs common than afterwards; and confequently,
that Jofeph’s being put in a coffin in Egypt might be
mentioned with a defign to exprefs the great honours
which the Egyptians did him at his death, as well as
in life, being interred after the mod fumptuous man¬
ner of the Egyptians, embalmed, and put into a coffin.
Agreeably to this, the Septuagint verfion, which was
made for Egyptians, feems to reprefent coffins as a
mark of grandeur. Job xxi. 32.
It is no objection to this account, that the widow
of Nain’s fon is reprefented as carried forth to be
buried in a o-of©-, or “ on a bier for the pre-
fent inhabitants of the Levant, who are well known
to lay their dead bodies in the earth uninclofed, carry
them frequently out to burial in a kind of coffin. So
Dr Ruffil, in particular, deferibes the bier ufed for
the Turks at Aleppo, as a kind of coffin much in the
form of ours, only that the lid rifes with a ledge in
the middle. Chridians, indeed, as he tells us, are car¬
ried to the grave on an open bier: but as the mod
common kind of bier refembles our coffins, that ufed
by the people of Nain might very poffibly be of the
fame kind ; in which cafe the word was very
proper.
GOGGLE, or Coo, a fmall fifhing-boat upon the
coads of Yorkfhire : and cogs (cogones) are a kind of
little (hips or veflels tffed in the rivers Oufe and Hum¬
ber; (Stat. 23. H. VIII. c. 18.) Pmparatis cogoni-
bus, galleis, & a/iis navibus, &c. (Mat. Pat is. ann. 1066.)
And hence the cogmen, boatmen, andfeamen, who af¬
ter fhipwreck or lofl'es by fea travelled and wandered
about to defraud the people by begging and dealing,
until they were redrained by proper laws.
COGITATION, a term ufed by fome for the a&
of thinking.
COGNAC, a town of France in Angoumois, with
a cadle, where Francis I. was born. It is feated on the
liver Charante, in a very pleafant country, abounding
in wine, and remarkable for excellent' brandy. W.
Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 45. 42.
COGNATE, in Scots law, any male relation thro’
the mother.
25 1 CO H
COGNATION, in the civil law, a term for that Cogr.aticw
line of confanguinity which is between males and fe-
males, both defeended from the fame father ; as ag- ■ ^ j
nation Ts for the line of parentage between males only
defeended frCup the fame dock.
COGNI, an ancient and drong town of Caramania
in Turky in Afia, and the refidence of a beglerbeg*
It is feated in a pleafant country, abounding in corn,
fruits, pulfe, and cattle. Here arc fhcep whofe tails
weigh 30 pounds. E. Long. 32. 56. N. Lat. 3.7. 56.
COGNITIONIS causa, in Scots law. When a
creditor charges the heir of his debtor to enter, in
order to conftitute the debt againd him, and the heir
renounces the fucceffion, the creditor can obtain no
decreet of conditution of that debt againd the heir ;
but only a decreet fubje&isg the hareditas jacens, or
the edate which belonged to the debtor, to his dili¬
gence : and this is called a decreet cognitionis caufa.
COGNIZANCE, or Connusance, in law, has
divers fignifications. Sometimes it is an acknowledge¬
ment of a fine, or confeffion of fomething done ; fome-
times the hearing of a matter judicially, as to take cog¬
nizance of a caufe ; and fometimes a particular jurif-
didion, as cognizance of pleas is an authority to call
a caufe or plea out of another court, which no perfon
can do but the king, except he can ffiow a charter for
it. This cognizance is a privilege granted to a city
or atown to hold plea of all contracts, iefc. within the
liberty ; and if any one is impleaded for fuch matters
in the courts at Wedminder, the mayor, £sV. of fuch
ftanchife may demand cognizance of the plea, and
that it may be determined before them.
Cognizance is alfo ufed for a badge on a water¬
man’s or ferving-man’s fleeve, which is commonly the
giver’s cred, whereby he is decerned to belong to this
or that nobleman or gentleman.
COGS. See Coggle.
COHABITATION, denotes the flate of a mar.
and a woman who live together without being legally
married. By the common law of Scotland, cohabita¬
tion for year and day, or a complete twelvemonth, is
deemed equivalent to matrimony,
CO-HElR, one who fucceedsto alhare of an inheri¬
tance, to be divided among feveral.
COHESION, one of the fourfpecies of attraflion,
denoting that force by which the parts of bodies ad¬
here or dick together. ?
This power was fird confidered by Sir Ifaac New- Confidersd
ton as one of the properties effential to all matter, and hy .sir iiaa;
the caufe of all that variety we obfetve in the texture ^evnen aj>
of different terreftrial bodies. He did not, however, frowri^of
abfolutely determine that the power of cohefion was matte, /
an immaterial one ; but thought it might poffibly arife,
as well as that of gravitation, from the aftion of an
ether. His account ot the original ccnditution of mat- Hi* account
ter is as follows : It feems probable, that God in the of the ori- *
beginning formed matter in folid, maffy, impenetrable, emai con-
moveabie panicles; of fuch fizes, figures, and other
properties, and in fuch proportion to fpace, as mod
conduced to the end for which he formed them : and
that thefe primitive particles being folid, are incom¬
parably harder than any porous bodies compofed of
them ; even fo very hard as never to wear or break
in pieces; no ordinary power being able to divide
what God himfelf made one at the iird creation. While
the'
C O H [ 126 ] C O H
Gohefion. the particles continue entire, they may compofe bodies
  '-of one and the fame nature and texture In all ages;
but ihould they wear away, or break in pieces, the
nature of all things depending on them would be chan¬
ged. Water and earth compofed of old worn particles
and fragments of particles, would not now be of the
fame texture with water and earth compofed of en¬
tire particles In the beginning. And therefore, that
. nature may be lafting, the changes of cbrporeal things
are to be placed in the various reparations and new
afibciations and motions of thefe permanent particles ;
compound bodies being apt to break, not in the midft
of folid particles, but where thefe particles are laid to¬
gether, and touch in a few points.” It feems farther,
“ That thefe particles have not only a vis inertia, ac¬
companied with fuoh paffiee laws of motion as natu¬
rally refult from that force ; but alfo that they are
moved by certain active principles, fuch as that ofgra-
x-ity, and that which caufeth fermentation and the co-
belion of bodies. Thefe principles are to be confide-
red not as occult qualities, fuppofed to refult from the
fpecihc forms of things, but as general laws of nature
by which the things themfelves are formed ; their
truth appearing to us by phenomena, though their
caufe is not yet difcovered.”
Attradim The general law of nature, by which all the diffe-
the general rent bodies in the univerfe are compofed, according
law of na>- to Sir Ifaac Newton, is that of attraftion: /. e.Eve-
ture‘ ry particle of matter has an attraftive force, or a
tendency to every other particle ; which power is
ftrongeft in the point of contatt, and fuddenly de-
creafes, infomuch that it acts no more at the leaft fen-
fible diflance; and at a greater diftance is converted
into a repellent force, whereby the ;parts fly from
each other. On this principle of attraction may we
account for the cohefion of bodies, otherwife inexpli-
4 cable.
Formation “ The fmalleft particles may cohere by the ftrong-
'°f particles attraftions, and compofe bigger particles of weaker
fixes1 l”reilt v:‘rtue > and many of thefe may cohere, and compofe
bigger particles, whofe virtue is ftill lefs; and fo on
for divers fucceflions, until the progreffion end in the
biggeft particles, on which the operations in chemiftry,
and the colours of natural bodies, depend; and which,
5 by cohering, compofe bodies of a fenfible magnitude.
Diftin&ion If the body is compadt, and bends or yields inward to
"of bodies preffure without any Aiding of its parts, it is hard and
into bar1, eiafl-jc . returning to its figure with a force .arifing
umid,£rom tjle mutual attraction of its parts. If the parts
Aide from one another, the body is malleable or foft.
If they flip eafily, and are of a fit fixe to be agita¬
ted by heat, and the heat is great enough to keep
them in agitation, the body is fluid ; and if it be apt
to Hick 10 things, it is humid; and the drops of eve¬
ry fluid affeft a round figure by the mutual attrac¬
tions of their parts, as the globe of* the earth and fea
affefts a round figure from the mutual attraction and
gravity of its parts-
£‘ Since metals diffolved in acids attract but a fmall
g quantity of the acid, their attractive force reaches but
Exlftence to a fmall diftance. Now, as in algebra, where af-
of repulfive firmative quantities ceafe, their negative ones begin ;
power pro- f0 ;n mechanics, where attraction ceafes, there a re-
YS<"- pulfive virtue muft fucceed. That there really is fuch
a virtue feems to follow from the reflections and in¬
flections of the rays of light 5 the rays being repelled Cohefion,
by bodies in both thefe cafes without the immediate
contaCt of the reflecting or infleCting body. The fame
thing feems alfo to follow from, the emiffion of light;
a ray, as foon as lhaken off from a body by the vibra¬
ting motion of the parts of the body, and got beyond
the reach of attraction, being driven away with ex¬
ceeding great velocity : for that force which is fuffi-
cient to turn it back in reflection may be fufficient to
emit it. From the fame repelling power it feems to
be that flies walk upon the water without wetting their
feet; that the objeCt-glaffes of long telefcopes lie up¬
on one another without touching ; and that dry pow*
ders are difficultly made to touch one another fo as to
Hick together, without melting them or wetting them
with water, which, by exhaling, may bring them to¬
gether.
“ The particles of all hard homogeneous bodies
which touch one another, cohere with a great force :
to account for which, fome philofophers have recourfe
to a kind of hooked atoms, which in effeCt is nothing
elfe but to beg the queftion. Others imagine, that
the particle of bodies are connected by reft, i. e. in ef-
feCl by nothing at all; and others, by confpiring mo¬
tions, i. e. by a relative reft among themfelves. For
myfelf, it rather appears to me, that the particles of
bodies cohere by an attraClive force, whereby they tend
mutually to each other.” ^
From this'account of the formation and conftitution No con-
of bodies, we can conclude nothing, except that they clufion to
are compofed of an infinite number of little particles,
kept together by a force or power; but of what na- accoUnt.
ture that power is, whether material 'or immaterial,
we muft remain ignorant till farther experiments are
made. Some of the Newtonian philofophers, how¬
ever, have pofttively determined thefe powers to be
immaterial. In confequence of this fuppofition, they
have fo refined upon attractions and repulfions, that
their fyftems feem not far from downright fcepticifm,
or denying the exiftence of matter altogether. A
fyftem of this kind we find adopted by Dr Prieftley *, .
from Meffrs_ Bofcovich and Michell, in order to folve
fome difficulties concerning the Newtonian doftrine of1 g"
light. “ The eafieft method (fays he) of folving all Mr Mi-
difficulties, is to adopt the hypothefis of Mr Bofcovich, Cell’s hy-
who fiippofes that matter is not impenetrable, as has doj.tecTbV
been perhaps univeVfally taken for granted; but that Dr prieit-
it confifts of phyfical points only, endued with powers ley.
of attraction and repulfion in the fame manner, as folid
•matter is generally fuppofed to be: provided there¬
fore that any body move with a fufficient degree of
velocity, or have a fufficient momentum to overcome
any powers of repulfion that it may meet with, it will
find no difficulty in making its way through any body
whatever ; for nothing elfe will penetrate one ano¬
ther but powers, fuch as we know do in faCt exift
in the fame place, and counterbalance or over-rule
one another. The moft obvious difficulty, and indeed
almoft the only one that attends this hypothefis, as it
fuppofes the mutual penetrability of matter, arifes 9
from the idea of the nature of matter, and the diffi- Bodies op-
culty we meet with in attempting to force two bodies Pofe c“cl1
into the fame place. But it is demonftrable that the
firft obftruCtion arifes from no aCtual contaCt of mat- tual cen¬
ter, but from mere powers of repulfion. This diffi- ta<ft.
culty
C O H [ 127 ] G O H
Cohefion. culty we can overcome; and having got within one
fphere of repulfion, we fancy that we are now im¬
peded by the folid matter itfelf. But the very fame
is the opinion of the generality of mankind with re-
fpe& to the 'firft obftru&ion. Why, therefore, may
not the next be only another fphere of repulfion,
which may only require a greater force than we can
apply to overcome it, without difordering the arrange¬
ment of the conftituent particles; but which may be
overcome by a body moving with the amazing velocity
of Kght.
“ This fcheme of the immateriality of matter, as it
may be called, or rather the mutual penetration of mat-
10 ter, firft occurred to Mr Michell on reading Baxter on
Mr Baxter’s//jf immateriality of the Soul. He found that this au-
| opinion. thor’s idea of matter was, that it confifted as it were
of bricks cemented together with immaterial mortar.
Thefe bricks, if he would be confiilent with his own
reafoning, were agaia compofed of lefs bricks, ce¬
mented likewife by an immaterial mortar; and fo on
ad infinitum. This putting Mr Michell upon the con-
fideration of the feveral appearances of nature, he be¬
gan to perceive that the bricks were fo covered with
this immaterial mortar, that if they had any exiftence
at all, it could not poffibly be perceived ; every ef¬
fect being produced, in nine inllances of ten cer¬
tainly, and probably in the tenth alfo, by this im¬
material, fpiritual, and penetrable mortar. Inftead
therefore of placing,the world upon the giant, the
giant upon the tortoife, and the tortoife upon he
could not tell what, he placed the world at once upon
itfelf.”
. Cohefion Other philofophers have fuppofed the powers both
I fuppofed of gravitation and cohefion to be material; and to be
owing to oniy different aftions of the etherial fluid, or elemeo-
^ elementary jn fUpp0rt 0f th;s it i^gn urged, that
before we have recourfe to a fpiritual and immaterial
power as the caufe of any natural phenomenon, we
ought to be well affured that there is no material fub-
flance with which we are acquainted, that is capable
©f producing fuch effects. In the prefent cafe, we
are fo far from having fuch affurance, that the Contra¬
ry is manifeft to our fenfes. One inftance of this is
, in the experiment with, the Magdeburg hemifpheres, as
they are called. Thefe are two hollow hemifpheres
©f brafs, exa&ly fitted to one another, fo as to form
one globe when joined together, without admitting any
air at the joining. In this Hate, if the air within
them is exhaufted by means of a pump, they will co¬
here with fuch force, if they are five or fix inches dia¬
meter, as to require a weight of fome hundreds of
pounds to feparate them. The preffure of the at-
mofphere, we fee, is in this cafe capable of produ¬
cing a very ftrong cohefion; and if there is in nature
any fluid more penetrating, as well as more power¬
ful in its effects, than the air we breathe, it is pofiible
that what is called the attraBion of cohefion may fome
how or other be an effect of the aftion of that fluid.
Such a fluid as this is the element of fire. Its activity
is fuch as to penetrate all bodies whatever; and in the
ftate in which it is commonly called fire, it a£ls accord¬
ing to the quantity of folid matter contained in the
body. In this ftate, it is capable of diffolving the
ftrongeft cohelions obferved in nature: but whatever
is capable of diffolving any cohefion, muft neceffarily
be endued with greater power than that by which the
cohefion is caufed. Fire, therefore, being able to Cohefioi,
diffolve cohefions, muft alfo be capable of caufing Co!loba*
them, provided its power is exerted for that purpofe. • ' ’
Nor will it feem at all lange that this fluid fhould aft
in two fuch oppofite ways, when we confider the dif¬
ferent appearances which it affuhies. Thefe are
three, vi%. fire or heat, in which it confumes, de-
ftroys, and diffolves: light, in which it feems deprived
of all deftruftive or diffolvcnt power, and to be the
moft mild, quiet, and placid being in nature. The
third ftate of this element is, when it becomes what
is called the eleBric fluid; and then it attrafts, re¬
pels, and moves bodies, in a vaft variety of ways,
without either burning or rendering them viiible by
its light. In this ftate it is not lefs powerful than In
either of the other two; for a violent {hock of elec¬
tricity will difplace and tear in pieces the moll heavy
and folid bodies. The Teeming capricious nature of
this fluid, however, probably renders it lefs fufpefted
as the caufe of cohefion, than it otherwife would be,
were the attraftions regular and permanent, which
we obferve it to occafion. But here we muft obferve,
that the fluid has an exiftence in all bodies before the
experiments are tried which make its effefts vilible to
us, and was afting in them according to its fettled
and eftablifhed laws. While afting in this manner it
was peifeftly invifible ; and all we can do is, to pro¬
duce fome little infringement of thefe regular laws
according to which it commonly afts. In fome cafes,
however, the eleftrical attraftions produced by art are
found to be pretty permanent and ftrong. Thus, Mr
Symmer, in fome experiments with filk {lockings,
found their attraftion fo ftrong, that it required up¬
wards of 15 pounds weight to feparate them from
each other; and this attraftion would continue for
more than an hour. In plates of glafs, too, be ob¬
ferved a remarkable cohefion when eleftrified. In
the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1777, we find this
hypothefis taken notice of, and in fome meafure adopt¬
ed, by Mr Henly. “ Some gentlemen (fays he) have
fuppofed that the eleftric matter is the caufe of the
cohefion of the particles of bodies. If the eleftric
matter be, as I fufpeft, a real elementary fire inhe¬
rent in all bodies, that opinion may probably be well
founded; and perhaps the foldering of metals, and
the cementation of iron, by fire, may be confidered as
ftrong proofs of the truth of their hypothefis.”
On this laft hypothefis we muft obferve, that if the
eleftric, or any other fluid, is fuppofed to be the caufe
of the attraftion of cohefion univerfally, the particles
of that fluid muft be deftitute of all cohefion between
themfelves; otherwife we fhould be at as great a lofs-
to account for the cohefion of thefe {particles, as for
that of terreftrial matter. Philofophers, indeed, do
not fuppofe any cohefion between the particles of the
eleftric fluid themfelves; it is generally believed that
the particles of this fluid are repulfive of one ano¬
ther, though attrafted by all other matter. If this is
a faft, we cannot fuppofe the eleftric fluid to be the
caufe of cohefion. The probability or improbability
of the hypothefis juft mentioned, muft greatly depend:
on its being afcertained whether the particles of the
eleftric fluid do really repel one another, and attraft
all other kinds of matter, or not; but for this we muft
refer to the article Electricity.
COHOBATION, in chemiftry, an operation. by
. whichi
cor [ 128 ] c o 1
which the fame liquor is frequently diftilled from the
fame body, either with an intention to difl'olve this
body, or to produce fome change upon it. This is
one of thofe operations which the ancient chemifts
praftifed with great patience and zeal, and which are
now negledled. To make this operation eafier, and
to prevent the trouble of frequently changing the vef-
fels, a particular kind of alembic, called a pelican, was
invented. This veil'd was made in the form of a-cu¬
curbit with an alembic-head, but had two fpouts com¬
municating with the body. As the vapour rofe up
into the head, it was gradually condenfed, and ran
down the fpouts into , the body of the pelican, from
whence it was again diflilled ; and fo on. This vef-
fel is reprefented Plate CXXXIV. fig. 6.
COHORN (N.) the greatett engineer Holland has
produced. Among his other works, which are efteem-
cd mailer-pieces of fkill, he fortified Bergen-op-zoom;
which, to the furprife of all Europe, was taken by the
Trench in 1747. He wrote a treatife on fortification;
and died in 1704.
COHORT, in Roman antiquity, the name of part
of the Roman legion, comprehending about 600 men.
There were ten cohorts in a legion, the firit of which
exceeded all the relt both in dignity and number of
men. When the army was ranged in order of battle,
the iirfl cohort took up the right of the firft line ;
the reft followed in their natural order: fo that the
third was in the centre of the firft line of the legion,
and the fifth on the left; -the fecond between the firft
and third; and the fourth between the third and fifth:
the five remaining cohorts formed a feeond line in their
natural order.
COIF, the badge of a fergeant at law, who is cal¬
led fergeant of the coif, from the lawn coif they wear
under their caps, when they are created fergeants.
The chief nfe of the coif was to cover the clerical
tonfure. See Tonsure.
COILING, on (hipboard, implies a fort of ferpen-
tine winding tof a cable Or other rope, that it may
occupy a fmall fpace in the Ihip. Each of the wind¬
ings of this fort is called a fake; and one range of
fakes upon the fame line is called a tier. There are
generally from five to feven fakes in a tier; and three
or four tiers in the whole length of a cable. This,
however, depends on the extent of the fakes. The
fmaller ropes employed about the fails are coiled up¬
on cleats at fea, to prevent their being entangled a-
mongft one another in traverfing, contratting, or ex¬
tending the fails.
COILDN, in the ancient Grecian theatres, the
fame with the cavea of the Romans.
COIMBRA, a handfome, large, and celebrated
town of Portugal, capital of the province of Beira,
with a bilhop’s fee, and a famous univerfity. The
Cathedral and the fountains are very magnificent. It
is feated in a very pleafant country abounding in vine¬
yards, olive-trees, and fruits. It ftands on a moun¬
tain, by the fide of the river Mondego. W. Long.
8. 57. N. Eat. 40. 10.
COIN, a piece of metal converted into money by
the imprefling of certain marks or figures thereon.
Coin differs from Money as the fpecies from the
genus. Money is any matter, whether metal, wood,
leather, glafs, horn, paper, fruits, fhells, or kernels,
Na 84. * j
which have currency as a medium in Commercb.
Coin is a particular fpecies, always made of metal, and
ftruck according to a certain procefs called Coining.
The precife epocha of the invention of money is
too ancient for our annals ; and, if we might argue
from the neceflity and obvioufnefs of the thing, muit-
be nearly coeval with the world.
Whether coins be of equal antiquity, may admit of.
fome doubt; efpecially as moft of the ancient' writers
are fo frequent and exprefs in their mention of lea¬
thern-moneys, paper-moneys, wooden-moneys, £sV.
Some, however, notwithftanding this, are of opinion,
that the firft moneys were of metal: the reafons they
give, are the firmnefs, neatnefs, cleanlinefs, durable-
nefs, and univerfality of metals; which, however, do
rather conclude they ought to have been fo, than that
they actually were. fo.
In effeft, the very commodities themfelves were
the firft moneys, i. e. were current for one another
by way of exchange ; and it was the difficulty of cut¬
ting or dividing certain commodities, and the impof-
fibility of doing it without great lofs, that firft put men
on the expedient of a general medium. See Ex¬
change.
Indeed, thus much may be foid in behalf of coins,
that, on this view, it was natural for men to have
their firft recourfe to metals ; as being almoft che on¬
ly things whofe goodnefs, and as it were integrity, is
not diminiflied by partition ; befides the advantages
above expreffed, and the conveniences of melting and
returning them into a mafs of any ftze or weight.
It was probably, then, this property of metals
which firft accuftomed people, who trafficked toge¬
ther, to account them in lieu of quantities of other
merchandizes in their exchanges, and at length to
fubftitute them wholly in their Head ; and thus arofe
money : as it was their other property to preferve
any mark or impreflion a long time, which confirmed
them in the right; and thus was the firft rife of coins.
In the firft ages, each perfon cut his metal into
pieces of different fizea and forms, according to the
quantity to be given for any merchandize, or accord¬
ing to the demand of the feller, or the quantity ft ipu-
lated between them. To this end they went to mar¬
ket loaden with metal in proportion to the purchale
to be made, and furnilhed with inftruments for por¬
tioning it, and feales for dealing it out, according as
occafion required. By degrees, it was found more
commodious to have pieces ready weighed ; and as
•there were different weights required according to
the value of the different wares, all thofe of the fame
weight began to be diftinguilhed with the fame mark
•or figure : thus were coins carried one ilep further.
At length the growing commerce of money begin¬
ning to be difturbed with frauds, both in the weights
and the matter, the public authority interpofed; and
hence the firft ftamps or imprefiions of money ; to
which fucceeded the names of the moniers; and at
length the effigy of the prince, the date, legend, and
other precautions to prevent the alterations of the fpe¬
cies; and thus were coins completed.
Modern Coins. In England the current fpecies of
gold are the guinea, half-guinea, Jacobus, laureat,
angel, and rofe-noble: the four laft of which are now
feldom to he met with; having been moft of them
con- -
C O I
[ F29 J
C O I
lings, pence, &c. with this difference, that their fhil-
ling is but equal to i i^yg-d. Sterling : whence their
pound is only 18 s. y^d.
But, for a view of all the coins prefently current in
the four quarters of the globe, with their values and
proportions, fee the table fubjoined to the article Mo¬
ney.
In many places fhells are current for coins; particu¬
larly a fmall white kind dug out of the ground in the
Maldives, and fome parts of America, called in the
Indies cowries, or coris, on the coaft of Africa bonges,
and in America porcelaines ; of which it takes, a vaft
number to be equivalent in value to a penny. Of zim-
bis, another kind of fhell current, particularly in the
kingdoms of Angola and Congo, two thoufand make
what the negroes call a macoute; which is no real mo¬
ney ; for of this there is none in this part of Africa
but a manner of reckoning: thus, two Flemifh knives
they efleem a macoute ; a copper-bafon two pounds
weight, and 12 inches diameter, they reckon three
macoutes; a fufee 10, &c.
In fome places fruits are current for coins. Of
thefe there are three forts ufed ; two in America, par¬
ticularly among the Mexicans, which are the cacao and
maize ; the other in the Eaft Indies, vi%. almonds
brought thither from Lar, and growing in the defarts I eruncius
d. Sterl,
* r ° 16
Note alfo: The drachma is here, with the generality
of authors, fuppofed equal to the denarius; though
there is reafon to believe that the drachma was fome-
what the weightier. See Drachma and Denarius.
L
The Grecian gold coin was the")
ftater aureus, weighing" two attic I
drachms, or half of the Hater ar- I
genteus; and exchanging ufually j
for 2 5 attic drachms of filver; in j
our money . - J
According to our proportion of!
gold to filver   J 1
There were like wife the ftater T
cycizenus, exchanging for 28 attic >- o J
drachms, or ___ J
Stater philippicus, and ftater
alexandrinus, of the fame value.
Stater daricus, according toJo-T
fephus, worth 50 attic drachms, > 1 i
Stater crasfius, of the fame value.
ROMAN.
of Arabia. Of cacao 15 are efteemed equivalent to
a Spanifti rial, or feven pence fterling. Maize has
ceafed to be a common money fmce the difcovery
of America by the Europeans. Almonds are chiefly
ufed where the cowries are not current. As the year
proves more or lefs favourable to this fruit, the value
of the money is higher or lower. In a common
year 40 almonds are fet againft a pefcha, or half¬
penny fterling; which brings each almond to t-j of a
farthing, v
Ancient Cows are thofe chiefly which have been
current among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Their
values and proportions are as follows.
^ JEWISH. /.
|Semilibella
Libella 7
As 5
Seftertius
jQuinarius 1
^ Vi&oriatuS 3
4 zjDenarius
d. qrs. Sterh
o oTy^
StV
3i
3x
3
d. Her.
ItV(T
jM
ic [Talent
S 14
34® 3
Soli dll aureu% or fextula, worth
Siclus au en.s, worth  
A talent of gold, worth  
Vox.. V. Part I.
Note: Of thefe the denarius, vidtoriatus, feftertius*
and fometimes the as, were of filver, the reft of brafs.
See As, &c
There were fometimes alfo coined of brafs the triens,
fextans, uncia, fextula, and dupondius.
The Roman gold coin was the') /. s. d. Sterl.
aureus, which weighed generally [
double the denarius ; the value of' ,
which, according to the firft pro- j 4 OT
portion of coinage, mentioned by |
Pliny, was   J
Accordirigto the proportion that ?
obtains now amongft us, worth 3 1 0 9
R At*
C O I f 13° 1 C O I
Coin, According to the decuple proO /. s. d.
^Coinage. port;on> mentioned by Livy and >0 12 11
v Julius Pollux, worth J
According to the proportion J
mentioned by Tacitus, and which |
afterwards obtained, whereby the f> O 16
aureus exchanged for 25 denarii, |
its value   J
Coin, in architefture, a kind of dye cut diagonal-
wife, after the manner of a flight of a flair-cafe, fer-
ving at bottom to fupport columns in a level, and at
top to correft the inclination of an entablature fup-
porting a vault.
Coin is alfo ufed for a folid angle xompofed of two
furfaces inclined towards each other, whether that
angle be exterior, as the coin of a wall, a tree, &c. or
interior, as the coin of a. chamber or chimney. See
Quoin.
COINAGE, or Coining, the art of making mo¬
ney, as performed either by the hammer or mill.
Formerly the fabric of coins was different from
what it is at prefent. They cut a large plate of me¬
tal into feveral little fquares, the corners of which
were cut off with fheers. After having (haped thefe
pieces, fo as to render them perfectly conformable, in.
point of weight, to the ftandard piece, they took each
piece in hand again, to make it exadlly round by a
gentle hammering.. This was called a planchet, and
4 was fit for immediate coining. Then engravers pre¬
pared, as they ftill do, a couple of fteel maffes in form
of dyes, cut and terminated by a flat furface, rounded
off at the edge.s. They engraved or ftamped on it the
hollow of a head, a crofs, a fcutcheon, or any other
figure, according to the cuftom of the times, with a
fliort legend. As one of thefe dyes was to remain
dormant, and the other moveable, the former ended
in a fquare prifm, that it might be introduced into the
fquare hole of the block, which, being fixed very faft,,
kept the dye as fteady as any vice could have done.
The planchet of metal was horizontally laid upon this
inferior mafs, to receive the ftamp of it on one fide,
and that of the upper dye, wherewith it was covered,
on the other. This moveable dye, having its round
engraved furface refting upon the planchet, had at its
oppofite extremity a flat fquare, and larger furfaee,
upon which they gave feveral heavy blows, with a
hammer of an enormous, fize, till the double ftamp
was fufficiently, in relievo, impreffed on each fide of
the planchet. This being finiihed, was immediately
fucceeded by another, and they thus became a ftandard
coin, which had the degree of finenefs of the weight and
mark determined by the judgment of the infpeftors,
to make it good current money. The ftrong tem¬
pering which was and is ftill given to the two dyes,
rendering them capable of bearing thofe -repeated
blows. Coining has been conliderably improved and
rendered expeditious, by feveral ingenious machines,
and by a wife application of the fureft phyfical expe¬
riments to the methods of fiijing, dyeing, and ftamping
the different metals..
The three fineft inftruments the mint-man ufes, are
the laminating engine; the machine for making the
impreflions on the edges of coins ; and the mill.
After they have taken the laminae, or plates ef me¬
tal, out of the mould into which they are caft, they Coinage,;
do not beat them on the anvil, as was formerly done,v—
but they make them pafs and repafs between the fe¬
veral rollers of the laminating engine, which being
gradually brought clofer and clofer to each other, pre¬
sently give the lamina its uniform and exa& thicknefs,
Inftead of dividing the lamina into final! fquares, they
at once cut clean out of it as many planchets as it can
contain, by means of a fharp fteel trepan, of a roun-
difti figure, hollow within, and of a proportionable
diameter, to fhape and cut off the piece at one and the
fame time. After theft planchets have been, prepared
•and weighed with ftandard pieces, filed or feraped to
get off the fuperfluous part of the metal, and then
boiled and made clean, they arrive, at laft, at the ma¬
chine (fig. 1.), which marks them upon the edge;
and finally, the mill (fig. 2), which, fqueezing each plate 1
©f them fingly between the two dyes, brought near CXLi-ViJj
each other with one blow, forces the two furfaces or
fields of the piece to fill exactly all the vacancies of the
two figures engraved hollow. The engine which ferves
to laminate lead, gives a fufficient notion of that which
ferves to flaten gold and filver laminae between rollers
of a leffer fize.
The principal pieces of the machine (fig..i.), to
ftamp coins on the edge, are two fteel laminae, about
a line thick. One half of the legend, or of the ring,,
is engraved on the thicknefs of one of the laminae,
and the other half on the thickuefs of the other ; and;
theft two laminae are ftraight, although the planchet
marked with them be circular.
When they ftamp a planchet, they firft put it be¬
tween the laminae in fuch a manner, as that theft be¬
ing each of them laid flat upon a copper-plate, which
is faftened upon a very thick wooden table, and the
planchet being likevvife laid flat upon the fame plate,.
the edge of the planchet may touch the two laminae
on each fide, and in their thick part.
One ef thefe laminas is immoveable, and faftened
with feveral ferews; the other Aides by means of a
dented wheel, which takes into the teeth that are om
the furface of the lamina. This Aiding lamina makes;
the planchet turn in fuch a manner, that it remains
ftamped on the edge, when it has made one turn.
Only crown and half-crown pieces can bear the im-
preflion of letters on the thicknefs of their edges.
The coining engine or mill is fo handy (fig. 2.),
that a Angle man may ftamp twenty thoufand planchets
in one day : gold, filver, and copper planchets, are all
of them coined with a mill, to which the coining
fquares (fig, 3.), commonly called dyes, are faftened;
that of-the face under, in. a fquare box garnifhed with
male and female ferews, to fix and keep it fteady; and
the other above, in a little box garnifiled with the
fame ferews, to faften the coining fquare. The plan¬
chet is laid flat on the fquare of the effigy, which is
dormant; and they immediately pull the bar of the
mill by its cords, which caufts the ferew fet within it
to turn. This enters into the female ferew, which is
in the body of the mill, and turns with fo muchftrength,
that by pufhing the upper fquare upon that of the
effigy, the planchet, violently preffed between both
fquares, receives the impreffion of both at one pull,,
and in the twinkling of an eye.
The.
C O I [ n
tteining. The planchet thus ftampt and-coined, goes through
L—   a final examination of the mint wardens, from whofe
hands it goes into the world.
In the Coining of Medals, the procefs is the fame,
in effeft, with that of money ; the principal difference
confifting in this, that money having but a fmall re¬
lievo, receives its impreffion at a fingle ftroke of the
engine ; whereas for medals, the height of their re¬
lievo makes it neceffary that the ftroke be repeated
feveral times : to this end the piece is taken out from
between the dyes, heated, and returned again; which
procefs, in medallions and -large medals, is repeated
fifteen or twenty times before the full impreffion be
given care mpft be taken, every time the planchet is
I, removed, to take off the fuperfluous metal ftretched
beyond the circumference with a file. Medallions,
and medals of a high relievo, are ufual|y firft call in
fand, by reafon of the difficulty of ftamping them in
the prefs, where they are put only to perfedt them;
in regard the fand does not leave them clear, fmooth,
and accurate enough. Therefore we may fee that
[ . medals receive their form and impreffion by degrees,
whereas money receives them all at once.
Britijh Coinage, both by the beauty of the engra¬
ving, and by the invention of the impreffions on the
edges, that admirable expedient for preventing the al¬
teration of the fpecies, is carried to the utmoft perfec¬
tion.
It was only in the reign of king William III. that
the hammer-money ceafed to be current in England,
where till then it was ftruck in that manner, as in
other nations. Before the hammer fpecies was called
in, the Englifh money was in a wretched condition,
having been filed and clipped by natives as w7ell as fo¬
reigners, infomuch that it was fcarce left of half the
value : the retrieving this diftreffed ftate of the Eng-
lifh money is looked upon as one of the glories of king
William’s reign.
The Britifh coinage is now wholly performed in the
Tower of London, where there is a corporation for
it, under the title of the mint. Formerly there were
here, as there are ftill in other countries, the rights of
feinorage and braffage : but fince the eighteenth year
of king Charles II. there is nothing taken either for
the king or for the expences of coning; fo that weight
is returned for weight, to any perfon who canies their
gold and filver to the Tower.
The fpecies coined in Great Britain are efteemed
contraband goods, and not to be exported. All fo¬
reign fpecies are allowed to be fent out of the realm,
as well as gold and filver in bars, ingots, dull, &c.
Bariary Coinage, particularly that of Fez and Tu¬
nis, is under no proper regulations, as every goldfmith,
Jew, or even private perfon, undertakes it at pleafure ;
which pra&ice renders their money exceeding bad,
and their commerce very unfafe. - .
Mufcovite Coinage. In Mufcovy there is no other
coin ftruck but filver, and that only in the cities of
Mufcow, Novogrod, Twere, and Plefkow, to which
may be added Peterfburgh. The coinage of each of
thefe cities is let out to farm, and makes part of the
royal revenue.
Perfian Coinage. All the money made in Perfia
is ftruck with a hammer, as is that of the reft of Afia;
and the fame may be underftood of America, and the
i ] c o i
coafts of Africa, and even Mufcovy : the king’s duty, Coining
in Perfia, is feven and a half per cent, for all the mo- „ N.
neys coined, which are lately reduced to filver and ° e'
copper, there being no gold coin there except a kind
of medals, at the acceffion of a new fophi.
Spanijh Coinage is efteemed one of the leaft perfect
in Europe. It is fettled at Seville and Segovia, the
only cities where gold and filver are ftruck.
COIRE, or, as the Germans call it, Chur, a large
and handfome town of Switzerland, and capital of the
country of the Grifons, with a biftiop’s fee whofe pre¬
late has the right of coining money. It is divided
into two parts ; the leaft of which is of the Roman
Catholic religion, and the greateft of the Proteftant.
It is governed by its own laws, and feated in a plain,
abounding in vineyards and game, on the river Plef-
fure, half a mile from the Rhine. E. Long. g. 27.
N. Lat. 46. 50.
COITION, the intercourfe between male and fe¬
male in the aft of generation.
It is obferved that frogs are forty days in the aft of
coition. Bartholine, &c. relate, that butterflies make
130 vibrations of the wings in one aft of coition.
COIX, job’s-tears: A genus of the triandria or¬
der, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants ; and iu
the natural method ranking under the 4th order. Gra¬
mma. The male flowers grow in fpikes remote from
one another ; the calyx is a biflorous, beardlefs glume.
The calyx of the female is a biflorous glume ; the co¬
rolla a beardlefs glume; the ftyle bipartite; the feed
covered with the calyx offified. Of this there is but
one fpecies, a native of the Archipelago iflands, and
frequently cultivated in Spain and Portugal, and alfo
in the Weft Indies. It is an annual plant, rifing from
a fibrous root, with two or three jointed ftalks, to the
height of two feet, with fingle, long, narrow leaves at
each joint, refembling thofe of the reed ; at the bafe
of the leaves come out the fpikes of flowers Handing
on ftrort foot-ftalks; the feeds greatly refemble thofe
of gromwell; whence the plant has by fome writers
been called lithofpermum. This plant may be propa¬
gated in this country by feeds brought from Portugal,
and fown on a hot-bed ; after which the young plants
are to be removed into a warm border, and planted at
the diftance of two feet at leaft from each other. They
will require no other care than to be kept free from
weeds. In Spain and Portugal the poor people grind
the feeds of this plant, in times of fcarcity, and make
a coarfe kind of bread of them. The feeds are inclo-
fed in fmall capfules about the bignefs of an Englilh pea,
and of different colours. Thefe are ftrung upon filk,
and ufed inftead of bracelets by fome of the poorer fort
in the Weft Indies, but efpecially by the negroes.
COKE, or Cooke (Sir Edward), lord chief juftice
of the king’s bench in the reign of James I. was de-
fcended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and bom
at Milcham in 1549. When he was a ftudent in the
Inner-Temple, the firft occafion of his diftinguilhing
himfelf was the ftating the cafe of a cook belonging to
the Temple fo exaftly, that all the houfe, who were
puzzled with it, admired him and his pleading, and the
whole bench took notice of him. After his marriage
with a lady of a great fortune, preferments flowed in
upon him. The cities of Norwich and Coventry chofe
him for their recorder; the county of Norfolk, for
R.3 one
COL
[ U2 1
COL
Coke one of their knights in parliament; and the houfe of feated at the mouth of the river Perfant, on tfye Baltic Celhert;
Colbere commons, for their fpeaker, in the 35th year of queen
t ^ Elizabeth. The queen appointed him folicitor-general
in 1592, and attorney-general the next year. In
1603, he was knighted by king James I. ; and in No¬
vember the fame year, upon the trial of Sir Walter
Raleigh, &c. at Winchefter, he treated that gentle¬
man with a fcurrility of language hardly to be paral¬
leled. June 27. he was appointed lord chief jullice
of the common pleas ; and in 1613, lord chief juftice
of the king’s bench, and fworn one of the privy coun-
fea, 60 miles north-eafl of Stetin, and 30 north-eaft of ”
Camin. E. Long. 15. 57. N. Lat. 54. 18.
COLBERT (John BaptistJ, marquis of Segnelal,
one of the greateft llatefmen that France ever had,
was born at Paris in 1619 ; and defcended from a fa¬
mily that lived at Rheims in Champaigne, no way
eonfiderable for its fplendor and antiquit v. His grand¬
father is faid to have been a wine-merchant, and his
father at full followed the fame occupation ; but after¬
wards traded in doth, and at lait in lilk. Our Colbert
cil. In r6xy, he was very vigorous in the difcovery was inftrudled in the arts of merchandize; and after-
and profecution of the perfons employed in poifoning
Sir Thomas Overbury in the Tower in 1612. His
contdl not long after with the lord chancellor Egeton,
with feme other cafes, haftened the ruin of his inte-
reft at court: fo that he w'as fequeftered' from the
council-table and the office of lord chief juftice. In
1621, he vigoroufly maintained in the houfe of com¬
mons, that no proclamation is of any force againft the
parliament. The fame year, being looked upon as
one of the great incendiaries in the houfe of commons,
he was removed from the council of flate with dif-
grace ; the king faying, that “ he was the fittefl in-
ftrument for a tyrant that ever was in Englandhe
was alfo committed to the Tower, and his papers were
feized. Upon the calling of a new patliament in
1625, the court party, to prevent his being ele&ed a
member, got him appointed ffieriff of Buckingham-
fliire ; to avoid the office, if poffible, he drew up ex¬
ceptions againft the oath of a fheriff, but was obliged
to undertake the office. In 1628, he fpoke vigoroufly
upon grievances ; and made a fpeech in which he af¬
firmed, that “ the duke of Buckingham was the caufe
of all our miferies.” While he lay upon his death¬
bed, his papers and laft will were feized by an order
of council. He died in 1634, and publiffied many
works : the moft remarkable are his Inftitutes of the
laws of England; the firft part of which is only a tranf-
wards became clerk to a notary. In 1648, his rela¬
tion John Baptift Colbert, lord of S. Pouange, prefer¬
red him to the lervice of Michael Le Tellitr, fecretary
of (late, whofe filter he had married; and here he dif-
covered fuch diligence, and exadtnefs in executing all
the commiffions that were entrufted to his care, that
he quickly grew diftinguiflied. One day his mafter
fent him to cardinal Mazarine, who was then at Se¬
dan, with a letter written by the queen mother; and
ordered him to bring it back, after that minifter had
feen it. Colbert carried the letter, and would not re¬
turn without it, though the cardinal treated him rough¬
ly, ufed feveral arts to deceive him, and obliged him to
wait for it feveral days. Some time after, the cardinal
returning to court, and wanting one to write his agenda
or memoranda, defired Le Tellier to furniffi him with
a fit perfon for that employment: and Colbert being
prefented to him, the cardinal had fome remembrance
of him, and delired to know where he had feen him.
Colbert was afraid of putting him in mind of Sedan,
left the remembrance of his importunacy, in demand¬
ing the queen’s letter, flrould renew the cardinal’s an¬
ger. But his eminency was fo far from hating him for
his faithfulnefs to his late mafter, that he received him
on condition, that he ftiould ferve him with the like
zeal and fidelity.
Colbert applied himfelf wholly to the advancement
lation and comment of Sir Thomas Littleton, one of of his mailer’s interefts, and gave him fo many marks
the chief juftices of the common pleas in the reign of of his diligence and Ikill, that afterwards he made him
Edward IV.
COKENHAUSEN, a ftrong town of Livonia in
Sweden, on the river Divina. E Long. 24. 26. N,
Lat. 56. 40.
COL, a name given by fome to one of the weftern
iflands of Scotland ; it abounds in corn, pallure, falmon,
eels, and cod. W. Long. 7. 35. N. Lat. 57.
COLAPIS, Colops (anc. geog.), a river of Li¬
his intendant. He accommodated himfelf fo dex-
teroufly to the inclinations of that minifter, by retrench¬
ing his luperfluous expences, that he was entrufted
with the management of that gainful trade of felling
benefices and governments. It was by Colbert’s
counfel, that the cardinal obliged the governors of
frontier places to maintain their garrifons with the
contributions they exafted; with which advice his
burnia, which after a winding north-eaftcourfe, falls into eminency was extremely pleafed. He was fent to
the Savus, at the Infula Segeftica. Now the Culps, the
boundary of the Alps, running through Croatia into
the Save. Colapiani, the people living on it (Pliny).
COLARBASIANS, or Colorbasians, a fet of
Chritlians in the fecond century ; fo called from their
leader Colarbafus, a difciple of Valentinus ; who, with
Marcus, another difciple of the fame mafter, maintain¬
ed the whole plenitude, and perfe&ion, of truth and
religion, to be contained in the Greek alphabet: and
that it was upon this account that Jefus Chrift was
Rome, to negociate the reconciliation of cardinal de
Rets, for which the Pope had fhowed fome concern;
and to perfuade his holinefs to confent to the difin-
camerating of Cafto, according to the treaty concluded
with his predecefibr Urban VIII. Upon the whole,
Mazaripe had fo high an opinion of Colbert’s abilities,
and withal fuch a regard for his faithful fervices, that-
at his death, which happened in t66i, he earneftly
recommended him to Louis XIV. as the propefeft
perfon to regulate the finances, which at that time
called the alpha and omega. This feft was a branch of flood in much need of reformation. Louis accept-
the Vakntinians. See alfo Marcosians. ed the recommendation, and made Colbert inten-
COLBERG, a ftrong, handfome fea-port town of dant of the finances. He applied himfelf to their
Germany, in Pomerania, belonging to the king of regulation, and fucceeded: though it procured hind
Pruffia. It is remarkable for its fait works j and is many enemies, and fome aflronts. France is alfo
COL [
Colbert, obliged to this minifter for eftab'Iifbing at that time
her trade with the Eaft and Weft Indies: a great de-
fign, and from which fhe has reaped innumerable ad¬
vantages. ,
In 1664, he became fuperintendant of the build¬
ings ; and for that time applied himfelf fo earneftly to
the enlarging and adorning of the royal edifices, that
they are at preftnt fo many mafter-pieces of archi-
te&ure : witnefs the palace of the Thuilleries, the Lou¬
vre, St Germain, Fontainbleau, and Chombord. As
for Verfailles, it may be faid that he raifed it from the
ground. It was formerly a dog-kennel, where Louis
XIII. kept his hunting furniture : it is now a palace
fit for the greateft monarch. But royal palaces were
not Colbert’s only care : he formed feveral defigns for
increafing the beauty and convenience of the capital
city, and he did it with great magnific.mce and gran¬
deur. The public was obliged to this fame nftinifter for
the eftablifhment of the academy for painting and fculp-
ture in 1664. The king’s painters and fculptors, with
other Ikilful profeflbrS of thofe arts, being profecuted
at law by the mafter-painters at Paris, joined together;
and began to form a fociety, under the name of the
Royal Academy for Sculpture and Painting. Their
defigu was to keep public exercifes, for the fake of
improving thofe fine arts, and advancing them to the
higheft degree of perfeftion. They put themfelves un¬
der the protection of Mazarine, and chofe chancellor
Seguier their vice-proteftor; and after Mazarine’s
death chofe Seguiet their proteftor, and Colbert their
vice-proteftor. It was at his folicitation that they
were finally eftablifhed by a patent, containing new pri¬
vileges, in 1664. Colbert, being made prote&or af¬
ter the death of Seguier, thought fit that an hiftorio-
grapher Ihonld be appointed, vvhofe bufinefs it ftiould
be to colleft all curious and ufeful obfervations that
fliould be made at their conferences. This was ac¬
cordingly done; and his majefty was pleafed to fettle
on him a falary of 300 livres. To Colbert alfo the
lovers of naval knowledge are obliged for the ere&ion
of the Academy of Sciences : for the making of which
the more ufeful, he caufed to be ere&ed, in 1667, the
royal obfervatory at Paris, which was firft inhabited
by Caffini. But thefe are not the only obligations
France has to that minifter: fhe owes to him all the
advantages fhe receives by the union of the two feas; a
prodigious work, begun in 1666 and finifhed in 1680.
Colbert was alfo very intent upon matters of a more
private nature, fuch as regarded the order, decency,
and well-being of fociety. He undertook to reform
the courts of juftice, and to put a flop to the ufurpa-
tion of noble titles; which 'it feems was then very
common in France. In the former of thofe attempts
he failed, in the latter he fucceeded.
In 1669, he was made fecretary of ftate, and en-
trufted with the management of- affairs relating to the
fea: and his performances in this province were an-
fwerable to the confidence his majefty repofed in him.
He fuppreffed feveral offices, which were chargeable,
but ufelefs: and in the mean time, perceiving the
king’s zeal for the extirpation of herefy, he fhut up
the chamber inftituted by the edifts of Paris and Roan.
He propofed feverally new regulations concerning cri¬
minal courts ; and was extremely fevere with the par¬
liament of Tholoufe for obftru&ing the meafures he
33 ] .c °.L .
took to carry the fame into execution. His main de- Colbert,
fign in reforming the tedious methods of proceeding at Colchelter»
law, was to give the people more leifure to apply them-
felves to trading: for the advancement of which he
procured an edift, to ereft a general infurance-office
at Paris, for merchants, &c. In 1672, he was made
minifter of Hate: for how bufied foever he was in the
regulation of public affairs, yet he never negle&ed his
own or his family’s intereft and grandeur, or miffed any
opportunity of advancing either. He had been mar¬
ried many years, had fons and daughters grown up ;
all of which, as occafion fei ved, he took care to marry
to great perfons. For though h^Tiad no reafon to
doubt of his mailer’s favour, yet he wifely fecured his
fortune by powerful alliances. However, bufinefs was
certainly Colbert’s natural turn ; and he not only loved
it, but was very impatient to be interrupted in it, as
the following anecdote may ferve to (how. A lady of
great quality was one day urging him, when he was in
the height of his power, to do her feme piece of fer-
vice ; and perceiving him inattentive and inflexible,
thretf herfelf at his feet, in the prefence of above 100
perfons, crying, “ I beg your greatnefs, in the name
of God, to grant me this favour.” Upon which Col¬
bert, kneeling down over againft her, replied, in the
fame mournful tone, “ I conjure you, madam, in the
name of God, not to difturb me.”
This great minifter died of the ftone, September 6.
1683, in his 65th year; leaving behind him fix fons
and three daughters. He was of a middle ftature, ra¬
ther lean than fat. His mien was low and dejedled,
his air gloomy, and his afpe& ftern. He flept little,
and was very fober. Though naturally four and mo-
role, he knew how to a<St the lover, and had miftreffes-
He was of a flow conception, but fpoke judici-
oufly of every thing after he had once comprehended
it. He underftood bufinels perfeftly well, and hepur-
fued it with unwearied application. Thus he filled
the moll important places with high reputation and
credit; and his influence diffufed itfelf through every
part of the government. He reftored the finances,
the navy, the commerce: and he eredted thole various
works of art, which have ever fince been monuments
of his talle and magniljcence. He was a lover of
learning, though he never applied to it himfelf; and
therefore conferred donations and penfions upon fcho-
lars in other countries, while he eilablifhed and pro-
tefted academies in his own. He invited into France
painters, flatuaries, mathematicians, and artifls of all
kinds, who were any way eminent ; thus giving new
life to the fciences, and making them flourilh, as they
did, exceedingly. Upon the whole, he was a wife, ac¬
tive, generous-fpirited minifter; ever attentive to the
interefts of his mafter, the happinefs of the people, the
progrefs of arts and manufa&ures, and in Ihort to
every thing that could advance the credit and intereft
of his country. He was a pattern for all minifters of
ftate; and every nation-may wifh themfelves bleffed
with a Colbert.
COLCHESTER, the capital of the county of Ef-
fex in England. It is by fome thought to be the place
mentioned by Antoninus under the name of Colonia,
different from Colonia Camaloduni, and by the Saxons
called Caer Colin. It is a beautiful, populous, and
pkafant town, extended on the brow of a hill fiom
call
COL [ 134 1 COL
Colchi, eaft to weft, and adorned with 10 churches. It had
Colchicum. fQrmerly ftrong wallg an<i a cattle, but now there are
v fcarce any remains of either. This place is faid to
have given birth to FI. Julia Helena, mother to Con-
ftantine the Great, and daughter to king Coelus, fo
much celebrated for her piety and zeal in propagating
the Chrittian religion. Here, and in the neighbour¬
ing towns, is a great manufafture of bays and fays.
It is alfo famous for its oyfters ; in pickling and barrel¬
ling which, the inhabitants excel. The rendering na¬
vigable the river Coin, on which the town ftands,
has greatly promoted its trade and manufa&ures. The
town had formerly an abbey whofe abbot was mitred
and fat in parliament. In the time of the civil wars
it was befieged by the parliament’s troops and reduced
by famine. It was formerly a corporation, but lately
loft its charter for fome mifdemeanor; however, it ftill
fends two members to parliament. E. Long. 1. 2.
N. Lat- 51. 55.
COLCHI (Arrian, Ptolemy), a town of the Hither
India ; thought to be Cochin, on the coaft of Malabar;
now a fadlory and ftrong fort of the Dutch. E. Long.
75. o. N. Lat. 10. o.
COLCHICUM, meadow-saffron: A genus of
the trigynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the ninth order, Spathacea. The corolla is fexpartite,
with its tube radicated, or having its root in the
ground ; there are three capfules, connected and in¬
flated. There are three fpecies, all of them bulbous-
rooted, low, perennials, pofieffing the Angular property
of their leaves appearing at one time, and their flowers
at another; the former riling long and narrow from
the root in the fpring, and decaying in June; the
flowers, which are monopetalous, long, tubular, ereft,
and fix-parted, rife naked from the root in autumn,
not more than four or five inches high. Their co¬
lours afford a beautiful variety; being purple, va¬
riegated purple, white, red, rofe-coloured, yellow, &c.
with Angle and double flowers. They are all hardy
plants, infomuch that they will flower though the roots
happen to lie out of the ground ; but by this they are
much weakened. They are propagated by offsets
from the roots, of which they are very prolific. Thefe
are to be taken up and divided at the decay of the
leaf in fummer, planting the whole again before the
middle of Auguft. They are to be placed at nine in¬
ches diflance from one another, and three inches deep
in the ground.
The root of this plant is poifonous. When young
and full of fap, its tafte is very acrid ; but when old,
mealy and faint. Two drachms of it killed a large
dog in 13 hours, operating violently by ftool, vomit,
and urine. One grain of it fwallowed by a healthy
man, produced heats in the ftomach, and foon after
fluffing heats in different parts of the body, with fre¬
quent ffiverings, followed by colicky pains ; after
which an itching in the loins and urinary paffages was
perceived; then came on a continual inclination to make
water, a tenefmus, pain in the head, quick pulfe, thirft,
and other difagreeable fymptoms. Notwithttanding
thefe effefts, however, an infufion of the roots in vine¬
gar, formed into a fyrup with honey or fugar, proves a
Me and powerful peftoral and diuretic, and is often of
fervice in dropfies, &c. The virtues of colchicum feem Colchli
much to referable-thofe of fquills. The hermodactyl il
of the ffops is faid to be the root of the variegatum, a Cold. ^
fpecies of this genus. v ""
COLCHIS, a country of Afia, at the fouth of
Afiatic Sarmatia, eaft of the Euxine Sea, north of Ar¬
menia, and weft of Iberia. It is famous for the expe¬
dition of the Argonauts, and as the birth-place of Me¬
dea. It was fruitful in poifonous herbs, and produced
excellent flax. The inhabitants were originally Egyp¬
tians, who fettled there when Sefoftris king of Egypt
extended his conquefts in the north.
COLCOTHAR, the fubftance remaining after the
diftillation or calcination of martial vitriol by a violent
fire. See Chemistry, n° 621.
COLD, in a relative fenfe, fignifies the fenfation
which accompanies a tranfition of the fine veffels of the
human body from an expanded to a more contradted
ftate. In an abfolute fenfe, it fignifies the caufe of
this tranfition; or, in general, the caufe of the contrac¬
tion of every fubftance, whether folid or fluid, in na¬
ture.
The arguments concerning the fubftance of cold in Cold tends
the abftradf, are difcuffed under the article Chemistry, to make bo-
to which we muft at piefent refer the reader. In thatd'fs elec'
article it is obferved, that cold naturally tends to maketric'
bodies eledtric which are not fo naturally, and to in-
creafe the eledtric properties of thofe which are : and
in confirmation of the hypothefis there advanced, it may
be obferved, that all bodies do not tranfmit cold equally
well; but that the beft condudtors of eledfricity, viz.
metals, are likewife the beft condudfors of cold. We Bodies ren-
may alfo add, that when the cold has been carried to dered elec-
fuch an extremity as to render any body an eledlric, ^by cold,
it then ceafes to condudf the cold as well as formerly.
This is exemplified in the pradtice of the Laplanders thanfor^ *
and Siberians, where the cold in winter is extremely merly.
fevere. In order to exclude it from their habitations
the more effedtually, they cut pieces of ice, which in
the winter time muft always be eledfric in thefe coun¬
tries, and put them into their windows ; which they
find to be much more effedlual in keeping out the cold
than any other fubftance.
Cold, as well as heat, may be produced artificially, why^cold
though we have no method of making cold increafe it- cannot in-
felf as heat will do. The reafon of this eafily appears c.reafe
from what is faid on the fubjeft of cold under the ar.hheheat*
tide Chemistry : for if this confifts in a partial celfa-
tion of motion in the elementary fluid, it is plain, that
though we may partly put an end to this motion in a
very fmall part of it; yet that of the furrounding at-
mofphere extending for an immenfe way- farther than
we can extend our influence, will quickly counteradl
our operations, and reduce the bodies to the fame tem¬
perature they w ere of before. Though there are there¬
fore fome liquids which by mixture will produce con-
fiderable degrees of cold ; yet by being left to the ac¬
tion of the furrounding warm atmofphere, the heat is
quickly communicated from it to them, and the effed
of the mixture ceafes. The cafe is very different with
heat; for this fluid, of itfelf naturally very much in¬
clined to motion, no fooner finds an opportunity of
exerting its aftion, than vaft quantities of what was
formerly at reft ruff from all quarters to the place
where
COL
Degrees of
cold produ¬
ced by var'
ous faline
mixtures.
where the aftron has commenced, and continue it un¬
til the equilibrium is reftored, as is particularly explain¬
ed under the article Chemistry.
The power of producing cold belongs particularly to
bodies of the faline clafs. In a paper of the Philofo-
phical Tranfadtions, N° 274, Mr Geoffrey gives an ac¬
count of fome remarkable experiments with regard to
[ i35 1
COL
below o; but Dr Black, as foon as the experiment
was made known in this country, obferved, that in all
probability the point of congelation was far above this.
His reafons for fuppofing this to be the cafe were, that
the mercury defeeuded regularly only to a certain point,-
after which it jwould defeend fuddenly and by ftartsi
100 degrees at a time. This, he conjedtured, might
the produdtion of cold. Four ounces of fal ammoniac proceed from the irregular contradtion. of the metal
diffolved in a pint of water, made his thermometer dc- after it was congealed ; and he obferved, that there
feend two inches and three quarters in lefs than fifteen was one thermometer employed in the experiment which
minutes. An ounce of the fame fait put into four or was not frozen, and which did not defeend fo low by
five ounces of diflilled vrater, made the thermometer a great many degreed Experience has fince verified
defeend two inches and a quarter. Half an ounce of his conjedture ; and it is now generally known, that
fal ammoniac mixed with three ounces of fpirit of 40° below o is the freezing point of quickfilver.
nitre, made the thermometer defeend two inches and
five lines ; but on ufing fpirit of vitriol inftead of nitre,
it funk two inches and fix lines. In this laft experi¬
ment it was remarked, that the vapours raifed from the
mixture had a confiderable degree of heat, though the
Since the difeovery of the poffibility of producing
cold by artificial means, various experiments have been
made on the efficacy of faKne fubftances in this way ;
all of which, when properly applied, are found to have
a confiderable degree of power. Dr Boerhaave found.
liquid itfelf was fo extremely cold. Four ounces of that both-fal ammoniac and nitre, when well dried in
faltpetre mixed with a pint of water, funk the thermo¬
meter one inch three lines; but a like quantity of fea-
falt funk it only two lines. Acids always produced
heat, even common fait with its own fpirit. Volatile
alkaline falls produced cold in proportion to their pu¬
rity, but fixed alkalies heat.
a crucible, and reduced to fine powder, will produi
a greater degree of cold than if they had not been 7
treated in this manner. His experiments were re- Mr Wal-
peated by Mr Walker apothecary to the Redcliffe In- k.er’s exPc*
firmary-in Oxford with the fame refult: but he found,nmeat;s*
that his thermometer funk 32° by means of a folution
The greateft degree of cold produced by the mixture of of fal ammoniac; when Boerhaave’s, with the fame,
falls and aqueous fluids was that ffiown by M. Homberg; fell only 28°^ Nitre funk it 190. On mixing the
who gives the following receipt for making the expe¬
riment : “ Take a pound of corrofive fublimate, and
> much fal ammoniac ; powder them feparately, and
two falls together, he found that the power of produ¬
cing cold was confiderably increafed. By equal parts
of thefe falls, he cooled fome water to 220, the ther-
mix the powders very exadtly; put the mixture into mometer Handing at 470 in the open air. Adding to
a vial, pouring upon it a pint and a half of dillilled
vinegar, Yhaking all well together.’, This compofi-
this fome powder of the fame kind, and immerfing two
fmall phials in the mixture, one containing boiled and
n grows fo cold, that a man can fcarce hold it in his the other unboiled water, he foon found them both
hands in fummer ; and it happened, as M. Homberg
was making the experiment, that the fubjeCt froze.
The fame thing once happened to M. Geoffrey in ma¬
king an experiment with fal ammoniac and water, but
it never was *
time.
If, inftead of making thefe experiments, however,
frozen, the unboiled water freezing firft.
Having obferved that Glauber’s fait, when it retains
the water of cryliallization, produces cold during its
folution, he tried its power when mixed with the other
his power to make it fucceed a fecond falls, and thus funk the thermometer from 65° to 1 gc;
and thus he was able to freeze water when the thermo¬
meter flood as high as 70°. And, laftly, by firft cool-
with fluid water, we take it in its congealed ftate of ing the falts in water in one mixture, and then making
—rather fnow, degrees of cojd will be produced another of the cooled thermometers, he was able to
vaftly fuperior to any we have yet mentioned. A mix
ture of fnow and common fait finks Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer to o; potafhes and powdered ice fink it eight
fink the thermometer 64°. Thus he froze a mixture-
of fpirit of wine and water in the proportion of feven
of the latter to one of the former ; and by adding a
degrees farther; two affufions of fpirit of fait on'pound- quantity of cooled materials to the mixture in which
this was frozen, the thermometer funk to —4, or 69°.
Spirit of nitre diluted with water reduced the thermo¬
meter to—3 ; and, by the addition of fal ammoniac,
to —15. Nitrous ammoniac reduced it from 503 to*
15 *; but the cold was not augmented by the addition
of fal ammoniac or nitre.
ed ice funk it_ below 144*° below o; but by repeat¬
ed affufions of fpirit of nitre Mr Fahrenheit funk it to
40° below o. This is the ultimate degree of cold which
the mercurial thermometer will meafure': becaufe the
mercury itfelf begins then to congeal; and therefore
we muft afterwards have recourfe to fpirit of wine,
naptha, or fome other fluid which will not congeal. The moft remarkable experiment, however, was His method
The greateft degree of cold hitherto producible by ar- with fpirit of nitre poured on Glauber’s fait, the ef- of freezing
tificial means has been 80® below o ; which was done fe£t of which was found to be fimilar to that of the (luick^ver*
at Hudfon’s Bay by means of fnow and vitriolic acid, fame fpirit poured on ice or fnow; and the addition of
the thermometer Handing naturally at 20° below o. fal ammoniac rendered the cold ftill more intenfe. The
Greater degrees of cold than this have indeed been fup- proportions of thefe ingredients recommended by Mr
pofed. Mr Martin, in his Treatife on Heat, relates,. Walker are concentrated nitrous acid two parts by
that at Kirenga in Siberia, the mercurial thermometer weight, water one part; of this mixture cooled to the
funk to 118° below o; and Profeffor Brown at Peterf- temperature of the atmofphere 18 ounces, of Glauber’s
burg, when he made the firft experiment of congeal- fait a pound and an half avoirdupois, and of fal am-
ing quickfilyer, fixed the point of congelation at 350° moniac 12 ounces. On adding the Glauber’s fait to
S the
COL [ 136 1 COL
the nitrous acid, the tbermorneter fell from 50° to —ip,
or 52 degrees; and on the addition of the fal ammoniac,
to — 90. Thus Mr Walker was able to freeze quick-
filver without either ice or fnow, when the thermo¬
meter flood at 45°. For the experiment four pans
were procured of different fizes, fo that one might 'be
put within the other. The largeft of thefe pans was
placed in a veffel flill larger, in which the materials for
the fecond frigorific mixture were thinly fpread in or-
dfer to be cooled ; the fecond pan, containing the li¬
quor, viz. the vitriolic acid properly diluted, was pla¬
ced in the largeft pan ; the third pan, containing the
falts for the third mixture, was immerfed in the liquor
of the fecond pan ; and the liquor for the third mix¬
ture was put into wide-mouthed phials, which were
Immerfed in the fecond pan likevvife, and floated round
the third pan ; the fourth pan, which was the fmalleft
of all, containing its cooling materials, was placed in
the midft of the falts of the third pan. The materials
for the fir ft and fecond mixtures confifted of diluted
vitriolic acid and Glauber’s fait; the third and fourth of
diluted nitrous acid, Glauber’s fait, and fal ammoniac,
in the proportions above mentioned. The pans being
adjufted in the manner already mentioned, the mate¬
rials of the firft and largeft pan were mixed: this re¬
duced the thermometer to io°, and cooled the liquor
in the fecond pan to 20°; and the falts for the fecond
mixture, which were placed underneath in the large
veffel, nearly as much. The fecond mixture was then
made with the materials thus cooled, and the thermo¬
meter was reduced to 3°. The ingredients of the third
mixture, by immerfion in this, were cooled to xo°;
and, when mixed, reduced the thermometer to — 15 '.
The materials for the fourth mixture were cooled by
immerfion in this third mixture to about —12°. On
mixture they funk the mercury very rapidly, and feem-
ingly below — 4c0, though the froth occafioned by the
ebullition of the materials prevented arty accurate ob-
fervation. The reafon why this laft mixture reduced
the thermometer more than the third, though both
were of the fame materials, and the latter of a lower
temperature, was fuppofed to have been partly becaufe
the fourth pan had not another immerfed in it to give
it heat, and partly becaufe the materials were reduced
to a finer powder.
The experiments were repeated with many varia¬
tions ; but only one mixture appeared to Dr Beddoes,
by whom the account was communicated to the Royal
Society, to be applicable to any ufeful purpofe. This
is oil of vitriol diluted'with about an equal quantity of
water; which, by diffolving Glauber’s fait, produces
about 46° of cold, and by the addition of fal ammoniac
becomes more intenfe by a few degrees. At one time,
w hen Mr Walker was trying a mixture of two parts of
oil of vitriol and one of water, he perceived, that at
the temperature of 35° the mixture coagulated as if
frozen, and the thermometer became ftationary; but
on adding more Glauber’s fait, it fell again in a ftiort
time : but lefs cold was produced than when this cir-
cumfiance did not occur, and when the acid was
weaker. The fame appearance of coagulation took
place with other proportions of acid and water, and
with other temperatures.
It is obfervable, that this effect of Glauber’s fait in
producing cold took place only when it was poffeffed
N° 84. 2
of its water of clyftallization ; and thus the mineral Cold,
alkali alfo augmented the cold of fome of the mix- —v—■»
tures : but when the water of cryftallization was dif- Q’ifpfva-
fipated, neither of them had any effeft of this kind. t;ons on the
“This circumftance {fays Dr Beddoes) leads us in experiment,
fome meafure to the theory of the phenomenon. Wa¬
ter undoubtedly exifts in a folid ftate in cryftals; it
muft therefore, as in other cafes, abforb a determinate
quantity of fire before it can return to its liquid ftate.
On this depends the difference between Glauber’s fait
and mineral alkali in its different dates of cryftalliza¬
tion and efflorefcence. The fame circumftance, too,
enables us to underftand the great effect of Glauber’s
fait; which, as far as I underftand, has the greateft
quantity of water of cryftallization.” On this the re¬
viewers remark, that “ if in fummer the water brought
from a deep well is at 52°, in this cheap and eafy way
it might be reduced to 12°; and wine placed in it
would be chilled.”
Thefe exceflive degrees of cold occur naturally in
many parts of the globe in the winter-time. It is
true, we are very much unacquainted with them in this
country: yet in the winter of 1780, Mr Wilfon of
Glafgow .obferved, that a thermometer laid on the
fnow funk to 25° below o ; but this was only for a
ftiort time; and in general our atmofphere does not
admit of very great degrees of cold for any length of
time. Mr Derham, however, in the year 1708, ob¬
ferved in England, that the mercury flood within one-
tenth of an inch of its ftation when plunged into a
mixture of fnow and fait. In 1732, the thermometer
at Peterftmrg flood at 28° below o; and in 1737,
when the French .academicians wintered at the north
polar circle, or near it, the thermometer funk to 330
below o; and in the Afiatic and American continents.
Hill greater degrees of cold are very common.
The effects of thefe extreme degrees of cold are very
furprifing. Trees are burft, rocks rent, and rivers and
lakes frozen, feveral feet deep: metallic fubftances
blitter the flein like red-hot iron : the air, when
drawn in by refpiration, hurts the lungs, and excites -
a cough : even the effefts of fire in a great meafure
feem to ceafe ; and it is obferved, that though metals
are kept for a confiderable time before a ftrong fire,
they will ftill freeze water when thrown upon, them.
When the French mathematicians wintered at Tornea
in Lapland, the external air, when fuddenly admitted
into their rooms, converted the moillure of the air into
whirls of fnow ; their breafts feemed to be rent when
they breathed it, and the contact of it was intolerable
to their bodies ; and the fpirit of wine, which had not
been highly re&ified, burlt fome of their thermometers
by the congelation of the aqueous part.
Extreme cold very often proves fatal to animals in
thofe countries where the winters are very fevere ; and
thus 7000 Swedes periftied at once in attempting to
pafs the mountains which divide Norway from Sweden.
It is not neceffary, indeed, that the cold, in order to
prove fatal to the human life, ftiould be fo very intenfe
as has been juft mentioned. There is only requifite a
degree fome what below 320 of Fahrenheit, accompa¬
nied with fnow or hail, from which Ihelter cannot be
obtained. The fnow which falls upon the clothes, or
the uncovered parts of the body, then melts, and by
a continual evaporation carries off the animal heat to
fuch
cot-' T I
CnM fncli * degree, that a fafficierrt quantity is not left for
the fupport of life. In ftioh cafes, tiie perfon firit feels
Chamg himfelf extremely chill and nneafy ; he begins to turn
 v-_ . liftlefs, tmwilling to walk or ufe exerci :e to keep him¬
felf warm ; and at laft turns drowfy, fits down to re-
frefli himfelf with deep, but wakes no more. An in-
ftance of this was feen not many years ago at Terra
del Fuego; where Dr Solander, with fome others,
having taken an excurfion up the countiy, the cold
was fo intenfe, that one of their number died. The
Doftor himfelf, though he had warned his companions
of the danger of fleeping in that fituation, yet could
not be prevented from making that dangerous experi¬
ment himfelf; and though he was awaked with all
poffible expedition, his body was fo much ihrunk in
bulk, that his fhoes felloff his feet, and it was with
the utmoft difficulty that he was recovered.
In thofe parts of the world where vaft maffes of ice
are produced, the accumulation of it, by abforbing the
heat of the atmofphere, occafions an abfolute fterility
in the adjacent countries, as is particularly the cafe
with the ifland of Iceland ; where the vaft colle&ions
of ice floating out from the Northern Ocean, and flop¬
ped on that coatt, are fometimes feveral years in thaw¬
ing. Indeed, where great quantities of ice are collec¬
ted, it would feem to have a power like fire, both aug¬
menting its own cold and that of the adjacent bodies.
An inftance of this is related under the article Eva¬
poration, in Mr Wedgewood’s experiment, where
the true caufe of this phenomenon is alfo pointed out.
Cold, in medicine. See Medic
Cold, in farriery. See there, § Hi.
COLDENIA, in botany : A genus of the tetra-
gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranked among thofe the or-
• der of which is doubtful. The calyx is tetraphyllous;
the corolla funnel-flraped; the Hyles four; the feeds
two and bilocular. There is but one fpecies, a native
of India. It is an annual plant, whofe branches trail
on the ground, extending about fix inches from the
root. They are adorned with fmall blue flowers grow¬
ing in clufters, which come out from the wings of the
leaves. They are propagated by feeds fown on a hot¬
bed ; when the plants come up, they may be removed
each into a feparate pot, and plunged into a hot-bed of
tanner’s bark, where they are to remain conftantly.
COLDINGHAM, fnppofed to be the Colotaa of
Ptolemy, and called by Bede the city Coldana and of
Colud (Coludum), fituated on the borders of Scotland,
about two miles from Eymouth, was a place famous
many ages ago for its convent. This was the oldefl
nunnery in Scotland, for here the virgin-wife Ethel-
flreda took the veil in 670; but by the ancient name
Coludum it fliould feem that it had before been inhabited
by the religious called Culdees. In 870 it was deftroyed
by the Danes, but its name.rendered immortal by the
heroifm of its nuns; who, to prefer’ve themfelvcs in¬
violate from thofe invaders, cut off their lips and nofes;
and thus rendering themfelves objefts of horror, were,
with their abbefs Ebba, burnt in the monaftery by the
difappointed favages. After this it lay deferted till the
year 1098, when king Edgar founded on its fite a priory
ofbenediftines in honour of St Cuthbert, and bellowed
it on the monks of Durham.
Mr Pennant’s defcription of the black, joylefs,
Vol. V. Part I.
37 1 COL
heathy moor, where it was fituated, might be fuffici-
ent to guard the fair inhabitants of the nunnery were
it Hill fubfifting. That defcription, however, is now
altogether inapplicable : The. whole trait, five miles
over, has been fiace improved, and converted into
corn fields ; the cheerlefs village of Old Cambus is no
more; a decent inn with good accommodations has
been eftablifhed at a convenient diflance ; and thepaf-
fage of the fteep glen called the Peafe, which termi¬
nates the moor on the road towards Edinburgh, and
was formerly the terror of travellers, is now rendered
fafe and eafy by means of a bridge extending from one
fide of the chafm to the other.
COLDINGUEN, a town of Denmark, in North
Jutland, and diocefe of Ripen. It is remarkable for
its bridge, over which pafs all the oxen and other
cattle that go from Jutland into Germany, which brings
in a confiderable revenue to the king. It is feated on
an eminence, in a pleafant country abounding with
game. E. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 55. 3J.
COLD-finch, a fpecies of Motacilla.
COLD-SHIRE iron, that which is brittle when
cold.
COLE (William), the moll famous botanift of his
time, was born at Adderbury in Oxfordlhire, about the
year 1626, and ftudied at Merton college in Oxford.
He at length removed to Putney, near London; and
publilhed “The Art of Simpling; and Adam in Eden,
or Nature’s Paradife.” Upon the reftoration of king
Charles II. he was made fecretary to Dr Duppa, bilhop
of Winchefter ; but died two years after, aged 37.
COLE fish, a fpecies of Gadus.
CoiF.-^eed, the feed of the napus fativa, or long-
rooted, narrow.leaved rapa, called in Engliflr kaww,
and reckoned by Linnams among the braflicas, or cab¬
bage-kind. See Brassica.
This plant is cultivated to great advantage in many
parts of England, on account of the rape oil expreffed
from its feeds. The prattice of fowing at was firft
introduced by thofe Germans and Dutchmen who
drained the fens of Lincolnlhire ; and hence the notion
hath generally prevailed, that it will thrive only in a
mailhy foil; but this is now found to be a miftake. In
preparing the land which is to receive it, care muff
be taken to plow it in May, and again about mid-
fnmmer, making the ground as fine and even as pof,
fible. It is to be fown the very day of the laft plow¬
ing, about a gallon on an acre. In the months of Ja¬
nuary, February, and March, it affords very good food
for cattle, and will fprout again when cut; after which
it is excellent nourilhment for flreep. After all, if it
is not too clofely fed, it will bear feed again ft next
July. The fame caution, however, is requifite with
this food as with clover, till cattle are accuftomed to
it, otherwife it is apt to fwell them. When this plant
is cultivated folely with a view to the feed, it muft
be fown on deep ftrong land without dung, and mult
be fuffered to ftand till one-half of the feeds at leaft
are turned brown ; which, according to the feafons,
will be fometimes fooner fometimes later. In this ftate
it is to be cut in the fame manner and with the fame
care as wheat; and every handful as it is cut is to be
regularly ranged on fheets, that it may dry leifurely
in the fun, which will commonly be in a fortnight 5
after which it is to be carefully threfhed out, and car-
S ried
C‘ol<K njrtl£l
I
COL [ 138 1 COL
ried to the mill for exprefling the oil. The produce of
cole-feed is generally from five to eight quarters on an
acre ; and is commonly fold at 20 s per quarter.
COLEOPTERA, or Beetle the name of Lin
naeus’s firft order of infefts. See Zoology.
COLEWORT. See Brassica.
COLERAIN, a large town of Ireland, in the
county of Londonderry and province of Ulfter; feat-
ed on the river Bann, four miles fouth of the ocean,
in W. Long. 7. 2. N. Lat. 55. to. It was formerly
a place of great confideration, being the chief town
of a county erefted by Sir John Perrot, during his
government of Ireland ; -whereas it is now only the
head of one of the baronies in the county of Lon¬
donderry ; but it is’ ftill a'corporation, and fends two
members to parliament. It is of a tolerable lize, anci
very elegantly built. The pore is very indiflerent, oc-
cafioned by the extreme rapidity of the river, which
repels the tide, and makes the coming up to the town
difficult; fo that it has but little trade, and might per¬
haps have lefs, if it was not for the valuable falmon
fifhery, which amounts to fome thoufand pounds a-
year. If the navigation of the Bamr could be open¬
ed, which is totally obftru&ed by a ridge of rocks,
it would quickly change the face of things ; for then,
by the help of this river, and the Newry canal, there
would be a direrft communication acrofs the kingdom,
and, with' the affiftance of the Black-water river, which
likewife falls into Lough Neagh, almoft all the coun¬
ties of the province of Ulfler might have a correfpond-
ence with each other by water-carriage, to their reci¬
procal and very great emolument.
COLES (Elifha), author of the well known Latin
and Engliffi diftionary, was born in Northamp.tonffiire
about the year 1640 ; and was entered of Magdalene
College Oxford, which he left without taking a de¬
gree ; and taught Latin to young people, and Engliffi
to foreigners, in London, about the year 1663. Pie
afterwards became an uffier in Merchant-taylor’sTchool;
but for fome great fault, nowhere exprefsly mention¬
ed, he was forced to withdraw to Ireland, whence he
never returned. He was, however, a good critic in
the Engliffi and Latin tongues ; and wrote feveral ufe-
ful books of inftruftion in his profeffion.
COLET (John), dean of St Paul’s, the fon of Hen¬
ry Colet knight, was born in London in the year 1466-
His education began in St Anthony’s fchool in that
city, from whence, in 1483, he was fent to Oxford,
and probably to Magdalene college. After feven years
ftudy of- logic and philofophy, he took his degrees in
arts. About the year 1493, Mr Colet went to Pans,
and thence to Italy, probably with a defign to improve
himfelf in the Greek and Latin languages, which at
this time were imperfeSly taught in our univerfities.
On his return to England in 1497, he took orders ; and
returned to Oxford, where he read kaures gratti, on
the epiftles of St Paul. At this time he.poflefied the
redory of Dennington in Suffolk, to which he had
been inftituted at the age of 19. He was alfo pre¬
bendary of York, and canon of St Martin’s le Grand
in London. In 1502 he became prebendary of Sarum;
prebendary of St Paul’s In 1505 ; and immediately af¬
ter dean of that cathedral, having previoufly taken
the degree of doaor of divinity. He was no fooner
raifed to this dignity, than he inuoduced the pra&ice
.of preaching and expounding the feriptures; and foon Colibert#
after cftabliffied a perpetual divinity lefture in St Paul’s H
church, three days in every week ; an inftitution which 0 ima' ,
gradually made way for the reformation. About the
year 1508, dean Colet formed his plan for the foun¬
dation of St Paul’s fchool, which he completed in 1512,
and endowed with ellates to the amount of L. 122 and
upwards. The celebrated grammarian, William Lilye,
was his firft. mafter, and the company of mercers were
appointed trufiees. The dean’s notions of religion
were fo much more rational than thofe of his cotem¬
porary priefts, that they deemed him little better than
a heretic; and on that account he was fo frequently
molefted, that he at laft determined to fpend the icft
of his days in peaceful retirement. With this inten¬
tion he built a lioufe near the palace at Richmond;
but, being feized with the fweatiug ficknefs, he died
in 1519, in the 53d year of his age. Pie was buried
on the fouth fide of the choir of St Paul’s ; and a
ftone was laid over his grave, with no other infeription
than his name. Befides the preferments above men¬
tioned, he was re&or of the guild of Jefus at St
Paul’s, and chaplain to king Henry VIII. Dean Co-
let, though a papift, was an enemy to the grofs fuper-
ftitions of the church of Rome. He difapproved au¬
ricular confeffion, the celibacy of the priefts, and fuch
other ridiculous tenets and ceremonies as have ever
been condemned by men of found underftanding in
every age and country. He wrote, 1. Rudimenta gram-
matices. 2. The conftruftion of the eight parts of
fpeech. 3. Daily devotions. Epijlohe adErafmum.
5. Several fermons ; and other works which ftill re¬
main in manufeript.
COLIBERTS (Colilerti), in law, were tenants in-,
foccage, and particularly fuch villeins as were manu¬
mitted or made freemen. But they had not an abfo-
lute freedom ; for though they were better than fer-
vants, yet they had fuperior lords to whom they paid
certain duties, and in that refpeft might be called fer-
vants, though they were of middle condition between
freemen and fervants.
COLIC, a fevere pain in the lower venter, fo call¬
ed becaufe the colon was formerly fuppofed to be the
part affefted. See Medicine-//u&v.
Colic, in farriery. See there, $ xiii.
COLIGNI (Gafpard de), admiral of France, was
born in 1516. He fignalized himfelf in his youth, in
the reigns of Francis I. and Henry II. and was made ^
colonel of infantry and admiral of France in 1552.
Henry II. employed him in the moft important affairs;
but after the death of that prince, he embraced the re¬
formed religiop, and became the chief of the Prota-
ftatrt party : he ftrongly oppofed the. houfe of Guife,
and rendered this oppofition fo powerful, that it was
thought he would have overturned the French go¬
vernment. On the peace made after the battles of
Jarnac and Montcontour, Charles IX. deluded Coligni
into fecurity by his deceitful favours ; and though he
recovered one attempt on his life, when he attended
the nuptials of the prince of Navarre, yet he was in?
eluded in the dreadful maffacre of the Proteftants on
St Bartholomew’s-day 1572, and his body treated with
wanton brutality by a mifguided Pbpiffi populace.
COLIMA, a fea-port town of Mexico in North
Ameiica, and capital of a fertile valley of the fame
name.
COL [ 139 1 COL
Colioure name. It is feated at the mouth of a river in W. Long,
j) 109. 6. N. Lat. 18. 30.
Co'lar- . COLIOURE, a fmall, but ancient and ftrong town
of France, in Roufillon, feated at the foot of the Py¬
renean mountains, with a fmall harbour. E. Long.
3. 10. N. Lat. 43. 24.
COLIR, an officer in China, who may properly be
called an infpe&or, having an eye over what paffes in
every court or tribunal of the empire. In order to
render him impartial, he is kept independent, by ha¬
ving his poll for life. The power of the colirs is fuch,
that they make even the princes of the blood tremble.
COLISEUM, or Coliseum, in the ancient archi-
tefture, an oval amphitheatre, built at Rome by Ve-
fpafian, in the place where ftood the bafon of Nero’s
gilded houfe. The word is formed from colofaum, on
account of the colofTus of Nero that ftood near it ;
or, according to Nardini, from the Italian colifco. In
this were placed ftatues, reprefenting all the provinces
of the empire ; in the middle whereof ftood that of
Rome, holding a golden apple in her hand. The fame
term, colijeum, is alfo given to another amphitheatre of
- ' the emperor Severus. In thefe coltfea were reprefented
games, and combats of men and wild beafts ; but there
are now little remaining of either of them, time and
war having reduced them to ruins.
COLITES, in natural hiftory, a name given by
Jome'writers to a kind of pebble, found n the fhape
of the human penis and teftes, and tha. :ther fepa-
rately or both together.
COLLAERT (Adrian), an eminent engraver who
flourilhed about 1550, was born at Antwerp. After
having learned in his own country the firft principles
of engraving, he went to Italy, where he refided fome
time to perfedt himfelf in drawing. He worked en¬
tirely with the graver, in a firm neat ftyle, but rather
ftiff and dry. The vaft number of plates executed by
his hand fufficiently evince the facility with which he
engraved ; and though exceedingly neat, yet they are
feldom highly finilhed.
Collaert (Hans or John), fon to the foregoing,
was alfo an excellent artift. He drew and engraved
exaftly in the ftyle of his, father ; and was in every
refpeft equal to him in merit. He muft have been
very old when he died ; for his prints are dated from
1555 to 1622. He alfilled his father in all his great
works, and engraved bolides a prodigious number of
plates of various fubjedls. One of his beft prints is
MofesJinking the rock, a large print, lengthwife, from
Lambert Lombard. A great number of fmall figures
are introduced into this print; and they are admirably
well executed: the heads are fine* and the drawing
very corredt.
COLLAR, in Roman antiquity, a fort of chain put
generally round the neck of flaves that had run away, ■
after they Were taken, with an infcription round it,
intimating their being deferters, and requiring their
being reftored to their proper owners, &c.
. Collar, in a more modern fenfe, an ornament
confifting of a chain of gold, enamelled, frequently fet
with ciphers or other devices, with the badge of the
order hanging at the bottom, wore by the knights of
feveral military orders over their fhoulders, on the
mantle, and its figure drawn round their armories.
Thus, the collar of the order of the garter confifts
of S. S. with rofes enamelled red, within a garter en- Collar
amelled blue, and the George at the bottom. II.
Lord Mayor’s Collar is mote ufually called chain. 0 atlon,,
See Chain.
Knights of the Collar, a military order in the re¬
public of Venice, called alfo the order of St Mark, or
the medal. It is the doge and the fenate that confer
this order; the knights bear no particular habit, only
the collar, which the doge puts around their neck,
with a medal, wherein is reprefented the winged lion
of the republic.
Collar of a Draught~borfe, a part of harnefs made
of leather and canvas, and fluffed with ftraw or wool,
to be put about the horfe’s neck.
COLLARAGE, a tax or fine laid for the collars
of wine-drawing horfes.
COLLATERAL, any thing, place, country, &c.
fituated by the fide of another.
Collateral, in genealogy, thofe relations which
proceed from the fame ftock, but not in the fame line
of afcendents or defcendents, but being, as it were, afide
of each other. Thus, uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces,
and coufins, are collaterals, or in the fame collateral
line : thofe in a higher degree, and nearer the com¬
mon, root, reprefent a kind of paternity with regard
to thofe more remote. See Consanguinity.
Collateral Succejfion. When a defunct, for want
of heirs defcended of himfelf, is fucceeded in his eftate
by a brother or filler, or their defcendents, the eftate
is faid to have gone to collateral heirs.
COLLATlA (anc. geog.), a town of the Sabines ;
thought to be diftant between four or five miles out of
Rome to the eaft; fituated on an eminence (Virgjl). Of
this place was Tarquinius Collatinus, manied to Lucre-
tia, ravilhed by Sextus Tarquinius (Livy) ; fituated on
this or on,the left fide of the Afiio (Pliny). Extant in
Cicero’s time, but in Strabo’s day only a village ; now
no trace remains of it.—Another.fuppofed Collatia of
Apulia, near mount Garganus ; becaufe Pliny mentions
the Collatini in Apulia, and Frontlnusthe Ager Collatinus* '
COLLATINA porta, a gate of Rome, at the
Collis Hortulorum, afterwards called Pinciana, from
the Pincii, a noble family. Its name Collatina is from
Collatia, to the right of which was the Via Collatina,
which led to that town.
COLLINA, a gate of Rome at the Collis Quiri-
nalis, not far from the temple of Venus Erycina (Ovid).;
called alfo Salaria, becaufe the Sabines carried their
fait through it (Tacitus). Now Salara.
COLLATION, in the Canon law, the giving or be¬
llowing of a benefice on a clergyman by a bilhop,
who has it in his own gift or patronage. It differs
from inftitution in this, that inllitution is performed
by the bilhop, upon the prefentation of another ; and
collation is his own act of prefentation : and it dif-
fereth from a common prefentation, as it is the giving
of the church to the perfon, and prefent^tion is the
giving or offering of the perfon to the thurch. But
collation fupplies .the place of prefentation and infti¬
tution ; and amounts to the fame as inftitution where
the bilhop is both patron and ordinary. Anciently the
right of prefentation to all churches was in the bi¬
lhop ; and now if the patron negledls to prefent to a
church, then this right returns to the bilhop by colla¬
tion: if the bilhop negledfs to collate within fix months
S 2 after
COL [ 14a ] COL
Collation after the elapfe of the patron, then the archbifhop
II hath a right to do it ; and if the archbifhop negle&s,
. 0 e ‘ then it devolves to the king ; the one as fuperior, to
fupply the defers of bifhops, the other as fupreme, to
fupply all defeds of government.
Collation, in common law, the comparifon or
prcfeotation of a copy to its original, to fee whether
or not it be conformable ; or the report or a<ft of the
officer who made the comparifon. A collated aft is
equivalent to its original, provided all the parties con¬
cerned were pvefent at the collation.
Collation, in Scots law, that right which an heir
has of throwing the whole heritable and moveable
tllates of the deceafed into one mafs, and fbaring it
equally with the others in the fame degree of kindred,
when he thinks fuch fhare will be more than the
value of the heritage to which he hadan exclufive title.
Collation is alfo ufed among the ilomanifls for
, the meal or repaft made on a fail-day, in, lieu of a fup-
per. Only fruits are allowed in a collation : F. Lo-
bineau obferves, that anciently there was not allowed
even bread in the collations in Lent, nor any thing beilde
a few comfits and dried herbs and fruits; which cuftom,
he adds, obtained till the year 1513- Cardinal Hum¬
bert obferves further, that in the middle of the 11th
century there were no collations at all allowed in the
Latin church in the time of Lent; and that the cu¬
ftom of collations was borrowed from the Greeks, who
themfelves did not take it up till about the 11 th century.
Collation is alfo popularly ufed for a repaft be¬
tween meals, particularly between , dinner and fupper.
The word collation, in this fenfe, Du-Cange derives
from collocutio, “ conferenceand maintains, that
originally collation was only a conference, or conver-
fation on fubjedfs of piety, held on faft days in mo-
nafteries; but that, by degrees, the cuftom was in¬
troduced of bringing in a few refrefliments; and that
by the excefTes to which thofe fober repafis were at
length carried, the name of the abufe was retained,
but that of the thing loft.
Collation of Seals, denotes one feal fet on the fame
label, on the reverfe of another.
COLLEAGUE, a partner or aflbciate in the fame
office or magiftrature. See Adjunct.
COLLECT, collection, a voluntary gathering of
money, for fome pious or charitable purpofe. Some
fay, the name colteS, or collection, was ufed, by reafon
thofe gatherings were anciently made on the days of
collects, and in collects, i. e. in affemblies of Chriftians;
but, more probably, quia colhgebatur pccunia.
Collect is fometimes alfo ufed for a tax, or im-
pofition, raifed by a prince for any pious defign.
Thus, hiftories fay, that in 1166, the king of England,
coming into Normandy, appointed a colleft for the
relief of the holy land, at the defire and after the
example of the king of Trance. See Croisade.
Collect, in the liturgy of the church of England,
and the mafs Of the Romanifts, denotes a prayer ac¬
commodated to any particular day, occafion, or the
like. See Liturgy, and Mass.
In the general, all the prayers in each office are
called collects; either becaufe the prieft fpeaks in the
name of the whole aflembly, whofe fentiments and de-
fires he fums up by the word oremus, “ let us pray,”
as is obferved by pope Innocent III. or, becaufe thofS
prayers are offered when the people are affembled elective j
together, which istheopinion ofPameliusonTettnliiau. |
The congregation itfelf is in fome ancient anthors ° rl
called colleS. The popes Gelafius and Gregory are J
faid to have been the firft who ellablifired collects. De-
fpence, a doftor of the faculty of Paris, has an exprefs
tr-;atife on collects, their origin, antiquity, authors,&c. ' \
COLLECTIVE, among grammarians, a term ap¬
plied to a noun exprefiing a multitude, though itfelf
be only Angular ; as an aimy, company, troop, &c.
called collcclme nouns.
COLLECTOR, in general, denotes a perfon who
gets or brings together things formerly difperfed and
feparated. Hence,
Collector, in matters of civil,polity, is a perfon
appointed by the commiffioners of any duty, the inhabi¬
tants of a parifh, &c. to raife or gather any kind of tax.
Collector, among botanifts,, one who gets to¬
gether as many plants as he can, without iludying bo¬
tany in a fcientifical manner.
COLLEGATORY, in the civil law, a perfon who
has a legacy left him in common with one or more
other perfons.
COLLEGE, an affemblage of fcveral bodies or fo-
cieties, or of feveral perfrms into one foefety.
College^ among the Romans, ferved indifferently
for thofe employed in the offices of religion, of go¬
vernment, the liberal and even mechanical arts and,
trades; fo that, with them, the word fignified what
vve call a corporation or company.
In the Roman empire, there were not only the col-
lege of augurs, and the college of capitollni, i e. of thofe
who had the fuperintendence of the capitoline games ;
but alfb colleges of artificers, collegia artljicum ; college
of carpenters, fabrkcrum, or fabrorum tignaricrum ; of
potters, yfsWwww ; of founders, eerarbrum; the col¬
lege of lockfmiths, fabrorwn frrariorum ; of engineers
of the army, tignariorwn ; of butchers, lamorum; of
dendrophori, dendrophororwm ; of centenaries, cento*
variorum; of makers of military cai ques, fagarmrumi
of tent-makers, tabemacularlorum ; of hzktrs, pjftorum }
of muficians, tibicinum, &c. Plutarch obferves, that
it was Numa who firft divided the people into colleges ;
which he did to the end that each confulting the inter-
efts of their college, whereby they were divided from the
citizensof the other colleges, they might not enter into
any general confpiracy againil the public rtpofe.
Each of thefe colleges had diliindt meeting-places or
halls ; and like wife, in imitation of the ilace, a trea-
fury and common cheft, a regifter, and one to repre-
fent them upon public occafions, and afts of govern¬
ment. Thefe colleges had the privilege of manumit¬
ting flaves, of being legates, and making by-laws for
their own body,, provided they did not clafh with
thofe of the government.
There are various colleges on foot among the mo¬
derns, founded on the model of thofe of the ancients.,
Such are the three colleges of the empire, vi%.
College of Electors, or their Deputies, affembled in
the diet of Ratifbon.
College of Princes ; the body of princes, or their
deputies, at the diet of RatifboB.
College of Cities, is, in like manner, the body of
deputies which the imperial cities fend to the diet.
College of Cardinals, or the Sacred College / a
body
COL [ i
College, body compofed of ihe three orders of cardinals. See
 »  Cardinals.
College is alfo ufed for a public place endowed
with certain revenues, where the feveral parts of learn¬
ing are taught.
An affemblage of feveral of thefe colleges con ft itute
an univerfity. The ereftion of colleges is part of the
royal prerogative, and not to be done without the
king’s licence.
The edablilhment of colleges or univerfities is a
remarkable period in literary hiftory. The fchools
in cathedrals and moaafteries confined themfelves
chiefly to the teaching of grammar. There were on¬
ly one or two mafters employed in that office. But,
in colleges, proftflbrs are appointed to teach all' the
different parts of Icience. The firft obfeure mention
of academical degrees in the univerfity of Paris (from
which the other univevfities in Europe have bor¬
rowed mull of their cuftoms and inftitutions), occurs
A. U. 1215.
College of Civilians, commonly called DoSors Com¬
mons ; a college founded by Dr Harvey, dean of the
arches, for the profeflbrs of the civil law refiding in
JLondon ; where ufually., likewife, refides the judge
of the arches court of Canterbury, judge of the admi¬
ralty, of the prerogative court, &c. with other civi¬
lians ; who all live, as to diet and lodging, in a col¬
legiate manner, commoning together ; whence the ap¬
pellation of Doctors Commons. Their houfe being con¬
firmed in the great fire, they all refided at Exeter-
houfe in the Strand till 1672 ; when their former houfe
was rebuilt, at their own expence,in a very fplendid man¬
ner. To this college belong 34pro£tors, who make them¬
felves parties for their clients, manage their caufes, &c.
College of Phyftsians, a corporation of phyficians
in London, who, by feveral charters and a£ts of par¬
liament of Henry VIII. and his fuccelfors, have cer¬
tain privileges, whereby no man, though a graduate
in phyfic of any univerfity, may, without licence un¬
der the far'd college-feal, pra&ife phyfic in or within
feven miles of London y with power to adminifter
oaths, fine and imprifon offenders in that and feveral
other particulars j to fearch the apothecaries (hops, &e.
in and about London, to fee if their drugs, Sic. be
wholefome, and their compofitions according to the
form preferibed by the faid college in their difpenfa-
trory. By the faid charter they are alfo freed from all
troublefome offices , as to ferve on juries, be conftable,
keep watch, provide arms, See.
The fociety had anciently a college in Enight-rider-
ftreet, the gift of Dr Linacre phyfician to king Hen¬
ry VIII. Since that time they have had a houfe
built them by the famous Dr Harvey in 165,2, at the
end of Amen-corner, which he endowed with his
whole inheritance in his lifetime ; but this being burnt
in the great fire in 1666, a new one was credited, at
the expence of the fellow's, in Warwick-lane, with a
noble library, given partly by the marquis of Dorche-
fter, and partly by Sir Theodore Mayerne.
Of this college there are at prefenta prefident, four
cenfors, eight electors, a regifter, and a treafurer,
ebofen annually in Otftober; the cenfors have, by char¬
ter, power to furvey, govern, and arreft, all phyficians,
or others pra&ifing phyfic, in or within feven miles of
London ; and to fine, amerce, and imprifon them, at
41 ] , COL
diferetion. The number of fellows was anciently thir- College-
ty, till king Charles If. increafed their number to
forty ; and king fames II. giving them a new charter,
allowed the number of fellows to be enlarged- fo as
not to exceed fourfeore; referving to himfelf and fuc-
ceffors the power of placing and difplacing any of
them for the future.
The college is not very rigorous in afferting their
privileges; there being a great number of phyficians,
fome of very good abilities, who pradlife in London,.
&c. without their licence, and are connived at by the
college: yet, by law, if any perfon not exprefsly al¬
lowed to pradtife, take on him the cure of any difeafe,
and the patient die under Jiis hand, it is deemed felo¬
ny in the pradlifer. In 1696, the college made a fub-
feription, to the number of forty-two of their mem¬
bers, to fet on foot a difpenfatory for the relief of the
fick poor: fince that they have eredted two other dif-
penfatories.
Edinburgh College of Phyficians was eredted on the
29th November 1681. The defign of this inftitution
was, to prevent the abufes daily committed by foreign
and illiterate impoftors, quacks, &c. For this reafon,
his majefty, at the time above mentioned, granted let¬
ters pater: to eredt into a body corporate and politic,
certain p'nyficians in Edinburgh and their fucceffors,
by the title of “ the Prefident and Royal College of
Phyficians at Edinburgh,” with power to choole an¬
nually a council of feven, one whereof to be grefident:
thefe are to eledl a treafurer, clerk, and other officers;
to have a common feal; to fue and be fued ; to make
laws for promoting the art of phyfic, and regulating
the pradlice thereof, within the city of Edinburgh,
town of Leith, and dillridts of the Ganongate, Weft-
port, Pleafance, and Pbtter- row ; through all which
the jurifdidb’on of the college extends. Throughout
this jurifdidlion, no perfon is allowed to pradlife phy¬
fic, without a warrant from the college, under the pe¬
nalty of L.5 Sterling jthe firft month, to be doubled
monthly afterwards while the offence is continued;
one-half the money arifing from fuch fines to go to
the poor, the other to the ufe of tlve college. They
are allb empowered to punifh all licentiates in phyfio.
within the above mentioned bounds-, for faults commit¬
ted againft the inftitutions of the college ; and to fine
them of fums not exceeding 40 s. On fuch occafions,
however, they tnuft have one of the bailies of the city
to fit in judgment along with them, otherwife their
fentence will not be valid. They are alfo empowered
to fearch and infpeft all medicines within their jurif-
di&ion, and throw out into the ftreet all fuch as are
bad or unwholefome. That they may the better at¬
tend their patients, thtyr are exempted from watching,
warding, and ferving on juries. They are, however,^
reftrained from ererfting fchools for teaching the art of
phyfic, or conferring degrees on any perfon qualified
for the office of a phyfician ; but are obliged tolicenfe
all fuch as have taken their degrees in any other uni¬
verfity, and to admit gs honorary members.all the pro-
feflors of phyfic in the reft of the univerfities of Scot¬
land. Thefe privileges and immunities are not, how¬
ever, to interfere with the rights and privileges of the
apothecary-furgeons,* in their pradlice of curing wounds*,
contufions, fradtures, and other external operations.
Edinburgh College of Surgeons, This is but a very
COL [ 142 1 CO L
College. late inftltution, by which the furgeons of Edinburgh
'1 ai e incorporated into a Royal College, and authorifed to
carry, into execution a fcheme for making provifion for
their widows and children, &c. They have alfb the pri¬
vilege of examining, and licenfing, if found qualified, all
practitioners in furgery within a certain bounds.
College of Juflice, the fupreme civil court of Scot¬
land ; otherwife called Court of Sejfion, or, of Council
and Sejficn. See Law, Part III. N° clvii. 4.
Sion College, or the college of the London clergy ;
which has been a religious ho life time out of mind,
fometimes under the denomination' of a priory, fome-
times under that of a fpital or hofpital: at its diffo-
lution under 3 1 ft Henry VIII. it was called Elfytfis
'Spital, from the name of its founder, a mercer, in 1329.
At prefent it is a compofition of both, viz. a college
for the clergy of London, who were incorporated in
1630, in putfuance to the will of Dr White, under
the name of the Prefident and Fellows of Sion College}
and an hofpital for ten poor men and as many wo¬
men. The officers of the corporation are the prefi¬
dent, two deans, and four affiftants ; who are annually
chofen from among the reftors and vicars of London ;
and are fubjed to the vifitation of the bifliop. They
have a good library, built and ftocked by Mr Simpfon,
and furniffied by feveral other benefaftors, chiefly for
the clergy of the city, without excluding other ftu-
dents on certain terms; and a hall, with chambers for
ftudents, generally occupied by the minifterff of the
neighbouring parifhes.
Grejham College, or College of Philofophy ; a col¬
lege founded by Sir Thomas Grdham, and endowed
with the revenue of the Royal Exchange : one moiety
of this endowment the founder bequeathed to the
mayor and aldermen of London and their fucceflbrs,
in truft, that they ffiould find four able perfons to read,
within the college, divinity, geometry, aftronomy, and
mufic ; who are chofen by a committee of the common
council, confifting of the lord mayor and three aldermen
and eight commoners, and allowed each, befides lodging,
L. per annum. The other moiety he left to the com¬
pany of mercers, to find three more able pferfons, chofen
by a committee of that company, confifting of the mafter
and three wardens, during their office, and eight of
the court of affiftants, to read law, phyfic, and rhe-
-toric, on the fame terms; with this limitation, that
the feveral le&urers flrould read in term-time, every day
In the week except Sundays ; in the morning in Latin,
in the afternoon the fame in Engliftr : but that in mu¬
fic to be read only in Engliffi. By 8th George III.
_ cap. 32. the building appropriated to this college was
taken down, and the excife-office erebled in its room.
■Each of the prdfeflora is allowed L. 50 per annum, in
lieu of the apartments, &c. relinquiftred by them'in the
• college, and is permitted to marry, notwithftanding
the reftriftion of Sir Thomas Greffiam’s will. The
leftures are now read in a room over the Royal Ex¬
change ; and the.city and mercers company are requi¬
red to provide a proper place for this purpofe.
In this college formerly met the Royal Society, that
noble academy, inftituted by king Charles II.- and ce¬
lebrated throughout the world for their improvements
-in natural knowledge. See their hiftory and policy
.-under Society.
.College dc Propaganda Fide} was founded at Rome
in 1622 by Gregory XV. and enriched with ample re- College
venues. It confifts of thirteen cardinals, two priefts, H
and a fecretary ; and was defigned for the propagation CoII-Si:lte;
and maintenance of the Romiffi religion in all parts of ' v 1
the world. The funds of this college have been very
confiderably augmented by Urban VIII. and many
private donations. Miffionaries are fupplied by this
inftitution, together with a variety of books fuited to
their feveral appointments. Seminaries for their in-
ftru&ion are fupported by it, and a number of cha¬
ritable eftablifhments connefted with and conducive to
the main objeft of its inftitution.
Another college of the fame denomination was efta-
bliihed by Urban VIII. in 1627, in confequence of
the liberality of John Baptift Viles, a Spanifh noble¬
man. This is fet apart for the inftru&ion of thofe
who are defigned for the foreign miffiohs. . It was at
firft committed to the care of three canons of the pa¬
triarchal churches ; but ever fince the year 1641 it is
under the fame government with the former inftitution.
College of Heralds, commonly called the Heralds
Office; a corporation founded by charter of king
Richard III. who granted them feveral privileges, as
to be free from fubfidies, tolls, offices, See. They had
a fecond charter from king Henry VI. ; and a houfe
built near Doftors-commons, by the earl of Derby, in
the reign of king Henry VII. was given them by the
duke of Norfolk, in the reign of queen Mary, which
houfe is now rebuilt.
This college is fubordinate to the earl-mar/hal of
England. They are affiftants to him in his court of
chivalry, ufually held in the common-hall of the col¬
lege, where they fit in their rich coats of his majefty’s
arms. See Herald.
College of Heralds in Scotland, confifts of Lyon
king at arms, fix heralds, and fix purfuivants, and a
number of meflengers. See Lyon.
COLLEGIANS, Collegiani, Collegiants, a
religious feet formed among the Arminians and Ana-
baptifts in Holland, about the beginning of the feven-
teenth century ; fo called becaufe of their colleges, or
meetings, twice every week ; where every one, females
excepted, has the fame liberty of expounding the
feripture, praying, &c. They are faid to be all ei¬
ther Arians or Socinians: they never communicate
in the college, but meet twice a-year from all parts of
Holland at Rhinfbergh, whence they are alfo called
Rhitijberghers, a village two miles from Leyden, where
they communicate together ; admitting every one that
prefents himfelf, profeffing his faith in the divinity of
the holy feriptures, and refolution to live fuitably to
their precepts and doftrines, without regard to his fect
or opinion. They have no particular minifters, but
each officiates as he is difpofed. They never baptize
without dipping.
COLLEGIATE, or Collegial, churches, are
thofe which have no biihop’s fee, yet have the ancient
retinue of the biftiop, the canons and prebends. Such
are Weftminfter, Rippon, Windfor, &c. governed by
deans and chapters.
Of theie collegiate churches there are two kinds 5
fome of royal, and others of ecckfiaftical foundation ;
each of them, in matters, divine fervice, regulated
in the famer manner as the cathedrals. There are
even fome collegiate churches that have the epifeopai
- rights.
COL
[ H3 1
COL
COLLIERY, Coalery, or Coalliery. See Colli'ery
II,
j Pet' r’s, Weftminller, was anciently a cathedral; but COLLINS (Anthony), a polemical writer, born at
the revenues of the monaftery being by aft of parlia- Helten near Hounflow in the county of Middlefex
ment i Elizabeth veiled in the dean and chapter, in 1676, was the fon of Henry Collins, a gentleman
it commenced a collegiate church. In feveral caufes of about L. 1500 a-year. He was firft bred at Eton
the ftyling it cathedral, inftead of collegiate, church of college, and then went to king’s-college Cambridge,
Weftminfter, has occafioned error in the pleadings. where he had for his tutor Mr FrancisHare.after-
COLLET, among jewellers, denotes the horizontal wards bifhop of Chichefter. He was afterwards a
face or plane at the bottom of bi-illiants. See Bril- ftudent of the Temple; but not relifhing the law,
liant. _ foon abandoned that ftudy. He was an ingenious
Collet, in glafs-making, is that part of glafs vef- man, and author of feveral curious books. His firif
fels which fticks to the iron inftrument wherewith the remarkable piece was publiihed in 1707, “ An Eflay
metal was taken out of the melting-pot: thefe are concerning the ufe of reafon in propolitions, the evi-
afterwards ufed for making green g'afs. dence whereof depends on human teftirhony.” In
COLLETICS, in pharmacy, denote much the fame 1702, he entered into the controverfy between Mr
with Aggluttnants or Vulneraries. Clark and Dr Dodwell, concerning the immortality
COLLIER (Jer#my), a learned Englifh nonjuring of the foul. In 1713,. Le publiihed his difeourfe on
divine, born in 1630, and educated in Caius college free-thinking ; which made a prodigious noife. In
Cambridge. He had firft the fmall redory of Amp- 1715, he retired into the county of Eflex, and aded
ton, near St Edmund’s Bury in Suffolk; which in lix as a juftice of peace and deputy lieutenant for the
years he refigned, to come, to London, in 1685, fame county, as he had done before for that of Mid-
where he was made ledurer of Gray’s Inn : but the dlefex and liberty of Weftminfter. The fame year,
change of government that followed,-foon rendered he publiftied a ‘ ‘ Philofophical Effay concerning hu-
the public exercife of his fundion impradicable. He man liberty.” In 1718, he was chofen treafurer of
was committed to Newgate for writing againft the the county of Effex ; and this office he difeharged
revolution; and again, for carrying‘on a correfpon- with great honour. In 1724, hepublifhed his <ir Hii-
dence which that change.of events made treafonahle ; torical and critical Effay on the 39 articles.” Soon
but was releafed both times, without trial, by the in- after, he publiftied his “ Difeourfe of the grounds and
tervention of friends. It is obfervable that he carried reafons of the Chriftian religion ;” to which is prefix-
his fcruples fo far, as to prefer confinement to the ta- ed, “ An Apology for free debate and liberty of
cit acknowledgment of the jurifdidion of the court by writing ;” which piece was immediately attacked by
accepting his liberty upon bail. Suitable to thefe a great number of writings. In 1726, appeared his
principles, he next aded , a very extraordinary part “ Scheme of literary prophecy confidered, in a view of
with two other clergymen of his own way or think- the controverfy occafioned by a late book entitled, A
ing, at the execution of Sir John Friend and Sir Wil- difeourfe of the grounds, Sffr.” In this difeourfe, h:
liam Perkins for the affaffination plot; by giving them mentions a MS. differtation of his to ffow the Sibyl-
folemn abfolution, and by impofition of hands : ab- line oracles to be a forgery made in the times of the
fconding for which, he continued under an outlawry primitive Chriftians,. who, for that reafon, were cai-
to the day of his death in 1726. Thefe proceedings led Sibyllifls by the Pagans; but it never appeared in
having put a flop to his adivity, he employed his re- print. His fcheme of literary prophecy was replied to -
tired hours rather more ufefully in literary works, by feveral writers ; and particularly by Dr John Ro-
In 1698, he attempted to reform our theatrical enter- gers in his “ Neceffity of divine revelation affert-
tainments, by publilhing his Short view of the immo- ed.” In anfwer to which, our author wrote “ A
rality and profanenefs of the Englifh Jlage ; which en- letter to the Reverend Dr Rogers, on occafion, £sV.”
gaged him in a controverfy with the wits of the time: His health began to decline fome years- before his
but as Mr-Collier defended his cenfures not only with death, and he-was very much afflided with the ftone,
wit, but with learning and reafon, it is allowed that which at laft put an end to his life athishoufe in Har-
the decorum obferved, for the moft part, by fucceed- ley fquare in 1729. He was interred in Oxford cha-
ing dramatic writers, has been owing to his animad- pel, where a monument was ereded to -him, with
verfions. He next undertook a tranllation of Mor- an epitaph in Latin. - His curious library was open to
reri’s great Hiftorical and Geographical Didionary ; all men of letters, to whom he readily communicated
a work of extraordinary labour, and which appeared all the affiftance in his power ; he even furnifhed his
in 4 volsi folio. After this he publiffed “ An Eccle- antagonifts with books to- confute himfelf, and direc-
fiaftical Hiftory of Great Britain, chiefly of England,’' ted them how to give their arguments all the force of
in 2 vols. folio.; which is allowed to be written with which they were capable. - He was remarkably averfe
great judgment, and even with impartiality. He to all indecency and obfeenity of difeourfe ; and was,
was befides engaged in. feveral controverfies, which independent of his fcepticifm, a fincerely good man.
his condud and writings gave rife to, not material to Collins. (John), an eminent accountant and ma-
mention. In queen Anne’s reign, Mr Collier was thematician, born in 1624,. and bred a bbokfeller at-
tempted, by offers of confiderable preferment, to a Oxford. Befides feveral treatifes on pradical fubjeds,
fubmiffion ; but as he was a nonjuror upon principle, he communicated fome curious papers to the Royal So-
be could not be brought-to liften to any terms. ciety, of which he was a member, which are to be ■
Collier, or Coallier. See Coal her. found in the early numbers of the Philofophical Tranf-
adions 2 :
C O L [ 144 1 CO L
Collins, aftions : and was the chief promoter of many other
^C'olhnfon. fcient;ifiCal publications in his time. He died in 16X3 ;
an(j about 25 years after, all his papers coming into
the hands of the learned William Jones, £fq; F. -R. S.
it appeared that Mr Collins held a conftant correfpond-
ence for many years with all the eminent mathema¬
ticians; and that many of the late difcoveries in phy-
fical knowledge, if not aftually made by him, were
yet brought forth by his endeavours.
Collins (William), an admirable poet, was born
at Chichefter, about the year 1724. He received his
claflical education at Winchefter ; after which he ftu-
died at New college, in Oxford, was admitted .a com¬
moner of King’s college in the ^fame univerfity, and
was at length ele&ed a demy of Magdalene college.
While at Oxford, he applied himfelf to the ftudy of
■poetry, and publillied his Oriental'Eclogues; after
which he came to London. He was naturally pof-
feffed of an ear for all the varieties of harmony and
v 'modulation ; his heart was fufceptible of the fineft.
feelings of tendernefs and humanity, and was particu¬
larly carried away by that high enthufiafm which gives
to imagination its ftrongeft colouring ; and he Was at
once capable of foothing the ear with the melody of
his numbers, of influencing the paflions by the force
of the pathos, and of gratifying the fancy by the luxu¬
ry of defcription. With thefe powers, he attempted
lyric poetry; and in 1746, publilhed his Odes, de-
fcriptive and allegorical: but the faleof this work be¬
ing not at all anfwerablc to its merit, he burnt the
remaining copies in indignation. Being a man of
a liberal fpirit and a fmall fortune, his pecuniary re-
Fources were unhappily foon exhaufted ; and his life
became a miferable example" of neceflity, indolence,
and diflipation. He proje&ed books which he was
well able to execute ; and became in idea an hiftorian,
a critic, and a dramatic poet; but wanted the means
and encouragement to carry thefe ideas into execu¬
tion. Day fucceeded day, for thd fupport of which
he had made no provilion ; and he wras obliged to fub-
fift, either by the repeated contributions of a friend,
or the generofity of a cal'ual acquaintance. His fpi-
rits became opprefied, and he funk into a fullen de-
fpondence. While in this gloomy ftate of mind, his
uncle colonel Martin died, and left him a con fide cable
fortune. But this came too late for enjoyment ; he
had been fo long haraffed by anxiety and diftreis,
that he fell into a nervous diforder, which at length
reduced the fineft uuderftanding to the moft deplor¬
able childifhnefs. In the firlt ftages of this diforder,
he endeavoured to relieve himfelf by travelling, and
-pafled into France ; but the growing malady obliged
him to return ; and having continued, with fliort in¬
tervals, in this pitiable ftate till the year 1756, he
died in the arms of his filter. The ingenious Mr
Longhorne has publilhed his poetical works, with me¬
moirs of the author, in one volume duodecimo.
COLLINSON (Peter), an eminent naturalift and
antiquarian, defeended of an ancient family, was born
on the paternal eftate called Hugal-HaU, or Height of
HugnI, near Windermere lake, in the parilh of Stavely,
about ten miles from Kendal in Weitmoreland. Whilft
a youth he difeovered his attachment to natural hiftoiy.
Fie began early to make a coDeftiou of dried fpeci-
mens of plants, and had accefs to the belt gardens at
84. ‘ 4
that time in the neighbourhood of London. He be- CoH
came early acquainted with the moft eminent natural-
ills of his time ; the Drs Derham, W'oodward, Dale,
Lloyd, and Sloane, were amongft his friends. Among
the great variety of articles wdiich form that fuperb
colleftion, now (by the wife difpofition of Sir Hans
and the munificence of parliament) the Britilh Mu-
feum, fmall was the number of thofe with whofe hi-
ftory Mr Collinfon was not well acquainted ; he being
one of thofe few who vifited Sir Hans at all times fa¬
miliarly ; their inclinations and purfuits in refpeft to
natural hiftory being the fame, a firm friendfhip had
early been eftablilhed between them. Peter Collin¬
fon was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on the
X 2th of December 1728 ; and perhaps was one of the
moft diligent and ufeful members, not only in fupply-
ing them with many curious obfervations himfelf, but
in promoting and preferving a moft extenlive corre-
fpondence with learned and ingenious foreigners, in all
countries and on every ufeful fubjeft. Beiides his at¬
tention to natural hiftoty, he minuted every ftriking
hint that occurred either in reading or converfation ;
and from this fource he derived much information, as
there were very few men of learning and ingenuity
who were not of his acquaintance at home ; and moft
foreigners of eminence in natural hiftory, or in arts and
fciences, were recommended to his notice and friend-
fliip. His diligence and ceconomy of time was fiich,
that though he never appeared to be in a hurry, he
maintained an extenfive correfpondence with ‘great
punctuality ; acquainting the learned and ingenious in
diftant parts of the globe with the difcoveries and im¬
provements in natural hiftory in this country, and re¬
ceiving the like information from the moft eminent
perfons in almoft every other. His eorrefpondence
with the ingenious Cadwallader Golden, Efq; of New
York, andthe juftly celebrated Dr Franklin of Phila¬
delphia, furnifh in fiances of the benefit re fulling from
his attention to aft improvements. The latter of thefe
gentlemen communicated his firft eflays on ele&ricity
to Mr Collir.fon, in a feries of letters, which were then
publiflied, and have been reprinted in a late edition of
the Do&or’s ingenious difcoveries and ^improvements.
Perhaps, in forfie future period, the account procured
of the management of fheep in Spain, publifhed in the
Gentleman’s Magazine for May and June 1 764, may
not be confidered among the leaft of the benefits ac¬
cruing from his extenfive and inquifijive correfpon-
dencc. His converfation, cheerful and ufefully enter¬
taining, rendered his acquaintance much defired by
thofe who had a relifh for natural hiftory, or were ftu-
dious in cultivating rural improvements; and fecured
him the intimate friendfhip of fome of the moft emi¬
nent perfonages in this kingdom, as diftinguifhed by
their tafte in planting and horticulture, as by their rank
and dignity. He was the firft who introduced the
great variety of feeds and fhrubs which are now the
principal ornaments of every garden ; and it was ow¬
ing to his indefatigable induftry, that fo many perfons
of the firft diftindtion are now enabled to behold groves
tranfplanted from the weflern continent flourifhng as
luxuriantly in their feveral domains as if they were
already become indigenous to Britain. He had fome
correfpondents in almoft every nation in Europe, fome
in Alia, and even at Pekin; who all tranfmitted to
COL [ 145 1 COL
Colliiifonla him the mod valuable feeds they could colleft, in re-
_ H . turn for the treafures of America. The great Lin-
. ° ^n‘e' n<eus, during his refxdence in England, contrafted an
intimate friendihip with Mr Collinfon, which was re¬
ciprocally increafed by a multitude of good offices, and
continued to the lad. Befides his attachment to na¬
tural hidory, he was very converfant in the antiquities
of our own country, having been eledled a member of
the Society of Antiquaries April 7. 1737; and he
fupplied them often with many curious articles of in¬
telligence and obfervations, refpe&ing both our own
and other countries. He died in 1768, leaving be¬
hind him many materials for the improvement of na¬
tural hidory
COLL1NSONIA, in botany: A genus of themono-
gynia order belonging to the decandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 40th or¬
der, Perfonata. The corolla is unequal, with its under
lip multilid, and the fegments capillary. There is on¬
ly one perfeA feed. There is but one fpecies, a native
of North America, but pofiefled of no remarkable pro¬
perties.
COLLIQUAMENTUM, in natural hidory, an
extreme tranfparent fluid in an egg, obfervable after
two or three days incubation, containing the fird ru¬
diments of the chick. It is included in one of its own
proper membranes ; diflindt from the albumen. Har¬
vey calls it the oculus.
COLLIQUATION, in chemidry, is applied to ani¬
mal, vegetable, and mineral fubftances, tending to¬
wards fufron. See Fusion.
Col liquation, in phyfic, a term applied to the
blood, when it lofes its crafis or balfamic texture;
and to the folid parts, when they wade away, by
means of the animal fluids flowing off through the
feveral glands, and particularly thofe of the Hein,
fader than they ought: which occafions fluxes of many
kinds, but modly profufe, greafy, and clammy fweats.
COLLIQUATIVE fever, in phyfic, a fever at¬
tended with a diarrhoea, or with profufe fweats.
COLLISION, the driking of one hard body againd
another; or the fri&ion or percuflion of bodies mo¬
ving violently with different diredtions, and daflring
againd each other.
COLLUM, the fame with Neck.
COLLUSION, in law, a fecret underdanding be¬
tween two parties, who plead or proceed fraudulent¬
ly againd each, to the prejudice of a third perfon.
COLLUTHIANS, a religious fedt, who rofe
about the beginning of the fourth century ; on occa-
fion of the indulgence drown to Arius by Alexander
patriarch of Alexandria. Several people being fcanda-
lized at fo much condefcenfion ; and, among the red,
Colluthus, a pried of the fame city ; he hence took a
pretence for holding feparate aflemblies, and by degrees
proceeded to the ordination of prieds, as if he had been
a bifhop ; pretending a neceflity for this authority, in
order to oppofe Arius. To his fchifm he added herefy;
teaching, that God did not create the wicked ; that he
■was not author of the evils that befal men, &c. He
was condemned by a council held at Alexandria by
Ofius, in the year 330.
COLLYBUS (Koxxufof), in antiquity, the fame
with what is now called the rate of exchange.
COLLYRiE, or Collyrides, in antiquity, a cer-
Vol. V. Part I.
tain ornament of hair, worn by the women on their Collyri-
necks. It was made up in the form of the fmall <ia||ls ,
roundifh cakes called xo\xup«i, collyra:. Cologne
COLLYRIDIANS, in church hidory, a fe<a, to 
wards the clofe of the 4th century, denominated from
a little cake, called by the Greeks xokwiiSiou, collyridia,
which they offered to the Virgin Mary.
This feft, it feems, confided chiefly of Arabian
women, who, out of an extravagance of devotion to
the Virgin, met on a certain day in the year, to cele¬
brate a folemn fead, and to render divine honours to
Mary as to a goddefs; eating the cake which they
offered in her name. St Epiphanius, who relates the
hidory of this fuperditious ceremony, ridicules it.
They fprung up in oppofition to the Antidico-Ma-
RIANITES.
COLLYRIUM, in pharmacy, a topical remedy for
a diforder of the eyes ; defigned to cool and repel hot
fharp humours.
COLMAR, a confiderable town of France, in Up¬
per Alface, of which it is the capital. It has great
privileges, and the Protedants have liberty of con*
fcience. It is feated near the river 111, in E. Long.
7. 16. N. Lat. 48. 5.
COLMARS, a town of France in Provence, and
the diocefe of Sens. It is feated near the Alps, in
E. Long. 6. 25. N. Lat. 44. 17.
COLMOGOROD, a town of the empire of Ruflia,
with an archbiflrop’s fee, feated in an illand formed by
the river Divina, in E. Long. 23. 30. N. Lat. 36. 32.
COLNBROOK, a town of Buckinghamflrire in
England, feated on the river Coin, which feparates
this county from Middlefex. It is a great thorough¬
fare on the wedern road, and has feveral good inns.
W. Long. o. 19. N. Lat. 51. 30.
COLNE, a town of Lancaflure in England, feated
on a fmall hill near the confines of the county. W.
Long. 2. 2. N. Lat. 53. 45.
COLOCHINA, an ancient town of the Morea in
Turky in Europe. E. Long. 23. 2. N. Lat. 36. 32.
COLOCYNTHIS, in botany, a fpeciesofCticuMis.
COLOCZA, a town of Hungary, feated on the
Danube, and capital of the county of Bath, with an
archbifliop’s fee. It rvas taken by the Turks in 1686,
but afterwards retaken by the Imperialids. E. Long.
19. 42. N. Lat. 46. 33.
COLOGNA, a town of Italy in Padua, and in the
territory of Venice. E. Long. 11. 43. N. Lat. 45. 39.
COLOGNE (the archbilhopric or diocefe of) is
one of the dates that compofe the eleftoral circle of
the Rhine, in Germany. It is bounded on the north
by the duchy of Cleves and Gueldres, on the wed by
that of Juliers, on the fouth by the archbiihopric of
Cleves, and on the ead by the duchy of Berg, from
which it is almod wholly feparated by the Rhine.
This, country is very fruitful in corn and wine, which
the inhabitants difpofe of by embarking it on the
Rhine, it extending about feventy miles along that
river. It is divided into the Higher and Lower Dio¬
cefe ; the Higher Diocefe contains that part which
lies above Cologne, wherein is Bonne, the capital town
of this elcftorate, and where the eledlor reiides ; be¬
fides which there are Leichnich, Andernach, Bruyl,
Zulich, and Kerpen. The Lower Diocefe is on the
other fide of Cologne, and contains the towns of Zonz,
T Neuys,
COL [ 146 ] COL
Neuys, Heizarwart, Kempen, Rhynberg, and Alpen. diddled from the juniper berries which grow in this Cologne
The city of Cologne and county of Meurs, though neighbourhood. This city is perhaps the mod re- ——v~—^
within the diocefe of Cologne, do not belong, to it; markable of any in the world for the great number of
for Cologne is a free city, and Meurs belongs to the precious relics it contains; of which the Popifh clergy,
houfe of Nadau-Orange ; but by way of recompence, no doubt, make their advantage. In the church of
the eleclor has confiderable poffeffions in Wedphalia, St Urfula, they pretend to diow her tomb, and the
which they call the Domain. It contains the duchy bones of the 11,000 pretended virgin martyrs, though
of Wedphalia and the county of Rechlinchufen. This that dory is entirely owing to a midaken infcription.
prelate is one of the eleftors of the empire, and holds The heads of fome of thefe imaginary martyrs are kept
alternately with that of Treves the fecond or third in cafes of diver, others are covered with duffs of gold,
rank in the eleftoral college. He is arch-chancellor and fome have caps of cloth of gold and velvet. Bre-
of the empire in Italy ; which dignity was very im- vat fays, he faw between 4 and 5000 (hulls, decked
portant when the emperors were maders of Italy, but with garlands, and coronets, ranged on (helves. The
now it is next to nothing. When the emperors were canoneffes of St Urfula, who mud ‘be all counteffes,
crowned at Aix la Chapelle, the archbifhop of Cologne^ have a handfome income. In their church they pre¬
performed the ceremony, which caufed him to pretend
to the fame right elfewhere ; but he was oppofed by
the archbifhop of Mentz. This occadohed an order,
that they (hould each of them have that honour in
their own diocefe, but if it was done elfewhere, they
fhould perform it alternately. The archbifhop of Co¬
tend to fhow three of the thorns of our Saviour’s
crown, and one of the veffels which contained the
water that he converted into wine at the marriage of
Cana. In the church of St Gereon are 900 heads of
Moorifh Cavaliers, faid to have been in the army of
Condantine'before it was converted, and to have been
logne is deeded by the chapter in that city, which is beheaded for refudng to facridce to idols. Every
the mod illudrious in all Germany. They are all one of the heads has a cap of fcarlet, adorned with
princes or counts, except eight dodtors, who have no pearls. In the magnificent cathedral of St Peter, the
eccafion to prove their nobility.
Cologne, an ancient and celebrated town of Ger¬
many, in the diocefe of that name, with an archbi-
fhop’s fee, and a famous univerfity, feated on the river
Rhine, in E. Long. 6. 38. N. Lat. 50. 50. In the
times of the Romans, this city was called Colonia A-
three wife men who came from the ead to vifit our
Saviour, are faid to be interred. They lie in a large
purple (hrine fpangled with gold, fet upon a pedef-
tal of brafs, in the midd of a fquare maufoleam, faced
within and without with marble and jafper. It is
opened every morning at nine o’clock, if two of the
grippina, and ULiorum, becaufe it was built by Agrip- canons of the cathedral are prefent, when thefe kings
pina the wife of Claudius I. and mother of Nero ; and or wife men are feen lying at full length, with their
Irecaufe the Ubii inhabited this country on the Lower heads bedecked with a crown of gold garnifhed with
Rhine. In 755, it was an archbifhopric, and in 1260 precious dones. Their names, which are Gafpar, Md-
entered into the Hanfeatic league. The univerfity chier, and Balthafar, are in purple characters on a
was edablifhed in 1388 by Pope Urban VI. The little grate, which is adorned with an infinite number
city is fortified with drong walls, flanked with 83 of large rich pearls and precious dones, particularly
large towers, and furrounded with three ditches ; but an oriental topaz as big as a pigeon’s egg, and valued
thefe fortifications,, being executed after the ancient at above 30,000 crowns. Over againd them- are fix
manner, could make but a poor defence at prefent. It large branches of filver, with wax candles, which burn-
lies in the (hape of a half-moon, and is faid to have
20 gates, T9 parifhes, 37 monaderies, and 365 church¬
es and. chapels; but the dreets in general are dirty
and badly paved, the windows of the houfes compofed
of fmall bits. of round glafs, and the inhabitants are
but few for fo large a place. It is inhabited modly by
Papids ; but .there are alfo many protedants, who re¬
pair to the neighbouring town of Mulheim, in the
night and day. The bones of thefe men, we are told,
were brought to Condantinople by Helena mother to-
Condanti^e, from thence to Milan by Eudorpius
bifhop of that fee, and afterwards hither by archbifliop-
Rainold. In the Jefuits college are the portraits of
the fird 13 generals of that order, with Ignatius Lo¬
yola at their head; and in the church, which is the-
fined in Cologne, are many rich datues, with an ama-
duchy of Berg, for public wordiip. Its trade, which zing quantity of fine filver plate ; and the utenfils for
is confiderable, efpecially in Rhenifh wine, is chiefly mafs are all of gold enriched with precious dones. In¬
in the hands of Protedants, and carried on by the the Cordeliers church, is the tomb of the famous Duns
Rhine. The (hips with which they trade to the Ne- Scotus, furnamed Doctor Subtilis, with this epitaph,
therlands are of a particular form, and confiderable “ Scotia me genuit, Anglia me fufeepit, Gallia me
burden. The clergy here are very numerous, and have docuit, Colognia me tenet.” Cologne is a free impe-
Jarge revenues. That of the archbifhop is L. 130,000. rial city, and as fuch has a feat and voice at the diets of
Baron Polnitz fays, that though Cologne is one of the empire, and circle of the Lower Rhine. In thofe
the greated cities, it is one of the mod melancholy in of the empire> it has the fird place on the Rheni(h
all Europe ; there being nothing to be feen but prieds, bench. Towards the defence of the empire, its affeff-
friars, and dudents, many of whom beg alms with a ment is 825 florins ; and towards the maintenance of
fong ; and nothing to be heard but the ringing of the chamber-court, 405 rix-dollars, 724- kruitzers
bells; that there are very few families of quality; that each term. Its militia confids of four companies of
the vulgar are very clownifh ; and that the noblemen foot, who keep guard at the gates. It is governed
of the chapter day no longer in town than their duty by its own fenate, in refpeft to civil matters and
obliges them. Mr Wright, in his travels, fays, that caufes; but the criminal jurifdi&ion belongs to the
the women go veiled; and that the bed gin is that ele&or and his chapter; and fo jealous are the inha-
3 bitauts,
COL
[ *47 h
COL
Colombo bitants of him, that they will not permit him to ftay
Colon *n t^ie c'ty ak°ve three days at a time, nor to come
s, into it with a large retinue. For this reafon the elec¬
tor refides commonly at Bonn.
! CozoGNK-Earih, a kind of very light baftard ochre,
of a deep brown colour.
COLOMBO, a handfome, pleafant, and ftrong
it moving / and it appears the grafs has grown, though no Colonel
body ever Java it grow : fo the advances we make in know- ■ ^ .
ledge, as they conjijl of fuch minuteJleps, are only perceiv- CI'0I‘ " .
able by the di/lance —the advancement in knowledge is v
compared to the motion of a fliadow, and the growth
of grafs 5 which comparifon divides the fentence into
two principal parts : but fince what is faid of the
town of Afia, feated on the eaftern fide of the ifland movement of the fhadow, and likewife of the growth
of Ceylon in the Fall Indies. It was built by the of grafs, contains two fimple members, they are to be
Portuguefe in 1638; and in 1658 they were driven feparared by a femicolon ; confequently a higher point-
from it by the natives, aflifted by the Dutch, who are ing is required to feparate them from the other part
now in poffeffion of it. It is about three quarters of of the fentence, which they are oppofed to: and this
a mile long, and as much in breadth. The natives is a colon. See Punctuation.
live in the old town, without the walls of the new: COLONEL, in military matters, the commander in
the ftreets of this laft are wide and fpacious ; and the chief of a regiment, whether horfe, foot, or dragoons,
buildings are in the modern tafte, particularly the go- Skinner derives the word from colony; being of
vernor’s houfe, which is a handfome ftru&ure. E. Long.
80. 25. N. Lat. 7. o.
COLOMEY, or Colomia, a town of Poland in
Red Ruffia, feated on the river Pruth, in E. Long.
25. 9. N. Lat. 48. 45.
COLOMNA (Fabio), a very learned botanift,born
at Naples about the year 1567. He became Ikilled
opinion, the chiefs of colonies, called coloniales, might
give the name to chiefs of forces. In the French and
Spanifh armies, colonel is confined to the infantry and
dragoons: the commanding officer of a regiment of
horfe they ufually call mefre de camp. Formerly, in-
llead of colonel, the French ufed the word coronel;
and this old fpelling comes nearer to our common
in the languages, in mufic, defigning, painting, and way of pronouncing the word colonel.
the mathematics; and died about the middle of the
17th century. He wrote, 1. feu Plan-
tarum aliquot (ac pifeium) hiftoria. 2. Minus cogni-
tarum rariorumque llirpium tr-vpao-,;; itemque de aqua-
tilibus, aliifque nonnullis animalibus, libellus; and o-
ther works.
A colonel may lay any officer of his regiment in
arreft, but mull acquaint the general with it; he is
not allowed a guard, only a centry from the quarter-
guard.
CoioNEi-Lieutenant, he wh6 commands a regiment
of guards, whereof the king, prince, or other perfon
COLON, in anatomy, the firft and moft confider- of the firft eminence, is colonel. Thefe colonel-lieute-
able of the large inteftines. See Anatomy, under nants have always-a colonel’s commiffion, and are ufual-
n° 93.
Colon, in grammar, a point, or character formed
thus [:], ferving to mark a paufe, and to divide the
members of a period. See Pointing ; fee alfo Pe¬
riod, Comma, and Semicolon. Grammarians ge¬
nerally affign the ufe of a colon to be, to mark the
middle of a period ; or to conclude a fenfe lefs perfect
than the dot or period :—but, a fenfe lefs perfect than
the period, is an expreffion extremely vague and inde¬
terminate. See Period.
Others fay, a colon is to be ufed when the fenfe is
perfect, but the fentence not concluded : but neither
is this over clear and exprefs.
A late author, in an ingenious difeourfe, De ratione
interpungendi, marks the office of the colon, and where¬
in it differs from the femicolon, &c. more precifely.
A colon, on his principles, ferves to diftinguifh thofe
ly general-officers.
Lieutenant-CoLONEL, thefecond officer in a regiment,
who is at the head of the captains, and commands in
the abfence of the colonel.
COLONIA, (anc. geog.) a town of the Trino-
bantes, a little above Camelodunum. Now Colchef
ter in Effex, according to Cambden, who fuppofes it
to take its name froii) the river Colne, and not that it
was a colony. Though others think Antonine’s di-
ftances agree with Sudbury.
Colonia Equejlris, an ancient and noble colony on
the Lacus Lemanus. It appears to be the work of
Julius Csefar, who fettled there Equites Limitanei : and
to this Lucan is thought to refer. By the Itinerary
it is fuppofed to have flood between Laufane and
Geneva, 12 miles from the lail place by Peutinger’s
map ; which directs to Nyon, placed in Cavo Lemano,
eonjundl members of a fentence, which are capable of according to Lucan’s expreffion, that is, a bay or cove
being divided into other members; whereof one, at of the lake. Its ancient name was (Noti-
leaft, is conjundl. Thus, in the fentence, As we can- tia Galliae) : hence its modern name.
not difeern the Jhadow moving along the dial-plate, fo the Colonia Metallina, or Metallinenfis, a town of Lu-
advances we make in knowledge are only perceived ly fitania, fituated on the right or well fide of the Anas,
the dijlance gone 'over; the two members being both or Guadiana : but now on the left or eaft fide, from
fimple, are only feparated by a comma. In this, As the river’s drifting its bed or channel, and called Me-
we perceive the Jhadow to have moved, but did not per- delin, a town in Efiremadura. W. Long. 6J 12', Lat.
ceive it moving ; fo cur advances in underjlanding, in that 38° 45'.
that they confjl of fuch minute Jleps, are only perceivable Colonia Morinorum, a town of Belgica, thought
by the dijlance •,—the fentence being divided into two to be Tarvenna, the capital of the Morini. Nowt
equal parts, and thofe conjundl ones, fince they include Terrouen, a town of Artois. E Long. 2J 15', Lat.
others; we feparate the former by a femicolon, and 50° 37'.
the latter by commas. But in this, As we perceive the Colonia Norbenfts, or Ncrba Citfarea, a town of
Jhadow to have moved along the dial, but did not perceive Lufitania, to the fouth of Trajan’s bridge on the Ta-
T 2 gu*.
COL r 148 ] CO L
Colonia gus. Now Alcantara, in Eftremadura. W. Long.
Col n 10 ’ ^ ■^'at‘ 39° 10,•
- v-\’ ■ Colonia Trajana, (Antonine, Peutinger) ; a
town of Belgica, furnamed alfo Ulpia, (Antonine) ;
and Tricejima, from being the ftation of the thirtieth
legion, (Ammian). Now Kellen, a village of the
duchy of Cleves, a mile from the Rhine.
Colonia Valentia, (Ptolemy, Livy) ; a town of
the Hither Spain, on the Turias ; deftroyed by Pom-
pey, (Salluft); reftored by Julius Casfar. Still cal¬
led Valencia, on the river Guadalaviar, in Valencia.
W. Long. 35', Lat. 390 20'.
COLONNA, a town of Italy, in the Campagna of
Rome, 18 miles eaflward of that city. E. Long. 130
15' N. Lat. 420 o.'
Colonna (Pompey), cardinal archbiihop of Mon¬
treal in Sicily, and bifhop of a very great number of
places, made a confpicuous figure in the world. He
was equally qualified to wear the cardinal’s hat and
the helmet, and experienced more than once the re-
verfes of fortune. Julius II. removed him from all
his dignities ; but Leo I. reftored him, created him
cardinal, and fent him on feveral embaflies. Cle¬
ment VII. diverted him of the purple, andagain reftored
him to it. It was pretended he was obliged to him
for his exaltation to the papal throne. The pope re-
fufing him fomc requeft, he reproached him, faying,
“ That it was by his intereft he had arrived at his
dignity.” The pope replied, “ It is true, but let me
be pope, and do not endeavour to be fo yourfelf; for
by afting as you do, you endeavour to difpoffefs me
of that you have railed me to.” He died viceroy of
Naples in 1532. He wrote fome poems in praife of
Ifabella Filamarini, in which he protefts the chaftity
of his wifties. Pie wrote another work, De laudibus
mulierum.
COLONNADE, in archite&ure, a periftyle of a
circular figure ; or a feries of columns difpofed in a
circle, and infulated within fide.
A Polyflyle Colonnade, is that whofe numbers of
columns is too great to be taken in by the eye at a
fingle view. Such is the colonnade of the palace of
St Peter’s at Rome, confifting of 284 columns of the
Doric order, each above four feet and an half diame¬
ter, all in Tiburtine marble.
COLONOS, (anc. geog.) an eminence near Athens,
whither CEdipus, after his banifliment from Thebes,
is faid to have retired : and hence it is that Sophocles
calls the tragedy on the fubjeft, Oedipus Coloneus. A
place facred to Neptune, and where flood an equef-
trian ftatue of him. Here alfo flood Timon’s tower;
who, for his love of folitude, and hatred to mankind,
was called Mifanthropos, (Paufanias).
COLONSAY, one of the Hebrides or Weftern
Iflands belonging to Scotland. It comprehends that
of Oronfay, from which it is only feparated in time
of flood, and both belong to the fame proprietor, v 'vz.
Mr M‘Neil. See Oronsay.
COLONUS, an hufbandman, or villager, who was
bound to pay yearly a certain tribute, or at certain
times of the year to plough fome part of the lord’s
land ; and from hence comes the word clown, who is
called by the Dutch boor.
COLONY, a company of people tranfplanted in¬
to a remote province in order to cultivate and inhabit Colony,
it.  w’—
We may diftinguifh three kinds of colonies. Firft,
thofe ferving to eafe or difcharge the inhabitants of a
country, where the people are become too numerous,
fo that they cannot any longer conveniently fubfift.
The fecond are thofe eftablifhed by vidtorious prin¬
ces and people in the middle of vanquilhed nations, to
keep them in awe and obedience.
The third may be called colonies of commerce; be-
caufe, in effeft, it is trade that is the foie occafion and
object thereof.
It was by means of the fiift kind of colonics that,
fome ages after the deluge, the eaft firft, and fuccef-
fively all the other parts of the earth', became inha¬
bited : and without mentioning any thing of the Phoe¬
nician and Grecian colonies, fo famous in ancient hi-
ftory, it is notorious that it was for the eftablifhment
of fuch colonies, that, during the declenlion of the em¬
pire, thofe torrents, of barbarous nations, ifiuing, for
the generality, out of the north, over-run the Gauls,
Italy, and the other fouthern parts of Europe ; and,
after feveral bloody battles, divided it with the ancient
inhabitants.
For the fecond kind of colonies, the Romans ufed
them more than any other people ; and that to fecure
the conquefts they had made from the weft to the
eaft. Every one knows how many cities in Gaul,
Germany, Spain, and even England, value themfelves
on their having been of the number of Roman colo¬
nies.
There were two kinds of colonies among the Ro¬
mans : thofe fent by the fenate; and the military ones,
confifting of old foldiers, broken and difabled with the
fatigues of war, who were thus provided with lands
as the reward of their fervices. See Benefice. The
colonies fent by the fenate were either Roman or La¬
tin, i. e. compofed either of Roman citizens or Latins.
The Colonise Latinse were fuch as enjoyed the jus La¬
in ; faid to confift in thofe two things: one, that
whoever was edile or pretor in a town of Latium, be¬
came for that reafon a Roman citizen ; the other,
that the Latins were fubjeft to the edi&s of their own,
and not to thofe of the Roman magiftrates: in the
year of the city fix hundred and fixty two, after the
focial war, the city was granted to all Latium, by
the lex Julia. The colonise Romanise, were fuch as
had the jus Romanum, but not in its full extent;
namely, in the right of fuffrage, putting up for ho¬
nours, magiftracies, command in the army, £sV.; but
the jus Quiritium only, or private right; as right of
liberty, of gentility, or dignity of family, facrifice,
marriage, &c. For it was long a rule, never to grant
the liberty of the city in full to colonies : nor is there
any inftance to the contrary, till after the focial war,
in the year of the city fix hundred and fixty-two. Ac¬
cording to Ulpian (l. 1. D. deCenf.), there were o-
ther colonies, which had little more than the name ;
only enjoying what they called jus Italicum, i. e. they
were free from the tributes.and taxes paid by the pro¬
vinces. Such were the colonies of Tyre, Berytus,
Heliopolis, Palmyra, &c. M. Vaillant has filled a
volume in folio with medals ftruck by the feveral co¬
lonies, in honour of the emperors who founded them..
COL L HO 1 COL
Colony. The ordinary fymbol they engraved on their medals,
"""V was either an eagle ; as when the veteran legions were
diftributed in the colonies: or a labourer, holding a
plough drawn by a pair of oxen ; as when the colony
confided of ordinary inhabitants. On all the medals
are feen the names of the decemviri, who held the
fame rank and had the fame authority there as the
confuls had at Rome.
Laftly, the colonies of commerce, are thofe efla-
bliihedby the Englifh, French, Spaniards, Portuguefe,
and other nations within thefe two lad centuries, and
which they continue dill to edabliih, in feveral parts
of Ada, Africa, and America; either to keep up a
regular commerce with the natives, or to cultivate the
ground, by planting fugar-canes, indigo, tobacco, and
other commodities. The principal of this kind of co¬
lonies, are in the one and the other America, nor¬
thern and fouthern ; particularly Peru, Mexico, Ca¬
nada (lately Virginia, New-England, Carolina), la
Louifiana, 1’Acadia, Hudfon’s Bay, the Antilles If-
lands, Jamaica, Domingo, and the other iflands.—In
Africa, Madagafcar, Cape of Good Hope, Cape
Verd, and its iflands, and all thofe vad coads extend¬
ed thence as far as to the Red Sea. Eadly, in Alia,
the famous Batavia of the Dutch ; Goa, Diu, of the
Portuguefe ; and fome other lefs confiderable places of
the Englifh, French, and Danes.
The praftice of fettling commercial colonies in di-
dant countries hath been adopted by the wifed nations
of antiquity, who ailed fydematically upon maxims
of found policy. This appears to have been the cafe
with the ancient Egyptians, the Chinefe, the Phoeni¬
cians, the commercial dates of Greece, the Carthagi¬
nians, and even the Romans; for though the colonies
of the latter were chiefly military, it could eafily be
drown that they were likewife made ufe of for the
purpofes of trade. The favage nations who ruined
the Roman empire, fought nothing but to extirpate
or hold in vaffalage thole whom they overcame ; and
therefore, whenever princes enlarged their dominions
at the expence of their neighbours, they had recourfe
to drong forts and garrifons to keep the conquered in
awe. For this they have been blamed by the famous
Machiavel; who labours to flrow, that the fettling of
colonies would have been a cheaper and better me¬
thod of bridling conquered countries, than building
fortreffes in them. John de Witt, who was one of
the abled and bed datefmen that ever appeared,
drongly recommended colonies; as aflbrding a refuge
to fuch as had been unfortunate in trade ; as opening
a field for fuch men to exert their abilities, as through
want of intered could not raife themfelves in their
own country ; and as a Supplement to hofpitals and
other charitable foundations, which he thought in time
might come to be overcharged. Some, however, have
ridiculed the fuppofed advantages of colonies, and af-
ferted that they mud always do mifehief by depopu¬
lating the mother-country.
The hidory of the Britifh colonies undoubtedly
fhows, that when colonifls become numerous and opu¬
lent, it is very difficult to retain them in proper fub-
jeftion to the parent date. It becomes then a quef-
tion not very eafily anfwered, how far they are en¬
titled to the rights they had as inhabitants of the mo¬
ther-country, or how far they are bound by its laws ?
On this fubjecl Mr Blackdone hath the following ob- Colony.
fervations. v 
“ Plantations, or colonies in didant countries, are
either fuch where the lands are claimed by right of
occupancy only, by finding them defert and unculti¬
vated, and peopling them from the mother-country;
or where, when already cultivated, they have either
been gained by conqued, or ceded to us by treaties.
And both the rights are founded upon the law of na¬
ture,. or at lead on that of nations. But there is a
difference between thefe two fpecies of Colonies with
refpetl to the laws by which they are bound. For it
hath been held, that if an uninhabited country be dif-
covered and planted by Englilh fubjedls, all the Englifh
laws then in being, which are the birthright of every
fubjedl, are immediately there in force. - But this mud
be underdood with many and very great reflridlions.
Such colonids carry with them only fo much of the
Englifh law as is applicable to their own fituation,
and the condition of an infant colony; fuch, for indance,
as the general rules of inheritance, and of protedlion
from perfonal injuries. The artificial refinements and
didindlions incident to the property of a great and
commercial people, the laws of policy and revenue
(fuch efpecially as are enforced by penalties), the mode
of maintenance for the edablilhed clergy, the jurifdic •
tion of fpiritual courts, and a multitude of other pro- m
vifions, are neither neceffary nor convenient for them,
and therefore are not in force. What fhall be admit¬
ted, and what rejedled, at what times, and under
what reflriftions, mud, in cafes of difpute, be deci¬
ded in the fird indance by their own provincial judi¬
cature, fubjedl to the revifion and controul of the king
in council; the whole of their conditution being alfo
liable to be new-modelled and reformed by the gene¬
ral fuperintending power of the legiflature in the mo¬
ther-country. But in conquered or ceded countries,,
that have already laws of their own, the king may in¬
deed alter and change thofe laws ; but, till he does
actually change them, _the ancient laws of the country
remain, unlefs fuch as are againd the law of God, as
in an infidel country. Our American plantations are
principally of this latter fort, being obtained in the lad
century, either by right of conqued and driving out
the natives (with what natural judice I fhall not at
prefent inquire), or by treaties. And therefore, the
common law of England, as fuch, has no allowance or'
authority there; they being no part of the mother
country, but didindl (though dependent), dominions.
They are fubjeft, however, to the controul of the
parliament; though (like Ireland, Mann, and the red)
not bound by any acts of parliament, unlefs particu¬
larly named.”
With refpedl to their interior polity, our colonies,,
whether thofe we formerly poffeffed or dill poffefs,.
may be didinguilhed into three forts. 1. Provincial
edablifliments, the conditutions of which depend on
the refpeftive commiffions iffued by the crown to
the governors, and the indruftions which ufually ac¬
company thofe commiffions; under the authority of
which provincial affemblies are condituted, with the
power of making local ordinances not repugnant to
the laws of Britain. 2. Proprietary governments,,
granted out by the crown to individuals, in the na¬
ture of feudatory principalites, with all the inferior re--
galities,,
G ° I. [ t,;<
Colony galities, and fubordinate powers of leglflation, which
formerly belonged to the owners of counties palatine:
Co ophony. ^et wjth thefe exprefs conditions, that the ends
for which the grant was made be fubitantially purfued,
and that nothing be attempted which may derogate
from the fovereignty of the mother-country. 3. Char¬
ter governments, in the nature of civil corporations ;
with the power of making bye-laws for their own in¬
terior regulation, not contrary to the laws of Britain ;
and with fuch rights and authorities as are fpecially
given them in their feveral charters of incorporation.
The form of government, in moft of them, is bor¬
rowed from that of England. They have a governor
named by the king (or, in fome proprietary colonies,
by the proprietor), who is reprefentative or deputy.
They have courts of juftice of their own, from whole
decifions an appeal lies to the king in council here in
England. Their general aflemblies, which are their
houfe of commons, together with their council of Hate,
being their upper houfe, with the concurrence of the
king, or his reprefentative the governor, make laws
fuited to their own emergencies. But it is particu¬
larly declared, by flat. 7 and 8 W. III. c. 22. that all
laws, bye-laws, ufages, and cuftoms, which {hall be in
praftice in any of the plantations, repugnant to any
law made or to be made in this kingdom relative to
the faid plantations, (hall be utterly void and of none
effeft. And, becaufe feveral of the colonies had claim¬
ed the foie and exclufive right of impofing taxes upon
themfelves, the ftatute 6 Geo. III. c. 12. exprefsly
declares, that all his Majefty’s colonies in America,
have been, are, and of right ought to be, fubordinate
to and dependent upon the imperial crown and par¬
liament of Great Britain ; who have full power and
authority to make laws and ftatutes of fufficient vali¬
dity to bind the colonies and people of America, fub-
jedts to the crown of Great Britain in all cafes what-
foever. And the attempting to, enforce this by other
ads of Parliament, penalties, and at laft by military
power, gave rife, as is well known, to the late revolt
and final feparation of thirteen colonies. See the ar¬
ticle America.
COLOPHON (anc. geog.), a town of Ionia, in
the Hither Afia, on a promontory on the Egean fea,
and wafhed by the Halefus. The ancient Colophon
was deftroyed by Lyfimachus, in his war with Anti-
gonus, in order to enlarge Ephefus. Paufanias fays,
it was rebuilt in the neighbourhood, in a more commo-
dions fcite. This was one of the cities that laid claim
to Homer. Colophonem addere, a proverbial faying, ex¬
plained by Strabo to denote, that the Colophonian
horfe turned the fcales in favour of the fide on which
they fought. The Colophonians had a grove, a temple,
and an oracle of Apollo Clarius (Strabo). Of this
town was the poet Antimachus, remarked on for his
tumid ftyle by Catullus. He wrote a life of Homer,
whom he makes a Colophonian (Plutarch).
COLOPHONY, in pharmacy, black refin, or tur¬
pentine, boiled in water, and afterwards dried ; or,
which is ftill better, the caput mortuum remaining af¬
ter the diftillation of the etherial oil, being further
urged by a more intenfe and long continued fire.—It
receives its name of colophonia, from Colophon, a city
of Ionia ; becaufe the beft. was formerly brought from
thence. Two forts are mentioned in ancient writings;
the one dry, the other in a liquid form. The latter
> ] CO X.
feems to have been liquid pitch, which Is the crude Gol^uin-
refin of the pine brought from Colophon ; the other bda >
was called rejtna friEla, and confided only of the for- j,o,J|up
mer deprived of its humid parts. > —‘ »
COLOQUINTIDA, in botany. See Cucumis.
COLORATURA, in mufic, denotes all manner of
variations,' trillos, diminutions, &c. ferving to make a
fang agreeable.
COLORNO, a town of Italy, in the Parmazan,
near the river Po, eight miles from Parma. The duke
of Parma has a pleafure-houfe here, one of the moft
delightful feats in all Italy, and the gardens are very
fine. E. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 44. 54.
COLOSSAE, or Coloseae (anc. geog.), a con-
fiderable town of Phrygia Magna, in which the Lycus
falls into a gulph, and at the diftance of five (ladia
emerges again, and runs into the Meander (Hero¬
dotus). Other fay, the genuine name is Colajfae, and
the people Colajfenfes, to whom St Paul wrote an epiille:
Strabo calls them Colojfeni. In Nero’s time the town
was dellroyed by an earthquake (Orofius).
COLOSSUS, a ftatue of enormous or gigantic
fize. The moft eminent of this kind was the Coloffus
of Rhodes; a ftatue of Apollo, fo high, that {hips
paffed with full fails betwixt its legs. It was the
workmanihip of Chares, a difciple of Lyfippus; who
fpent 12 years in making it: it was at length over¬
thrown by an earthquake, after having ftood 1360
years. Its height was fixfcdre and fix feet: there
were few people could fathom its thumb, &c. When
the Saracens became poffefled of the ifland, the ftatue
was found proftrate on the ground : they fold it to a
Jew, who loaded 900 camels with the brafs.
The bafis that fupported it was a triangular figure ;
its extremities were fuftained with 60 pillars of marble.
There was a winding-ftair-cafe to go up to the top of
it; from whence one might difcover Syria, and the
{hips that went into Egypt, in a great looking-glafs,
that was hung about the neck of the ftatue. Among the
antiquities of Rome, there are feven famous Coloffufes:
two of Jupiter, as many pf Apollo, one of Nero, one
ofDomitian, and one of the Sun.
COLOSTRUM, the firft milk of any animal after
bringing forth young, called beejlings. It is remark¬
able that this milk is generally cathartic, and purges
the meconium; thus ferving both as an aliment and
medicine.
An emulfion prepared with turpentine diffolved
with the yolk of an egg, is fometimes called by this
name.
COLOSWAR, a large and celebrated town of
Tranfylvania, where the fenates have their meetings.
It is feated on the river Samos, in E. Long. 22. 45.
N. Lat. 46. 73.
COLOUR, in phyfics, a property inherent in light,
by which, according to the various lizes of its parts,
or from fome other caufe-, it excites different vibrations
in the optic nerve ; which propagated to the fenforium,
affeft the mind with different fenfations. See Chro¬
matics and Optics.
Colour, in painting, is applied both to the drugs,
and to the tints produced by thofe drugs varioufly mix¬
ed and applied.
The principal colours ufed by painters are red and
white lead, or cerufs ; yellow and red ochres; feveral
kinds of earth, umbre, orpiment, lamp-black, burnt
ivory,
COL Li
Colour, ivory, black lead, cinnabar or vermllllon, gamboge,
—v——' lacca, blue and green afhes, verdigris, biftre, bice,
fmalt, carmine, ultramarine: each of which, with
their ufes, &c. are to be found under their proper ar¬
ticles.
Of thefe colours fome are ufed tempered with gum-
water : fome ground with oil; others only in frefco ;
and others for miniature.
Painters reduce all the colours they ufe under thefe
two clafles, of dark and light colours : dark colours
are black, and all others that are obfcure and earthy,
as umbre, biftre, &c.
Under light colours are comprehended white, and all
that approach neareft to it.
Painters alfo diftinguirti colours into Ample and mi¬
neral.
Under fimple colours they rank all thofe which are
extracted from vegetables, and which will not bear
the fire; as the yellow made of faffron, French ber¬
ries, lacca, and other tinftures extrafted from flowers,
ufed by limners, illuminers, &c.
The mineral colours are thofe which being drawn
from metals, &c. are able to bear the fire, and there¬
fore ufed by enamellers. Changeable and permanent
colours is another divifion, which, by fome, is made of
colours.
Changeable colours are fuch as depend on the fitua-
tion of the obje&s with refpeft to the eye, as that of
a pigeon’s neck, taffeties, &c. the firft however be¬
ing attentively viewed by the microfcope, each fibre
of the feathers appears compofed of feveral little
fquares, alternately red and green, fo that they are fixed
colours.
Water Colours, are fuch as are ufed in painting
with gum-water or-fize, without being mixed with
oil.
Incapacity of dijlinguijhing Colours. Of this ex¬
traordinary defeft in vifion, we have the following
inftances in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1777.
One of the perfons lived at Maryport in Cumberland.
The account was communicated by Mr Huddart to
Or Prieftley, and is as follows. “ His name was
Harris, by trade a flroe-maker. I had often heard
from others, that he could difcern the form and mag¬
nitude of all objefts very diftin&ly, but could not di-
ftinguifti colours. This report having excited my cu-
riofity, I converfed with him frequently on the fub-
jeft. The account he gave was this: That he had
reafon to believe other perfons faw fomething in ob-
je&s which he could not fee; that their language
feemed to mark qualities with precifion and confidence,
which he could only guefs at with hefitation, and free-
quently with error. His firft fufpicion of this arofe
when he was about four years old. Having by acci¬
dent found in the ftreet a child’s flocking, he carried
it to a neighbouring houfe to inquire for the owner:
he obferved the people called it a red flocking, though
he did not underftand why they gave it that denomi¬
nation, as he himfelf thought it completely defcribed
by being called a flocking. This circumftance, how¬
ever, remained in his, memory, and, together with fub-
fequent obfervations, led him to the knowledge of his
defed.
“ He alfo obferved, that when young, other chil¬
dren could difcern cherries on a tree, by forae pretend-
5' ] COL
ed difference of colour, though he could only diftin-
guifh them from the leaves by the difference of their
fize and fhapc. He obferved alfo, that by means of
this difference of colour they could fee the cherries at
a greater diftance than he could, though he could fee
other objeas at as great a diftance as they, that is,
where the fight was not aflifted by the colour. Large
objeas he could fee as well as other perfons; and
even the fmaller ones if they were not enveloped in
other things, as in the cafe of cherries among the
leaves.
“ I believe he could never do more than guefs the
name of any colour; yet he could diftinguifh white from
black, or black from any light or bright colour. Dove
or ftraw colour he called 'white, and different colours he
frequently called by the fame name ; yet he could dif¬
cern a difference between them when placed toge¬
ther. In general, colours of an equal degree of
brightnefs, however they might otherwife differ, he
confounded together. Yet a flriped ribbon he could
diftinguifh from a plain one; but he could not tell
what the colours were with any tolerable exaftnefs.
Dark colours, in general, he often miftook for black j
but never imagined white to be a dark colour, nor dark
to be a white colour.
“ He was an intelligent man, and very defirous of
underftanding the nature of light and colours; for
which end he had attended a coutfe of ledlures in na¬
tural philofophy.
“ He had two brothers in the fame circumftances a&:
to fight; and two other brothers and fifters, who, aa
well as their parents, had nothing of this deleft.
“ One of the firft mentioned brothers, who is now-
living, I met with at Dublin, and wifhed to try his
capacity to diftinguifh the colours in a prifm ;'but not
having one by me, I afked him, whether he had ever
feen a rain-bow ? he replied, He had often, and could
diftinguifh the different colours ; meaning only, that it
was compofed of different colours, for he could not tell
what they were.
“ I then procured, and fhowed him a piece of rib¬
bon : he immediately, and without any difficulty, pro¬
nounced it a ftriped, and not a plain, ribbon. He
then attempted to name the different ftripes: the fe-
veral ftripes of white he uniformly and without hefi¬
tation called white : the four black ftripes he was de¬
ceived in; for three of them he thought brown*
though they were exaftly of the fame fhade with the
other, which he properly called black. He fpoke,
however, with diffidence, as to all thofe ftripes; and
it mull be owned, that the black was not very di-
ftinft: the light green he called yellow; but he was,
not very pofitive : he faid, “ I think this is what you
call yellow.” The middle ftripe, which had a flight
tinge of red, he called a fort of blue. But he was moil
of all deceived by the orange colour : of this he fpoke
very confidently, faying, “ This is the colour of grafs,
this is green.” I alfo fhowed him a great variety of
ribbons, the colour of which he fometimes named right¬
ly, and fometimes as differently as poffible from the-
true colour.
“ I afked him, whether he imagined it poffible for
all the various colours he faw to be mere difference of
light and fhade ; and that all colours could be compo¬
fed of thefe two mixtures only ? With, fome hefitatiom
he
COL L 1
Colour.
he replied, No, he did imagine there was fome other
difference.
“ It is proper to add, that the experiment of the
ftriped ribbon was made in the day-time, and in a good
light-”
Colours for flaming different kinds of Stones. See
Chemistry, n° 753.
Colour, in dyeing. See Dyeing.
Colour of Plants, is an attribute found to be very
variable. Different colours are obferved, not only in
different individuals of the fame fpecies, but likewife in
different parts of the fame individual. Thus, marvel
of Peru, and fweet-William, have frequently petals of
different colours on the fame plant. Three or four
different colours are frequently found upon the fame
leaf or flower; as on the leaves of the amaran-
thus, tricolor, and the flowers of the tulip, auricula,
three-coloured violet, and others. To produce the
molt beautiful and ftriking variety of colours in fuch
flowers, is the principal delight and bulinefs of the
florift.
The primitive colours, and their intermdiate (hades
or gradations enumerated by botanifts, are as follow.
Water-colours, hyalinus.
White.
Lead-colour, cinereus.
Black, niger.
'Rrown, fufcus.
Pitch-black, ater. '
Yellow, luteus.
Straw-colour,
Flame- colour, fulvus.
Iron-colour, gilvus.
Red.
Flefh-colour, incarnatus.
Scarlet, coccineus.
Purple.
Violet-colour, agruleo-purpureus.
Blue, caruleus.
Green.
Thefe colours feem to be appropriated to particular
parts of the plant. Thus, white is moft common in
roots, fweet berries, and the petals of fpring flowers.
Water-colour, in the filaments and ftyles. Black, in
the roots and feeds; rarely in the feed-veffel, and
fcarce ever to be found in the petals. Yellow is fre¬
quently in the antheras or tops of the (lamina ; as like¬
wife in the petals of autumnal flowers, and the com¬
pound legulated flowers of Linnaeus. Red is common
in the petals of fummer flowers, and in the acid fruits.
Blue and violet-colour, in the petals. Green, in the
leaves and calyx, but rarely in the petals. In the in¬
terchanging of colours, which in plants is found to
depend upon differences in heat, climate, foil, and cul¬
ture, a fort of ele&ive attra&ion is obferved to take
place. Thus, red is more eafily changed into white
and blue; blue into white and yellow; yellow into
white ; and white into purple. A red colour is often
changed into a white, in the flowers of heath, mother
of thyme, betony, pink, vifcous campion, cucubalus,
trefoil, orchis, fox-glove, tbiftle, cudweed, faw-wort,
rofe, poppy, fumitory, and geranium. Red paffes in¬
to blue in pimpernel- Blue is changed into white in
bell-flower, greek-valerian,bindweed, columbine, violet,
N084.
J2 ] COL
vetch, milk-wort, goat’s rue, viper’s buglofs, comfrey,
borrage, hyffop, diagon’s-head, fcabious, blue-bottle,
and fuccory. Blue is changed into yellow in crocus.
Yellow paffes ealily into white in melilotj agrimony,
mullein, tulip, blattaria, or moth-mullein, and corn
marigold. White is changed into purple in wood-forrel,
thorn-apple, peafe, and daify.
Although plants are fometimes obferved to change
their colour upon being moiftened with coloured juices,
yet that quality in vegetables leems not fo much
owing to the nature of their nourifliment, as to the ac¬
tion of the internal and external air, heat, light, and
the primitive organifation of the parts. In fupport
of this opinion, we may obferve with Dr Grew, that
there is a far lefs variety in the colours of roots than
of the other parts of the plant; the pulp, within the
(kin, being ufually white, fometimes yellow, rarely
red. That this effe& is produced by their fmall in-
tercourfe with the external air appears from this cir-
cumftance, that the upper parts of roots, when they
happen to Hand naked above the ground, are often
dyed with feveral colours: thus the tops of forrel
roots turn red ; thofe of turnips, mullein, and radifnes,
purple ; and many others green : whilft thofe parts of
the fame roots which lie more under ground are com¬
monly white. The green colour is fo proper to leaves,
that many, as thofe of fage, the young fprouts of St
John’s wort, and others which are reddifh when in the
bud, acquire a perfect green upon being fully expand¬
ed. In like manner, the leaves of the fea-fide grape,
polygonum, which when young are entirely red, become,
as they advance in growth, perfectly green, except the
middle and tranfverfe ribs, which retain their former
colour.
As flowers gradually open and are expofed to the
air, they throw off their old colour, and acquire a new
one. In fa6t, no flower has its proper colour till it is
fully expanded. Thus the purple (lock-julyflowers
are white or pale in the bud. In like manner ba¬
chelor’s buttons, blue-bottle, poppy, red dailies, and
many other flowers, though of divers colours when
blown, are all white in the bud. Nay, many flowers
change their colours thrice fucceflively; thus, the very
young buds of lady’s looking-glafs, buglofs, and the
like, are all white ; the larger buds purple, or murrey ;
and the open flowers blue.
With refpeft to the colours of the juices of plants,
we may obferve, that mod refinous gums are tinftured;
fiome, however, are limpid ; that which drops from the
domeftic pine is clear as rock-water. The milk of
fome plants is pale, as in burdock ; of others white, as
in dandelion, euphorbium, and fcorzonera ; and of
others yellow, as in lovage, and greater celandine.
Moft mucilages have little colour, taile, or frnell. Of
all the colours above enumerated, green is the moft com¬
mon to plants, black the moft rare.
Colour being a quality in plants fo apt to change,
ought never to be employed in diftinguifliing their
fpecies. Thefe ought to be charadterifed from cir-
cumftances not liable to alteration by culture or other
accidents- The fame inconftancy of colour oblerved
in the flowers, is likewife to be found in the other
parts of plants. Berries frequently change from green
to red, and from red to white. Even in ripe fruits,
the colour, whether white, red, or blue, is apt to vary ;
particularly
Colour.
COL r 153 1 C. O L
O'o-.r. particularly in apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees, forrel, and bloody dock. Green indicates a crude al- Colour.
—v—Seeds are more conftant in point of colour than the kaline tafte, as in leaves and unripe fruits. A pale co-
veflel which contains them. In the feeds, however, lour denotes an infipid tafte, as in endive, afparagu^s,
of the poppy, oats, pea, bean, and kidney-bean, va- and lettuce. White promifes a fweet lufeious tafte;
riations are frequently obferved. The root, too, al- as in white currants and plums, fweet apples, &c.
though not remarkably fubjeft to change, is found to Laftly, black indicates a harfti, naufeous, difagreeable
vary in fome fpecies of carrot and radifti. Leaves tafte ; as in the berries of deadly nightlhade, myrtle-
frequently become fpotted, as in a fpecies of orchis, leaved fumach, herb-chriftopher, and others; many of
hawk-weed, ranunculus, knot-grafs, and lettuce ; but which arc not only unpleafant to the tafte, but perni-
feldom relinquiih their green colour altogether. Thofe cious and deadly in their effedts.
of fome fpecies of amaranthus, or flower-gentle, are To be afeertained of the acid or alkaline property
beautifully coloured. The fpots that appear on the of any plant, exprefs fome of the juice, and rub it up-
furface of the leaves are of different colours, liable to on a piece of blue paper; w'hich, if the plant in que-
vary, and not feldom difappear altogether. The ftion is of an acid nature, will turn red ; if of an alka*
leaves of officinal lung-wort, and fome fpecie,s of fow- line, green. For the methods of extradling colours from
bread, forrel, trefoil, and ranunculus, are covered with the different pails of plants, fee the article Colovk-
white fpots. Thofe of dog’sitooth violet, with purple Making.
and white. Thofe of feveral fpecies of ranunculus, and Colour of the Human Species, Difference of. See
orchis, with black and purple.. Thofe of amatanthus, tri- Complexion.
color, with green, red, and yellow. Thofe of ranunculus Colour, in heraldry. The colours generally ufed
acris, and a fpecies of bon;-bean, with red or purple. The in heraldry are, red, blue, black, green, and purple ;
under furface of the leaves of fome fpecies of pimpernel which the heralds call gules, a%ure, fable, vert orfinoplc,
and the fea-plantain is marked with a number of dots or and purpure; tenne, or tawny, and fanguine, are not
points ; a white line runs through the leaves of Indian fo common : as to yellow mid white, called or and ar~
reed, black-berried heath, and a fpecies of Canary gent, they are metals, not colours,
grafs : and the margin or brim of the leaf, in fome fpe- The metals and colours are fometimes expreffed in
cies of box, honey-fuckle, ground-ivy, and the ever- blazon by the names of precious ftones, and fometimes
green oak, is of a filver-white colour. The whole plant . by thofe of planets or ftars. See Blazoning.
is often found to affume a colour that is unnatural or GSnomaus is faid firft to have invented the diftinc-
foreign to it. The varieties in fome fpecies of eryngo, tion of colours, to diftinguifti the gundillse of comba-
mug-wort, orrach, amaranthus, purflane, and lettuce, tants of the Circenftan games; the green for tho’fe
furnifh examples. who reprefented the earth, and blue for thofe who re-
Such being the inconftancy of colour in all the parts prefented the fea.
of the plant, fpecific names derived from that quality Colours, in the military art,-include the banners,
are, very properly, by Linnaeus, deemed erroneous; flags, enfigns, &c. of all kinds, borne in the army or
whether they refpedt the colour of the flower, fruit, fleet. See Flag and Standard.
feeds, root, leaves, or exprefs in general the beauty Colours, in the Latin and Greek churches, are
or deformity of the entire plant, with a particular ufed to diftinguifh feveral myfteries and feafts celebra-
view to that circumftance. Of this impropriety com- ted therein.
mitted by former botanifts, Linmeus himfelf is not al- Five colours only are regularly admitted into the
ways guiltlefs. Thus the two fpecies of farracena, or Latin church : thefe are white, green, red, violet, and
the fide-faddle flower, are diftinguiftted by the colour black. The white is for the myfteries of our Saviour,
of their petals into the yellow and purple farracena ; the feaft of the Virgin, thofe of the angels, faints, and
although the ftiapes and figure of the leaves afforded confeffors ; the red is for the myfteries and folemnities
much more conftant as well as ftriking charadlers. The of the holy facrament, the feafts of the apoftles and
fame may be faid of his lupinus albus and luteus; re- martyrs; the green for the time between pentecoft and
feda alba, glauca, and lutea ; angelica atro-purpurea ; advent, and from epiphany to feptuagefima ; the violet
dictamnusalbus; lamium album; felago coccinea ; fida in advent and Chriftmas, in vigils, rogations, &c. and
alba ; paffiflora rubra, lutea, incarnata, and ccerulea ; in votive maffes in time of war; laftly, the black is for
and of many others, in which the fpecific name is de- the dead, and the ceremonies thereto belonging.'
rived from a chara&er or quality that is fo liable to vary In the Greek church, the ufe of colours is almoft
in the fame fpecies. _ abolifhed, as well as among us. Red was, in the Greek
We lhall conclude this article with obferving, that church, the colour for Chriftmas and the dead, as black
of all fenfible qualities, colour is the leaft ufeful in in- among us.
dicating the virtues and powers of vegetables. The To Colour Stranger’s Goods, is when a freeman al-
following general pofitions on this fubjeft are laid down lows a foreigner to enter goods at the cuftom-houfe in
by Linnaeus, and feem fufficiently confirmed by ex- his name.
periment. A yellow colour generally indicates a bitter Colour-Making, the art of preparing the different
tafte; as in gentian, aloe, celandine, turmeric, and other kinds of colours ufed in painting,
yellow' flowers. Red indicates an acid or four tafte ; This art properly belongs to chemiftry ; and is one
as in cranberries, barberries, currants, rafpberries, of the moft curious, though leaft underftood, parts of
mulberries, cherries; the fruit of the rofe, fea-buck- it. The principles on which colour-making depends
thorn, and fervice-tree. Herbs that turn red towards are entirely different from thofe on whidh the theory
autumn, have likewife a four tafte ; as forrel, wood-, of other parts of chemiftry is founded ; and the oradli-
Vol. V. Part I. u * cal
Colour-
making.
Divifion of
colours in¬
to opaque
and tranf-
farent.
Oil and wa¬
ter colours
Simple and
compound
True and
fa'fe co¬
lours.
COL [ 154 ] COL
cal part being in the hands of thofe who find it their
intereft to conceal their methods as much as pofiible,
it thence happens, that there is not only no diltinft
theory of this art, but fcarce a fingle good receipt for
making any one colour hath ever appeared.
The firft general diviiion of colours is into opaque
and tranfparent. By the firft are meant fuch colours
as, when laid over paper, wood, &c. cover them fully
fo as to efface any other painting or ftain that might
have been there before ; the others are of fuch -a na¬
ture as to leave the ground on which they are laid
vifible through them. Of the firft kind are white-
lead, red-lead, vermilion, &c.; of the latter kind arc
the colours ufed for illuminating maps, &c.
Another divifion is into oil-colours and water-co¬
lours ; by which is meant, fuch as are appropriated to
painting in oil and in water, Moft of thofe which
are proper for painting in water, are alfo proper for
being ufed in oil. There is, however, this remarkable
difference betwixt colours when mixed with water and
with oil, that fuch as are quite opaque in water will
become perfedlly tranfparent in oil. Thus, blue ver-
diter, though exceedingly opaque in water, if ground
with oil, feems totally to diffolve, and will become
very tranfparent. The fame thing happens to fuch
colours as have for their bafxs the calx of tin, alabafter,
or calcareous earth. The moft perfectly opaque co¬
lours in oil are fuch as have lead, mercury, or iron, for
their bafis : to the latter, however, Pruflian blue is an
exception ; for though the bafis of that colour is iron,
it proves quite tranfparent when ground with oil. In
water-colours, thofe prepared from metals, Pruflian
blue alone excepted, are always opaque; from vege¬
tables or animals, tranfparent. Coals, however, whe¬
ther vegetable or animal, are opaque both in water and:
oil.
Colours again, may be confrdered as either Ample or
compound. The fimple ones are fuch as require no¬
thing to be fuperadded to them, in order to make a
full ftrong colour^ without regarding whether they are
formed of many or few ingredients ; and in this view,
white-lead, red-lead, vermilion, calces of iron, &c. are
fimple colours. The compound ones are formed by
the union of two or more colouring fubftances; as blue
and .yellow united together to form a green, red and
yellow to form an orange, a white earth or calx with
the red colour of cochineal or brazil to form a lake,
&c. ; and thus carmine, lake, rofe-pink, Dutch-pink,
Engliih-pink, &c. are compound colours.
The laft and moft important diviiion of colours is
into true and falfe. By the former are meant thofe
which retain their colour under every poflible variety
of circumftances, without fading in the leaft: the others
are fueh as do not; but either lofe their colour alto¬
gether, or change to fome other. What is chiefly apt
to affeft colours, is their being expofed to the fun in
fummer, and to the cold air in winter: but to this
there is one exception, viz. white-lead ; which, when
ground with oil, retains its whitenefs if expofed to the
weather, but degenerates into a brownifh or yellowilh
colpur if clofe kept. In water this fubftance is very
apt to lofe its colour, whether expofed to the air or
not. The great defideratum in colour-making is to
prodtice the firft kind of colours, viz. fuch as wifl not
fade by expofure to the weather ; and indeed it is to
be regretted, that the moft beautiful are in general the CoPur*
leaft permanent. It may, for the moft part, however, makln£'
be expefted, that the more fimple any colour is, the v ‘1 f'
lefs liable will it be to change upon expofure to the
air.
The great difficulty of knowing a priori whether a
colour will fade or not, is owing to our ignorance con-
cerriing the nature of colouring fubftances. With all
our difadvantages, however, we may obferve, that
whatever change of colour is produced in-any fubftance
by expofure to the fun and air, that colour to which
it changes will bid fair for being permanent, and i
therefore ought to be employed where it can .be done. .
Of thefe changes the inftances are but very rare. fnftances ^
One is in the purple of the ancients, which affumed colours pro-
its colour by expofure to the fun, and confequently duced by .
was exceedingly permanent;. Another is in the folu- e*P“fure
tion of filver; which, being mixed with chalk, the Un an
precipitate turns to purplifti black where it is expofed
to the fun. A third is in folutions of indigo by alka¬
line fubftarices,. which conftatitly appear green till ex¬
pofed to the air by fpreading them very thin, upon
which they become aimoft inftantaneoufly blue, and (,
continue fo ever after. Sometimes, though ftill more By the mix-
rarely,.a very remarkable change of colour happens,ture Gf tiw®
upon mixing two vegetable juices together. Aimoft .vegeta,)'e
the only inftance of this we have on the authority ofJ
Mr George Forfter, who informs us, that the inhabi-
t tants of Otaheite dye their cloth of ia crimfon colour,
by mixing together the yellow juice of a fmall fpecies
of fig with the greenifti juice of a kind of fern. But the
moft remarkable alterations of tiolour are effe&ed by
different metallic and faline folutions mixed with certain
animal or vegetable fubftances; and with thefe the co¬
lour-maker will be principally converfant. ?
It is a common obfervation in chemiftry, that acids Eflixfts of
mixed, with blue vegetable juices turn them red, and acids and
alkalies green. It is equally certain, though not fo °*
generally known, that acids of all kinds generally tend
to heighten red colours, fo as to make, them approach
to the fcarlet or true crimfon; and alkalies to darken,
or make them approach to blue or purple. Mixed
with yellow colours, acids alfo univerfally tend to
brighten the yellow; and alkalies to turn it to an
orange, and make It become more dull. But though,
this is very generally the cafe, we are not to expedl
that all acids are equally powerful in this refpeft. The
nitrous acid is found to heighten the moft of any, and
the marine acid the leaft of the mineral ones. The
vegetable, as might be expected, are lefs powerful
than the mineral acids. Thus, if with a tincture of
cochineal, either in water or fpirit of wine, is mixed
the pure nitrous acid, it will change the colour to an
exceeding high orange or flame colour, which it will
impart to cloth. If the vitriolic acid is ufed, a full
fcarlet, inclining to crimfon rather than orange, is
produced. With marine acid a true crimfon colour,
bordering on purple, is the confequence. Alkalies,
both fixed and volatile, change the colour to a purple,
which is brighter with,the volatile than the fixed al¬
kalies. ' 8
Here it is obvious, that whatever colours are pro-Permanent
duced by the mixtures of different fubftances together,-
the permanency of thefe colours can only be in pro- c|Jter,
portion to. the ability of fuch mixtures to refill the mined.
weather.
COL [ 155 ] COL
Colour- weather. Thus, fuppofe a high fcarlet or orange co-
, makmg. ^ jour js prociuced by means of fpirit of nitre, it is plain
v that, was fuch a colour expofed to the air, it could re¬
main no longer than the fpirit of nitre which produced
it remained. In proportion, therefore, as the fpirit
of nitre was exhaled into the air, or otherwife deftroyed,
it behoved the colour to fade, and at laft to be totally
deftroyed; and thus, in proportion to the deftruftibility
of the fub'ftances by which colours are produced, will
be the difpofition of fuch colours to fade, or the con¬
trary. In this refpeft alkalies are much more deftruc-
tible than acids, and confequently lefs proper for the
preparation of colours. With regard to acids, the ni¬
trous feems moft deftructible^the vitriolic lefs fo, and
the marine the leaft of all. From the extreme fixity
of the phofphorine acid and fedative fait, perhaps they
might be of fervice in preferring colours.
As all colours, whether derived from the animal or
vegetable kingdom, muft be extrafted either by pure
water or fome other liquid menftruum, they cannot
be ufed for the purpofes of painting till the colouring
9 fubftance- is united with fome earthy or folid matter,
Opaque or capable of giving' it a body, as the workmen call it ;
trasfparent and according to the nature of this fubftance, the co-
colours, lour win be tranfparent or otherwife. This bafis
«d.W °rm ought to be of the moft fixed and durable nature;
unalterable by the weather, by acids, or by alkalies.
It ought alfo to be of a pure white colour, and eafily
reducible into an impalpable powder. For this reafon
all earthy fubftances fhould be avoided as being acted
upon by acids; and therefore, if any of thefe were
added to heighten the colour, they would not fail to
be deftroyed, and their effedl totally loft. Precipitates
of lead, bifmuth, &c. though exceedingly fine and
10 white, ought alfo to be avoided, as being apt to turn
€alx of tin, black by expofure. The only fubftance to be chofen
the moft in preference to all others, is calx of tin, prepared
proper bafis g^-ber by fire or the nitrous acid. This is fo exceed-
lours"6 C° iHgty refra&ory as not only to be unalterable by al¬
kalies, acids, or the fun and weather, but even by
the focus of a very large burning mirror. It is be-
fides white as fnow, and capable of being reduced to
an extreme degree of finenefs, infomuch that it is
made ufe of for polilhing metalline fpeculums. For
j T thefe reafons, it is the moft proper bafis for all fine co-
Precipitate lours. For coarfe ones, the white precipitate of lead,
oflead moft mentioned under the article Chemistry, n° 703, will
proper for anfwer very well. It hath a very ftrong body, i. e. is
coarfe ones. very 0paqUe- arKl will cover well; may be eafily
ground fine, and is'much lefs apt to turn black than
white lead ; it is befides very cheap, and may be pre¬
pared at the fmall expence of 3 d. j>er pound.
Cenenil ^ what we have juft now obferved is attended to,
method of the general method of extracting colours from any
preparing vegetable or animal fubftance, and fixing them on a
colours. proper bafis, muft be very eafily underftood. For
this purpofe, a quantity of calx of tin is to be procu¬
red in proportion to the quantity of colour defired.
This muft be well rubbed in a glafs mortar, with a
little of the fubftance defigned for brightening the co¬
lour, as alum, cream of tartar, fpirit of nitre, &c.
after which it muft be dried, and left for fome time,
that the union between the two fubftances may be
as perfect as poffible. If the colour is to be a very
fine one, fuppofe from cochineal, the colouring mat¬
ter muft be extra&ed with fpirit of wine without CWp r-
heat. When the fpirit is fufficiently impregnated, it , n'S-,
is to be poured by little and little upon the calx, rub¬
bing it conftantly, in order to diftribute the colour
equally through all parts of the calx. The fpirit foon
evaporates, and leaves the calx coloured with the co¬
chineal. More of the tinfture is then to be poured
on, rubbing the mixture conftantly as before ; and
thus, with proper management, may very beautiful
colours, not inferior to the belt carmine, be prepared
at a moderate expsnee. If, inftead of cochineal, we
fubftitute brazil-wood, turmeric, logwood, &c. differ¬
ent kinds of red, yellow, and purple, will be produced.
For the coarfer colours, aqueous decoctions are to be
ufed in a fimilar manner; only as thefe are much
longer of evaporating than the fpirit of wine, very
little muft be poured on at a time, and the colours
ought to be made in large quantity, on account of the
tedioufnefs of the procefs. , ?
Hitherto we have confidered only the effe&s of the Effefts of
pure and fimple falls, viz acids and alkalies, on differ-different
ent colours; but by combining the acids with alka-fa'^s 0 .
lies, earths, or metals, thefe effedfts may be varied
almoft in infinitum; neither is there any rule yet laid
down by which we can judge a priori of the changes
of colour that will happen on the admixture of this or
that particular fait with any colouring fubftance. In
general, the perfect neutrals a£t weakly ; the imper-
fea ones, efpecially thofe formed from metals, much
more powerfully. Alum and fal ammoniac confider-
ably heighten the colour of cochineal, brazil, turme¬
ric, fuiticj madder, logwood, &c. The fame thing
is done, though in a lefs degfee, by common fait,
Glauber’s fait, faltpetre, and many other neutrals.
Solutions of iron in all the acids ftrike a black with
every one of the above-mentioned fubftances; and
likewife with fumach, galls, and other aftringents.
Solutions of lead, or faccharum faturni, univerfally
debafe red colours to a dull purple. Solution' of
copper changes the purple colour of logwood to a
pretty good blue ; and, in general, folutions of this
metal are friendly to blue colours. The effe&s of
folutions of gold, filver, and mercury, are not fo
well known ; they feem to produce dark colours of
no great beauty. The moft powerful folution, how- Soiuf^n 0f
ever, with regard to a great number of colours, is tin the moft
that of tin, made, in aqua-regia. Hence we may fee powerful,
the. fallacy of Mr DelavaPs hypothefis concerning co¬
lours *, that the leaft refrangible ones are produced * See CAe-
by the moft denfe metals: for tin, which hath the leaft wa/w,
denfity of any metal, hath yet, in a ftate of folution,n°8*
the moft Extraordinary effects upon the leaft refran¬
gible colours as well as thofe that are moft fo. The
colour of cochineal is changed by it into the moft
beautiful fcarlet; a fimilar change is made upon the
colouring matter of gum-lac. Brazil-wood is made
to yield a fine purplifti crimfon; logwood, a beautiful
dark purple ; turmeric, fuftic, weld, and all yellow-
colouring woods and flowers, are made to communicate
colours far more beautiful than can be got from them
by any other method. The blue colour of the flowers
of violets, eye-bright,.iris, &c. are heightened fo as to
equal, if not excel, the blue produced by a folution of
copper in volatile alkali. In fliort, this folution feems
to be of much more extenfive ufe in colour-making,
U 2 wliejj
COL [ 156 ] COL
15
Directions
fer the
choice of
colouring
materials.
tion of dif¬
ferent co-
loars.
when properly applied, than any thing hitherto thought
of. It is not, however, univerfally ferviceable. The
colour of madder it totally deftroys, and likewife that
of faf-flower, changing them both to a dull orange.
It likewife fpoils the colour of archil; and what is
very remarkable, the fine red colour of tipdhire of rofcs
made with oil of vitriol, is by folution of tin changed
to a dirty green.
The moil important confideration in colour making
is to make choice' of fuch materials as produce the
moft durable colours; and if thefe can be procured,
an ordinary colour from them is to be preferred to
a bright one from thofe which fade fooner. In what
the difference confifts between the colours that fade
and thofe which do not, is not known with any de¬
gree of certainty. From fome appearances it would
feem, that thofe fubffances which are moft remarkable
for keeping their colour, contain a vifcous glutinous
matter, fo combined with a refinous one as to be fo-
luble both in water and fpirit of wine. The moft du¬
rable red colour is prepared from gum-lac. This is
very ftrongly refinous, though at the fame time fo
far glutinous, that the colouring-matter can be ex¬
tracted from it by water. Next to gum-lac are mad¬
der roots and cochineal. The madder is an exceed-
ingly penetrating fubftance, infomuch that, when
given to animals along with their food, it tinges their
bones of a deep red colour. Its colouring-matter is
foluble both in water and fpirit of wine. Along with
the pure red, however, there is in maddey a kind of
vifcous aftringent fubftance, of a dark bfown colour,
which feems to give the durability to the whole. The
colouring-matter of cochineal, though foluble both in
water and fpirit of wine, is very tenacious and muci¬
laginous, in which it bears fome refemblance to the
purpura of the ancients, which kept its colour exceed¬
ingly well. Where the colours are fugitive, the tinging
fubltance feems to be too refinous or too mucilagi¬
nous. Thus the colours of brazil, turmeric, &c. are
very refinous, efpecially the latter; infomuch that
the colouring-matter of turmeric can fcarcely be ex¬
tracted by water. Both thefe are periftiable, though
beautiful colours ; and much more are the red, purple,
and blue flowers, commonly to be met with. Thefe
feem to be entirely mucilaginous without the leaft
quantity of refinous matter. The yeHovv flowers are
different, and in general keep their colour pretty
well. Whether it would be poffible, by adding occa-
fionally a proper quantity of gum or refin, to make
the fugitive colours more durable, hath not yet been
itried, but feems to have fome probability. What
tends a little to confirm this, is a procefs given by Mr
Hellot for imparting durability to the colour of bra¬
zil. It confifts only in letting decoftions of the wood
ftand for fome time in wooden calks till they grow
ftale and ropy. Pieces of woollen cloth now dyed in
the liquor acquired a colour fo durable, that they
were not in the leaft altered by expofure to the air
during four months in the winter feafon. Whether
this change in the durability of the colour was effefted
by the ropinefs following the fermentation, or by
fome other caufe, or whether the experiment can be
at all depended upon, muft be referred to future ob-
fervation.
Having thus collefted all that can as yet be de-
. pended upon for eftablilhing a general theory of co- Cdour-
lour-making, we lhall now proceed to give an account mak,ng-
of the different pigments generally to be met with in v “J
the cdlour-lhops. ig
1. Black. Thefe are lamp-black, ivory-black, blue- Lamp,
black, and Indian-ink. The firft is the fineft of what black,
are called the foot-blacks, and is more ufed than any
other. Its preparation is defcribed in the Swedifli
Tranfa&ions for the year 1754, as a procefs dependent -
on the making of common refin: the impure rdinous
juice colledied from incilions made in pine and fir
trees, is boiled down with a little water, and drained
whilft hot through a bag: the dregs and pieces of
bark left in the ftrainer are burnt in a low oven*
from which the fmoke is conveyed through a long
paffage into a fquare chamber, having an opening on
the top on which is a large fack made of thin woollen
ftuff: the foot, or lamp-black* concretes partly in the
chamber, from whence it is fwept out once in two or
three days, and partly in the fack, which is now and
then gently ftruck upon, both for (baking down the
foot, and for clearing the interftices betwixt the
threads, fo as to procure a Sufficient draught of air
through it. In this manner lamp-black is prepared at
the turpentine houfes in England, from the dregs and,
refufe of the refinous matters which are there manu-
fa&ured.
On this fubjeet Dr Lewis hath fome curious obfer- Lr Lewis’s-
vations. “ The foot (fays he) arifing in common obferva-
chimneys, from the more oily~or refinous woods, as the ^ns.
fir and pine, is obferved to contain more diffoluble
matter than that from the other woods : and this dif-
foluble matter appears, in the former, to be more of
an oily or refinous nature than in the latter ; Spirit of
wine extracting it moft powerfully from the one, and
water from the other. The oilynefs and Solubility of
the-Toot feeming therefore to depend on thole of the
fubjeft it is made from, it has been thought that lamp¬
black muft polfefs thefe qualities in a greater degree,
than any kind of common foot. Neverthelds, on ex¬
amining feveral parcels of lamp-black, procured from
different (hops, I could not find that it gave any tinc¬
ture at all, either to fpirit or to water.
“ Sufpe&ing fome miftake dr fophiftication, or that
the lamp-black had been burnt or charred, as it is to
fit it for fome particular ufes, I prepared myfelf fome
foot from linfeed oil, by hanging a large copper pan.
over the flame of a lamp to receive its fmoke. In this
manner the more curious artifts prepare lamp-black
for the nicer purpofes ; and from this collection of it
from the flame of a lamp, the pigment probably recei¬
ved its name. The foot fo prepared gave no tincture
either to water or to Spirits, any more than the com¬
mon lamp-black of the Ihops. I tried different kinds
of oily and refinous bodies with the fame event; even-
the foots obtained from filh-oils and tallow did not ap¬
pear to differ from thofe of the vegetable-oils and. re¬
fins. They were all of a finer colour than the lamp¬
black commonly fold.
“ Some foot was colleCled in like manner from fir.
and other woods, by burning Small pieces of them
flowly under a copper-pan. All the foots were of a
deeper black colour than thofe obtained from the fame
kinds of woods in a common chimney; and very little,
if at all, inferior to thofe of the oils : they gave only .
COL [ i
Colour- a jull difcernible tinfture to water and fpirit, while
, ni:,klng- _ the foots of the chimney imparted a Itrong deep one
to both. The foot of mineral bitumens, in this clofe
way of burning, appears to be ot the fame qualities
with thofe of woods, oils, and refins : in fome parts
of Germany, great quantities of good lamp-black are
prepared from a kind of pit-coal.
“ It appears, therefore, that the differences of foots
do not depend altogether on the qualities of the fub-
jefts, but in a great meafure on the manner in which
the fubje<£t is burnt, or the foot caught. The foots
produced in common chimneys, from different kinds of
wood, refinous and not refmous, dry and green, do
not differ near fo much from one another, as thofe
which are produced from one kind of wood in a com¬
mon chimney, and in the confined way of burning
10 above mentioned.”
Ivcrj- Ivory-black is prepared from ivory or bones burnt
black. jn a cj0fe veffel. This, when finely ground, forms a
more beautiful and deeper colour than lamp-black ;
but in the common methods of manufafturing, it is fo
much adulterated with charcoal dull, and fo grofsly le-
vigated, as to be unfit for ufe. An opaque deep black
for water-colours, is made by grinding ivory-black
with gum-water, or with the liquor which fettles from
the whites of eggs after they have been fuffered to
Hand a little. Some ufe gum-water and the whites
of eggs together, and report, that a fmall addition of
the latter makes the mixture flow more freely from
the pencil, and improves its gloffinefs. It may be ob-
ferved, however, that though ivory-black makes the
deepeft colour in water as well as in oil-painting, yet
it is not on this account always to be preferred to
other black pigments. A deep jet-black colour is fel-
dom wanted in painting; and in the lighter (hades,
whether obtained by diluting the bla<pk with white
bodies, or by applying it thin on a white ground, the
particular beauty of the ivory black is in a great mea-
3, fure lo(t.
®lue-b!ac!'. Blue-black is faid to-be prepared from the burnt
(lalks and tendrils of the vine. Thefe, however, the
colour-makers feldorh give themfelves the trouble of
procuring, but fubftitute in ks place a mixture of ivory--
black and the common blue ufed for clothes.
Indian-ink. Indian-ink is an excellent black, for water-colours.
It hath been difcovered by. Dr Lewis to confill of a
mixture of lamp-black and common glue. Ivory-black,
or charcoal, he found to anfwer equally well, provided
they were levigated to a fufficient degree of finenefs,
which indeed requires no fmall trouble.
2. White. The white colours commonly to be met
with are, white-flake, white-lead, calcined hartffiom,
pearl-white, Spaniih-white, egg-ihell white, and magi-
itery of bifmuth. The flake-white and white-lead are
properly the fame. The preparation of the former is
kept a fecret; the method of preparing, the latter is
defcribed under Chemistry, n; 875, Thefe are the
only whites that can be ufed in oil, all the reft being
tranfparent unlefs they are laid on with water. Cal¬
cined hartfhorn is the moft ufeful of the earthy whites,
as being the leaft alkaline. Spaniih-white is only
finely prepared chalk. Pearl-white is made from
©yfter-lhells; and egg-(hell white from the (hells of
eggs. All thefe, by their attra&ion for acids, mull
neceffarily deftroy fuch colours as have any acid or
White
Colours.
57 1 COL
metallic fait in their compofition. The magiftery of Coiour-
bifmuth is apt to turn black, as are alfo flake-white making- a
and white-lead, when ufed in water. The white ^ ^
precipitate of lead recommended under Chemistry,
n° 703, is greatly fuperior as a water-colour to all
thefe; being perfectly free of any alkaline quality, and
not at all apt to lofe its own colour, or to injure that
of other fubftances. 24
3. Red. The red colours ufed in painting are of co-
two forts; vix. -thofe which incline to the purple, andluur8"
fuch as are of a full fcarlet and tend rather to the
orange. The firft are carmine, lake, rofe-pink, red-
ochre, and Venetian-red. The fecond are vermilion,
red-lead, fcarlet-ochre, common Indian-red,. Spanifh-
brown, and terra di Sienna^ burnt.
We have -already (n° 12.) laid down fome general:
rules for the preparation of carmine and lake. Particu¬
lar receipts have been delivered with the greateft con¬
fidence for making thefe fine colours ; but all of them
muft neceffarily prove ineffeftual, becaufe an earthy
bafis is recommended for ftriking the colour upon:
from the principles of chemiftry, however, we are cer¬
tain, that if aquafortis, or folution of tin, is made ufe of
for brightening a colour made with any earthy bafis, it
muft infallibly be deftroyed by that bafis, by reafon of
its alkaline quality. Carmine is the brighteft and moft
beautiful red colour known at prefent; the bell comes
from France. Lake differs from it in being capable
of mixture with oil; which carmine is not, unlefs with
great difficulty. The former is aifo much more in¬
clined to purple than carmine. This laft quality, how¬
ever, is reckoned a defect; and accordingly, the more
that lake approaches to the fcarlet or true crimfon, the
more it is valued. On dropping folution. of tin into
an aqueous tin&ure of braxil-wood, a beautiful preci¬
pitate falls, of a purplifh crimfon colour. This may
be very well fubftkuted in place of die dearer lakes on-
many occafions.
Rofe-pink is a very beautiful colour, inclining more
to the purple than fcarlet. It feems to be made of chalk,
coloured with a decoftion of brazil-wood, heightened
by an alkaline fait; for which reafon it is exceedingly
perifliable, and but little eftecmed. The colour might
be made much more, durable as well as better, by em¬
ploying for a bafis the white precipitate of lead above-
mentionedj and brightening it with, folution of tin.
Red ochre and Venetian red differ in nothing from
the colcothar of vitriol well calcined. The calces of
iron may be made to appear either purpliffi, or in¬
clining to the fcarlet, according to the manner in which
the calcination is performed. If the matter is per-
fesftly deprived of its phlogifton, and fubjeCted to an
intenfe fire, it always turns out red : but the mixture
of a fmall quantity of inflammable matter gives it a
purplilh caft. Hence various paints are kept in the
drops under different names, which yet differ from
each other only in‘the flight circumllance above men¬
tioned and fuch are the fcarlet-ochre, Spaniih-brown,
and terra di Sienna burnt. It is remarkable, that the
calces of iron never (how their colour till they become
cold. Colcothar of vitriol, while hot, always appears.
of a very dark duiky purple.
Of the preparation of vermilion and red lead, an ac¬
count is given under the article Chemistry, no 1213,
1404. Thefe are very durable colours; the firft is the.
befti .
COL. [ 158 1 COL
•Colour- bell red ufed in oil painting, but does not anfwer well
, niitkli:|g. t in water ; the other is rather an orange ; and, like
other preparations of lead, is in fome cafes apt to turn
black.
Orange co- 4- Orange. The only true orange-coloured paints
■lours. are red orpiment and orange lake. The firft is a fub-
limate formed of arfenic and fulphur : the Other may
be prepared from turmeric infufed in fpirit of wine,
having its colour ftruck upon CalK of tin, and bright¬
ened by a folution of that metal. All the lhades of
orange, however, may be extemporaneoufly prepared
by mixing red and yellow colours together, in due
2,6 proportions.
Yellow co- 5. Yellow. The yellow paints moll commonly in
lours. ufe are, king’s-yellow, Naples-yellow, Dutch-pink,
Englifh-pink, mafticot, common orpiment, yellow-
ochre, terra di Sienna unburnt, and Turbith-mineral.
King’s-yellow is evidently an arfenical preparation.
Its colour is exceedingly beautiful, but apt to fade;
on which account, and its great price, it is feldom
ufed.
Naples-yellow was for a long time thought to be a
preparation of arfenic, but is now difeovered to have
lead for its balls. It is therefore apt to turn black
and lofe its colour, which makes it the lefs valuable.
It is neverthelefs ufed in preference to king’s-yellow,
on account of its inferiority in price. This colour is
particularly liable to be fpoiled by iron when moift,
and therefore Ihould never be touched by that metal
unlefs previoufly ground in oil.
Dutch-pink is faid to be prepared by linking the
colour of yellow berries upon finely levigated chalk.
But of this there is great reafon to doubt; the balls
of Dutch-pink feems much more hard and gritty than
chalk, and its colour more durable than thofe llruck
upon that earth ufually are. Very good yellows may
be prepared with the white precipitate of lead, for-
, tnerly mentioned, by ufing either yellow berries, fuftic,
or any other fubftance capable of yielding that colour.
Englilh pint is paler than the Dutch, and keeps its
colour greatly worfe.
Mafticot is prepared by calcining white-lead till it
affumes a yellowifti colour. It is not apt to change,
but the colour is fo dull that it is feldom ufed either
in oil or water.
Common orpiment is a pretty bright greeniih-yel-
low, prepared by fubliming arfenic with fulphur. Its
naufeous fmell, which is greatly increafed by grinding
in oil, makes it very difagreeable; nor does it keep its
colour for any length of time. That kind of orpi¬
ment kafl: inclined to green is to be preferred for the
purpofes of painting.
Yellow-ochre and terra di Sienna, are' ferruginous
earths, capable of becoming red by calcination. Green
vitriol precipitated by lime may be advantageoufly fub-
ilituted to either of them. See Chemistry, n° 6gg.
Turbith mineral is but little ufeef in painting, though
its fine yellow colour feems greatly to recommend it.
This preparation is in all probability very durable ;
and ftiould feem therefore worthy of a preference either
to king’s or Naples yellow. The method of preparing
it is deferibed under Chemistry, n° 705.
Gamboge is a paint that can only be ufed in water,
and is the moft. common yellow made ufe of for co¬
louring maps, &c. but for this it is not very proper. Colour.
being¥neither quite tranfparent, nor very durable. making.
6. Green. The only fimple green colour that hath
a tolerable degree of brightnefs is verdigreafe, or pre-Green7 co-
parations of it. This, however, though a very beau- lours,
tiful colour, is far from being durable. It is improved
in colour, though not in durability, by diffolutioa and
cryftallization in diftilled vinegar ; in which ftate it is
called dyiilled verdigreafe. A more durable water¬
colour is made by diffolving the verdigreafe in cream of
tartar, or rather the pure tartarous acid; but in oil
this is found to be equally fugitive with the verdigreafe
itfelf. For an account of thefe preparations, fee Che¬
mistry, n° 894.
Compound greens are either made of Pruflian or
fome other blue, mixed with yellow; but in whatever
way thefe colours can be compounded, the beauty of
the green produced is greatly inferior to diltilled, or
even common, verdigreafe. The tartarous folution of
verdigreafe, mixed with a little gamboge, is the bell
tranfparent green water-colour we have had an oppor»
tunity of- trying ; and a mixture of Pruffian-blue and
turbith-mineral is probably the bell opaque one.
Sap-green is a fimple colour, but exceedingly infe¬
rior to diftilled verdigreafe, or even to the tartarous
folution of verdigreafe with gamboge. It is prepared
from the juice of unVipe buckthorn berries evaporated
to the confiftence of a gum. Its green colour is greatly
inclined to yellow. A kind of compound green has
been.fometimes ufed, called PruJJian-green, which con-
fifts only of Pruffian blue and yellow-ochre. It has
no beauty, nor is it durable. It is prepared as- Pruf¬
fian-blue, only not pouring on any fpirit of fait to dif-
folve the ochreous fediment which falls at the fame
time.
Another green fometimes ufed is called terra verte.
This is a native earth, probably impregnated with
copper. It is of a bluifli green colour, much of that
taint called fea-green. It is gritty, and therefore muft
be well levigated before it is ufed. Its colour is du¬
rable, but not very brighr. ^
7. Blue. The blue colours are ultramarine, Pruf- Blue co_
fan-blue, verditer, fmalt, bice, and indigo. Of thefe lours,
the ultramarine is the fineft, but its great price hin¬
ders its being much ufed. It is a preparation from
lapis lazuli ; is an exceeding bright colour, and never
fades with whatever fubftance it is mixed. It is now,
however, in a great meafure fuperfeded by Pruflian
blue, to the difadvantage of painting in general; as
Pruflian blue, though very beautiful, is far from being
durable. For an account of its preparations fee the
article Uttramarine^.
The procefs for making Pruflian blue is deferibed,
and its nature fully confidered, under Chemistry,
n° 1163: fo that it is fuflicient here to obferve, that
Pruflian blue is to be accounted of the beft quality
when it is deep, bright, and not inclined to purple.
It ought to be tried by mixture with white lead, as
the brightnefs of the colour will appear much more
when diluted than when concentrated in the lumps of
the blue itfelf.
The preparation of blue verdites is kept afecret, and
the beft chemifts have been puzzled to find out the
method. The colour is exceedingly bright, and has a
con*
3
COL [ 159 1 COL
Colour- confiderable tinge of green. A method of preparing
, maiung. ^ a CQiour equally beautiful, and agreeing in all refpefts
| ' with what is fold in the fhops, except that pf effer-
vefcing with acids, we have found to be as follows:
Difiblve copper in ftrong cauftic alkali, until the liquid
has affumed a very deep blue colour ; and the deeper
this colour is, the finer will your yerditer be. When
the menllruum has diffolved as much of the metal as it
can take up, it is to be poured out into a broad and
well glazed earthen pan, held over a very gentle fire ;
and from the moment it is put on the liquor is to be
continually agitated with a wooden fpatula, fo that the
liquor may be heated as equally as pofiible. The
whole fecret confifts'in properly regulating the degree
of heat; for if it exceeds the due proportion ever fo
little, the verditer will turn out of a dirty green. The
proper degree is about 90° of Fahrenheit’s thermome¬
ter. In this gentle heat the alkali flowly evaporates ;
and in proportion to its doing fo the verditer falls to
the bottom. After it is once formed, freed from the
alkaline liquor, and dried, it can bear the affufion of
boiling water without the leaft injury. Dr Prieftley,,
in his fixth volume, takes notice, that folution of cop¬
per in volatile alkali affords a blue precipitate by heat,
but without taking notice of the requifites-for its fuc-
cefs. In making this preparation, it is neceffary to
dilfolve copper in its metallic ftate; for the folution of
any calx will not yield a blue but a green colour.
This colour is durable in water, but diffolves in oil,
and has then all the inconveniences of verdigreafe above
mentioned.
Smalt is glafs-coloured with zaffre, a preparation
»See from cobalt*. It is commonly fo grofsly powdered
and Smalt. t}lat jt cannot be ufed in painting, and its texture is fo
hard that it cannot eafily be levigated. Its colour is
exceedingly bright and durable ; fo 'that when finely
levigated it is ufed inftead of ultramarine. The molt
proper materials for levigating this fubftance feem to
be the plates of M. Reaumur’s porcdain recommended
by Dr Lewis. See Chbmistry, n° 592, 599. For
the preparation and qualities of bice, fee the articles
.Armenvs Lapis and Bice.
Indigo is but little ufed in painting either in oil or
water, on account of the dulnefs of the colour. It re¬
quires no other preparation than being walked over.
Its goodnefs is known by the darknefs and brighthefs
29 of the colour. See Indigo.
Purple co- 8. Purple. The only fimple colour of this kind
lours. ufe(j at; prefent is colcothar of vitriol. A beautiful
purple lake may be prepared from logwood by means
of folution of tin; but this method of preparing co¬
lours is very little known as yet.
Brown co- 9. Brown. The brown colours'are, biftre, brOwn-
lours. ochre, Cologne-earth, timbre, and brown-pink. Under
the article Bistre is given a procefs for making that
colour, by infufing foot in water, pouring off the tinc-
Dr Lewis’s ture» and then evaporating it to an extraQ.; but Dr
opinion Lewis is of opinion, with Mr Landois in the French
concerning Encyclopedic, that the foot is either boiled in water,
biftre. or ground with a little liquid of fome kind into a fmooth
pafte, it is then diluted with more water, and after
Handing for about half an hour till the groffer fub¬
ftance of the foot has fettled, the liquor is poured off
into another veffel, and fet by for two or three days,
that the finer parts may fall to the bottom, and this
fine matter is the biftre. This is a very ufeful colour C j'our-
in water, being exceedingly fine, durable, and not apt malun-,> .
to fpoil any other colours with which it is mixed. The "
brown pink is faid to confift of chalk tinged with the
colouring matter of fuftic, heightened by fixed alka¬
line falts. It is therefore very perifhable, and is feldom
ufed. The other browns are a kind of ochreo.us
earths; for a defcription of which fee their proper
articles. . 3j
Having now confidered moft of the colouring fub- Attempts
ftances ufually to be met with in the fhops, we (hall^^3^
next take notice of fome attempts that have been co[ours a‘
made to produce all the different colours from vege¬
tables, after the manner of lakes ; which, though the
methods hitherto tried have for the moft part failed
of fuccefs, may perhaps fome time or other be found
appicable to valuable purpofes. ^
From infufions of aftringent vegetables mixed with Black from
green vitriol, is produced a deep black liquor of jvery aftringents.
extenfive ufe in dyeingf. The fubftances which pro- f gee
duce the deepeft blacks are galls and logwood. When ing,
a decodlion or infufion of the galls is drppped into a
folution of the vitriol largely diluted with water, the
firft drops produce bluifii or purplifh red clouds, which
foon mingling with the liquor, turn it uniformly of
their own colour. It feems to be on the quality of
the water that this difference in the colour depends.
With diftilled water, or the common fpring-waters,
the mixture is always blue. If we previoufiy diffolve
in the water the moft minute quantity of any alkaline
fait, too fmall to be difcovered by any of the common
means by which waters are ufually tried, or if the
water is in the leaft putrid, the colour of the mixture
proves purple or reddifh. Rain-water, caught as it
falls from the clouds in an open field in clean glafs-
veffels, gives a blue ; but fuch as is collected from the
tops of the houfes, grbws purple with the mixture of
vitriol and galls: from whence it may be prefumed,
that this laft has contrafted a putrid tendency, or re¬
ceived an alkaline impregnation, though fo flight as
not to be fenfible on other ways of trial.
Both the purple and blue liquors, on adding more
of the aftringent infufion, deepen to a black, more or
lefs intenfe according to the nature of dilution : if the
mixture proves of a deep' opaque blacknefs, it again
becomes bluifti or purplifh when further diluted. If
fuffered to ftand in this diluted ftate for two or three
days, the colouring matter fettles to the bottom in
form of a fine black mud, which by flightly (baking
the veffel, is diffufed again through the liquor, and
tinges it of its former colour. When the mixture is of
a full blacknefs, this feparation does not happen, or in
a far lefs degree ; for though a part of the black mat¬
ter precipitates in Handing, yet fo much remains dif¬
folved, that the liquor continues black. This fufpen-
fion of the colouring fubftance, in the black liquid,
may be attributed in part to the gummy matter of the
aftringent infufion increafing the confiftence of the
watery fluid ; for the feparation is retarded in the
diluted mixture by a fmall addition of gum Arabic.
If the mixture either in its black or diluted ftate is
poured into a filter, the liquor paffes through colour¬
ed ; only a part of the black matter remaining on the
filter. The filtered liquor on Handing for fome time
becomes turbid and full of fine black flakes: being
freed
Colour-
€ O L [ 160 ] COL
freed from thefe by a fecond filtration, it again puts dients being each of a dark deep colour is a verv ne- Colour-
on the fame appearance ; and thus repeatedly till all ceffary condition ; for bright blues, bright reds, and
the colouring parts are feparated, and the liquor has bright yellows, mixed in fuch proportions that neither Y J
become colourlefs. colour prevailed, produced only a grey. In effeift,
Dr Lewis, from vvhofe Philofophical Commerce of all compolitions of this kind, phyfically confidered, can
Arts this account is taken, further informs us, that this be no other than greys, or fome of the intermediate
colouring matter, when feparated from the liquor and teints between whitenefs and darknefs; and thefe greys
dried, appeared of a deep black, which did not feem will be fo much the lighter or darker as the compo¬
te have fuffered any change from the air by expofurc ponent colours of themfelves are bright or dark,
for upwards of four months. Made red-hot, it glowed With regard to the extraftion of the colouring
and burnt, but did not flame, and became a rally matter from the different kinds of vegetables com-
brown powder, which w'as readily attrafled by a mag- monly to be met with of all colours, this would cer-
netic bar; though in its black Hate the magnet had tainly be a very valuable acquifition, could the colours
no adlion upon it. The vitriolic acid, diluted with fo procured be made durable. On this fubjcdl nothing
water and digefted on the black powder, diffolved the hath yet appeared more fatiafa&ory than what is de-
greateft part of it, leaving only a very fmall quantity livered by Dr Lewis in his notes on Neumann’s che-
of whitilh matter. Solution of pure fixed alkaline miftry. His obfervations are curious, but promife very
fait diffolved very little of it : the liquor' received a little fuccefs to any who lhall attempt to fix thefe ve-
reddilh brown colour, and the powder became blackilh getable colours. ' 35
brown. This refiduum was attrafled by the magnet “ Among the infinite variety of colours (fays he),^‘ ‘r?W18 *
after being red-hot, though not before: the alkaline which glow in the flowers of plants, there are very nients on
tinflure, paffed through a filter, and mixed with a few which have any durability, or whofe fugitive v< . table
folution of green vitriol, ftruck a deep'brownifli black beauty can be arrefted by art, fo as to be applied toco^ours'
colour, nearly the fame with that which refults from any valuable purpofes. The only permanent ones are
mixing with the yitriolic folution, an alkaline tinflure the yellow, the red, the blue; and all the intermediate
of galls. fhades of purple, crimfon, violet, &c. are extremely
n It hath alfo been attempted to produce black from perifhable. Many of thefe flowers lofe "their colours
1 a combination of other colours; as green may be pro- on being barely dried ; efpecially if they are dried
duced from a mixture of blue and yellow. Mr le Blon, flowly, as has been ufually direfied, in a fhady, and
in his Harmony of Colours, gives a method of forming not warm place. The colours of all of them perilh
black, by mixing together the three colours called on keeping even in the clofeft veffels. The more
primitive, viz. blue, red, and yellow; and Mr Caftel, hallily they are dried, and the more perfedtly they
in his Optique des Coukurs, publifhed in 1740, fays are fecured from the air, the longer they retain their
that this compound black has an advantage, in paint- beauty. The colouring matter extfti&ed and ap¬
ing, above the Ample ones, of anfwering better for plied on other bodies is Hill more perifhable: often-
the darkening of other colours. Thus, if blue, by the times it is changed or deftroyed in the hands of the
addition of black, is to be darkened into the colour operator.
called blue-linek, the Ample blacks, according to him, “ The colour of many blue flowers is extra&ed by
if ufed in fuffxcient quantity to. produce the requifite infufion in water; but there are fome from which water
deepnefs, conceal the blue, while the compound blacks gains only reddifh, or purplifh blue. Of thofe that have
leave it diftinguifhable. Le Blon does not mention been tried there is not one which gives any blue tinc-
the proportions of the three colours neceffary for pro- ture to fpirituous liquors : fome give no colour at all,
during black. Caflel direfts 15 parts of blue, five of and fome a reddifh one. The juice preffed out from
red, and three of yellow; but takes notice, that thefe the frefn flowers is for the mofl part blue. The blue
proportions are rather fpeculatively than praftically juices and infufions are changed red by all acids. The
juft, and that the eye only can be the true judge ; our marine acid feems to ftrike the mofl florid red. The
colours being all very imperfedl, and our pigments or flowers themfelves, macerated in acid liquors, impart
other bodies of one denomination of colour being alfo a deep red tin&ure. Alkalies, both fixed and
very unequal in their degree of intenfity. He ob- volatile, and lime-water, change them to a green,
ferves, that the pigments fhould all be of the deepeft Thofe infufions of the juices which have nothing of
and darkeft kind : and that, inftead of taking one pig- the native colour of the flowers, fuffer the fame changes
ment for each colour, it is better to take as many as from the addition of acid and alkaline liquors : even
can be got; for the greater difeord there is of hete- when the flowers have been kept till their colour is
rogeneous and difeordant drugs, the more true and loft, infufions made from them acquire Hill a red co¬
beautiful, he fays, will the black be, and the more lour from the one, and a green from the other, though
capable' of uniting with all other colours, without in a lefs degree than when the flowers were frefh.
fuppreffing them, and even without making them The red colour produced by acids is fcarcely more
tawncy. durable than the original blue : applied upon other
Dr Lewis acquaints us, that by mixing different bodies and expoied to the air, it gradually degenerates
blue, red, and yellow colours, he has not been able to into a famtifh purple, and at length difappears, leaving
produce a perferit black ; but has often obtained from hardly any ilain behind. .Ihe green produced by
them very dark colours, fuch as may be called brown- alkalies changes to a yellow, which does not fade fo
Hacks, or grey-blacks ; fuch'as we commonly fee in the foon. The green, by lime-water, is .more permanent
dark parts of paintings^ and fuch as the charcoal and and more beantifal: green lakes, prepared from thefe
foot blacks appear when diluted a little. The ingre- flowers by lime-water, have been ufed .as pigments by
84. 4 the
COL [ 161
Colour- the painter. The flowers of cyanus have been greatly-
making. recommended, as affording elegant and durable blue
pigments ; but I have never been able to extraft from
them any blue colour at all. They retain their colour
indeed, when haftily dried, longer than fome other
blue flowers : but they communicate nothing of it to
any kind ofmenftruum. Infufions of them in watery,
fpirituous, and oily liquors, are all of them more or
lefs of a reddifh call, without any tendency to blue.
Alum, which is faid to heighten and preferve their
blue colour, changes it, like that of other blue flowers,
to a purplifh red; acids to a deep red; alkalies and
lime-water to a green ; folution of tin added to the
watery'infufion, turns it of a fine crimfon; on {land¬
ing, a beautiful red fiecula fubfides, but it lofes all
its.colour by the time it is dry. The watery infufion,
infpiflated to the confiftence of an extraft, appears of
a dark reddifh brown : an extract made with rectified
fpirit is of a purplifh colour. The colour of both ex¬
trafils fpread thin and expofed to the air quickly
fades. The flowers employed in thefe experiments
were thofe of the common blue-bottle of the corn¬
fields.
« Red flowers readily communicate their own red
colour to watery menftrua: among thofe that have
been tried, there is not one exception. Thofe of a
full red colour give to reftified fpirit alfo a deep red
tindlure, brighter, though fomewhat paler, than the
watery infufion : but the lighter red flowers, and
thofe which have a tendency to purplifh, impart very
little colour to fpirit, and feem to partake more of the
nature of the blue flowers than of the pure red. Infu¬
fions of red flowers are fuppofed to be heightened by
acids, and turned green by alkalies, like thofe of the
blue; but this is far from being univerfal. Among -
thofe I have examined, the rofe-colours and purplifh
reds were changed nearly in the fame manner as the
blues ; but the full deep reds were not. The deep
infufion of red poppies is changed by alkalies, not to a
green, but to a dufky purple.
“ The colours of yellow flowers, whether pale or
deep, are in general durable. Many of them are as
much fo, perhaps, as any of the native colours of ve¬
getables. The colour is extrafited both by water and
by fpirit. The watery infufions are the deeped— Nei¬
ther alkalies nor acids alter the fpecies of the colour,
though both of them vary its fhade ; acids rendering
it paler, and alkalies deeper: alum likewife confide-
rably heightens it, though not fo much as alkalies. An
infufion of the flowers, made in alkaline ley, precipi¬
tated by alum, gives a durable yellow lake. In fome
of the deep reddifh yellow, or orange-coloured flowers,
the yellow matter feems to be of the fame kind with
that of the pure yellow flowers, but the red to be of
a different kind from the pure red ones ; watery men-
firua take up only the yellow, and leave the red,
which may afterwards be extrafited by refitified fpirit
of wine, or by water acuated by fixed alkaline fait.
Such particularly are the faffron-coloured flowers of
carthamus. Thefe, after the yellow matter has been
extrafiled by water, are faid to give a red tinfilure to
ley; from which, on Handing at reft for-fome time, a
deep bright red fecula fubfides; called from one of the
names of the plant which produces it, fafflo'iuer ; and
from the countries whence it is commonly brought to
Vol.V. Parti.
] COL
us, Spanifh-red, and China-lake. This pigment im- Colour-
pregnates fpirit of wine with a beautiful red tinfilure, maki"g> ,
but communicates no colour to water. I have endea- v
voured to feparate, by the fame treatment, the red
matter of fome of the other reddifh yellow flowers,
as thofe of garden marigold, but without fuccefs.
Plain water extrafiled a yellow colour, and alkaline
ley extrafiled afterwards only a paler yellow : though
the digeftions were continued till the flowers had loft
their colour, the tinfilures were no other than yellow,
and not fo deep as thofe obtained from the pure yel¬
low flowers. The little yellow flofculi, which in
fome kinds of flowers are collefiled into a compafil
round difc, as in the daify and corn-marigold, agree,
fo far as they have been examined, with the expand¬
ed yellow petala. Their colour is affefiled in the fame
manner by acids, by alkalies, and by alum ; and e-
qually extrafiled by water and by fpirit. But the yel¬
low farina, or fine dull, lodged on the tips of the fta-
mina of flowers, appears to be of a different kind.. It
gives a fine bright yellow to fpiiit, and.a duller yel¬
low to water ; the undiffolved part proving in both
cafes of a pale yellowifh white. Both the watery and
fpirituous tinfilures were heightened by alkaline li¬
quors, turned red* by acids, and again to a deep yel¬
low on adding more of the alkali : I know no other
vegetable yellow that is turned red by acids.
“ White flowers are by no means deflitute of co¬
louring matter. Alkaline lixivia extrafil from fome
of them a green tinfilure, and change their colourlefs
expreffed juices to the fame colour; but I have not
obferved that they are turned red by acids. ;The
flow.ers of the common wild convolvulus or bind-weed,
which in all their parts are white, give a deep yellow
or orange tinfilure to plain water; which, like the
tinfilures of flowers that are naturally of that colour,
is rendered paler by acids, heightened a little by alum,
and more confiderably by alkaline falts. The vapours
of the volatile vitriolic acid, or of burning fulphur,
which whiten or deftroy the colour of the coloured
flowers, make no change in the white. ^6
“ The red juices of fruits, as currants, mulberries, Colours
elder-berries, morello, and black cherries, gently from fruits,
infpiffated to drynefs, diffolve again almoft totally in
water, and appear nearly of the fame red colour a: at
firft. Refilified fpirit extrafils the tinging particles,
leaving a confiderable portion of mucilaginous matter
undiffolved; and hence the fpirituous tinfilure proves
of a brighter colour than the watery. The red folu-
tions, and the juices themfelves, are fometimes made
dull, and fometimes more fiend, by acids, and gene¬
rally turned purplifh by alkalies. The colours of thefe
juices are for the moil part perifhable. They refill,
indeed, the power of fermentation, and continue al¬
moft unchanged, after the liquor has been converted
into wine; but when the juice is fpread thin upon o-
ther bodies, exficcated, and expofed to the air, the
colour.quickly alter? and decays: the bright lively red
changes the foonefl: the dark dull red ftain from the
juice of the black cherry, is of confiderable durability.
The fruit of thp American opuntia or prickly pear,
the plant upon which the cochineal infefil is produced,
is perhaps an exception: This bright red fruit, ac¬
cording to Labat, gives a beautiful red dye. Some
experiments, however, made upon the juice of that
X fruit,
COL r 162 1 COL
Colour- fruit, as brought into England, did not prornife to be
t riiakm^r- , of any great advantage : but the particulars I cannot
* now recollect.
“ The ripe berries of buckthorn ftain paper of a
green colour. From thefe Is prepared the fubftance
called fap-green, a pigment fufficiently durable, rea¬
dily foluble in water, but not mifcible with oil. The
berries dried while green, and macerated in alum-
water, are faid to yield a yellow pigment; and when
they have grown over ripe fo at to fall olf fpontane-
oufly, a purple one. It is faid that the berry of the
heliotropium tricoccum, which grows wild about Mont-
pelibr, ilains paper of a green colour, and that this
green turns prefently to a blue: that the common blue
paper receives its, colour from this juice : and that the
red rags called turnfol, employed for colouring wines
and other liquors, are tinctured by the fame juice
turned red by acids. According to M. Niffole of the
French academy of fciences (as quoted by Savary in
his Diftionaire de Commerce), the colouring juice is
obtained not from the berries, but from tops of the
plant gathered in Auguil, ground in mills, and, then
committed to the prefs. The juice is expofed to the
fun about an hour, the rags dipt in it, dried in the
fun, moiftened by the vapour which arifes during the
'flaking of quicklime with urine, then dried again in
the fun, and dipped again in the juice. The Dutch
and others are faid to prepare turnfol rags, and turn¬
fol in the mafs, from different ingredients, among
which archil is a principal one.
“ In fome plants, peony for inilance, the feeds at
a certain point of maturity are covered with a fine
fliining red membrane. The pellicles of the feeds of
a certain American tree afford the red maffes brought
into Europe under the names of annoHo, orlean, and
• See An- raucou*. Mr Pott, in the Berlin Memoirs for the
nMo. year 1752, mentions a very extraordinary property
of this concrete. ‘ With the vitriolic acid it pro¬
duces a blue colour, of extreme beauty^ but with this
capital defedt, that all falts and liquors, and even com¬
mon water, dellroy it.’ The fpecimen of annotto, which
I examined, was not fenfibly a&ed uponby fpirit of vi-
* triol; it received no change in its own colour, and,
communicated none to the liquor. Nor did any vt-
fible change enfue upon dropping the acid into tinc¬
tures of annotto made in water, or in fpirit.
Colours “ The green colour of the leaves of plants is ex-
from tradfed by redtified fpirit of wine and by oils. The
leaves. fpirituous tindtures are generally of a fine deep green,
even when the leaves themfelves are dull-coloured, or
vellowifh, or hoary. The colour, however, feldom
abides long even in the liquor; much lefs when the
tinging matter is feparated in a folid form, and expo-
fed with a large furface to the air. The editor of the
Wirtemberg Pharmacopeia obferves, that the leaves
of acanthus, brankurfme, or bear’s-breach, give a
more durable green tindture to fpirit than thofe of any
other herb. Alkalies heighten the colour both of the
tindtures and green juices ; acids weaken, deftroy, or
change it to a brownifh: lime-water improves both
the colour and durability : by means of lime, not in¬
elegant green lakes are procurable from the leaves of
acanthus, lily of the valley, and feveral other plants.
There are very few herbs which communicate any
fliare of their green colour to water; perhaps none.
that give a green of any confiderable deepnefs. It is CoPnr-
faid, however, that the leaves of fome plants give a, niAing. ^
green dye to woollen, without the addition of any 1'"'r_v f.
other colouring matter; particularly thofe of the wild
chervil, or cow-weed, the common ragwort, and de-
vil’s-bit. The leaves of many kinds of herbs and
trees give a yellow dye to wool or woollen cloth that
has been previoufly boiled with a folution of alum and
tartar. Weld, in particular, affords a fine yellow,
and is commonly made ufe of for this purpofe by the
dyers, and cultivated in large quantity in fome parts
of England. There is no colour for which we have
fuch plenty of materials as for yellow. Mr Hellot
obferves, that all leaves, barks, and roots, which on
being chewed difeover a flight aftringency, as the
leaves of the almond, peach, and pear-trees, afh-bark
(efpecially that taken off after the firft rifing of the
fap in the fpring), the roots of wild patience, &c.
yield durable yellows, more or lefs beautiful accor¬
ding to the length of time that the boiling is con¬
tinued, and the proportions of alum and tartar in the
preparatory liquor: that a large quantity of alum
makes thefe yellows approach to the elegant yellow
of weld: that if the tartar is made to prevail, it
inclines then to an orange: that if the roots, barks,
or leaves, be too long boiled, the yellow proves tar-
nifhed, and acquires fhades of brown.” See the ar-
tice Dyeing.
The mo ft capital preparations from the leaves of
plants, are thofe of indigo and weld ; which are both
very much ufed in dyeing, though the firft only in
painting*. Both the indigo and woad plants give • See
out their colour, by proper management, to water, and M'nad.
in form of a blue fecula or lake. Mr Flellot fufpefts 38
that a like blue fecula is procurable from. many other of , °n
vegetables. Blue and yellow blended together, com-accounted
pofe a green. He fuppofes the natural greens in ve-for.
getables to be compounded in like manner of thefe
two colours; and that the blue is oftentimes the moft
permanent, fo as to remain entire after the putrefac¬
tion or deftru&ion of the yellow. The theory is fpe-
cious, and perhaps juft: we know of no other that
accounts in any degree for the production of the indi¬
go and woad blue. Dr Lewis, however, informs us^
Slat he never was able to produce the leaft appear¬
ance of either blue or yellow from any of the plants
he tried by treating them in the manner ufed for the
preparation of indigo.
There are fundry moifes, which in their natural colours
ftate, like the indigo and woad plants, promife nothing ft *n
of the elegant colours that can be extracted from thein
by art. The moft remarkable of thefe is archil; for
the preparation of which, and the colours that may
be produced from it, fee the article. Linnaeus fu-
fpeCts that there are feveral other more common
moffes from which valuable colours might be extract¬
ed : a quantity of fea-mofs, having rotted in heaps on
the (hore, he obferved the liquor in the heaps to be-
as red as blood; the fea-water, the fun, and the
putrefaftion, having brought out the colour. Mr
Kalm, in an appendix to Linnaeus’s paper, in 1745,
mentions two forts of mofles actually employed in
Sweden for dyeing woollen re^d: one is the Lichenoides
coralliforme apicibus coccineis of Ray’s Synopfis; the
other the Lichenoides tartareum,. farinaceum, fcutel-
larumr
COL l 163 ] COL
'Cnlo’.ir- Uram umbone fufco, of Dillenius. This laft is a white
t nuking- fubitance like meal clotted together, foundpn the lides
P;1 Y and tops of hills. It is fhaved off from the rocks af¬
ter rain, purified from the ftony matters intermixed
among it by wafhing with water, then diied in the
fun, ground in mills, and again vyafhed and dried : it
is then put into a veffel with urine, and Cet by for a
month : a little of this tin&ure added to boiling wa¬
ter makes the dyeing colour. In the fame Tranfaftions
for the year 1754, there is an account of another mofs
'which, prepared with urine, gives a beautiful and
durable red or violet dye to wool and filk. This is
the lichen foliaceous umbilicatus fubtus lacunenfis,Linn.
flor. Suec. It grows upon rocks, and is readily dif-
tinguifhable from others of that clafs, by looking as if
burnt or parched, conlilting of leaves as thin as pa¬
per, convex all over on the upper fide, with corre-
fponding cavities underneath, adhering, firmly to the
ftones by a little root under the leaves, and coming
afunder, when dry, as foon as touched. It is gather¬
ed after rain, as it then holds bell together, and parts
eafieft from the ftone. In France, a cruftaceous mofs,
growing upon rocks in Auvergne, is prepared with
lime and urine, and employed by the dyers as a fuc-
cedaneum for the Canary archil, to which it is faid to
be very little inferior. Mr Hellot relates, that he
has met with feveral other mofies, which, on being
prepared in the fame manner, acquire the fame co¬
lour. The motl expeditious way, he fays, of trying
whether a mofs will yield an archil or not, is to moiil-
en a little of it with a mixture of equal parts of fpi-
rit of fal ammoniac, and ftrong lime-watet, and add
a Tmall proportion of crude fal ammoniac. The glafs
is then to be tied over with a piece of bladder, and
fet by for, three or four days. If the mofs is of the
proper kind, the little liquor which runs from it upon
inclining the veffel, will appear of a deep crimfon
colour; and this afterwards evaporating, the plant
itfelf acquires the fame colour. Dr Lewis informs us,
that he has tried a good number of the common
fnofTes, many both of the cruftaceous and foliaceous
kind, and not a few of the fungi; as alfo the herbs cha¬
momile and milfoil, which yield a blue efiential oil; and
thyme, whofe oil becomes blue by digeftion with vola¬
tile fpirits; but never met with any that yielded a co¬
lour like archil. Moft of them gave a yellow or
reddifli brown tin&ure. A few gave a deep red co¬
lour to the liquor: but, when dilated, it ftiowed a yel-
lowifh call, and when applied on cloth it gave only a
46 yellowifh red.
Some blue 'p0 thtfe obfervations we fhall only add, that though,
probably"^11 Renera^* c^e blue colours of flowers are exceeding-
yield 5 er- ly perifliable, there ftem to be at leaft two exceptions
marent co- to this rule; for the blue flowers of iris, or Jlower-
lours. de-luce, and thofe of columbine, when treated with
folution of tin, yielded a colour tolerably permanent.
Indeed, when experiments are made with a view to
extradt the colour from any part of a vegetable, it
w ill always be proper to try whether it can bear a
mixture with this lolution. If the colour is not de-
ftroyed by it, there L a v,ery great probability that the
folution will, by proper managecpent, preferve, and
give a durability to it, which could fcarce be obtained
by any other method. It muft, however, be obfer-
ved, that there are feveral fubftances ufed in colour-
making, which folution of tin cannot bear to be mixed Colour-
with. Thefe are principally fugar of lead and cream making
of tartar, as well as all the calcareous earths and alka- r !l)
line falls. With alum it may be mixed very fafely, Lolt~ ,
and is in many cafes the better for it. The roots of 4r
plants, however, feem to promife more durability of co-Colours
lour than the upper parts. We have feen a blue eo-from ^Cl0ts,
lour of confiderable durability and brightnefs prepared
from the roots of common radifties by exprefling the
juice, combining it with tobacco-pipe clay, and brigh¬
tening it with a little alum. The root of the red beet
is alfo faid to yield a durable colour of a beautiful red,
inclining to fcarlet; but this we cannot affirm from our
own experience.
With regard to liquid colours for maps, See. weCobun
apprehend there can be very little difficulty of pre-for
paring all the pofiible varieties of them, if what we
have above laid down is attended to. The only co¬
lour with which there can be any difficulty \s blue;
but the common folutidns of indigo in alkalies or acids
may be made to anfwer this purpofe, though, on ac¬
count of their ftrongly faline quality, they ate not
very proper. A very curious method of procuring
a beautiful tranfparent blue colour is by extradling the
colouring, matter from Pruflian blue, by means of a
cauftic alkali. This when laid upon paper appears of
a dirty brown colour; but if wafhed over with a weak
folution of green vitriol, is inftantly changed to a mod
beautiful blue. This feems to afford a method of pro¬
curing blue tranfparent colours of greater beauty than
they are ulually met with.—See fpecimens of tranf¬
parent colours prepared according to the above rules,
on the Chart fubjoined to History.
COLOURING, among painters, the manner of ap»
plying and condufting the colour of a piflure ; or the
mixtures of light and (hadows, formed by the various
colours employed in painting. See Painting.
Colouring of Glafs. See Glass.
Colouring of Porcelain. See Porcelain.
COL T, in zoology, a general name for the young
of the horle-kind : the male being likewife, fordiitinc-
tion’s fake, called a horfe-colt; the female, a flly.
After the colts have been foaled, you may fu^r .w,
them to run with the mare till about Michaelmas, BiaLar^
fooner or later, according as the cold weather comes in;
then they muft be weaned; though fome perfons are for-
having them weaned after Martinmas, or the middle of
November. The author of the Complete Horfeman is of
opinion, that the reafon why moft foals advance fo flow-
ly, and are not capable of fervice till they are fix or
feven years old, is becaufe they have not fucked long
enough; whereas, if they had fucked the whole winter
over, they would be as good at four or five years old
as they are now at eight.
They ought now to be kept in a convenient houfe,
with a low rack and manger for their hay and oats,
which mult be fweet and good ; with a little wheaten
bran mixed with the oats to caufe them to drink, and
to keep their bodies open. But, fince there are fome
who allege that oats make foals become blind, or
their teeth crooked; the fame author is of opinion,
that oats will wear their teeth, and make them the
fooner to change, and alfo to raze; therefore he
judges it to be the bell way to break them in a mill,
becaufe that by endeavouring with their jaws to bruife
X 2 and
COL [ 164 1 COL
Colt, and chew them, they ftretch and fwell their eye and
nether-jaw veins, which fo attract the blood and hu¬
mours that they fall down upon the eyes, and frequent¬
ly occafion the lofs of them : fo that it is not the heat¬
ing quality of the oats, but the difficulty in chewing,
that is the caufe of their blindnefs.
Further, colts thus fed with grain do not grow
thickiih upon their legs, but grow broader and better
knit than if they had eaten nothing but hay and bran,
and will endure fatigue the better. But above all,
they mull be kept from wet and cold, which are hurt¬
ful to them, nothing being more tender than they are.
For proof of this, take a Spanifh ftallion, and let him
cover two mares, which for age, beauty, and comeli-
nefs may admit of no difference between them; and
if they produce both horfe-colts, or both fillies, which
is one and the fame thing, let one run abroad, and the
other be houfed every winter, kept warm, and ordinari¬
ly attended; and that colt that has been kept abroad
fhall have large flefhy {boulders, flabby and gouty legs,
weak pafterns, and ill hoofs; and {hall be a dull heavy
jade, in comparifon to the other which is houfed, and
orderly kept; and which will have a fine forehead,
be fine {haped, and have good legs and hoofs, and be
of good ftrength and fpirit: by which you may know,
that to have the fineft ftallion, and the beautifulleft
mare, is nothing if they are fpoiled in the breeding
up. It is worth obfervation, that fome foals, under
fix months old, though their dams yield plenty of milk,
yet decay daily, and have a cough, proceeding from
certain pellicles or {kins that breed in their ftomachs,
which obftruft their breathing, and at laft deftroy
them entirely. To remedy this malady, take the bag
wherein the colt was foaled, dry it, and give him as
much of it in milk as you can take up with three fin¬
gers : but if you have not preferved the bag, procure
the lungs of a young fox, and ufe it inftead of the
aforefaid powder.
It will be proper to let the colts play an hour or
two in fome court-yard, &c. when it is fair weather,
provided you put them up again-carefully, and fee
that they take no harm. When the winter is fpent,
turn them into fome dry ground, where the grafs is
{hort and fweet, and . where there is good water,
that theyjnay drink at pleafure: for it is not necef-
fary that a colt Ihould fill his belly immediately, like
a horfe that labours hard. The next winter you may
take them into the houfe, and ufe them juft as you do
your other horfes; but let not your horfe-colts and
fillies be kept together after the firft year. This me¬
thod may be obferved every fummer and winter till
you break them, which you may do after they have
been three years old ; and it will be a very eafy thing,
if you obferve the aforefaid method of houfing them :
for ordering them the fecond year as you do your
other horfes, they will be fo tame and gentle, that
you need not fear their leaping, plunging, kicking,
or the like ; for they will take the faddle quietly. As
for all thdfe ridiculous methods of beating and cowing
them, they are in effeft fpoiling them, whatever they
call it, in ploughed fields, deep ways, or the like;
inftead of which, let the rider ftrive to win them by
gentle ufage, never corre&ing them but when it is
neceffary, and then with judgment and moderation.
You will not need a cavefibn of cord, which is a head
ftrain, nor a pad of draw ; but only a common faddle, Colt.
and a common caveffon on his nofe, fuch as other' v—
horfes are ridden with ; but it ought to be well lined
with double leather ; and if you pleafe you may put on
his mouth a watering bit, but without reins, only the
head-ftall, and this but for a few days; and then put
on fuch a bit as he fhould be always ridden Willi'S and
be fure not to ufe fpurs for fome time after backing.
Take notice, that as yearlings muft be kept abroad to¬
gether, fo thofe of two years old together ; the like for
thofe of three yearlings: which ordering is moft agree¬
able to them.
In order to make him endure the faddle the better,
the way to make it familiar to him will be by clap¬
ping the faddle with your hand as it Hands upon his
back, by ftriking it, and fwaying upon it, dangling
the ftirrups by his fides, rubbing them againft his {ides,
and making much of them, and bringing him to be fa¬
miliar with all things about him; as ttraining the
crupper, fattening and loofening the girths, and taking
up and letting out the ftirrups. Then as to the mo¬
tion of him, when he will trot with the faddle obe¬
diently, you may wafir a trench of a full mouth, and
put the fame into his mouth, throwing the reins over
the forepart of the faddle, fo that he may have a full
feeling of it; then put on a martingale, buckled at
fuch a length that he may but juft feel it when he
jerks up his head ; then take a broad piece of leather,
and put it about his neck, and make the ends of it
fall by plaiting of it, or fome other way, at the withers,
and the middle part before his weafand, about two
handfuls below the thropple, betwixt the leather and
his neck ; let the martingale pafs fo, that when at any
time he offers to duck, or throw down his head, the
caveffon being placed upon the tender griftle of his nofe,
may corredl and puniflr him; which will make him
bring his head to, and form him to an abfolute rein r
trot him abroad, and if you find the reins or martingale
grow flack, ftraiten them, for when there is no feeling
there is no virtue.
Colt-EviI, among farriers. See Farriery,
$ xxviii. 4,
Colt-T"anting, is the breaking of a colt fo as to en¬
dure a rider. Colts are rnoft eafily broke at three
or four years of age; but he who will have patience
to fee his horfe at full five, will have him much more
free of difeafes and infirmities than if he was broke
fooner.
Preparatory to their breaking for the faddle, they
fliould be ufed to familiar attions, as rubbing, clawing,
haltering, leading to water, taking up their feet,
knocking their hoofs, &c. In order to bridle and
faddle a colt, when he is made a little gentle, take a
fweet watering trench, waflred and anointed with
honey and fait, which put into his mafti, and fo place
it that it may hang about his tufh ; then offer him the
faddle, but take care not to fright him with it. Suf¬
fer him to fmell at it, to be rubbed with it, and then
to feel it; after that, fix it and gird it faft; and make
that motion the moft familiar to him to which he feema
moft averfe. Being thus faddled and bridled, lead
him out to water and bring him in again : when he
has ftood reined upon the trench an hour or more,
take off the bridle and faddle, and let him go to his
meat till the evening, and then lead him out as be¬
fore.
COL L 165 ] COL
Coltle, fore : and when you carry him in again to fet him up, brides, or weftern Britilh iiles, and abound in many Coluber.
Coluber. tajce 0ff faddle gently, clothing him for all thenight. parts of Britain ; particularly in the dry, llony, and
v ' ' COLTIE, a term ufed by timber-merchants, fora chalky counties. According to Mr Pennant and other
defeft or blemilh in fome of the annular circles of a naturalills, they are viviparous, but proceed from an
tree, whereby its value is much diminilhed. internal egg. The eggs are, as it were, chained to-
COLUBER, in zoology, a genus of ferpents be- gether ; and each about the fize of the eggofa black-
longing to the order of amphibia. The chara&ers bird. This viper feldom grows longer than two feet ;
are thefe : they have a number of feuta or hard crufts though Mr Pennant tells us he once fay a female
' on the belly ; and fcutelloe or feales on the tail. Lin- (which is nearly a third larger than the male) almoft
naeus enumerates no lefs than 97 fpecies under this three feet long. The ground colour of the male is of
name, diftinguiihed folely by the number of feuta and a dirty yellow, that of the female deeper. Its back is
fcutellse. The moft; remarkable are the following. marked the whole length with a feries of rhomboidal
1. The Vipera, or common viper of the Ihops, has black fpots, touching each other at the points ; the
118 feuta, and only 22 fcutellas. The body is very fides with.triangular ones; the belly entirely black. It
fhort, and of a pale colour, with brownifh fpots ; and hath 146 feuta, and 39 fcutellje. There is a variety
the head is gibbous, and covered with fmall feales. It wholly black ; but the rhomboid, marks are very con-
is a native of Egypt, and other warm countries. It fpicuous even in this, being of a deeper and more glof-
has always been remarkable for its poifonous nature ; fy hue than the reft. The head of the viper, fays Mr
infomuch that vipers, when numerous, have often been Pennant, is inflated, which diftinguifhes itfrom the corn-
thought the minifters of divine vengeance, like the mon fnake. Mr Catefby aflures us, that the difference
plague, famine, and other national calamities. A no- between the vipers and fnakes or other ferpents is, that
tion alfo prevailed among the ancients, that few or the former have long hollow fangs, or tufles, with an
none of the parts of a viper were free from poifon ; opening near the point; the neck is fmall, the head
for which reafon they made no experiments or dif- broad, the cheeks extending wide, feales rough, the
coveries. concerning the nature of thefe creatures, body for the moft part flat and thick ; they are flow
It is now, however, proved, by undoubted experi- of motion ; fwell the head and neck when irritated, and
ments, that the poifon of vipers, as well as of all have a terrible and ugly afpeft.” Another material
other ferpents whofe.bite is hurtful, lies in a bag at difference, however, confifts in the produ&ion of their
the bottom of their two greater teeth or fangs. Thefe young : the viper .hatches its eggs within itfelf, and
teeth are perforated; and when the creature bites, then difeharges the young; whereas the fnake depo-
the compreffion of the bag forces out a little drop fits its eggs, which are therefore externally hatched,
of the poifon into the wound, where it produces The tongue is forked, the teeth fmall; the four canine
its mifehievous effeCts. The purpofe anfwered by teeth are placed two on each fide the upper jaw : thefe
this poifonous liquor to the creatures themfelves, is inftruments of poifon are long, crooked, and move-
probably the deftruCIion of their prey ; for as fer- able; capable, like thofe of the former fpecies, of be-
pents frequently feed upon animals of very confider- ing raifed or depreffed at the pleafure of the animal,
able magnitude -and ftrength, they would often un- and they inftil their poifon in the fame manner. The
doubtedly make their efcape, did not the poifonous vipers are faid not to arrive at their full growth till they
juice inftilled into the wounds made by the ferpents are fix or feven years old; but they are capable of en-
teeth almoft inftantly deprive them of life, or at leaft gendering at two or three. They copulate in May,
of all power to ftruggle with their enemy. For an and go about three months with their young. Mr
account of the fymptoms produced by the bites of vi- White informs us J, that a viper which he opened had! Hijl. of
pers and other venomous ferpents in the human body, in it 15 young ones of the fize of earth-worms, about
together with the beft methods of cure, fee the/«- 7 inches long. This little fry iffued into the world
dex fubjoined to-Medicine. After the viper is de- with the true viper-fpirit about them. They twilled
prived of thofe bags which contain its poifon, it is en- and wriggled about with great alertnefs; and when
tirely harmlefs : nay the flefti of it is highly nutritive, touched, they ere&ed themfelves, and gaped very wide,
and juftly efteemed a great reftorative. It hath been fliowing immediate tokens of menace and defiance, tho’
much recommended in fcrophulous, leprous, and other no fangs could be perceived even with the help of glaf-
obftinate chronical diforders ; but, to anfwer any good fes : which the author remarks as an inftance among
purpofe, it muft undoubtedly be ufed for a confiderable others of that wonderful inftindf which impreffes young
time as food. The dried flefti which comes to this animals with a notion of the fituation and ufe of their
country from abroad, is juftly efteemed by Dr Lewis natural weapons even before thefe weapons are formed,
to be totally infignificant. A volatile fait was former- Mr Pennant tells us, that he has been affured of a fa£t
ly drawn from vipers, and fold at a great price, as a mentioned by Sir Thomas Brown *, who was far from * Vulgar
fovereign remedy againft the bites of vipers and other being a credulous writer (a), that the young of the-Erro™,.
poifonous animals ; but it is now found not to be ma- viper, when terrified, will run down the throat of the P II4*
terially different from the volatile alkaline falls pro- parent, and feek for flicker in its belly, in the fame
cured by diftilling other animal fubftances. manner as the young of the opoffum retire into the
2. The berus, or common Britifti viper, is found in ventral pouch of the old one. From this fome have
many countries of Europe. They fwarm in the He- imagined that the viper is fo unnatural as to devour
its
(a) The viper catchers, however, infill, .that no fuch thing; ever happens. See White's Nat. Hijl. of Selbemej-,
P-51-
COL r 166 1 CO L
tiber. its own young : but the affertion deferves no credit ;
v— it being well known that the food of thefe ferpents is
frogs, toads, lizards, mice, and, according to Dr
Mead, even an animal fo large as a mole, which they are
able to fwallow entire, their throat and neck being ca¬
pable of great diltenfion. It is alfo faid, from good
authority, that vipers prey on young birds ; but whe¬
ther on fuch as neftle on the ground, or whether they
climb up trees for them, as the Indian ferpents do, is
, quite uncertain ; the faft, however, is very far from be¬
ing recent; for Horace tells us,
Ut ajjidens implumibus puliis avis ,
Serpentium allapfis timet. Epod. I.
Thus for its young the anxious biid
The gliding ferpent fears.
The viper is capable of fupporting very long ab-
ftinencc ; it being known, that fome have been kept
in a boXr fix months without food, and yet did not a-
bate of their vivacity. They feed only a fmall part
«f the year, but never during their confinement ; for
if mice, their favourite diet, fhould at that time be
thrown into their box, though they will kill, yet they
never will eat them. The violence 'of their poifon
decreafes in proportion to the length of their confine¬
ment, as does alfo the virtue of their flelh whatever
it is. The animals, when at liberty, remain torpid
throughout the winter; but, when confined, have ne¬
ver been obferved to take their annual repofe. The
method of catching them is by putting a cleft flick on
or near their head ; after which they are feized by
the tail, and inflantly put into a bag. The viper-
catchers are very frequently bit by them in the pur-
fuit of, their bufmefs, yet we very rarely hear of their
bite being fatal. Salad oil, if applied in time, is faid
to be a certain remedy. The-ilefh of the Britifh vi¬
per has been celebrated as a reftorative, as well as that-
of the foreign kind. Mr Keyfler relates, that Sir
Kenelm Digby ufed to feed his wife, who was a moft
beautiful woman, with capons fattened with the flefh
of vipers,
3. The punftatus of Linnseus, by Mr Catefby cal¬
led the water-viper, is a native of Carolina. Accord¬
ing to Linnasus it is afh-coloured, variegated with
yellow fpots. Mr Catefby informs us, that the head
and back of this ferpent are brown ; the belly marked
tranfverfely with yellow, and alfo the fides of the
tieck. The, neck is fmall, the head large, and the
mouth armed with the deflruftive fangs of the viper
or rattle-fnake, next to which it is reckoned the lar-
gefl ferpent in this country. Contrary to what is ob¬
ferved in moft other vipers, thefe are very nimble and
adtivc, and very dexterous in catching fifh. In fum-
mer, great numbers are feen lying on the branches of
trees hanging over rivers ; from which, on the ap¬
proach of a Boat, they drop into the,water," and of¬
ten into the boat on the mens heads. They lie in
wait in this manner to furprife either birds or fifh : af¬
ter the latter they plunge with furprifing fwiftnefs,
and catch feme of a large fize, which they bring a-
fhore and fwallow whole. The tail of this animal is
fmall towards the end, and terminates in a blunt horny
point about half an inch long. This harmlefs little
horn hath been the occafion of many terrible reports;
as, that by a jerk of its tail, the animal is capable
of inftantly deilroying both men and beafts; that a
tree fixuck with this terrible horn, in a fhort time Coluber,
grows black, withers, and dies, &c. but all thefe v——<
Mr Catefby affures us have not the leaf! foundation in
fadh
4. The cherfea is a native of Sweden, where it is
called afping. It is a fmall reddifh -An-pent, whofe
bite is faii^ to be mortal. Concerning this fpecies Mr
Pennant afks, “ Is it poffible that this could be the
fpecies which has hitherto efcaped the notice of our
naturalifts ? I the rather fufpect it, as I have been in¬
formed that there is a fmall fnake that lurks in the
low grounds of Galloway, which bites and often proves
fatal*to the inhabitants.”
5. The prefter of Linnaeus, or black viper of Mr
Catefby, is a native of Carolina and Virginia. It is
fhort and thick, flow of motion, fpreads its head fur.
prifingly when irritated, very flat and thick, threat¬
ening with a horrid hifs. They are very poifonous ;
their bite being as deadly as that of the rattlefnake.
They frequent the higher lands, and are of a ruily
black colour.
6. The coluber luridus of Forftcr, called by Mr Ca¬
tefby the brown viper; is a native of the fame countries
with the preceding. It is about two feet long, and large
in proportion ; very flow in its motion, even when
threatened with danger: notwithflanding which, it
defends itfelf very fiercely when attacked, and its bite
is as venomous as any. They prey upon efts, lizards,
and other animals of that kind.
Beiides thefe fpecies of which we have a particular
defeription, the following are alfo reckoned among the
poifonous ferpents, vi%. 7. The atropos, with 131 feu: a
and 22 fcutellse. It is a native of America, the body
white, and tiie eyes brown, with a white iris. 8. The
leberis, with x 10 feuta and 50 fcutellae, is a native of
Canada, and has many black linear rings. 9. The
ammodites, with 142 feuta and 32 fcutellte, is a na¬
tive of the Ealt. It is about fix inches long, and has
a flefhy protuberance on its nofe. xo. The afpis,
with 146 feuta and 46 fcutellas, is a native of France;
and is of a reddifh colour, with dufky fpots on the
back. 11. Lhe lebetinus, with 155 feuta and 46 feu-
telke, is a native of ,Afia, and is of a cloudy colour,
with red fpots on the belly. 12. The feverus, with
170 feuta and 42 fcutellte, is likewife a native of Afia,
and is afh-coloured with white belts. 13. The ftollatus,
with 143 feuta and 76 fcutelhe, is a native of Afia,
and is of a greyifh colour, with two white fillets. 14.
The la&eus, with 203 feuta and 32 fcutellae, is a na¬
tive of the Indies. Its colour is white, with black fpots.
15. The naja, with. 193 feuta and 60 fcuteliae, is a na¬
tive of the Eall Indies, and is reckoned the moll; poi-
fonous of all ferpents. The root of the lignum colu-
brimim (ophiorrhi%a) is faid to have been pointed out
to the Indians as an antidote againft the bite of this
ferpent by the viverra ichneumon, a creature which
fights with this ferpent, and cures itfelf by eating of
this plant when wounded. The Indians, when bit,
inftantly chew it, '-fwallow the juice, and apply the
mafticated root to the pun&ure. It is killed by the
ichneumon. 16. The atrox, with 196 feuta and 69
fcutellae, is a native of Afia. It is of a hoary colour,
and the head is compreffed and covered with fmall
feales. 17. The niveus, with 209 feuta and 62 feu-
tellse,- is a native of Africa. It is wdiite, and with-
5 out
COL [ 167 ] CO L
out any fpots. 18. The corallinus, with 193 fcuta and
82 fcutellae, is a native of Afia. It is greyifh, with
three brown fillets. 19. The dipfas; with 152 fcuta
and 135 fcutellae, is a native of America. It is of a
bluifii colour, with the margins of the fcales white.
20. The mydterizans, with 192 fcuta and 167 fcutel-
las, is a native of America. It is of a bluilh-green co¬
lour, hath a ftretched out triangular fnout. Inhabits
trees, ami lives on infedis.
The above zp fpecies are all the ferpents of the
genus of coluber that are reckoned poifonous. Of the
reft we fhall only mention the following, which are the
moft remarkable.
21. The erythrogafter of Torfter, called by Mr Ca-
tefby the copper-bellied fnake, is a native of Carolina,
and grows iometimes near ,to the fize of a rattlefnake.
It is of a brown colour in all parts of its body, except
the belly, which is of ,a red copper colour. They fre¬
quent water, and probably prey on fi(h ; but they will
alfo devour birds and fuch other animals as they are
able to overcome. They are bold and active, frequent¬
ly entering poultry-houfes, devouring the fowls and
fucking their eggs.
22. The conftridtor, or black fnake, is a native of
feveral parts of America. They are very long,, fome-
times meafuring fix feet, and are all over of a firming
black. This fpecies is not only perfectly harmlefs, but
extremelyaifeful in clearing the houfes of rats, which it
purfues with wonderful agility to the very roofs, and
all parts of barns and outhoufes, for which good fer-
vices it is cherifired by the generality of Americans.
It is alfo faid, that it will deftroy the rattlefnake, by
twitting round it, and whipping it to death. In
the time of copulation it is extremely bold and fierce,
and will attack mankind; but its bite has no more ef-
fedt than a fcratch with a pin. It is fo fwift that
there is no efcaping its purfuit. Many ridiculous
frights have happened from this innocent reptile. As
every one in America is full of the dread of the'rat¬
tlefnake, they are apt to fly at the fight of any of the
ferpent kind. This purfues, fson overtakes, and by
twitting round the legs of the fugitive, foon brings
him to the ground : but he happily receives no hurt,
but what may refult from this fright: all the mif-
chief this fpecies does is to the houfewives, for it will
fkim their milk-pans of the cream, and rob their hen-
roofts of all the eggs.
23. The annulatus, or little brown bead-fnake, is
always fmall, and is feluom found above ground, but
commonly dug up, and found twitting about the roots
of fhrubs and plants. All the back and other parts of
the body have tranfverfe fpots of brown and white fo
difpofed as to have fome refemblance to a fixing of
Engliih beads ; whence probably it takes it name. It is
quite harmlefs, and is a native of Virginia and Carolina.
24. The flagellum, or coach-whip fnake, is of a
brown colour, very long, flender, and adtive. It runs
fwiftly, and is quite inoffenfive; but the Indians imagine
it is able to cut a man in two with a*jerk of its tail.
25. The fulvius, or corn-fnake, is beautifully mark¬
ed with red and white, refembling a fpecies of Indian
corn, whence its name. It is harmlefs as to its bite,
but frequently robs hen-rooils.
z6. The jeftivus, or green fnake, is all over of a
green colour. It inhabits Carolina where it lives
among the branches of trees on flies.and other infects. Cohan'-..
It is of a fmall fize, and eafily becomes tame and f3'
miliar, infomuch that fome people will carry them in
tfyeir bofom.
27. The fafciatus, or wampum fnake, derives its
name from its refemblance to the Indian wampum. It
fometimes grows to the length of five feet; and like
other large fnakes, is very voracious, but its bite is
not venomous. The back is of a dark blue, the beliy
finely clouded with fpots of a brighter blue ; the head
is fmall in proportion to the reft of the body. See
further the article Serpent.
COLUMB-KILL. See Jona.
COJLUMBA, the Pigegon, in ornithology, a genus
belonging to the order.of pafferes. The charattters
of this genus are as follow: The bill is ftrait, and de-
fcends towards the point; the nottrils are oblong, and
half covered with a foft tumid membrane ; and the
tongue is entire, i. e. not cloven. There are about
70 fpecies, all natives of different countries. The fol¬
lowing are the moft remarkable.
1. The cenas, or domeftic pigeon, and all its beau¬
tiful varieties, 4erive their origin from one fpecies,
the ftock-dove ; the Englifh name implying its being
the. ftock or ftem from whence the other domeftic'
birds fpring. Thefe birds, as Varro obferves, take
their Latin name, columba, from their voice or coo¬
ing : and, had he known it, he might have added
the Britifti alfo; for k’lommen, lylobmzn, kulm, and kolm,
fignify the fame bird. They were, and ftill are, to
be found in moft parts of our ifland in a ftate of na¬
ture ; but probably the Romans firft taught the Britons
how to conftruct pigeon-houfes, and make the birds
domeftic. The charafters of the domeftic pigeon are
the following. It is @f a deep bluifti afh’-colour ; the
breaft daftied with a fine changeable green and purple ;
the fides of the neck with fhining copper-colour; its
wings marked with two black bars,'one on the coverts-
of the wings, the other on th* quill feathers; the back
white, and the tail barred near the end' with black.
They weigh 14 ounces. In the wild ftate if breeds
in holes of rocks and hollows of trees ; for which rea-
fon fome people ftyle it columba cavernalis, in oppo-
fition to the ring-dove, which makes its neft on the
boughs of trees. Nature always preferves fome a-
greement in the manners, chara&ers, and colours of
birds reclaimed from their wild ftate. This fpecies
of pigeon foon takes to build in artificial cavities, and
from the temptation of a ready provifion becomes
eafily domefticated. Multitudes of thefe wild birds
are obferved to migrate into the fouth of England :
and, while the beech-woods were fuffered to cover
large trails of ground, they ufed to haunt them in my¬
riads, reaching in firings a mile in length, as they
went out in the morning to feed.4 They vifit Britain
the latefl of any bird of paffage, not appearing till
November, and retiring in the fpring. Mr Pinnanf
imagines, that the fummer haunts of thefe creatures .
are in Sweden, as Mr Eckmark makes their retreat
thence coincide with their arrival in Britain. Num¬
bers of them, however, breed on cliffs of the coaft of
Wales, afid of the Hebrides. The varieties produ¬
ced from the domeftic are very numerous, and ex¬
tremely elegant ; they are diftinguiihed by names ex-
preflive of their ftveral properties, as lumblers, car-
COL [ 168 ] COL
Colmnla. ricrs, jacolines, croppers, powuters, runls, turlits, owls, belly of a faint red ; above the (boulder of the wing CoIumLa.
nuns, &c. The mod celebrated of thefe is the car- there is a patch of feathers (hiniag like gold ; the wing 
rier, of which an account is already given under the is coloured like the head, having forne few fpots of
article Carrier-Pigeon. The nature of pigeons is to black (except that the larger feathers of it are dark
be gregarious; to lay only two eggs, and to breed ma- brown), with fome white on the exterior vanes ; the
ny times in the year. So quick is their increafe, that tail is very long, and covered with a black feather,
the author of the “ Oeconomy of Nature” obferves, under which the reft are white ; the legs and feet are
that in the fpace of four years, 14,760 pigeons may, red. They come in prodigious numbers from the
come from a fmgle pair. They bill during their court- north,'to winter in Virginia and Carolina. In thefe
fliip : the male and female fit, and alfo feed their young, countries they rood upon one another’s backs in fuch
by turns : they cad provifion out of their craw into quantities that they often break down the limbs of oaks
the young one’s mouth ; and drink, not by Tipping, which fupport them, and leave their dung fome inches
like other birds, but by continued draughts like qua- thick below the trees. In Virginia Mr Catefby has
drupeds, and have motnnful or plaintive notes. feen them fly in fuch continued trains for three days
2. The palumbus, or ring-dove, is a native of Eu- fucceffively, that they were not lod fight-of for the
rope and Afia. It is the larged' pigeon we have, and lead interval of time, but fomewhere in the air they
might be didinguifhed from all others by its fize alone, were feen continuing their flight fouthward. They
Its weight is about 20 ounces; its length 18, the breed in rocks by the Tides of rivers and lakes far north
breadth 30, inches. The head, back, and covers of of St Lawrence. They fly to the fouth only in hard
the wings, are of a bluiflr afh colour : the lower fide winters, and are never known to return.
of the neck and bread are of a purplifli red, daflied 6. The coronata, or great crowned pigeon, a very
with a(h-colour.- on the hind part of the neck is a fe- large fpecies, the fize of a turkey. The billis black,
micircular line of white; above and beneath that, the and two inches long ; the irides are red; the head,
feathers are glofly, and of changeable colours as oppo- neck, bread, belly, Tides, thighs, and under tail co¬
fed to the light. This fpecies forms its ned of a few verts, cinereous blue ; the head is creded; the back,
dry dicks in the boughs of trees. Attempts have been rump, fcapulars, and upper tail coverts, are of a deep
made to domedicate them by hatching their eggs un- afli-colour, with a mixture of purplifli chefnut on the
der the common pigeon in dove-houfes; but as foon upper part of the back and fcapulars ; the wing-coverts
as they could fly, they always took to their proper are afli-coloured within, and purplifli. chefnut on the
haunts. In the beginning of winter they aflemble in outfide and tip ; quills deep blackifli afli-colour ; tail
great flocks, and leave off cooing, which they begin the fame, but of a light afli-colour at the tip ; the legs
in March when they pair. are blackifli. This fpecies inhabits the Molucca ifles
3. The turtur, or turtle-dove, is a native of India, and New Guinea, and has been brought to England
The length is 12 inches and a half; its breadth 21 ; alive. Buffon mentions five having been at oncie alive
the weight four ounces. The irides are of a fine yel- in France. In fize it far exceeds any of the pigeon
low, and the eye-lids encompaffed with a beautiful crim- tribe ; but its form and manners tell us that it can be-
fon circle. The chin and forehead are whitifli; the long to no other. Indeed Briffon has placed it with
top of the head afli-coloured, mixed with olive. On the pheafants; and the planches enluminees have copied
each fide of the neck is a fpot of black feathers pret- that name ; but whoever has obferved it cannot doubt
tily tipt with white : the back afli-coloured, bordered in the lead to which it belongs. Its note is cooing and
with olive-brown : the fcapulars and coverts of a red- plaintive, like that of other pigeons, only more loud
difli brown fpotted with black: the bread of a light in proportion. The mournful notes of thefe birds
purplifli red, having the verge of each feather yellow: alarmed the crew of Bougainville much, when in the
the belly white. The tail is three inches and a half neighbourhood of them, thinking they were the cries
long ; the two middle feathers of a dulky brown ; of the human fpecies. In France they were never ob-
the others black, with white tips ; the end and exte- ferved to lay eggs, nor in Holland, though they were
rior.fide of the outmod feathers wholly white. In the kept for fome time; but Scopoli affures us, that the
breeding feafon thefe birds are found in Buckingham- male approaches the female with the head bent into
Ihire, Gloucederfliire, Shropfliire, and the wed of the bread, making a noife more like lowing than coo-
England. They are very fliy and retired, breeding in ing; and that they not only made a ned on trees, in
thick" woods, generally of oak : in autumn they mi- the menagery where they were kept, but laid eggs.
■ grate into other countries. The ned was compofed of hay and dalks. The fe-
4. The pafferina, or ground-dove of Carolina, is male never fat, but dood upon the eggs; and he fup-
about the' fize of a lark. The bill is yellow, and pofed it was from this caufe alone that there was no
black at the end; the iris red ; the bread and whole produce. They are faid to be kept by iome, in the
front of a changeable purple, with dark purple fpots; Ead Indies, in their court-yards, as domedic poultry,
the large quill-feathers are of a ruddy purple ; the legs The Dutch at the Moluccas call them crooun-vogel.
and feet of a dirty yellow ; but the whole bird has fuch M. Sonnerat, as well as Dampier, found thefe in plenty
a compofition of colours in it, that a very particular at New Guinea; and it is probable that they were
defeription is impoffible. They fly many of them to- originally tranfported from that place into Banda, from
gether, and make flrort flights from place to place, ge- whence the Dutch chiefly now procure them,
nerally lighting on the ground. Among the great number of other fpecies of colum-
5. The migratoria, or pigeon of paffage, is about ba, there are fome very fmall, not larger than a wood-
the fize of an Englilh wood-pigeon ; the bill black; lark. The Malacca pigeon deferibed by Sonnerat is
iris red; the head of a dulky blue; the bread and little bigger than the houfe-fparrow. It is a mod
N° 85. J beautiful
COL [ i
Columba. beautiful fpecies, and the flefh faid to be extremely de-
u-_v licate. Ic has been tranfported into the ifle of France,
where it has multiplied exceedingly.
Pigeons, beiides being efteemed as a delicacy for the
table, are of value on other accounts. Their dung is
thought to be fo good amendment for fome kinds of
land, that it has been fetched 16 miles, and a load of
coals has been given for a load of it: it is alfo ufed
for tanning the upper-leathers of Ihoes, as well as ap¬
plied as a cataplafm to this day. Indeed formerly falt-
petre was colle&ed from it. The greateft ufe of pi¬
geons is at Ifpahan in Perfia, where there are record¬
ed to be above 3000 pigeon-houfes, and thefe kept by
the Turks alone, as Chriftians are not allowed to keep
any. Dr Pococke mentions the frequency of pigeon-
houfes in Egypt; adding, that the pigeon-houfe is
reckoned a great part of the eftate of the hufband-
man ; and the common proverb in thofe parts is, that
a man who has a pigeon-houfe need not be careful
about the difpofal of his daughter. Tavernier fays
that their dung is ufed to fmoke melons. The ufual
way taken to entice pigeons to remain where they are
intended, is to place what is called afalt-cat near them;
this is'compofed of loam, old rubbifh, and fait, and
will fo eft’eftually anfwer the purpofe as to decoy them
from other places, and is therefore held illegal.
Columba (St), in allufion to whole name the if-
land of Jona (one of the Hebrides) received its name ;
Jona being derived from a Hebrew word fignifying
a dove. This holy man, inftigated by his zeal, left
his native country, Ireland, in the year 565, with the
pious defign of preaching the gofpel to the Pifts. It
appears that he left his native foil with warm refent-
ment, vowing never to make a fettlement within fight
of that hated ifland. He made his firft trial at Oran-
fay ; and finding that place too near to Ireland, fuc-
ceeded to his wifh at Hy, for that was the name of
Jona at the time of his arrival. He repeated here the
expei iment on feveral hills, erecting on each a heap
of Hones ; and that which he laft afcended is to this
day called CarnOn-chuI-reh-Eiriun, or “ 1 he eminence
of the back turned to Ireland.”
Columba was foon diftinguifhed by the fan£ity of
his manners : a miracle that he wrought fo operated
on the Pidlifh king Bradens, that he immediately made
a prefent of the little ifle to the faint. It feems that
his majefty had refufed Columba an audience ; and
even proceeded fo far as to order the palace-gates to be
flint againfl; him : but the faint, by the power of his
word, inftantly caufed them to fly open. As foon as
he was in pofieflion of Jona, he founded a cell of monks,
borrowing his inftitutions from a certain oriental mo-
naftre order. It is faid that the firft religious were
canons regular, of whom the founder was the firft
abbot ; and that his monks, till the year 716, differed
from thofe of the church of Rome, both in the obfer-
vation of Eafter and in the clerical tonfure. Columba
led here an exemplary life, and was highly refpe&ed
for the fandfity of his manners for a confiderable num¬
ber of years. Pie is the firft on record who had the
faculty of fccondfight, for he told the vidtory of Aidan
over the Pidts and Saxons on the very inftant it hap¬
pened. He had the honour of burying in his ifland,
Convallius and Kinnatil, two kings of Scotland, and
of crowning a third. At length, worn out with age,
Vol. V. Part I.
69 1 COL
he died in Jona in the arms of his difciples; was in- CoJumba-
terred there, but (as the Iriflr pretend) in after times
tranflated to Down ; where, according to the epitaph, Cohimbo;
his remains were depofited with thofe of St Bridget ———j
and St Patrick.
Hi tres in 7)uno tutmilo tumulantur in uno;
Brigida, Patricius, atque Columba plus.
But this is totally denied by the Scots; who affirm,
that the contrary is fhown in a life of the faint, ex-
tradled out of the pope’s libraty, and tranflated out
of the Latin into Erfe, by Father Call 0 horan ; which
decides in favour of Jona the momentous difpute.
COLUMBANUS, a faint and a poet, was born in
Ireland, and brought up to a religious life among the
difciples of St Columba. He made uncommon pro-
grefs in learning ; and very early in life diftinguifhed
himfelf for poetical abilities, by the compofition of a
book of pfalms, and a number of moral poems, intend¬
ed alfo to be fet to mufic. Jonas, a writer of eccle-
fiaftical hiftory, mentions, that Columbanus belonged
originally to a monaftery of the name of Benchor.
The fame monaftery is mentioned by St Bernard in his
life of his friend St Malachi; and he relates that it fent
out a great number of monks, who fpread over Eu¬
rope. Columbanus pafLd from Britain into France,
and founded the monaftery of Luxeville near Befan§on.
He had been kindly received and patronifed by king
Childebert; but he was afterwards expelled out of
France by the wicked queen Brunichild. He retired
to Lombardy in Italy, and was well received by king
Argulphus. In Lombardy he again founded the mo¬
naftery of Bobio. The Regula Canobialis and Paii-
tentialis, which he eftabliflied in that monaftery, have
been publiihed in the Codex Regularum compiled by the
learned Holftenius. He was cotemporary with St
Benedict. It was in the year 589 he went into
France.
COLUMBARIA (anc. geog.), an ifland like a
rock on the weft of Sicily, oppofite to Drepanum ;
faid by Zonaras to have been taken from the Cartha¬
ginians by Numerius Fabius the conful. Now Colim-
bara, with a very ftrong and almoft impregnable cita¬
del (Cluverius).
COLUMBINE, in botany. See Aquilegia.
COLUMBO-root, an article lately introduced in¬
to the materia medica, the natural hiftory of which is
not yet well known. According to Dr Percival’s ac¬
count it grew originally on the continent of America;
from whence it was tranfplanted to Columbo, a town
in Ceylon, which gives name to it, and fuppliee all
India with it. The inhabitants of thefe countries have
for a long time ufed it in diforders of the ftomach and
bowels. They carry it about with them, and take it
fliced or feraped in Madeira wine. This root comes
to us in circular pieces, which are from half an inch
or an inch to three inches in diameter ; and divided in¬
to fritjia, which meafure from two inches to one quar¬
ter of an inch. The fides are covered with a thick
corrugated bark, of a dark brown hue on its external
furface, but internally of a light yellow colour. The
furfaces of the tranlverfe fe&ions appear very unequal,
higheft at the edges, and forming a concavity towards
the centre. On feparating this furface, the root is
obferved to confift of three lamina, viz. the cortical,
which, in the larger roots, is a quarter of an inch
Y thick $
COL [ 170 ] COL
Columbo. thick ; the ligneous, about half an inch ; and the me-
^ dullary, *vhich forms the centre, and is near an inch
in diameter. This lalt is much foftcr than the other
parts, and, when chewed, feems mucilaginous; a num¬
ber of fmall fibres run longitudinally through it, and
appear on the furface. The conical and ligneous parts
are divided by a black circular line. All the thicker
pieces have fmall holes drilled through them,, for the
convenience of drying. Columbo-root has an aroma¬
tic finell; but is difagreeably bitter, and flightly pun¬
gent to-the tafte, fomewhat refembling • muilard-feed,
when it has loft, by long keeping, part of its efiential
oil. Yet, though ungrateful to the tafte^ when recei¬
ved into the ftomach, it appears to be corroborant,
antifeptic,. fedative, and powerfully antiemetic. In
the cholera morbus it alleviates the violent tormina,
checks the purging and vomiting, corredts the putrid
tendency of the bile, quiets the inordinate motions of
the bowels, and fpecdily recruits thei exhaufted lirength
of the patient. It was admiaiftered; to a great number
of patients-, fometimes'upwards of 20 in a day, afflift-
ed with the cholera morbus, by Mr Johnfon ot Che-
fter, in 1756. He generally found that it foon flopped
the vomiting, which was the moft fatal fymptcm, and
that the purging and remaining complaints quickly
yielded to the fame remedy. The dole he gave was
from half a drachm to two drachms of the powder,
every three or four hours, more or lefs according to
the urgency of the fymptoms. Though this medi¬
cine pofleffes little or no aftringency, it has been ob-
ferved'to be of great fervice in diarrhoeas, and even in
the dyfentery. In the firft ftage of thefe di(orders,,
where ^aftringents would be hurtful, Columbo-root
may be prefcribed with fafety ; as, by its antifpaf-
modic powers, the irregular adlions of the primse vi;e
are corrected. But as a cordial,! tonic, and antifeptic
remedy, it anfwers better when given towards their
decline. Its efficacy has alfo been obferved in the
vomitings which, acte-nd the bilious-cholic ; and in fuch
cafes, where an emetic is thought neceffary, after ad-
miniftering a fmall dofe of ipecacuan, the ftomach may
he walhed with an infufion of Columbo-root. This
will tend to prevent thofe violent and convullive reach-
ings which in irritable habits abounding w ith bite are
fometimes excited by the mildell emetic. In bilious
fevers, jy or 20 grains of this root, with an equal or
double quantity of variolated tartar, given every four,
five, or fix hours, produce very beneficial effefts.
From its efficacy in thefe bilious diieafes of this coun¬
try, it is probable that it may be ufeful in the yellow
fever of the Weft Indies, which is always attended
with great ficknefs, violent teachings, and a copious
difcharge of bile. The vomiting recurs at ffiort in¬
tervals, often becomes almoft incelfant, and an incre¬
dible quantity of bile is fometimes evacuated in a few
hours. Children during dentition are often fubjeft to
fevere vomitings and diarrhoeas. In thefe cafes the
Columbo-root is an ufeful remedy, and hath often pro¬
cured ahnoft inftant relief, when other efficacious reme¬
dies have been tried in vain. This root is alfo extreme¬
ly beneficial in a languid ftate cf the ftomach* attend¬
ed with want of appetite, indigeftion, naufea-, and fla¬
tulence. It may be given either in fubftance, with
fome grateful aromatic, or tnfufed in Madeira wine.
Habitual vomiting, when it proceeds from, a weaknefs
or irritability of the ftomach, from an irregular gout, Columtyv
acidities, acrimonious bile, or an iocreafed and de- Columbus,
praved fecretion of the pancreatic juice, is greatly re- v "J
lieved by the irfe of Columbo-root, in conjunftion w'ith
aromatics, chalybeates, or the teftaceous powders. In
the nauiea and vomiting occafioned by pregnancy, an
infufion of Columbo-root fucceeds better than any
other medicine that hath been tried.
From Dr Percival’s experiments on this root, it aps-
pears, that re&ified fpirit of wine extracts its virtues
in the greateft perfection. The watery infufion is
more perilhable. than that, of other- bitters. In 24
hours a copious precipitation takes place ; and in two
days it becomes ropy, and even mufty. The addition
of orange peel renders the infufion of Cdlumbo-root
lefs ungrateful to the palate. An ounce of the powder¬
ed root, half an ounce of orange-peel,, two ounces- of
French brandy, and 14 ounces of water, macerated la¬
bours without heat, and then filtered through paper,
afford a fufficiently ftrong and tolerably pleafant in¬
fufion, The extraCt made firft by fpirit and then
with water, and reduced by evaporation to a pilular
confittence, is found to be equal if not fuperior in ef¬
ficacy to the powder. • As an antifeptic, Columbo-root
is inferior to the bark ; but as a eorreCtor of putrid
gall, it is much fuperior to the bark ; whence alfo it
is probable that it would be of fervice in the Weft
India yellow fever. It alfo reftrains alimentary fer¬
mentation, without impairing digeftion ; in which pro¬
perty it refembles muitard. Hence its great fervice
in preventing aVidities. It hath alfo a remarkable
power of neutralizing acids already formed. It doth
not appear to have the leaft heating quality ; and
therefore maybe ufed with propriety and advantage in
the phthifis pulmonalis and in hectical cafes, to correCt
rcrimony and ftrengthen digeftion. It occafions no
diilurbance, and agrees very welfwith a milk diet, as
it abates flatulencej and is indifpofed to acidity.
Columbo, a mai-itime town of the illand of Ceylon
in the Fall Indies, feated on the fouth-weft part of its
coaft, and fubjeCt to the Dutch. E. Long. 68. 10.
N. Lat. 7. 5,
COLUMBUSs or Congregation of St Columbus, a, fo-
ciety of regular canons, who formerly had 100 abbeys
or monafteries in the Britilh iiles.
Columbus (Chriftopher), a Genoefe, the celebra¬
ted navigator, and firft difeoverer of the iflands of
America, was a fubject of the republic of Genoa.
Neither the time nor the place of his birth, however,
are known with certainty ; only he was defeended of
an honourable family, who, by various misfortunes,,
had been reduced to indigence. His parents were
fea-faring people ; and Columbus having difeovered, in
his early youth, a capacity and inclination for that,
way of life, was encouraged by them to follow the
fame profeffion. He went to fea at the age of 14:
his firft voyages were.to thofe ports in the Mediter¬
ranean frequented by the Genoefe; after which he
took a voyage to Iceland:; and proceeding dill further
north, advanced feveral degrees within the polar
circle. After this, Columbus entered into the fervice
of a famous ftarcaptain of his own name and family.
This man commanded a fmall fquadron, fitted out at
his own expence ; and by cruifing, fometimes Againlt
the Mahometans and fometimes againft the Venetians#
the
COL [ )
Columbus the rivals of lug country in trade, had acquired both
wealth and reputation. With him Columbus conti¬
nued for feveral years, no lefs diitinguilhed for his
courage than his experience as a failor. At length, in
an obilinate engagement off the coaft of Portugal,
with fome Venetian caravals returning richly laden
from the Low Countries, the veflel on board which he
ferved took fire, together with one of the enemies fliips
to which it was fait grappled. Columbus threw him-
fdf into the fea; laid hold of a floating oar; and by the
lupport of it, and his dexterity in fwimming, he reach¬
ed the flrore, though above two leagues diftant.
After this difafter, Columbus repaired to Lifbon,
where he married a daughter of Bartholomew Pere-
ftrello, one of the captains employed by Prince Henry
in his early navigations, and who had difeovered and
planted the iflands of Porto Santo andMadeira. Having
got poffefiion of the journals and charts of this experi¬
enced navigator, Columbus was feized with an irrefiilible
defire of vifiting unknown countries. In order to in¬
dulge it, he made a voyage to Madeira, and continued
during feveral years to trade with that ifland, the Ca¬
naries, Azores, the fcttlements in Guinea, and all the
other places which the Portuguefe had difeovered on
the continent of Africa.
By the experience acquired in fuch a number of
voyages, Columbus now became one of the moft fkil-
ful navigators in Europe. At this time, tire great ob-
jedl of difeovery was a paffage by fea to the Eaft
Indies. This was attempted, and at laft accomplilhed
v. by the Portuguefe, by doubling the Cape of Good
Hope. The danger and tedioufnefs of the paffage,
however, fuppofing it to be really accomplilhed, which
as yet it was not, fet Columbus on coniidering whe¬
ther a fliorter and more direft paffage to thefe regions
might not be found out; and-, after long coniideration,
he became thoroughly convinced, that, by failing
acrofs the Atlantic Ocean, dire$ly towards the well,
new countries, which probably formed a .part of the
vail continent of India, muff infallibly be difeovered.
His reafons1 for this were, in the firil place, a know¬
ledge he had acquired of the true figure of the earth.
The continents of Europe, Afia, and Africa, as far as
then known, form but a fmall part of the globe. It
was fuitable to our ideas, concerning the wifdom and
beneficence of the Author of nature, to believe, that
the vaft fpacc, ftill unexplored, was not entirely co¬
vered by a wafle and barren ocean, but occupied by
countries fit for the habitation of man. It appeared
likewife extremely probable, that the continent on
this fide the globe was balanced by a proportional
quantity of land in the other hemifphere. Thefe
eonje&ures were confirmed by the obfervations of mo¬
dern navigators. A Portuguefe pilot having, ftretch-
e*d farther to the wdl than was ufual at that time,
took up a piece of timber, artificially carved, floating
upon the lea; and as it was driven towards him by a
wefterly wind, he concluded that it came from fome
r% unknown land lituated in that quarter. Columbus’s
brother-in-law had found to the weft of the Madeira
ides a piece of timber faftiioned in the fame manner,
and brought by the fame wind ; and had feen alfo
canes of an enormous fize floating upon the waves,
which refembled thofe deferibed by Ptolemy, as pro-
'duftions peculiar to the Eaft Indies. After a courfe
71 ] COL
of weiterly^wipds, trees torn up by the root® were
often _ driven upon the coaft of the Azores; and at
one time the dead bodies of. two men, with Angular
features, which refembled neither the inhabitants of
Europe nor Africa, were call alhore there. The moft
cogent reafon, however, was a miftaken notion of
the ancient geographers concerning the immenfe ex¬
tent of the continent of India. Though hardly any of
them had penetrated beyond the river Ganges, fome
Greek writers had ventured to delcribe the provinces
beyond that river, which they reprefented as regions
of an immenfe extent. Ctefias affirmed that India
was as large as all the reft of Alia. Oneficritus, whom
Pliny the naturalift follows, contended that it was equal
to a third part of the habitable earth. Nearchus af-
ferted that it would take four months to march from
-one extremity of it to the other in a ftraight line. The
journal of Marco Polo, who travelled into Afia in the
13th century, and who had proceeded towards the eaft
far beyond the limits to which any European had ever
advanced, feemed alfo fo much to confirm thefe ac¬
counts, that Columbus was perfuaded, that the diftanee
from the moft wetlerly part of Europe to the moft
eafterly part of Afia was not very coniiderable ; and
that the ffiorteft, as well as moft direift • courfe to the
remote regions of the eaft, was to be found by failing
due weft.
In 1474, Columbus communicated his ideas on this
fubjeCt to one Paul a phyfician in Florence, a man
eminent for his knowledge in cofmography. He
approved of the plan, luggefted feveral fac: • in con¬
firmation of it, and warmly 'encouraged Columbus
to perfevere in an undertaking fo laudable, and which
mull redound fo much to the honour of his country
and the benefit of Europe. Columbus, fully fatisfied
of the truth of his fyftem, was impatient to fet out on
a voyage of difeovery. The firft ftep towards this
was to lecure the patronage of fome of the coniider-
able powers of Europe capable of undertaking fuch aa
enterprife. He applied firft to the republic of Genoa;
but his countrymen, ftrangers to his abilities, incon-
fiderately rejected his propofal as the dream of a chi¬
merical projector, and thus loft for ever the opportu¬
nity of reftoring,their commonwealth to its ancient
luitre. His next application was to the court of Por¬
tugal, where King John II. liftened to him in the moft
gracious manner, and referred the cor.li deration of
his plan to Diego Ortiz, biffiop of Ceuta, and two
Jewifli pliyficians, eminent cofmographers, whom he
was accuilomed to confult in matters of this kind.
Unhappily thefe were the perfons who had been the
chief directors of the Portuguefe navigations, and had
advifed to fearch for a paffage to India by fteering a
-courfe dire&ly oppofite to that which Columbus had
recommended as ihorter and more certain. They
could not therefore approve of his propofal, without
fubmitting to the double mortification of condemning
their own theory, and of acknowledging his fuperio-
rity. The refult of their conferences was, that they
advifed the king to fit outaveffel privately, in.order to
attempt the propofed dilcovery, by following exadlly
the courfe which Columbus feerned to point out. John,
forgetting on this occafion the fentiments of a monarch,
meanly adopted this perfidious counfel. But the pilot
cholen to execute Col ambus’s plan had neither the ge-
Y 2 mius
Colu
COL [ 172 ] COL
Columbus, nius n«r fortitude of its author. Contrary winds arofe;
v'"" no fign of approaching land appeared; his courage
failed; and he returned to Lilbon, execrating the pro-
je& as equally extravagant and dangerous.
On difcovering this dilhonourable tranfa&ion, Co¬
lumbus immediately quitted Portugal, and applied to
the king of Spain; but left he fhould be here again dif-
appointed, he fent his brother Bartholomew into Eng¬
land, to whom he had fully communicated his ideas,
in order that he might negociate at the fame time
with Henry VII. who was reckoned one of the moft
fagacious as well as opulent princes of Europe. Bar¬
tholomew was very unfortunate in his voyage: he
fell into the hands of pirates, who ftripped him of
every thing, and detained him a prifoner for feveral
years. At laft he made his efcape, and arrived in
London, but in fuch extreme indigence, that he was
obliged to employ himfelf, during a coniiderable time,
in drawing and felling maps, in order to pick up as
much money as would purchafe a decent drefs in
which he might venture to appear at court. The
propofals were received by Henry with more approba¬
tion than by any monarcli to whom they had hitherto
been prefented.
Columbus himfelf made his propofals to the king of
Spain, not without many doubts of fuccefs, which
foon appeared to be well founded. True fcience had
as yet made fo little progrefs in the kingdom of Spain,
that moll of thcfe to whom the confideration of his
plan was referred were utterly ignorant of the firft
principles on which he founded his hopes. Some,
from miftaken notions concerning the dimenfions of
the globe, contended that a voyage to thofe remote
regions of the Eaft which Columbus expedted to dif-
cover, could not be performed in lefs than three
years. Others concluded, that either he would find
the ocean of infinite extent, according to the opinion
of fome ancient philofophers ; or that if he fhould per-
fift in fleering weftwards beyond a certain point,
the convex figure of the globe mull infallibly pre¬
vent his return, and he mull perilh in the vain at¬
tempt to unite the two oppofite hemifpheres, which
nature had for ever disjoined. Even without deign¬
ing to enter into any particular difcuffion, fome re¬
jected the fcheme ia (general, upon the credit of a
maxim made ufe of by the ignorant in all ages, “ That
it is prefumptuous in any perfon to fuppofe that he
alone polfelTes knowledge fuperior to all the reft of
mankind united.” By continual difappointments
and delays, he was at laft wearied out, and refolved
to repair to the court of England in perfon, in hopes
of meeting with a favourable reception there. He
had already made preparations for this purpofe, and
taken meafures for the difpofal of his children during
his abfence, when Juan Perez, the prior of the mo-
naftery of Rabida near Palos, in which they had been
educated, earneftly folicited him to defer his journey
for a Ihort time. Perez was a man of confiderable
learning, and fome credit with Queen Ifabella. To
her therefore he applied; and the confequence of his
application was a gracious invitation of Columbus back
to court, accompanied with the prefent of a fmall
fum to equip him for the journey. Ferdinand, how¬
ever, Hill regarded the projeft as chimerical; and had
the addrefs to employ, in this new negociation with
him, fome of the perfons who had formerly pro- Columbus,
nounced his fcheme to be impracticable. To their
aftonilhment, Columbus appeared before them with
the fame confident hopes of fuccefs as formerly, and
infilled on the fame high recompence. He propofed
that a fmall fleet fhould be fitted out,'Tinder his com¬
mand, to; attempt the difeovery ; and demanded to
be appointed perpetual and hereditary admiral and
viceroy of all the feas and lands which heilhould difco-
ver; and to have the tenth of the profits arifing from
them fettled irrevocably upon him and his defcendents
for ever. At the fame time he offered to advance
the eighth part of the fum neceffary for accomplilhing
his defign, on condition that he fhould he intitled to a
proportional fhare in the adventure-. If the enterprife
Ihould totally mifcarry,.he made no flipulation for any
reward or emolument whatever. Thefe demands
were thought unreafonable; Ifabella broke off the
treaty (he had begun, and Columbus was once more
difappointed. He now refolved finally to leave Spain;
and had actually proceeded fome leagues on his jour¬
ney, when he wras overtaken by a meffenger from
Ifabella, who had been prevailed upon by the argu¬
ments of .Quintanilla and Santangel, two of Colum¬
bus’s patrons, again to favour his undertakings. The
negociation now went forward with all manner of fa¬
cility and difpatch ; and a treaty with Columbus was
figned on the 17th of April 1492. The chief articles
of it were, that Columbus fhould be conftituted high
admiral in all the feas, iflands, and continents he fhould
difcover, with the fame powers and prerogatives that
belonged to the high admiral of Caftile within the li¬
mits of his jurifdidlion. He was alfo appointed vice¬
roy in all thofe countries to be difcovered ; and a
tenth of the produdls accruing from their pro duel ions
and commerce was granted to him for ever. All con-
troverfies or law-fuits with refpedl to mercantile tranf-
aftions were to be determined by the foie authority of
Columbus, or of judges to be appointed by him. He
was alfo permitted to advance one eighth pai t of the
expence of the expedition, and of carrying on com¬
merce with the new countries 5 and was intitled, in
return, to an eighth part of the profit. But, though
the name of Ferdinand was joined with Ifabella in this
tranfaClion, his diftruft of Columbus was ftill fo violent,
that he refufed to take any part in the enterprife as
. king of Arragon ; and as the whole expence of the
expedition was to be defrayed by the crown of Caftile,
Ifabella referved for her fubjedls of that kingdom an
exclufive right to all the benefits which might accrue
from its fuccefs.
At laft our adventurer fet fail with three fmall (hips,
the whole expence of which did not exceed L. 400a.
During his voyage he met with many difficulties from
the mutinous and timid difpofition of his men. He
was the firft who obferved the variation of the com-
pafs, which threw the failors into the utmoft terror.
For this phenomenon Columbus was obliged to invent
a reafon, which, though it did not fatisfy himfelf, yet Jfe
ferved to difpel their fears, or filence their murmurs.
At. laft, however, the failors loft all patience; and
the admiral was obliged to promife folemnly, that in
cafe land was not difcovered in three days he fhould
return to Europe. That very night, however, the
ifland of San Salvador was difcovered, which quickly
gut.
COL [ 173 ] COL
Columbus, put an end to all their fears. The failors were then
’ v as extravagant in the praife of Columbus as they had
before been infolent in reviling and threatening him.
They threw themfelves at his feet, implored his par¬
don, and pronounced him to be a perfon infpired by
heaven with more than human fagacity and fortitude^
in order to accomplilh a defign fo far beyond the ideas
and conception of all former ages. Having vifited fe-
veral of the Well India illands, and fettled a colony in
* See Hif- Hifpaniola*, he again fet fail for Spain; and after ef-
funiola. caping great dangers from violent tempells, arrived at
the port of Palos on the 15th of March 1493.
As foon as Columbus’s Ihip was difcovered ap¬
proaching, all the inhabitants of Palos ran eagerly
to the fhore, where they received the admiral with
royal honours. The court was then at Baicelona,
and Columbus took care immediately to acquaint
the king and queen of his arrival. They were no
lefs delighted than altonilhed with this unexpe&ed
event. They gave orders for condudling him into
the city with all imaginable pomp. They received
him clad in their royal robes, and feated on a throne
under a magnificent canopy. When he approached,
they Hood up ; and, railing him as he kneeled to kifs
their hands, commanded him to take his feat upon a
chair prepared for him, and to give a circumftantial
account of his voyage. When he had finilhed his ora¬
tion, which he delivered with much modeily and lim-
plicity, the king and queen, kneeling down, offered
up folemn thanks to God for the difcovery. Every pof-
lible mark of honour that could be fuggefted by gra¬
titude or admiration was conferred on Columbus; the
former capitulation was confirmed, his family was en¬
nobled, and a fleet was ordered to be equipped, to
enable him to go in quell of thofe more opulent coun¬
tries which he Hill confidently expefted to find.
NotwithHanding all this refpedl, however, Colum¬
bus was no longer regarded than he was fuccefsful.
The coloniffs he carried over with him were to the
lall degree unreafonable and unmanageable ; fo that
he was obliged to ufe fome feverities with them ; and
complaints were made to the court of Spain againll
him for cruelty. On this, Francis de BovadiUa, a
knight of Calatrava, was appointed to inquire into the
conduct of Columbus; with orders, in cafe he found
the charge of maladminifiration proved, to fuperfede
him, and affume the office of governor of Hifpaniola.
The confequence of this was, that Columbus was fent
to Spain in chains. From thefe, however, he was
freed immediately on his arrival, and had an opportUr
nity granted him of vindicating his innocence. He
was, however, deprived of all power; and notwith-
Handing his great fervices, and the folemnity of the
agreement between him and Ferdinand, Columbus never
could obtain the fulfilment of any part of that treaty.
At laH, difguffed with the ingratitude of a monarch
whom he had ferved with fuch fidelity and fuccefs, and
exhauHed with fatigues, he ended his life on the 29th
of May 1506.
Columbus (Bartholomew), brother to ChriHopher,
famous for his marine charts and fpheres, which he pre-
fented to Henry VII. of England. He died in 1514.
Columbus (Don Ferdinand), fon of Chriflopher,
and. writer of his life. He entered into the ecclefiaffi-
cal Hate ; and founded a library, which he bequeathed Columella
to the church of Seville, to this day called the Colum- p
bine library. He died in 1560. - eonunn.^
COLUMELLA (Lucius Junius Moderatus), a Ro¬
man philofopher, was a native of Cadiz, and lived un¬
der the emperor Claudius about the year 42. He wrote,
a book on agriculture intitled De Re rujlicat and ano¬
ther De Arboribur.
COLUMEY,. a town of Red Ruffia in Poland, feat¬
ed on the river Pruth, towards the confines of Mol¬
davia, about 38 miles from Haliez, and 63 fouth of
Leopol. This town has been very ill tieated by the
Coffacks, infomuch that it is now inconfiderable, tho’
there are feveral mines of fait in its diHricl. E. Long-
16. 25. N. Lat. 48. 45.
COLUMN, in archite£lure, a round pillar made
to fupport and adorn a building, and compofed of a
bafe, a fliaft, and capital. See Architecture,
n° 33-
Columns,. denominated from their ufe.—AHronomi-
cal column is a kind of obfervatory, in form of a very
high tower built hollow, and with a fpiral afcent to an
armillary fphere placed a-top for obferving the motions
of the heavenly bodies. Such is that of the Doric
order eredled at the Hotel de Soiffons at Paris by Ca¬
tharine de Medicis for the obfervations of Orontius Fi-
neus, a celebrated aHronomer of that time.
Chronological Column, that which bears fome hiffo-
rical infcription digeffed according to the order of time;
as by luflres, olympiads, fafii, epochas, annals, &c.
At Athens, there were columns of this kind, whereon
were infcribed the whole hiHory of Greece digefled
into olympiads.
Funeral Column, that which bears an urn, wherein
are fuppofed to be inclofed the aihes of fome deceafed
hero ; and whofe fh^ft is fometimes overfpread with
tears and flames, which are fymbols of grief and of
immortality.
Gnomonic Column, a cylinder whereon- the hour of
the day is reprefented by the fhadow of a Hile. See
Hiflorical Column, is that whofe fliaft is adorned with
a baffo-relievo, running in a fpiral line its whole length,
and containing the hiilory of fome great perfonage :
fuch are the Trajan and Antonine columns at Rome.
Hollow Column, that which has a fpiral Hair-cafe
withinfide for the covenience- of afcending to the top ;
as the Trajan column, the Hair-cafe whereof confifls of
185 Heps, and is illuminated by 43 little windows, each
of which is divided by tambours of white marble. The
monument, or fire-column, at London, has alfo a
Hair-cafe; but it does not reach to the top. Thefe
kinds of columns are alfo called columuce coclide/e, or coch-
lidete.
Indicative Column, that which ferves to: fliow the
tides, See. along the fea-coafis. Of this kind there is
one at Grand Cairo of marble, whereon the over¬
flowings of the Nile are expreffed : by this they form
a judgment of the fucceeding feafon ; when the water,
for inHance, afeends to 23 feet, it is a fign of great
fertility in Egypt. See Nilometer.
Inflruclive Column, that raifed, according to Jofer
phus, lib. i. cap. 3. by the fons of Adam, whereon
were engraven the principles of arts and fciences.
Bau--
COL [ 174 1 COL
Bandelet tells us, that the fori of Pififtratna raifeu ano¬
ther of this kind, of ftone, containing the rules and
precepts of agriculture.
Itinerary Column, a column with feveral faces, pla¬
ced in the crofs ways in large roads ; ferving to fhow
the different routs by inferiptions thereon.
Laclary Column, at Rome, according to Feflus, was
a column eretted in the herb-market, now the place
Montanara, which had a cavity in its pedeftal, wherein
young children abandoned by their parents, out of po¬
verty or inhumanity, were expofed, to be brought up
at the public expen.ee.
Legal Column. Among the Lacedemonians there
were columns raifed in public places, whereon were
engraven the fundamental laws of the ftate.
Limitrnphous or Boundary Column, that which fhows
the limits of a kingdom or country conquered. Such
, was that which Pliny fays Alexander the Great eretted
at the extremity of the Indies.
Manubiary Column, from the Latin manub'ue, “ fpoils
of the enemy a column adorned with trophies built
in imitation of trees, whereon the fpoiis of enemies were
anciently hung. See Trophy.
Memorial Column, that raifed on occafion of any
remarkable event; as the monument of London, built
to perpetuate the memory of the burning of that city
in 1666. It is of the Doric order, fluted, hollow, with
a winding ftair-cafe ; and terminated a-top with wa¬
ving flames. There is alfo another of the kind, in
form of an obeliik, on the banks of the Rhine in the
Palatinate, in memory of the famous paflage of that
river by the great Guflavus Adolphus and his army.
Menian Column, any column which fupports a bal¬
cony or meniana. The origin of this kind of column,
Suetonius and Afcanius refer to one Menias; who ha¬
ving fold his houfe to Cato and I’laccus, confuls, to be
converted into a public edifice, referved to himfelf the
right of raifing a column withoutfide, to bear a balcony,
Whence he might fee the flrews.
Milllary Column, was a column of marble raifed
by order of Augullus in the middle of the Roman fo¬
rum ; from whence, as a centre, the diftances of the
feveral cities, &c. of the empire were reckoned, by
other milliary columns difpofed at equal diflances on
all the grand roads. This column was of white mar¬
ble, the fame with that which is now feen on the bal-
luftrade of the perron of the capital at Rome. Its
proportion is malfive, being a Ihort cylinder, the fym-
bol of the globe of the earth. It was called milliariutn
aweum, as having been gilt, at leaft the ball, by order
of Auguftus. It was reitored by the emperors Vefpa-
fian and Adrian, as appears by the inferiptions.
Military Column, among the Romans, a column
whereon was engraven a lill of the forces in the Roman
army, ranged by legions, in their proper order ; with
defign to preferve the memory of the number of fol-
diers, and of the order preferved in any military ex¬
pedition. They had another kind of military column,
which they called columna lellica. Handing before the
temple of Janus; at the foot whereof the conful decla¬
red war, by throwing a javelin towards the enemies
countries.
Sepulchral Column, anciently was a column erefted
on a tomb or fepulchre, with an infeription on its bafe.
Thofe over the tombs of perfuns of dillindtion were Column
very large ; thofe for the common people fmall: thefe P .
laft are called Jel* and cippi. , Co»un- f
Statuary Column, that which fupports a llatue. Such
was that erected by Pope Paul V. on a pedeftal before
the church of St Maria at Rome ; to fupport a ftatue
of the Virgin, which is of gilt brafs. This column
was dug up in the temple of peace ; its lhaft is a fingle
block of white marble 49J- feet high, and fivs feet eight
inches- diameter, of the Corinthian order.
The term Jlatuary column may likewife be applied
to Caryatides, perfians, termini, and other human fi¬
gures, which do the office of columns; and which Vi¬
truvius calls rr/owo/tf-r Awiatlantes. See Architecture,
n° -54-.
'Triumphal Column, a column erefted among the an¬
cients in honour of an hero ; the joints of the Hones,
or courfes whereof, were covered with as many crowns
as he had made different military expeditions. Each
crown had its particular name, as vaUaris, which was
befet with fpikes, in memory of having forced a pali-
fade. Muralis, adorned with little turrets or battle¬
ments, for having mounted an affault. Navalis, of
prows and beaks of veffels; for having overcome at
fea. Objidionales, or graminales, of grafs ; for having
raifed a liege. Ovans, of myrtle; which expreffed
an ovation, or little triumph ; and triumphalis, of lau¬
rel, for a grand triumph. See Crown.
COLUMNARIUM, in Roman antiquity, a heavy
tribute, demanded for every pillar of a houfe. It was
firft laid on by Julius Casfar, in order to put a ftop to
the extravagant expences laid out on fumptuous build¬
ings.
COLUMNEA, in botany : A genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
40th order, Pcrfonatce. The Calyx is quinqUepartite ;
the upper lip of the corolla arched and entire j gibbous
above the bafe; the ahthene convex ; the capfule bi¬
locular. There 4s but one fpecies, a native of Marti-
nico, of which we have no particular defeription.
COLUMNIFERI, in botany, an order of plants
in i\\e fragmenta mdhocli naturalis of Linnaeus, in which
are the following genera, viz. bixa, corchortis,' helio¬
carpus, kiggelaria, miOrocos, muntingia, thea, tilea,
turnefa, tnumfetta, ayenia, grevia, helidleres, klein-
hovia, adanfonia, alcaea, althaea, bombax, camellia,
gofypium, hermannia, hibifeus, lavatera, malope, mal-
va-, melochia, napaea* pentapetes, fida,'ftewartia, theo-
broma, urena, waltharia.
, COLURES, in aftronomyand geography, two great
circles fuppofed to interfedl each other at right angles
in the poles of the world, and to pafs through the fol-
ftitial and equinoctial points of the ecliptic. See Geo¬
graphy.
COLURI, a little iiland in the gulph of Engia, in
the Archipelago, formerly called Ca/am/r. The prin¬
cipal town is of the fame name, and feated on the fouth
fide, at the bottom of the harbour, which is one of the
fineft in the world. The famous Grecian hero, Ajax,
who makes fuch a figure in Homer’s Iliad, was king
of this ifland. It is now, however, but a poor place ;
its commodities confift of wheat, barley, tar, rofin,
pit-coal, fponges, and pot-alhes, which they carry to
Athens.
col r i
Colutea Athens. It Is feven miles fouth from Athens, and is
C'olymbus ^eParate<^ from the continent by a ftrait about a mile
COLUTEA, bastard-sena, in botany: A genus
of the decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 33d order, Pqpillonacea. The ealyx is quin-
quefid; the legumen inflated, opening at the upper
part of the bafe. There are three fpecies, all of them
deciduous flowering Ihrubs, adorned with many-lobed
leaves, and butterfly-fhaped flowers, of a deep yellow
or red colour. They are propagated both by feeds
and layers, and are hardy enough, though they fome-
times require a little ihelter when the weather is very
cold;
COLYBA, or Colybusj a term in the Greek li¬
turgy, fignifying an offering of corn and boiled pulfe,
made in honour of the faints, and for the fake of the
dead.
IValfamon, P. Goar, Leo, Allatius, and others, have
written on the fubjeft of colyba: the fubttance of what
they have faid is as follows : The Greeks boil a quan¬
tity of wheat,, and lay it in little heaps on a plate
adding beaten peas, nuts cut fmall, and grape-itones,
which they divide into feveral compartments, fepa-
rated from each other by lhaves of parlley. A little
heap of wheat, thus feafoned, they call Koxt/fa. They
have a particular formula for the benedi&ion of the
colyba : wherein, praying that the children of Babylon
may be fed with pulfe, and that they may be in better
condition than other people, they defire God to blefs
thofe fruits* and thofe who eat them, becaufe offered
to his glory, to the honour of fuch a faint, and in me¬
mory of the faithful deceafed. Balfamon refers the
inftitution of this ceremony'to St Athanalius ; but
the Greek. Synaxafy- to the time of Julian the apo-
ftate.
COLYMBUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to
the order of anferes. The bill has no teeth, is fubu-
lated, ftraight, and (harp-pointed ; the teeth are in the
throat; the noflrils are linear, and at the bafe of the
bill; and the legs are unfit for walking. This genus
includes the divers, guillemots, and grebes; of which
the following are the mod remarkable fpecies.
1. The grylle, or black guillemot, is in length 14 inch¬
es, in breadth 22 ; the bill is an inch and an half long,
ftraight, flender, and blaek; the inflde of the mouth red ;
on each wing is a large'bed of white, which in young
birds is fpotted ; the tips of the leffer quill-feathers, and
the coverts of the wings,^are white : except thofe, the
whole plumage is black. In winter it is faid to change
to white; and a variety fpotted with black and white
is not uncommon in Scotland. The tail confittsof 12
feathers ; the legs are red. Thefe birds are found
on the Bafs ille in Scotland; in the ifland ofSt Kilda;
and, as Mr Ray imagines, in the Farm Iflands off the
eoaft of Northumberland. It has alfo been feen on the
rocks of Llandidno, in Caernarvonfhire, in Wales.
Except in breeding-time it keeps always at fea ; and
is very difflcult to be fhot, diving at the flafh of the
pan. The Welfh call this bird cafcan longur, or “ the
failor’s hatred,” from a notion that its appearance
forebodes a ftorm. It vifits St Kilda’s in March; makes
its nefl far under ground ; and lays a grey egg, or, as
75 1 . , COL
Steller fays, whitifil and fpotted with ruff, andfpeckled Colymfuv.
with afh-colour. w—
'2. The troile, or foolifh guillemot, weighs 24 ounces:
its length is 17 inches, the breadth 27-J; the bill is three
inches long, black, flraight, and {harp-pointed; near the
end of the lower mandible fs a fmall procefs ; the infide "
of the mouth yellow ; the feathers on the upper part of
the bill are fliort and foft like velvet; from the eye ’•*
the hind part of the head is a fmall divifiori of the
feathers'. The head, neck, back, wings, and ■ tail, are
of a deep moufe-colour ; the tips of the leffer quill-
feathers white ; the whole under part of the body is
of a pure white ; the fides under the wings marked,
with dufley lines. Immediately above the thighs arc
fome long feathers that curl over them. The legs are
dufley. They are found in amazing munbers on the
high cliffs of feveral of the Britilh coalts, and appear,
at the fame time with the ank. They are very Ample
birds: for notw ithftanding they are ihot at, and fee
their companions killed by them, they will not quit
the. r ock. Like the auk tlmy lay only one egg, which
is very large: fome are of a fine pale blue; others
white, fpotted, or moft elegantly ftreaked with lines,
crolling each other in all directions. They continue
about the Orkneys the whole winter. The chief
places they are known to breed in are the uninhabited
ille of Prieflholm, near the ifle of Anglefy; on a rock
called Godreve, not far from St Ives in Cornwall; the
Earn ifles, near the coaft of Northumberland ; and the
cliffs about Scarborough in York (hire. They are alfo
found in moft of the northern parts of Europe, to-
Spitfbergen, the coaft of Lapmark, and along the
white and icy fea quite to Kamtfchatka. Is frequent¬
ly met with on the coafts of Italy in the winter. It
is alfo known in Newfoundland, and in a few parts Of
the continent of North America, but has not hitherto
been talked of as common. Our laft voyagers met
with it on the coaft north of Nootka Sound. It is
known by feveral names ; by the Welch, guiUem ; at
Northumberland and Durham, guillemot or fea-hen ; in,
Yorkfhire, a fcout; by the Cornifh, kiddah ; in the fou- -
them parts, wlllock; and in Kamtfchatki, aru or kara.
The inhabitants of the laft kill them in numbers for
the fake of their flefh, though it is certainly very
tough and ill tailed ; but more efpecially for their
fkins, of which, as of other fowls, they make gar¬
ments : the eggs are alfo accounted a great deli¬
cacy.
3. The feptentrionalis, or red-throated diver, is-
more elegantly fhaped than the others. It weighs
three pounds. The length to the' end of the tail is-
two feet; to the toes two feet four inches: the breadth
three feet five inches. The head is fmall and taper,
the bill ftraight ; the head and chin are of a fine uni¬
form grey ; the hind part of the neck marked with
-dufley and white lines pointing downwards; the throat
is* of a dull red ; the whole upper part of the body,
tail, and wings, of a deep grey, almofl dufley; but the
coverts of the wings and the back are marked' with a
few white fpots ; the under fide of the body is white ;
the legs dufky. This fpecies breeds in the northern-
parts of Scotland, on the borders of the lakes. It is
found alfo in Ruflia, Siberia, and Kamtfchatka; but
does not haunt the inland lakes. It is common in Ice-
1 land
GOT; [17
.C.i'yinbus land and Greenland, where it breeds in Jane, and' lays
two afh-coloured eggs, marked with a few black fpots;
it makes its neft in the grafs on the (hores, compofed
of mofs and grafs, and placed contiguous to the water.
It fwims and dives well, and flies admirably, and while
flying is very noify. It feeds on fmall flftt, crabs, and
fea infe&s. In the fummer, it inhabits the rivers of
Hudfon’s bay, appearing as fodn as the rivers are
open. Here it lays in June, and lines the neft with a
little down from its own breaft ; the young fly before
the end of Auguft, and they all depart in September.
They are called by the natives ajee-moqua. They
prey much on the fifti entangled in the nets; but are
often thereby eaught themfelves.
4. The ardicus, or black-throated diver, is fomewhat
larger than the laft : the bill is black, and alfo the front;
the hind part of the head and neck cinereous ; the fides
of the neck marked with black and white lines pointing
downwards; the fore-part of a glofiy variable black,
purple, and green. The back, fcapulars, and coverts of
the wings, are black, marked, the twofirft with fquare,
the laft with round fpots of white; the quill-feathers
dulky ; the breaft and belly white ; the tail Ihort and
black; legs partly dulky, and partly reddilh. This
fpecies is now and then found in England, but is not
common. It is fufficiently plenty in the northern
parts of Europe, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.
Frequent in the inland fakes of Siberia, efpecially thofe
of the arttic regions ; in Iceland, Greenland, and the
Ferroe Ifles ; and in America at Hudfon’s bay. It is.
fuppofed to cry and be very reftlefs before rain, making
a great noife : hence the Norwegians think it impious
to deftroy this fpecies; but the Swedes, lefs fuperfti-
tious, drefs their (kins, which, like all of this genus,
are exceedingly tough, and ufe them for gun-cafes and
facings for winter caps.
5. The glacialis, or northern diver, is three feet five
inches in length ; the breadth four feet eight; the bill to
the corners of the mouth four inches long, black and
■ftrongly made. The head and neck are of a deep black ;
the hind part of the latter is marked with a large femilu-
narwhite band; immediatelyunder the throat is another;
both marked with blackoblong^rokespointing down:
the lower part of the neck is of a deep black, glofled
with a rich purple ; the whole under ikle of the body
is white ; the fides of the breaft marked with black
lines ; the back, coverts of the wings, and fcapulars,
are black marked with white fpots; thofe on the fca¬
pulars are very large, and of a fquare fhape ; two at
the end of .each feather. The tail is'yery (hort, and
almoft concealed by the coverts, which' are dulky,
fpotted with white ; the legs are black. This fpecies
inhabits feveral parts of the north of Europe, but is
not very frequent on our ftvores ; nor ever feen fouth-
ward except in very fevere winters. It is feldom met
w ith on land, being for the moft part on the open fea,
where it is continually diving for lilh, which it does
with great agility, and flies high and well. It is com¬
mon in Iceland and Greenland, where it breeds, and at
that time frequents the frelh waters. It is fufficiently
plentiful in Norway, and all along the arftic coafts, as
far as the river Ob, in the Ruffian dominions. The
Barabinzians, a nation fituated between that river and
the Irtifch, tan the breads of this and other water-fowl;
whofe {kins they prepare in fuch a manner as to pre-
N° 85. 3
« 1
COL
ferve the down up oft them ; and fewing a number of Colymhu*.
them together, their huffiands fell them, to make pel-1——k,—
lices, caps, &c. Garments made of thefe are veiy
warm, never imbibing the leaft moiiture; and are more
lading than could be imagined. It is alfo met with
among the lakes of Hudfon’s bay. The natives of
Greenland ufe the fltins for cloathing ; and the In¬
dians about Hudfon’s bay adorn their heads with cir¬
clets of their feathers. At the laft place it is known
by the name of athinue-moqua. As they are feldom
feen on the fea-coafts, but chiefly among the lakes,
they are called by the Indians inland loons.
6. The immer, or ember-goofe, is fuperior in fize
to a common goofe. The head is duflcy ; the back,
coverts of the wings, and tail, clouded with lighter
and darker {hades of the fame. The primaries and
tail are black ; the under fide of the neck fpotted with
dufky; the breaft and belly filvery : the legs black.
They inhabit the feas about the Orkney Iflands; but
In fevere winters vifit the fouthem parts of Great Bri¬
tain. They are found alfo in Iceland, and moft parts
of northern Europe ; likewife in Kamtfchatka; but
not in any parts of Siberia or Ruffia. It likewife in¬
habits Switzerland, particularly on the lake Conftance,
where it is known by the name of jluder. It is faid
to dive wonderfully well, and to rife at an amazing
diftance from the place where it plunged. The female-
makes its neft among the reeds and flags, and places
it in the water ; fo that it is continually wret, as in
feme of the grebe genus. It is difficult to be taken,
either on land or fwimming on the winter; but is not
unfrequently caught under the wrater by a hook baited
with a fmall fiffi, its ufual food.
7. The Chinefe diver, deferibed by Mr Latham ;
the fize uncertain, hut in the drawing the length was
1 x inches. The bill dulky: irides affi-colour : the
upper parts of the head, neck, body, wings, and tail,
dufley greenilh brown; the middle of the feathers much
darker : the fore part of the neck the fame, but con-
ftderably paler: chin pale rufous: breaft and under
parts of the body pale rufous white, marked with dulky
rufous fpots : the quills and tail are plain brown, the
laft Ihort: legs alh-colour. Suppofed to inhabit Chi¬
na, as Mr Latham favv it among other well painted
drawings at Sir Jofeph Banks’s; it was in the attitude
of filhing, with a brafs ring round the middle of the
neck, in the manner of the figure, Plate CXXVI.
From the various and uncertain accounts of authors,
we are not clear what birds the Chinefe ufe for catch¬
ing filh ; the cuttom, however, of doing it is manifeft,
from the relations of many travellers. The bird ufed
for this purpofe has a ring faftened round the middle
^of the neck, in . order to prevent its fwallowing ; be-
fides this it has a llender long ftring faftened to it ;
and, thus accoutred, is taken by its mailer into his
filhing-boat, from the edge of which it is taught to
plunge after the filh as they pafs by ; and as the ring
prevents their palling further dowmvards, they are
taken from the mouth of the bird as fall as they are
caught. In this tnanner fometimes a great many are
procured in the courfe of a few hours. When the
keeper of the bird has taken fufficient for himfelf, the
ring is taken off, and the poor Have fullered to fatisfy
its owm hunger. We do not here give this bird as the
one moft commonly ufed for the above purpofe ; but
have
COL [i
Colymbus. have thought right to figure it, as a fpecies, i{ not
w“"“v new, at leail as not generally known ; and probably,
from the circumftance of its fituation in the painting,
may prove one of the birds ufed on this oceafion.
8. The ftellatus, or fpeckled diver, a fpecies lefs than
the former, weighs two pounds and a half: and is 27
inches in length and thrte feet nine in breadth. The
bill is three inches long, bending a trifle upwards; and
is of a pale horn-colour, the top of the upper mandi¬
ble dufky; the head is duflcy, dotted with grey; hind
part of the neck plain duflcythe fides under the eye,
the chin, and throat, white; fore part of the neck very
pale alb-colour; back duflcy, marked with oval fpots
of white ; fides of the breaft and body the fame, but
fmaller ; the fpots on the rump and tail minute; breall
and under parts white ; quills duflcy ; legs brown ;
webs and claws pale. This bird is pretty frequent in
England ; fuffieiently fo on the river Thames, where
it is called by the filhermen /prat loon, being often feen
in vaft numbers among the Ihoals of that lilh, diving
after them, and frequently approaching very near the
boats while filhing. It is common about the Baltic
and the White Sea, but not obferved in other parts of
Rufiia, yet is a native of Kamtfchatka. It lays two
eggs, in the grafs, on the borders of lakes not far from
the fea ; they are exaftly oval, the fize of thofe of a
goofe, dulky, marked with a few black fpots. Thefe
are alfo frequent about the filh ponds in France, ex¬
cept they are frozen, when they betake themfelves to
the rivers. This and the two lall vilk New York in
winter, but return very far north to breed.
9. The cry flatus, creited diver,or cargoofe,weighstwo
pounds and an half. Its length is 21 inches, the breadth
30; the bill is two inches and a quarter long, red at the
Safe, and black at the point; between the bill and the
eyes is a flripe of black naked flein ; the irides are of
a line pale red; the tongue is a third part flrorter than
the bill, flender, hard at the end, and a little divided;
on the head is a large duflcy creft, feparated in the
middle. The cheeks and throat are furrounded with
a long pendent ruff, of a bright tawney colour, edged
with black ; the chin is white ; from the bill to the
eye is a black line, and above that a white one ; the
hind part of the neck and the back are of a footy hue;
the rump, for it wants a tail, is covered with long foft
down. The covert-feathers on the fecond and third
joints of the wing, and the under coverts, are white ;
all the other wing-feathers, except the fecondaries,
are duflcy, thofe being white ; the breaft and belly
are of a moft beautiful filvery white, gloffy as fattin :
the outfide of the legs and the bottom of the feet are
dulky; the infide of the legs and the toes of a pale
green. Thefe birds frequent the meres of Shrop-
fhire and Chelhire, where they breed ; and the great
fen of Lincolnlhire, where they are called gaunts.
Their fleins are made into tippets, atid fold at as high
a price as thofe which come from Geneva. This fpe¬
cies lays four eggs of a white colour, and the fame
lize with thofe of a pigeon. The neft is formed of
the roots of hugbane, ttalks of water-lily, pond-weed,
and water-violet, floating independent among the reeds
and flags; the water penetrates it, and the bird fits
and hatches the eggs in that wet condition ; the ueft
is fometiir.es blown from among the flags into the
middle of the water: iu thefe circumftances the fable
' Von. V. Tart I.
77 ] G O M
of the halcyon’s neft may, in feme meafure, be viadi- CVlvnilm,
cated. It is a careful nurfe of its young ; being ob- Cqit1‘
lerved to feed them moft affiduoufly, commonly with v ‘
fniall eels; and when the infant brood are tired, the
parent will carry them either on its back or under its
wings. It preys on filh, and is almoll perpetually di¬
ving ; it docs not (how much more than the head a-
bove water: and is very difficult to be (hot, as it darts
down on the lead appearance of danger. It is never
feen on land 5 and, though difturbed ever fo often,
will not fly farther than the end of the lake. Its Ikin
is out of feafon about February, loiing then its bright
colour; and in the breeding time its breaft is almoft
bare. The flelh is exceftively rank.
10. The urinator, or tippet-grebe, thought by Mr
Latham not to be a different fpecies from the former,
being only fomewhat lefs, and wanting the creft and
ruff. The fides of the neck are ftriped downwards from
the head with narrow lines of bkick and white : in other
refpedts the colours and marks agree with that bird.
This fpecies has been (hot on Roftern Mere in Che/hire.
It is rather fcarce in England, but is common in the
winter time on the lake of Geneva. They appear
there in flocks of 10 or 12^ and are killed for the
fake of their beautiful fleins. The under fide of them
being dreffed with the feathers on, are made into
muffs and tippets : each bird fells for about 14 (hillings.
11. Theauritus,earedgrebe,or dob-chick,isinlength
one foot to the rump ; the extent is 22 inches ; the bill
black, (lender, and (lightly recurvated; the irides
crimfon ; the head and neck are black ; the throat
fpotted with white; the whole upper fide of a blackiih
brown, except the ridge of the wing about the firft
joint, and the fecondary feathers, which are white ;
the breaft, belly, and inner coverts of the wings art-
white ; the fubaxillary feathers, and fome on the fide
of the rump, ferruginous. Behind the eyes, on each
fide, is a tuft of long, loofe, ruit coloured feathers
hanging backwards ; the legs are of a dufky green.
They inhabit the fens near Spalding where they
breed. No external difference is to be obferved be¬
tween the male and the female of this fpecies. Thev
make their neft not unlike that of the former; and
lay four or five fmall eggs.
12. The horned grebe, is about the fize of a teal;
weight, one pound ; length, one foot; breadth, 16
inches. Bill one inch, dufky ; head very full of fea¬
thers, and of a gloffy deep green, nearly black : thro-’
each eye is a Itreak of yellow feathers, elongated into
a tuft as it pafies to the hind head : the upper part of
the neck and back is a du(ky brown ; the fore part of
the neck and breaft, dark orange red : the leffer wing
coverts, cinerous; the greater and quills, black ; mid¬
dle ones, white: belly, gloffy w hite; legs, cinerous
blue before, pale behind.—It inhabites Hudfon’s bay;
and firft appears in May, about the frdh waters. It
lays from two to four white eggs in June, among the
aquatid plants ; ar.d is faid to cover them when abroad.
It retires fouth in autumn ; appears then at New- Yprk,
flaying till fpring, when it returns to the north. For
its vaft quicknefs in diving, it is called the water-witch.
At Hudfon’s bay, it is known by the name of feekeeb.
See Plate CXLIII.
COM, a tow-n of Afia in the empire of Perfia, and
province of Iracagemi. It is a large populous place,
Z but
Coma
II
Combina-
COM [ >78 ] COM
but has fuffered greatly by the civil wars. E. Long.
49. 1. N. Lat. 34. o.
COMA, or Coma-vigil, a preternatural propen-
fity to deep, when, neverthelefs, the patient does not
fleep, or if he does, awakes immediately without any
relief. See Medicine-/«</<?.v.
Coma Berenices, Berenice’s hair, in aftronomy, a
modern conftellation of the northern hemifphere, com-
pofed of unformed ftars between the Lion’s tail and
Bootes. This conftellation., is faid to have been form¬
ed by Conon, an aftronomer, in order to confole the
queen of Ptolemy Evergetes for the lofs of a lock of
her hair, which was ftolen out of the temple of Venus,
where ftie had dedicated it on account of a viftory ob¬
tained by her h 11 {band. The ftars of this conftella¬
tion, in Tycho’s Catalogue, are fourteen; in Hevelius’s,
twenty-one; andin theBritannicCatalogue,forty-three.
Coma Somnolentum, is when the patient continues in
a profound deep ; and, when awakened, immediately
relapfes, without being able to keep open his eyes.
COMARUM, marsh-cinquefoil: A genus of
the polygynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 35th order, Senticofte. The calyx is decemfid;
the petals five, lefs than the calyx ; the receptacle
of the feeds ovate, fpongy, and perfifting. There
is'but one fpecies, a native of Britain. It rifes about
two feet high, and bears fruit fomewhat like that
of the ftrawberry. It grows naturally in bogs, fo is
not eafily preferved in gardens. The root dyes a
dirty red. The Irifli rub their milking pails with it,
and it makes the milk appear thicker and richer.
Goats eat the herb; cows and (heep are not fond of
it; horfes and fwine refufe it.
COMB, an inftrument to clean, untangle, and drefs
flax, wool, hair, &c.
Combs for wool are prohibited to be imported into
England.
Comb is alfo the creft, or red flefliy tuft, growing
upon a cock’s head.
COMBAT, in a general fenfe, denotes an engage¬
ment, or a difference decided by arms. See Battle.
Combat, in our ancient law, was a formal trial of
fome doubtful caufe or quarrel, by the fwords or
baftons of two champions. This form of proceeding
was very frequent,, not only in criminal but in civil
caufes ; being built on a fuppofition that God would
never grant the viftory but to him who had the bed
right. The laft trial of this kind in England was be¬
tween Donald lord Ray appellant, and David Ram-
fay, Efq; defendant, when, after many formalities, the
matter was referred to the King’s pleafure. See the
article Battle.
COMBER, or Cumber (Thomas), an eminent di¬
vine born at Weftram in Kent, in 1645, was educated
at Cambridge ; created do£lor of divinity ; and, after
feveral preferments in the church, was made dean of
Durham. He was chaplain to Anne princefs of Den¬
mark, and to king William and queen Mary. He
was author of feveral works, viz. 1. A fcholaftical
hiftory of the primitive and general ufe of Liturgies.
2. A Companion to the Altar. 3. A brief difcourfe
upon the offices of baptifm, catechifm, and confirma¬
tion. He died in 1699, aged 55.
.COMBINATION, properly denotes an affemblage
of Several things, two by two.
Combination, in mathematics, is the variation or Comblna-
alteration of any number of quantities, letters, or the , 11011 • .
like, in all the differeut manners poffible. SccChanges. " v ■
slphorifms. I. ' a all combinations, if from an arith¬
metic decreafing feries, whofe firft term is the number
out of which the combinations are to be formed, and
whofe common difference is 1, there be taken as
many terms as there are quantities to be combined,
and thefe terms be multiplied into each other ; and if
from the feries x, 2, 3, 4, &c. there may be taken
the fame number of terms, and they be multiplied in¬
to each other, aud the firft product be divided by the
fecond ; the quotient will be the number of combina¬
tions required. Therefore, if you would know how
many ways four quantities can be combined in feven,
multiply the firft four terms of the feries, 7, 6, 5; 4,
&c. together, and divide the produft, which will be
840, by the product of the firft four terms of the fe¬
ries, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. which is 24, and the quotient
35 will be the combinations of 4 in 7. II. In all
permutations, if the feries 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. be con¬
tinued to as many terms as there are quantities to be
changed, and thofe terms be multiplied into each o-
ther ; the produft will be the number of permutations
fought. Thus, if you would know how many permu¬
tations can be formed with five quantities, multiply
the terms 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, together, and the produA 120
will be the number of all the permutations.
Problems. I. To find the number of changes that
may be rung on 12 bells. It appears by the fecond
aphorifm, that nothing is more neceffary here than,
to multiply the numbers from 1 to 12 continually into
each other, in the following manner, and the laft pro-
duA will be the number fought.
6
_4
24
 5
120
 6
720
 7
5°4°
 8
40320
 g;
362880U
10
3628800
399x6800
479,001,600
II. Suppofe the letters of the alphabet to be wrote,
fo fmall that no one of them {hall take up more fpaee
than the hundredth part of a fquare inch : to find how-
many fquare yards, it would require to write all the
permutations of the 24 letters in that fize. By fol¬
lowing the fame method as in the laft problem, the.
number of permutations of the 24 letters will be found
to
COM Li
Combina- to be 62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000. Now the
. tlon- , inches in a fquare yard being 1296, that number mul-
1 " tiplied by 1*00 gives 129,600, which is the number of
letters each fquare yard will contain 5 therefore if we
divide 62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000 by 129600
the quotient, which is 478,741,050,720,092,160, will
be the number of yards required, to contain the
above mentioned number of permutations. But as
all the 24 letters are contained in every permuta¬
tion, it will require a fpace 24 times as large ; that is,
11,489,785,217,282,211,840. Now the number of
fquare yards contained on the furface of the whole
earth is but 617,197,435,008,000, therefore it would
require a furface 18620 times as large as that of the
earth to write all the purmutations of the 24 letters in
the fize above mentioned.
III. To find how many different ways the eldeft
hand at piquet may take in his five cards. The eldell
hand having 12 cards dealt him, there remain 20
cards, any five of which may be in thofe he takes in.;
confequently we are here to find how many ways five
cards may be taken out of 20. Therefore, by apho-
rifni I. if we multiply 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, into each
other, which will make 1860480, and that number be
divided by 1, 2, 3,4, 5, multiplied into each other,
which make 120, the quotient, which is 15504, will
be the number of ways five cards may be taken out of
20. From hence it follows, that it is 15503 to'i, that
the eldeft hand does not take in any five certain cards.
IV. To find the number of deals a perfon may play
at the game of whift, without ever holding the fame
cards twice. The number of cards played with at
whift being 52, and the number dealt to each perfon
being 13, it follows, that by taking the fame me¬
thod as in the laft experiment, that is, by multiplying
, 52 by 51, 50, &c. fo on to 41, which will make
3,954,242,643,911,239,680,000, and then dividing
that fum by 1, 2, 3, &c. to 13, which will make
6,227,020,800, the quotient, which 13635,013,559,600
will be the number of different ways 13 cards may be
taken out of 52, and confequently the number fought.
u W o 'O 00--J Ol'-H +- Cw N •-<
79 1
C O M
The conftru&ion of this table is very fimple. The
line A a confifts of the firft 12 numbers. The line 1
A b confifts every where of units; and fecond term 3,
of the line B c, is compofed of the two terms 1 and 2
in the preceding rank: the third term 6, in that line,
is formed of the two terms 3 and 3 in the preceding
rank : and fo of the reft ; every term, after the firft,
being compofed of the two next terms in the preced¬
ing rank : and by the fame method it may be conti¬
nued to any number of ranks. To find by this tabic
how often any number of things can be combined in
another number, under 13, as fuppofe 5 cards out of
8 ; in the eighth rank look for the fifth term, which is
56, and that is the number required.
Though we have Ihown in the foregoing problems
the manner of finding the combination of all numbers
whatever, yet as this table anfwers the fame purpofe,
for fmall numbers, by infpe&ion only, it will be found
ufeful on many occafions ; as will appear by the fol¬
lowing examples.
V. To find how many different founds may be pro¬
duced by ftriking on a harpfichord two or more of
the feven natural notes at the fame time. 1. The
combinations of two in feven, by the foregoing tri¬
angle are - - -21
2. The combinations of 3 in 7, are - 35
3. The combinations of 4 in 7, are - 35
4. The combinations of 5, are - 21
5. The combinations of 6, are - 7
6. The feven notes all together once - t
Therefore the number of all the founds will be 120
VI. Take four fquare pieces of pafteboard, of the
fame dimenfion, and divide them diagonally, that is
by drawing a line from two oppofite angles, as in the
figures, into 8 triangles ; paint 7 of thefe triangles
with the primitive colours, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, violet, and let the eighth be white. To
find how many chequers or regular four-fided figures,
different either in form or colour, may be made out
of thofe eight triangles. Firft, by combining two of
thefe triangles, there may be formed either the trian¬
gular fquare A, or the inclined fquare B called a rhomb.
Secondlyj.by combining four of the triangles, tbe large
fquare C may be formed; or the long fquare D, cal¬
led a parallelogram.
£ P
O « • ,
■ ° 4^
\ ' 01
>
O
Now the firft two fquares, confifting of two parts
out of 8,-they may each of them, by the eighth rank
of the triangle be taken 28 different ways, which
makes 56. And the laft two fquares, confiding of
four parts, may each be taken by the fame rank of the
triangle 70 times, which makes 140
To which add the foregoing number - 56
And the number of the different fquares that
may be formed of the 8 triangles, will be 196
Z 2 VIL
COM I 180 ] COM
VII. A man .has 12 different forts of fiowers, and a
large number of each fort. He is defirous of fetting
them in beds or flouriflies in his parterre : Six flowers
in fome, 7 in others, and 8 in others; fo as to have
the greateit variety p'offible; the flowers in no two
beds to be the fame. To find how many beds he
muft have. 1. The combinations of 6 in 12 by the
kft rank of the triangle, are 924
2. The combinations of 7 in 12, are 792
3. The cdmbinations of 8 in 12, are 495
Therefore the number of beds mtift be 2211
VIII. To find the number of chances that may be
thrown on two dice. As each die has 6 faces, and as
every face of one die may be combined with all the
faces of the other, it follows, that 6 multiplied by 6,
that is 36, will be the number of all the chances ; as
"is alfo evident from the following table :
5 4
6 3-3
7 6-
8 4.4
9 6.3
105.5
116.5
12J6.6
'3'
1.4
5-
.65.
6.2,2.
3-6!5-
6.44.
5.6I
4-3 3'
3 3],
| 3°
!42
[40
[36
; 3°
1 22
! 12
&
It appears by this table, 1. That the number of
chances for each point continually increafes to the
point of feven, and then continually decreafes till 12 :
therefore if two. points are propofed to be thrown,
the equality, or the advantage of one over the other,
is clearly vifible (a). 2. The whole number of chances
on the dice being 252, if that number be divided by
36, the number of different throws on the dice, the
quotient is 7 : it follows therefore, that at every throw
there is an equal chance of bringing feven points.
3. As there are 36 chances on the dice, and only 6
of them doublets, it is 5 to 1, at any one throw, a-
gainft throwing a doublet.
By the fame method the number of chances upon
any number of dice may be found: for if 36 be mul¬
tiplied by 6, that product, which is 216, will be the
chances on 3 dice; and if that number be multiplied
by 6, the produdt will be the chances on 4 dice. See.
Combinations of the Cards. The following expe¬
riments, founded on the doftrine of combinations,
may poffibly amufe a number of oUr readers. The
tables given are the bafis of many experiments, as well
on numbers, letters, and other fubjefts, as on the cards;
but the effeft produced by them with the laft is the
moft furprifing, as that which ftiould feem to prevent
any collufion, that is the fhuffling of the cards, is on
the contrary the caufe from whence it proceeds.
It is a matter of indifference what numbers are made
ufe of in forming thefe tables. We (hall here confine
ourfelves to fuch as are applicable to the fubfequent
experiments. Any one may conftrudl them in fuch
manner as is agreeable to the purpofes he intends they
(hall anfwer.
To make them, for example, correfpond to the
nine digits and a cipher, there muft be ten cards, and
at the top of nine of them muft be written one of the
digits, and on the tenth a cipher. Thefe cards muft
be placed upon each other in the regular order, the
number 1 being on the firft, and the cipher at bottom.
You then take the cards in your left hand, as is com¬
monly done in (huflh'ng, and taking off the two top
cards* 1 and 2, you place the two following, 3 and 4,
upon them ; and under thofe four cards the three fol¬
lowing 5, 6, and 7 : at the top you put the cards 8
and 9, and at the bottom the card marked o; con-
ftantly placing in fuccefiion 2 at top and 3 at bottom:
And they will then be in the following order :
8.9.. 3.4..1.2...5A7..0
If you ftuiifle them a fecond time, in the fame man¬
ner, they will then itand in this order :
6.7.. 3.4..8.9..1.2.5..0
Thus, at every new Ihuffle, they will have a diffe¬
rent order, as is expreffed in the following lines:
1 ftuiffle 849.3.4.1.2.5.6.7.0
2 6.7.3.4.849.1.2.5.0
3 2.5.3.4.6.7.8.9.1.Q
•4 9.1.3.4.2.5.6.7.8.0
5 7.8.3.4.9.I.2.5.6.o
6 5.6.3.4.7.8.9.1.2.0
7 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.0
It is a remarkable property of this number, that
the cards return to the order in which they were firft
placed, after a number of fiiuffles, which added to the
number of columns that never change the order, is
equal to tire number of cards. Thus the number of
Ihutflcs is 7, and the number of columns in which the
cards marked 3, 4, &c. never change their places is 3,
which are equal to 10, the number of the cards. This
property is not common to all numbers ; the cards
fometimes returning" to the firft order in a lefs number,
and fometimes in a greater number of ftiuffles than that
of the cards.
TABLES of COMB IN A T IONS,
Conftru&ed on the foregoing principles.
. I. For ten numbers.
let bt fore dealing. After ift deal. After the ad. After tl
(a) It is eafy from hence to determine whether a belt propofed at hazard, or any other game with the dice,
be advantageous or not; if the dice be true (which, by the way, is rarely the cafe for any long time toge¬
ther, as it is fo eafy for thofe that are poffcffed of a dexterity of hand to change the true dice for faifeV
C O M [ '
Combir.a- Thefe tables, and the following examples at piquet
don. except the 36th, appear to have been compofed by
‘“^v M. Guyot.
II. For twenty-four numbers.
Order before dealing. After deal. After the ad. after the 3d.
T •> ? 21 17
)i ] COM
IV. For thirty-two numbers.
Order before dealing. After ift deal. After the id. After the 3d.
13
14
n
16
17
x8
*9
2 3
24
23
24
18
19'
13
H
8
9
3
4
15
16
^5
5
6
£
3
18
19
23
24
13
14
8
4
16
17
22
5
6
9
J9
23
24
ill. /■cr twenty feven numbers.
4)i der before dealing. After ift deal. After'the ad. After the 3d.
lS
H
15
f6
23
24
25
26
2 7.
23
24.
18
L9
13
H
8
9
3
4
J5
16
26
27
24
27
*3
H
J 6
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
28
29
23
24
)8
19
13
15
16
27
3°
31
32
26
27
17
H
8
23
24
28
19
13
9
3
4
5
6
7
12
*5
16
25
3°
31
32
9
3
28
29
2
14
17
20
26
27.
8
23
24
18
J9
13
4
5
6
»5
16
21
30
31
32
I. “ Several letters that contain no meaning, being
U written upon cards, to make them, after they have
“ been twice fhuffled, give an anfwer to a queftio-n
“ that fliall be propofed; as, for example, What is
“ love ?” Let 24 letters be written on as many cards
which, after they have been twice fliuffled, fliall give
the following anfwer:
yl dream of joy that foon is o’er.
Firft, write one of the letters in. that line on each
of the cards(B). Then write the anfwer on a paper,
and affign one of the 24 firft numbers to each card,
in the following order :
A DREAM 0FJOY THAT SOON
1 23456 7 89iqii12131415161718x0
I S O’ER.
2021 22 23 24
Next, write on another paper a line of numbers,
from 1 to 24, and looking in the table for 24 combi¬
nations, you will fee that the firft: number after the fe-
cond flniffle is 21 ; therefore the card that has the firft.
letter of the anfwer, which is A, muft be placed.
againft that number, in the line of numbers you have
juft made(c). In like manner the number 22 being the
fecond of the fame column, indicates that the card.
which
(b) Thefe letters ftiould be written in capitals on one of the corners of each card, that the words may be
cafily legible when the cards are fpread open.
(c) For the fame reafon, if you would have the anfwer after one fliuffle, the cards muft be placed according1
to the firft column of the table ; or if after three flxuffles,. according to the third column.
COM [ il
Gombina- which anfwers to the fecond letter D of the atifwer,
.. U0lx- muft be placed againft that number : and fo of the reft,
v"" The cards will then ftand in the following order:
i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
OOF SAMNTO I SRHAEO’EJO
20 21 22 23 24
R A D Y T
From whence it follows, that after thefe cards have
been twice ftiuffled, they muft infallibly ftand in the
order of the leters in the anfwer.
Obferve 1, You (hould have feveral queftions, with
their anfwers, confifting of 24 letters, written on cards :
thefe cards ftiould be put in cafes, and numbered, that
you may know . to which queftion each anfwer belongs.
You then prefect the queftions; and when any one of
them is chofen, you pull out the cafe that contains the
anfwer, and fliowing that the letters written on them
make no fenfe, you then Ihuffle them, and the anfwer
becomes obvious.
2. To make this experiment the more extraordi¬
nary, you may have three cards, on each of which an
anfwer is written ; one of which cards muft be a little
■wider, and another a little longer, than the others.
You give thefe three cards to any one, and when he
has privately chofen one of them, he gives you the o-
ther two, which you put in your pocket without look¬
ing at them, having difcovered by feeling which he
has chofen. You then pull out the cafe that contains]the
cards that anfwer to his queftion, and perform as before.
3. You may alfo contrive to have a long card at
the bottom, after the fecond ihuffle. The cards may
be then cut feveral times, till you perceive by the
touch that the long card is at bottom, and then give
the anfwer; for the repeated cuttings, however often,
will make no alteration in the order of the cards.
The fecond of thefe obfervations is applicable to
fome of the fubfequent experiments, and the third may
be praftifed in almoft all experiments with the cards.
You fhould take care to put up the cards as foon as
the anfwer has been ftiown ; fo that if any one fhould
defire the experiment to be repeated, you may offer
another queftion, and pull out thofe cards that contain
the anfwer.
Though this experiment cannot fail of exerting at
all times pleafure and furprife, yet it muft be owned
that a great part of the applaufe it receives arifes from
the addrefs with which it is performed.
II. “ The 24 letters of the alphabet being written
<«* upon fo many cards, to Ihuffle them, ajid pronounce
“ the letters fhall then be in their natural order ; but
•“ that not fucceeding, to ffluffle them a fecond time,
« and then Ihow them in proper order.” Write the
24 letters on the cards in the following order :
t 23456789 10 11 12
R SHQE F T P G UX C
13 14 ie i(j 17 18 19 2021 22 23 24
N OD Y Z I K & A B L M
The cards being difpofed in this manner, fflow them
upon the table, that it may appear they are promif-
.■cuoufiy marked. Then fhuffle and lay them again on
jthe table, pronouncing that they will be then in alpha¬
betical order. Appear to be furprifed that you have
ffaiied ; take them up again and give them a fecond
i'fhuffle, and then counting them down on the table they
will all be in their natural oYder.
I2 ] COM
III. “ Several letters being written promifeuoufly Combtniu
“ upon 32 cards, after they have been once fhuffled, tlon-
“ to find in a part of them a queftion ; and then LT~—
“ ftniffling the remainder a fecond time, to ihow the
“ anfwer. Suppofe the queftion to be, What is each
“ Briton’s hoajl ? and the anfwer, His liberty ; which
“ taken together contain 32 letters.”
After you have written thofe letters on 3 2 cards,
write on a paper the words, his liberty, and annex to
the letters the firft ten numbers thus :
H I S L I B E R T Y
123 45678910
Then have recourfe to the table of combinations
for ten numbers, and apply the refpe&ive numbers to
them in the fame manner as in experiment I. taking
the firft column, as thefe are to be ihuffled only once,
according to that order.
123 45678910
IB S L ERTHI Y
This is the order in which thefe cards muft ftand
after the whole number 3 2 has been once ftiuffled, fo
that after a fecond ihuffle they may ftand in their pro¬
per order. Next difpofe the whole number of letters
according to the firft column for 3 2 letters : the laft
ten are to be here placed in the order above ; as fol¬
lows,
WHAT IS EACH BRITON’S
1 2 34567 891011121314151617
BOAST?
18 19 20 21 22
IBSLERTHIY
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Therefore, by the firft column of the table, they
v/ill next ftand thus :
1 23456789 10 11 12 13 1415 16
ITBRONSCH B OA EA S T long card.
17 18 192021 2223 24 2526 27 28 29 30 31 32
I I SB S L I B E R T W H H I Y
You muft obferve, that the card here placed the
16th in order, being the laft of the queftion, is a long
card ; that you may cut them, or have them cut, after
the firft fhuffle, at that part, and by that means fepa-
rate them from the other ten cards that contain the
anfwer.
Your cards being thus difpofed, you fhow that they
make no meaning ; then fhuffle them once, and cut¬
ting them at the long card, you give the firft part to
any one, who reads the queftion, but can find no an¬
fwer in the others, which you open before him ; you
fhen fhuffle them a fecond time, and fhow the anfwer
as above.
IV. “To write 32 letters on fo many cards, then
“ fhuffle and deal them by twos to two perfons, in
“ fuch manner, that the cards of one fhall contain a
“ queftion, and thofe of the other an anfwer. Sup-
“ pofe the queftion to be, Is nothing certain ? and the
“ anfwer, Tes, difappoihtment.u
Over the letters of this queftion and anfwer, write
the following numbers, which correfpOnd to the order
in which the cards are to be dealt by two and two.
IS NOTHING CERTAIN?
31 32 27 28 23 24 19 20 15 16 11 12 7 8 34
YES, D I S A P O I N T M E N T.
29 30 25 26 21 22 17 18 13 14 9 10 5 6 1 2
Then have recourfe to the firlt column of the table
5
COURAGE
32 2722 17 12 7 2
RICHES
Z924I914 9 4
COM [ 3
Combim- for 32 numbers, and difpofe thefe 32 cards in the fol-
, tlon~ lowing order, by that column.
v 123 45 67 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
OIERGCANTP I N TA I S
17 18 19 20 2; 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
TMEHSDINNOYNTE IS
The cards being thus difpofed, fhuffle them once,
and deal them two and two; when one of the parties
will neceffarily have the queflion, and the other the
anfwer.
In dead of letters you may write words upon the
32 cards, 16 of which may contain aqueftion, and the
remainder the anfwer ; or what other matter you
pleafe. If there be found difficulty in accommodating
the words to the number of cards, there may be two
or mote letters or fyllables written upon one card.
V. 4< The five beatitudes.” The five bleffings we
will fuppofe to be, 1. Science, 2. Courage, 3. Health,
4. Riches, and 5. Virtue. Thefe are to be found
upon cards that you deal, one by one, to five per¬
rons. Firll write the letters of thefe wprds fuccef-
fively, in the order they Hand, and then add the num¬
bers here annexed to them.
SCIENCE
31 26 2116 11 6 1
HEALTH
2823 iS 13 8 3
VIRTUE
30252015' 10 5
Then range them in order agreeable to the fir ft co¬
lumn of the table for 32 numbers, as in the laft expe¬
riment. Thus,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
LHNATEREUACRGT IU
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
EECI ICHSOHREEV SC
Next, take a pack of cards, and write on the four
firft the word Science; on the four next the word
Courage ; and fo of the reft.
Matters being thus prepared, you fhow that the
cards on which the letters are written convey no mean¬
ing. Then take the pack on which the words are
written, and fpreading open the firft four cards, with
their backs upward, you defire the firft perfon to
choofe one. Then clofe thofe cards and fpread the
next four to the fecond perfpn ; and fo to all the five;
telling them to hold up their cards left you ftiould have
a confederate in the room.
You then ffiuffle the cards, and deal them one by
one, in the common order, beginning with the perfon
who chofe the firft card, and each one will find in his
hand the fame word as is written on his card. You will
obferve, that after the fixth round of dealing, there
will be two cards left, which you give to the firft and
fecond perfons, as their words contain a letter more
than the others.
VI. “ The cards of the game of piquet Being mixed
together, after (huffiirig them, to bring, by cutting
them, all the cards of each fuit together.” The order
In which the cards mult be placed to produce the effedt
defired being eftabhihed on the fame principle as that
explained in the experiment II. except that the Ihuf-
83 ] COM
fling is here to be repeated three times, we think it
will be fufficient to give the order in which they are to
be placed before the firft ftiuffle.
Order of the Cards.
clubs
fpades
17 King clubs
ll I™ 1 hearts
19 Nine 3
20 Seven clubs
21 Ace diamonds
22 Knave fpades
23 Queen hearts
24 Knave hearts
25 Ace fpades
26 King diamonds
27 Nine clubs ,
28 Ace ? ,
■,r. > hearts
29 King i
30 Eight clubs
31 nnS I fpades
32 Queen 3 r
You then fliuffle the cards, and cutting at the widb-
card, which will be the feven of hearts, you lay the eight
cards that are cut, which will be the fuit of hearts, down
on the table. Then (huffling the remaining cards a fe¬
cond time, you cut at the fecond wide card, which
will be the feven of fpades, and lay, in like manner,
the eight fpades down on the table. You ftiuffle the.
cards a third time, and offering them to any one to
cut, he will naturally cut them at the wide card (d),
which is the feven of diamonds, and confequently
divide the remaining cards into two equal parts, one of
which will be diamonds and the other clubs.
VII. “ The cards at piquet being all mixed together,
to divide the pack into two unequal parts, and name
the number of points contained in each part.” You
are firft to agree that each king, queen, and knave ftiall'
count, as ufual, 10, the ace 1, and the other cards ac¬
cording to the number of the points. Then difpofe
the cards, by the table for 32 numbers, in the following
order, and obferve that the laft card of the firft divi-
fion muft be a wide card..
Order of the
1 Seven hearts
2 Nine clubs
3 Eight, hearts
4 Eight ^
5 Knave C fpades
6 Ten 5
9 Ace hearts
wide card
10 Nine hearts
11 Queen fpades
12 Knave'clubs
13 Ten diamonds
cards before ftvuffling.
17 Nine diamonds
18 Ace fpades-
19 Ten clubs
20 Knave
21 Eight C diamonds
22 King S
23 Seven fpades
24 Seven ) ,
25 Queen \ d,amond*
26 Knave hearts
27 King clubs
28 Nine 1 r j
29 King 1 fPades
(d) You muft take particular notice whether they be cut at the wide card, and if they are not, you muft
have them cut,, or cut them again yourfelf.
G O M
14 Ten y
15 King C
16 Queen J
hearts
30 Ace diamonds
31 l clubs
32 Eight $
You then flniffle them carefully, according to the
method before defcribed, and they will Hand in the
following order.
Cards. Numbers. Cards. Numbers.
brought up 34
6 Ten clubs 10
7 Ten diamonds 10
8 Ten hearts 10
184 ]
13 Seven
14 Eight
15 Knave hearts
16 King clubs
clubs
> fpades
1 Nine
2 King
3 Seven
4 Seven diamonds 7
5 Ace fpades 1
carried up 34
11 Eight hearts 8
12 Eight fpades 8
13 Seven hearts 7
14 Nine clubs 9
17 Queen clubs ro
18 Nine hearts .9
19 Queen fpades 10
20 Knave clubs 10
z t King hearts m
carried up 1 o 1
9 Ace clubs
10 Ace hearts(wide card) l
total 66
Brought up
22 Queen hearts
23 Nine 7
24 Knave J
25 Eight diamonds
26 King ?
27 Queen S
28 Knave hearts
29 King clubs
30 Ace diamonds
31 ciub8
32 Eighty
total 194
O M
28 King 7 r 1 (
29 Ace l fPades
30 Ten clubs
31 Ten diamonds
32 Ace hearts (wide card)
The cards being thus difpofed, you afk your adver*
fary in what fnit you fhall repique him ? If he fay in
clubs or diamonds, you mult deal the cards by threes,,
and the hands will be as follows,
Younger.
Clubs, ace
  king
  queen
— knave
Diamonds, a
1 of
- king
Spades, ten
Hearts, ten
Rentree of the younger.
Ten clubs
Ten diamonds
Ace hearts
Elder
Hearts, king
  queen
— irine
- eight
- feven
J-°1 Spades queen
10  knave
9   eight
IO Diamonds, eight
8 Clubs, eight
10 —   feven
10 Rentree, or take 11
10 the elder.
10 Seven fpades
1 Seven diamonds
7 Nine 1
 5 King > fpades
, _ „ . Ace )
When the cards are by (huffing difpofed in this or- If he againft whom you play, who is fuppofed to be
der, you cut them at the wide card, and pronounce elder hand, has named clubs for the repique, and has
'that the cards you have cut off contain 66 points, and taken in five cards, you muft then lay out the queen,
confequently the remaining part 194. knave, and nine of diamonds, and you will have, with
VIII. “ The Inconceivable Repique(e).” When you the three cards you take in, a fixiem major in clubs,
would perform this experiment with the cards ufed in and quatorze tens. If he leave one or two cards, you
•the laft,. you mult obferve not to diforder the firfl: 1 o moft difeard all the diamonds.
cards in laying them down on the table. Putting If he require to be repiqued in diamonds, then dif-
thofe cards together, in their proper order, therefore, card the queen, knave, and nine of clubs: or all the
you fhuffle them a fecond time in the fame manner, clubs, if he leave two cards; and you will then have a
and offer them to any one to cut, obferving carefully hand of the fame ftrength as before,
if he cut them at the wide card, which will be the ace Note, If the adverfary fhould difeard five of his
of hearts, and will then be at top; if not, you mult hearts, you will not repique him, as he will then have
make him, under fome pretence or other, cut them a feptiem in fpades: or if he only take one card: but
till it is ; and the cards will then be ranged in fuch or- neither of thefe any one can do, who has the lead
der that you will repique the perfon again ft whom you knowledge of the game. If the perfim againft whom
play, though you- let him choofe (even after he has you play would be repiqued in hearts or fpades, you
_...\ : C-. r..u n-.H —1— .c- mufl deal the cards by twos, and the game will Hand
thus:
cut) in what fuit you fhall make the repique.
Order of the cards after they have been fhuffled and
1 Eight hearts
2 Eight 1
3 Knave > fpades
4 Ten J
7 £ing ?
8 Queen S
hearts
Is Knave
19 Nine hearts
20 Queen fpades
21 Seven hearts
22 Nine clubs
23 Ten hearts
24 Ace clubs
25 Seven fpades
26 Seven diamonds
27 Nine fpades
Younger hand,
ffins. ?C!U|”
f^ce ? diamonds
Queen >
Queen 7
Knave > fpadcs
Ten 3
King 1
Queen |
Knave ) hearts
Ten |
Nine J
Ren tretf.
N° 85.
(e) This manoeuvre of piquet v
ky her to M. Guyot.
3 invented by the ecuntels of L-
- (a French lady), and communicated
4
C O M
[
Omblnsi" Seven {pades Ten clubs
t tim1' Seven diamonds Ten. diamonds
Nine ) Ace hearts
King > fpades
Ace
If he require Xo be repiqued in hearts, you keep the
quint to a king in hearts, and the ten of fpades, and
lay out which of the reft you pleafe: then, even if he
fliould leave two cards, you will have a fixiem major
in hearts, and quatorze tens, which will make a re¬
pique.
But if he demand to be repiqued in fpades; at the
end of the deal you muft dexteroufly |)afs the three
cards that are at the bottom of the ftock (that is, the
ten of clubs, ten of diamonds, and ace of hearts) to
the top (f), and by that means you referve the nine,
king, and ace of fpades for yourfelf: fo that by keep¬
ing the quint in hearts, though you fhould be obliged
to lay out four cards, you will have a fixiem to a king
in fpades, wit! which and the quint in hearts you
muft make a repique.
Obferve here likewife, that if the adverfary lay
out only three cards, you will not make the repique :
but that he will never do, unlefs he be quite ignorant
of the game, or has fome knowledge of your inten¬
tion.
This laft ftroke of piquet has gained great applaufe,
when thofe that have publicly performed it have
known how to conduft it dexteroufly. Many perfons
who underftand the nature of Combining the cards,
have gone as far as the paffing the three cards from
the bottom of the ftock, and have then been forced to
confefs their ignorance of the manner in wdiich it was
performed.
IX. “ The Metamorphofed Cards.” Provide' 32
cards that are differently Coloured; on which feveral
different words are written, and different objefLs pain¬
ted. Thefe cards are to be dealt two and two, to
four perfons, and at three different times, ftmffling
them each time. After the firft deal, every one’s cards
ate. to be of the fame colour; after the fecond deal,
they are all to have objefrs that are fimilar; and after
the third, words that convey a fentiment.
Difpofe of the cards in the following order.
23
2+
25
26
29
3°
31
S2
Yellow.
White
Yellow
Yellow
White
Red
Red
Green
Green
Green
Green
Yellow
Red
Red
Yellow
White
White
COM
Flowet
Orange
Butterfly
Butterfly
Bird
Orange
Orange
Orange
Orange
Bird
Flower
Bird
Bird
Orange
Butterfly
Butterfly
Enchanting
Ardour
My
Phyllis
Birds
Sing
Dear
and fweetnefs
The
Of '
Prefcnt
As
Changes
Bofom
Me
Your
I long
The cards thus coloured, figured, and tranferibed,
are to be put in a cafe, in the order they here ftand.
When you would perform this experiment you take
the Cards out of the cafe, and fhow, without changing
the order in Which they were put, that the colours,
objefts, and words are all-placed promifeuoufly. You
then fhuifte them in the fame manner as before, and
deal them, two and two, to four perfons, obferving
that they do not take up their cards till all are dealt,
nor mix them together : and thg eight cards dealt to
each perfon will be found all of one colour. You then
take each perfon’s cards, and put thofe of the fecond
perfon under thofe of the firft, and thofe of the fourth
perfon ynder thofe of the third. After which you
fluiffle them a fecond time, and having dealt them in
the fame manner, on the firft perfon’s cards will be
painted all the birds; on. the fecond perfon’s cards,
all the butterflies ; on thofe of the third, the oranges ;
and on tbofe of the fourth, the flowers. You take
the cards a fecond time, and obferving the fame pre¬
cautions, fhuffle and deal them as before, and then
the firft perfon, who had the laft time the birds in his
hand, will have the words that compofe this fentence :
Sing, dear birds ; I long to hear your enchanting notes.
The fecond perfon, who the laft deal had the but¬
terflies, will now have thefe words:
13
14
Col, urs
Yellow
Yellow
Green
Green
White.
White .
Red
Red
Red
Red
Green
Green
Y/hite
White
Yellow
Vol. V. Part I.
OhjeCls.
Bird
Bird
Flower
Flower
Bird
Orange
Butterfly
Flower
Flower
Butterfly
Butterfly
Butterfly
Flower
Flower
Orange
Of a ,
I find
In you ',
Charming
Flowers
To hear .
Beauty
My
Notes
In
Shepherdefs
Lover
Your
Of
an inconftant
Image
i inconjlant lover your changes prefent n
The third, who had the oranges, will have this fen¬
tence :
As in my Phyllis, I find in you beauty and fivjeelncfs.
The fourth, who had the. flowers, will have thefe
words:
Charming fiaiwers, adorn the bofom of my Jhepherdefs.
It feems quite unneceffary to give any further de¬
tail, as they who underftand the foregoing experiments
will eafily perform this.
Among the different purpofes to which the dodftrine
of combinations may be applied, thofe of writing in
cipher, and deciphering, hold a principal place. See
the article Cipher.
COMBINATION, in chemiftry, fignifies the union
A a of
(f) The manner of doing this is explained in the article Legerdemain.
COM [ 186 ] COM
Combuft of two bodies of different natures, from which a new operation is performed. It is now almofl univerfally Combo-
compound body refults. For example, when an acid known, that the air we breathe is compofed of two
is united with an alkali, we fay that a combination be- kinds of elaftic fluids, only one of which (called dtphlo- '—v~—'
twixt thefe two faline fubftances takes place ; becaufe gijlicated, pure, empyreal, or vital air) contributes to the
from this union a neutral fait refults, which is compo- fupport of flame, as well as of animal life ; and tliis
fed of an acid and an alkali. part is found to be by far the leaft in quantity of the
COMBUST, in aftronqmy. When a planet is in atjmofphere we breathe. It is computed from good
conjun&ion with the fun, or not diltant from it above obfervations, that, among the various component parts
half its difle; it is faid to be tombuft, or in com- of our atmofphere, there is about one-fourth, ac-
buftion. _ _ cording to Mr Scheele, or one-fifth according to Mr
According to Argol, a planet is combuft, or in Cavendiih, contained in it; and to this fmall part alone
combuftion, when not above eight degrees and thirty is owing the combuftion of inflammable bodies.
j:a r.— *i-~ u .r g;nce the efta|iijfllment Qf t^js Important fad, fe-M Lavoi-
veral theories of combuftion have been formed. Ac-{'er,s fheo-
minutes diftant from the fun, either before or after
him,
COMBUSTIO pecuni.e, the ancient way of trying cording to M. Lavoifier, dephlogifticated air is a com-
mixed and corrupt money, by melting it down, upon pound of two fubllances intimately combined; one is
payments into the Exchequer. In the time of king called by him the oxygenous principle, and the other
Henry II. a conftitution was made, called the trial by fpecific elementary fire. During the combuftion of ful-
eombujlion; the praftice of which differed little or no- phur, phofphorus, inflammable air, or any other fub-
thing from the prefent method of affaying filver. But ftance of that kind, the oxygenous principle of the
whether this examination of money by combuftion was dephlogifticated air, according to him, combines with
to reduce an equation of money only of Sterling, viz.
a due proportion of alloy with copper, or to reduce it
to pure fine filver, does not appear. On making the
conftitution of trial it was confidered, that though the
money did anfwer numero et pondere, it might be de¬
ficient in value ; becaufe mixed with copper or brafs,
&c.
thefe bodies, to which it has a ftrong attraftion, and
forms new compounds of falts and other bodies; at
the fame time that the elementary fire contained in
thefe is fet loofe, and becomes fenfible, producing heat
and flame, according to circurriftances. Thus the fire
produced in combuftion does not proceed from the
burned body, but from the decompofition of the de-
COMBUSTION, a term denoting the operation of phlogifticated air, in which it is contained in a latent
fire upon any inflammable fubftance, by which it and infenfible ftate; while its oxygenous principle
combines with the fulphur, phofphorus, or inflam¬
mable air, and forms vitriolic and phofphoric acids, or
pure w'ater. In like manner it is alfo fuppofed by this
theory, i. That metals are fubftances abfolutely fimple.
2. That metallic calces are true compounds formed by
the oxygen , us part of pure air with the metallic par¬
ticles ; and, 3. That pure water is a fimilar compound
of the fame principle with inflammable air.
According to Fourcroy, combuftible bodies are pourcroy's
thofe which have a ftrong attraction to combine or theory.
fmokes, flames, and is reduced to allies.
There is not a phenomenon in nature by which
the attention of philofophers has been more engaged,
nor which has puzzled them more to account for, than
this very common operation. To explain it, theories
have been invented the moft oppefite and contradicto¬
ry to one another that can be imagined ; and, till very
lately, the ftate of fcience did not afford data fuflicient
1 to explain it in a rational manner.
Theories of By former chemifts it was fuppofed, that the parts
^nuhe-of jjjg combuftible body itfelf were converted into
111 9' fire. Accordingly Sir Ifaac Newton propofes it as buftion is nothing elfe but theaCloHhatcombina-
a query, whether grofs bodies and light are not con- tion. This affertion is founded on the-following fads:
vertible into one another? and many chemifts of a x. That no fubftance can be burnt without air; 2.That
more modern date have determined this queftion in the the purer this air is, the more rapid is the combuftion;
affirmative, by maintaining that the light of the fun is 3. That in combuftion, an abforption or wafte of air
or contains phlogifton. The interference of the air, always takes place; and, 4. That the refiduum con-
however, in moft cafes of combuftion known to us, tains often a very fenfible quantity of that pure air
proved a difficulty in this theory almoft, if not to- which it abforbed, and which may fometimes be ex¬
tally, unfurmountable ; for if the fire proceeds entirely traded from it. s
from the combuftible body, what occafion is there for In Mr Scheele’s new theory of heat, fire, light, andScheele’s
any third fubftance diftind both from the fire and phlogifton, he confiders heat and light themfelves as lheory*-
that body to produce combuftion ? This naturally compound fubftances. The former, according to him,
excited a conjedure, that the fire by which the com- confifts of phlogifton and empyreal air. The calces of
bultible body is confumed, proceeds in reality from gold, reducible by heat alone, in a retort, fhow that
the air, and not from the body itfelf. And hence we phlogifton is contained in heat; becaufe it combines
fee that Mr Hutchinfon’s fyftem of fire and air being with the calces to revive them,.and the dephlogifti-
convertible into one another, might have paffed as a cated air is found in the receiver The precipitate
3 rationaliwjMv theory, if he had not attempted to force per fe of mercury, if revived in this manner, affords,
True prin- it upon mankind as a divine revelation. The modern according to our author, another inllance of the truth
ciple on difcoveries in aerology, however, have entirely dif- of his dodrine : “ If phlogifton alone (fays he) could
tmilioi^n.Tv proved this hypothefis with regard to our atmofphere pafs through the retort, there would not be found the
be explain- confidered as a whole, at the fame time that they point empyreal air in the receiver, and the ignoble metals-
ed. out the true method, as far as our faculties feem ca- might be revived in the fame manner.”
pable of comprehending it, by which this myfterious Light, according to Mr Scheele, is a compound
1 containing
COM l iS7 ] COM
CcmTsu- containing phlogifton and heat, from which both may
ft*011- feparate themfelves in proper circumftances. A folu-
tjon 0p fi\ver jn nitrous acid mixed with chalk, and
expofed to the funlhine, is revived into a metallic form
by the phlogifton of light. Nitrous acid alfo in a
glafs veffel, receives phlogifton from light, and becomes
of an orange colour: but if the glafs be painted black,
the acid receives the heat, not the phlogifton. Even
the various coloured rays of light, according to our
author, contain unequal ftiares of phlogifton ; fince the
violet rays part more eafily with their phlogifton to
revive metals than any other. When light is not (lop¬
ped in its paflage, no heat is perceived ; but if flopped
in its courfe, the oppofing body receives heat, and
fometimes phlogifton. Light feems therefore to be
the matter of heat, loaded with a fuperabundant quan¬
tity of phlogifton. That which comes out from a fur¬
nace, produces heat on the furrounding bodies, which
afcends with the rarefied air; proceeds forward in
ftraigbt lines; and may be reflected from polifhed fur-
faces, with this peculiarity, that a concave glafs mir¬
ror retains the heat, whilft it refle&s the light ; for al¬
though its focus is bright, yet it is not warm. A
pane of glafs alfo put before a burning mirror, re¬
tains the heat, and allows the light to pafs through
it.
Fire is the more or lefs heated, or more or lefs lu¬
minous ftate of bodies, by which they are refolved into
their conftituent parts, and entirely deftroyed. It re¬
quires, that they be previoufly heated in contaft with
air : for to every combuftible body a certain quantity
of heat muft be communicated, in order to fet it in the
fiery commotion.
Combuftion is the a£lion of heat penetrating the
pores of bodies, and deftroying their cohefion : in this
cafe the body parts with its phlogifton, provided there
be a fubftance prefent which has a ftrong attraftion
for the inflammable principle. If the heating be per¬
formed in open air, the empyreal part, on account of
its ftronger attra&ion, unites with the inflammable
principle, which is thus fet at liberty ; from which
union the heat is compounded; and fcarcely is this
heat generated, when the combuftible body is dill
more expanded by it than in the beginning, and its
phlogifton more laid open. The more the heat is in-
creafed, the more minute are the particles into which
the combuftible body is diflblved. The empyreal air
meets more furfaces; confequently comes in contadl
with more phlogifton ; and, according to its nature,
forms an union with a greater quantity of it, which
produces a radiant heat. At this moment the conftitu-
ent parts of the combuftible body are fo much difunited
by the ftill increafing heat, that the empyreal air, con¬
tinuing to pour in upon it in dreams, attra&s the
phlogifton in ftill greater quantities; and hence the
moft elaftic fubftance, light, is compofed ; which, ac¬
cording to the quantity of combuftible matter, (hows
various colours.
Dr Craw- The laft theory we (hall here take notice of is that
ford’s theo- of Dr Crawford.—He has by a great number of ex-
Ty* periments endeavoured to (how, that bodies which con¬
tain a large portion of phlogifton, poflefs but a fmall
(hare of fpecific heat or fire; on the contrary, that
thofe with a great (hare of this laft, contain but little
phlogifton ; and laftly, thofe which are deprived of
phlogifton, increafe their capacity for fpecific fire. Combu-
Thus, when regulus of antimony is deprived of its phlo- tlion'
gifton, by calcination, which is then called diaphoretic
antimony, it nearly triples its fpecific fire. The fame
change takes place in crocus martis and in iron. This faft
is generally true, whatever be the nature of the fub¬
ftance : and even the aeriform ones are in the fame
cafe, for phlogifticated air has very little fpecific fire,
common air has more of it, and dephlogifticated air
(hows a moft prodigious quantity. From thefe
fafts it is clear, that phlogifton and fire are diftinft,
and incompatible fubftances; fo that when one enters
into the compofition of any body, the other of courfe
is expelled from it. Thus metals are calcined in con-
fequence of a double attraftion, by which the metal
imparts its phlogifton to the air, while the air commu¬
nicates its fire to the metallic calces; which is further
confirmed by the air that is found in metallic calces,
whofe increafed weight by calcination correfponds to
the air that is expelled from them by their reduction to
a metallic ftate.
All combuftible bodies are abfolutely in the fame
cafe. By thefe are meant fuch bodies as contain a
large quantity of phlogifton in their compofition, but
loofely adherent to them. Dephlogifticated air, which
is greatly loaded with fpecific fire, has at the fame
time a ftrong attraction for phlogifton ; and, in the aft
of combuftion, communicates its fire to the combu¬
ftible body, whilft the air becomes phlogifticated or
loaded with phlogifton. Thus we find, that fulphur
contaminates the air, when burned, by the phlogifton
it throws into it, and the produced vitriolic acid, if
any, becomes impregnated with the fame.
In fome cafes the moft intenfe heat or fenfible fire is
produced in the combuftion; but in others it is very
moderate. This variation generally depends on the
quantity and quality of the vapours produced during
the combuftion : when thefe are very inconfiderable,
and the refiduum cannot abforb the fire which is emit¬
ted by the air, the remainder is precipitated, or dif-
fufed all around, and produces a very fenfible heat. On
the contrary, if the vapours are capable of abfofbing
it, very little heat is produced. We know, by the
mod certain experiments, that, for inftance, the vapour
of water abforbs about 800 degrees of heat beyond
that of its boiling ftate ; from whence it follows, that,
whenever there is a quantity of watery vapours produ¬
ced by combuftion, very little fenfible fire muft be felt.
So when fpirits of wine are fired, the heat then produ¬
ced by the combuftion is very inconfiderable, the great¬
er part being abforbed by the watery vapours that are
then produced : but when the phofphorus of Kunkel
is fet on fire, the heat is very ftrong; there being but
a fmall quantity of acid to carry off the fpecific fire that
is fet loofe. ^
Thefe are the principal theories of combuftion that M. fyTagei-
have appeared. M. Magellan, from whofe notes on lan’s r=-
Cronftedt’s Mineralogy the above account is taken,mart*-
objeAs to M. Lavoifier’s opinion, that the oxygenous
principle cannot be (hown to our fenfes, nor is it better
demonftrated than the phlogijion fuppofed by the great
Stahl and his followers. M. Fourcroy’s fyftem he
fuppofes to be lefs objeAionable: but to Scheele he
obje&s from Mr Kirwan, i.That in no inftance it ap¬
pears that phlogifton penetrates glafs, much lefs a
A a 2 compound
COM
Omlw- compound of pure air and phlogsflon ; and, idly, T!>at
fticn. j£ Scheele’s notions were true, then other metallic
v calces, or at leaft black manganefe, would be reduced
by heat alone: for this calx dephlogiflicates nitrous
acid, and has a ftronger affinity with phlogifton
than it; and therefore ought to decoinpofe the heat
with as great facility as the nitrous acid, or even with
greater on account of its greater attraction. The
former obje&ion M. Magellan does not fuppofe to be
altogether conclufrve, as there are many combinatiolTs
(he fays) of two or more fubftances that pafs through
bodies, each of which would, be Hopped before they
were conabined ; and what Mr Scheele has faid on
light feeins to prove that glafs is not alway quite im¬
pervious to phlogifton ; but the latter he deems altoge¬
ther nnanfwerable.
Having thus reje&ed three of thefe theories, he ac-
quiefces in that of Dr Crawford, which, he tells us,
“ is the moll fatisfadlory concerning the nature and
procefs of combuftible bodies and of their combuftion,
fo far as the prefent ftate of our knowledge has opened
the field of our views into the operations of nature.”
Before, fuch a full aftent, however, is given to any
theory, it is altogether neceffary that it Ihould be con-
fillent with every known faft, as far as that faft can
be inveftigated by us in our prefent ftate of knowledge ;
and that this is not the cafe with the theories either
of Fourcroy, Scheele, or Crawford, will appear from,
g the following confiderations.
ObjedHons I. With regard to that of Fourcroy, it is evidently
to M. Four- deficient in one of the effential requifites to produce
croy’s theo- combuftion, even fire itfelf; for if combuftion depends
ry' only on the attraBion between combuftible bodies and
jure air, then it ought to take place on all occafions
wherever pure air and combuftible bodies are prefented
to each other. But this is not the cafe; for though
we put a piece of unlighted charcoal into a jar full of
dephlogifticated air, no combuftion will enfue. To,
produce this it is neceffary that the charcoal be already,,
in part at leaft, in a ftate of combuftion, or that fire
be applied to it from without. This theory there¬
fore, inftead of explaining the matter, gives not the:
fmalleft infight into it; fince we are perpetually left to
feek for the caufe of the fire which produced that in
queftion: for the combination of a combuftible body
9 with air is the ejfiQ of combuflion, not the caufe.
To Mr II. Mr Scheele’s theory is fo exceedingly contrary to
Scheele s. common notions of mankind, that it can fcarce
ever be ferioufly believed. The pure light of the fun
can never be fuppofed by any mortal to con fill princi¬
pally of a fubftance as grofs as the foot of our chim¬
neys, without a degree of evidence of which the fubjedt
is quite incapable.
T^Mr HI. Under the article Chemistry, Dr Crawford’s
Craw- theory of heat is fully confidered, and found to be in¬
ford’s, fufficient. It is there fhown that the degree of fipe-
cific heat contained in bodies cannot be meafured by
C o M
any method yet known to us; that the phrafe, quanti- Combo.
ty of heat, fo frequently made ufe of by Dr Crawford ftion-
and others, is vague, inaccurate, and improper; as ex-
preffing only the degree of. fenfible heat extricated, pro¬
duced, generated, or which, becomes perceptible in cer¬
tain circumftances by us, without regard to the real
quantity contained in the body it elf, either originally,
or after it has parted with that in queftion. Thus all
experiments founded on the quantities of fpecific heat
contained in. different bodies muft. be fallacious and in-
conclufive. Not to infill, however, on thefe general ar¬
guments, it is contrary to fact, that “* bodies which
contain a large portion of phlogifton contain but
a fmall fhare of fpecific heat;” and vice verfa, as the
Doctor afferts; which will appear from the following
confiderations.
1. The only methods by which we can meafure the
quantity of any material fubftance is either by its bulk
or weight.
2. Whatever occupies fpace, and refills the touch,
we have a right to call a material fubftance, whe¬
ther we can fee it and weigh it or not. Thus air,
which is invifibk, and not very eafily ponderable,
is nniverfally allowed to be a: fulfiance and not a
quality..
3 In cafes where we cannot conveniently meafure
the weight, of any fobftancc, its quantity muft always
be judged' of by its bulk. Thus the quantity of air
contained in a bladder, or in a bellows, is always
judged of by the degree of expanfion of either.
4 Heat, which is ftill more fubtile than air, is mea¬
fured in this way, as Dr Crawford himfelf acknow¬
ledges ; for the expanfions of mercury are in an arith¬
metical progreffion expreffive of the real degrees of
heat.
5. Applying this rule to bodies in general, we muft
conclude, that the expanfions of all bodies will be in
proportion to the degrees of heat which- they con¬
tain. Thus, if a body is expanded by heat to double
its bulk, and in this ftate remains even when the heat¬
ing caufe. is withdrawn, we may then fay with juftice,
that this body contains double the quantity of latent
or fpecific heat that it did before, and fo on (a).
6. As the vapour of water is found to abforb a vaft,
quanity of heat, and likewife to become prodigioufly
expanded in comparifon with the water from whence
it is produced, we may juftly conclude, that the
quantity of heat abforbed, or of fpecific heat contained in
the Hearn, is to the fpecific heat contained in the wa¬
ter as the bulk of the fleam is to that of the water.
It is difficult indeed to determine how much fleam
exceeds in bulk the water from which it is derived
but from fome experiments, Dr Black concludes,
that it is augmented in bulk between 1600 and 1700
times; and from the great quantity of heat emitted by
fleam during its condenfation, which in fome cafes ex¬
ceeds 1000 degrees of Fahrenheit, we have reafon to
believe
t 188 1
(a) This is not contradi&ory to the obfervation that the expanfions of all bodies are not in proportion
to the degree with which they are heated, nor equal at different times. It is the degree of heat abforbed
and entangled among the particles of the body which expands it, not that which flows out from it, and affedts
our fenfes or the thermometer. Thus, though a body is heated to too degrees, it may abforb only 10; and
after it has dene fo, it may require 30Q or. 400 degrees more to caufe it abforb other ten..
COM
Combo.- believe that the quantity <jf its expanfign is proportion*
^ ^10n' . able to that of the heat abforbed.
7. As we thus are afeertained, by the great expan-
fion of aqueous vapour, that it has abforbed a vaft
quantity of heat, it will evidently follow, that from
the expanlion of other fubftances we ought alio to
know the quantity of heat abforbed by them. To
apply this tnen to the prefent cafe. In Dr Prieftley’s
experiments on the conveilion of charcoal into inflam¬
mable air, he found, that one grain of charcoal, dif-
perfed by the heat of the fun in vacuo, gave fix
ounce meafures of inflammable air. In another ex¬
periment, he found that 2 i grains of charcoal gave
1 y t ounce meafures of the fame kind of air. But from
a computation of the weight of the air.fo produced,
it appears, that at lead; an equal quantity of water
with that of the charcoal goes to the conapofuion of
the aerial fluid. In meafuring this expanlion, therefore,
we may allow ohe-half for that of the water requifite
to form the inflammable air ; and hence the grain of
charcoal, properly Ipeaking, abforbs only three ounce
meafures of fire. That this expanfion was the effedf of
fire is very evident: for there was nothing elfe prefent
but fire, or the concentrated light of the lun ; the ex¬
periment being performed by means of a burning glafs
in vacuo. It cannot be -a fadt then, as Dr Crawford
afltrts, that a phlogiftic body contains but a fmall
quantity of fpecific heat ; for here fo fmall a quantity
as one grain of charcoal was made to contain as much
fpecific fire as is equivalent in bulk to three ounce
meafures. It appears therefore, that the quantity of
fpecific fire contained in bodies is not detei mined by
their being combullible or not, or by their containing
philogifton or not: much lefs can we believe that heat
and phlogifton are fo incompatible with one another,
that where “ one enters into the compofition of any
body the other is of courfe expelled from it;” fince
here we find the pureft fire we know united in vaft
quantity with the pureft phlogifton we know, and
both together conftituting one of the molt inflammable
fubltandes in nature, viz. inflammable air.
8. In like manner muft the laft part of the Dodtor’s
theory be erroneous, viz.^that “ in the adt of com-
buftion the dephlogifticated air communicates its fire
to the combuftible body.” In the inftance juft now
adduced, the combuftible fubftance, inflammable air,
contains already as much fire as it can hold; and ac¬
cording to the general rule in thefe cafes, if it was to
abforb more fire, it ought to become ftill more expand¬
ed. But inftead of this, when dephlogifticated and in¬
flammable air mixed together in due proportion, are fet
on fire, they fhrink in a manner into nothing ; fo that
it is plain, inftead of one communicating its fire to the
other, both of them throw out almoft all the fire they
contain ; fo that they are no longer air, but water, or
fome other fubftance about which philofophers are not
yet agreed.
9. Dr Crawford’s theory of combuftion is liable to
the very fame objedtion with that of Fourcroy, vice, that
it fets afide the neceffity of any external caufe to fet on
fire the combuftible bodies. If dephlogifticated air at-
tradts the phlogifton of the combuftible body, and the
phlogifton in the latter attradls the fir e of the dephlo¬
gifticated air, the confequence of which is combuftion;
then, wherever deghlogifticated and inflammable air are
COM
mixed, combuftion ought immediately to enfue. But Combu-
this is not the cafe. A candle, a fpark of eleftricity,, “10n' .
or, in a word, fome body already in aJlaie of combufion, v
muft be applied before we can produce the effedt in
queltion. We muft therefore feek for the caufe of
combuftion in the burning body applied, which will be
found equally inexplicable : and thus we cannot proceed
a Angle ftep in real knowledge, though afiifted by ail
that Dr Cbawford has advanced. lt
10. The theory of M. Law>ifier, notwithftand- M Lavoi-
ing M. Magellan’s criticifm, feems to come muchfier>s tfieo*
nearer the truth than that of Dr Crawford. With
gard to the exiftence of what Lavoifier calls the oxy-forracr.
genous principle, it is certainly eftablilhed on as fare
grounds as that of any invifible fubftance can be. M. Ma¬
gellan complains, without r.aafon, that it “ cannot be
ihown to our fenfes.” It has not yet indeed been
made vi/ible, per fe; but it is found to increafe the
weight of bodies very fenfibly. Perhaps, indeed, it
may not be an oxygenous or acidifying principle; per¬
haps it may be water, or fome other fubftance ; but
ftill it is fomething which, by being combined with ele¬
mentary fire, is expanded into a vaft bulk, and which,
by being deprived of this fire, (brinks into its former
dimenfions. Thus it manifefts itfelf to be a real fub¬
ftance; and not only fo, but a terreftrial gravitating fub¬
ftance ; and which, even w^hen lightened by a mixture of
charcoal fo as to conftitu'.e the folid part of fixed air,
has been (hown nearly to equal the denfity of gold. In-
this refpeft, therefore, M. Lavoifier’s theory is fault-
lefs, as well as in that which affirms that in the adt of
combuftion the dephlogifticated air parts with its fire ^
but it is imperfedt in this refpedt, that he does not con-
fider the quantity of fire contained in the inflammable
body, which is thrown out at the fame time, nor the
occafion there is for fome body in a ftate of adtual in¬
flammation to begin the combuftion. That the com¬
binations mentioned by him do adtually take place is
not denied ; but they are undoubtedly of
the combuftion, not caufes of it, as they are generally
fuppofed. To underftand this fubjedt fully, therefore,
it will (till be neceffary to confider farther, i3>
11. Under the article Chemistry, already quoted, Another
it is (hown that heat and cold are not effentially diftindttkcory‘
from one another; but that heat confifts in the motion
of a certain fubtle and invifible fluid from a Centre to¬
wards a circumference, and that cold confifts in the
adtion of the fame fluid from a circumference to a cen¬
tre. In other words, when elementary fire adis from
any body outwards, we fay that body is hot, becaufe it
heats other bodies ; but when it flows from others into
any particular body, we call the latter cold, as depri¬
ving the neighbouring bodies of part of their relative
quantity of heat. We may farther illuftrate this by
the example of eledtricity, where the fluid rufhing out
from any body produces a kind of electricity called
pojitive; but, when entering into it, produces another,
oppofite in many refpedls to the former, called nega~
tive eledtricity. In like manner all bodies in the adt of \
throwing out elementary fire are hot, and in the adt
of abforbing it cold. Vapours of all kinds, therefore,
ought to be naturally cold: and experience (hows that
they really are fo ; for, by means of evaporation, very
intenfe degrees of cold may be produced. See Cold
and Evatoration.
[ .89 ]
72. la
COM f 190 ] COM
Ccmbu- 12. In r.ioft terreftrial bodies the heat eafily flows thus reverfed in this part inftantly becomes fo in every Cf>mb>
. K*!1'- , out from one to another, and therefore they are in a other, and the whole fluid contained in both is difehar-, ltion- ,
manner indifferent as to the ftate of being either hot or ged with a bright flafh and loud explofion. L
cold: but in vapours, the heat, having once flowed in- 16. In a fimilar manner may we explain the com-
to them, continues to have a tendency to do fo without bullion of folid bodies. None of thefe can be ignited
regard to the external temperature of bodies. Hence without the afiiftance of external fire. This in the
thefe fluids are naturally cold to the touch ; and thofe firft place rarefies fome part of them into- vapour ;
who have been immerfed in clouds on the tops of high which by means of dephlogifticated air is decompofed
mountains or otherwife, have uniformly related that in the manner already mentioned; while, by means of
they found the vapour excefilvely cold ; and thus our the heat thrown out, a frelh quantity of vapour is raifed,
atmofphere, unlefs fupplied by the powerful influ- at the fame time that the fire is augmented, and would
ence of the fun-beams, not only becomes extremely continue to be fo in infinitum, as long as fuel could be fup-
cold itfelf, but likewife cools than extreme degree plied. When no more inflammable vapour can be rai-
the furface of the earth and every thing upon it. fed, the combuftion ceafes of courfe; and the remain-
13. In all cafes therefore, where a quantity of va- der becomes charcoal, allies, flag, &c. according to its
pour, whether inflammable or not, is colle&ed into one different nature, or the combinations it is capable of af-
place, there is a conllant influx, or at ledl a conllant fuming with the terreftrial or gravitating part of the
preffure inwards of the elementary fire exifting invifi- pure air by which the fire was fupplied. I3
bly all around: which preffure mud continue until by 17. It may now be afleed, If the caufe of combu-Objections
fome means or other the flow or preffure of ethereal llion be merely the reverfing of the influx of elemen-anfwered.
fluid be reverfed, and inllead of tending from without tary fire, why cannot inflammable vapours be fired «a
inwards, is made to tend from within outwards. vacuo, by means of heat applied to fome part of them
14. One method of reverfing this influx is by exter- externally? Thus, as inflammable air has a conllant
nal preffure, or by any other means bringing the par- influx of elementary fire into it, why may not this in-
ticles of vapour nearer to one another. On this fub- flux be reverfed, and a flame produced, not fo violent
je£l, a treatife has been written by Dr Webfter of indeed as with dephlogifticated air, but fufficient to
Edinburgh, in which he endeavours to eftablilh the authorife us to fay that fuch a body was a&ually in
doftrine, that condenfation is in all cafes the caufe of the ftate of combuftion ? But this, we know, cannot
heat. That it really is the immediate caufe, in a great . be the cafe unlefs fome pure air be admitted ; for a
many cafes, is very certain ; but it is equally evident ftream of inflammable air, if nothing elfe be admit-
that, even in thefe cafes, the caufe of condenfation mult ted, will as effectually put out a fire as a ftream of wa-
be the ultimate caufe of heat. Thus, if a quantity of ter. Here, however, we may reply,’that this would
air be violently comprefied in an air-gun, it is found fuppofe inflammable air to be deftroyed by the very
to become hot; but though the comprefiion be the power by which it was produced. It feems to be the
immediate caufe, the force by which the compreffion is nature 4>f all vapours to abforb heat without any li-
occafioned mult be the ultimate caufe of the heat, mitation, as is evident by the increafe of elafticity in
The immediace agent, however, by which the heat is them by an increafe of heat. Elementary fire is one
produced, is neither the comprelfing caufe nor the of the component parts of vapour, and no fubftance can
condenfation, but the efflux of elementary fire from the be decompofed merely by the a&ion of one of its corn-
air, by bringing the particles of the latter nearer to each ponent parts. Something heterogeneous muft there-
other. In like manner, when iron is hammered until it fore be added, on which one or both of the compo-
becomes hot, the metal may probably be fuppofed to be nent parts may aft ; and then the vapour wilUbe de-
condenfed, and the elementary fire to be fqueezed out compofed in vacuo as well as in the open air, though
of it as water from a fponge: but it is neither the ac- with lefs obvious circumftances. Thus charcoal once
tion of the hammer, nor the approximation of the par- difperfed by heat into inflammable air cannot be de-
ticles to each other, that is the caufe of heat,; but the compofed merely by heat, becaufe its tendency is alv/ays
flux of elementary fire direfted from the iron every to abforb this element: But if into a jar full of in-
where from within outwards. flammable air we introduce a quantity of calx of lead,
15. Thus we may now at once explain the aftion of and then heat it, the preffure of the fluid is interrupt-
combuftion ; to do which, we fhall take the example ed in that part where the calx is, and prefently be-
of a mixture of inflammable and dephlogifticated air comes reverfed by means of the additional heat there,
already mentioned. When thefe are mixed together, which, at the fame time that it furniftiesno more char-
there is a conftant preffure of the elementary fluid in- coal, affords a fubftance with which the charcoal in
wards from all quarters into the aerial vapours, by the inflammable air may unite. The air is therefore
which their elafticity and form as airs are preferved; decompofed, though too flowly to produce aftual
and this preffure will continue as long as we let them flame. For combuftion, therefore, it is neceflary that
remain undiftuibed. But when a burning body is the following circumftances ftiould concur: 1. The
brought into contaft with them, the influx of the ele- mixture of two vapours containing a great quantity of
mentary fire is not only prevented but reverfed in that fpecific fire each. 2. That the terreftrial bafes of
part which comes in contaft with the burning body, thefe vapours (hould be capable of afting upon one
Thus the whole conftitutioH of both inflammable and another; but no third fubftance capable of immedi-
dephlogifticated airs is deftroyed in a moment; for the ately abforbing the fire ftiould be prefent. 3. The
fubtle fluid, feeling (if we may ufe the exprefiion) that prefence of aftual fire in fome part, to lefien the pref-
the preffure is leffened in. one place, inftantly direfts its fure of the elementary fluid, fet it in motion, and re¬
whole force thither ; and the preflure inwards being verfe it. This is the cafe when inflammable and de¬
phlogifticated
COM [ i(
CotnHu- phlogifticated airs are mixed together. Both thefe
^lon contain fpecific fire in great quantity. The bafis of
Comedy. t^lc one> known to be charcoal, is capable of being
mm—y—mlj united by means of heat to the bafis of dephlogifti-
cated air, and of forming with it in fome cafes fixed
air, in others water, or fome other fubftance, according
to their various proportions; and after this union is
formed, there is no third fubftance by which the ele¬
mentary fire may be abforbed. The inflamed body by
which they are let on fire firft leffens the inward pref-
fure of the elementary fire on one part, by which the
bafes are allowed to approach nearer each other, and
to form a chemical union according to the general ob-
fervation : But this union cannot be effefted without
the emiftion of part of the elementary fire, which be¬
ing contained in the mixture in great quantity, pro¬
duces a bright flame. This lelTens the preflure ftill
more ; a new chemical union and a new flame are pro¬
duced ; and fo on as long as any of the materials re¬
main.
When all thefe circumftances concur, it is not a
property peculiar to dephlogifticated air to fupport
flame, though it feems to be fo to preferve animal life.
It is well known that pyrophorus will burn in com¬
mon nitrous air, and a candle will burn with an en¬
larged flame in that kind called dephlogijlicated nitrous
alri But where any of the concurrent circumftances
above mentioned is wanting, nocombuftion will be pro¬
duced. Thus, though the fteam of water contains a
vaft quantity of fpecific fire, and though it is decom-
pofed by palling over red-hot iron, yet no combuftion
is produced ; becaufe, in the very moment of extrica¬
tion, the elementary fire finds a quantity of phlogifton
either in the iron, the water itlelf, or both, with which
it combines, and forms inflammable air, but without
any flame.
With regard to the fiibftances which have the pro¬
perty of taking fire fpontaneoufly, as Phosphorus
and Pyrophorus, fee thefe articles.
COMEDY, a fort of dramatic poetry, which gives
a view of common and private life, recommends vir¬
tue, and correfts the vices and follies of mankind'by
means of ridicule. See the article Poetry.
This laft kind alone was received among the Ro¬
mans, who neverthelefs. made a new fubdivifion of it
into ancient, middle, and new, according to the vari¬
ous periods of the commonwealth. Among the anci¬
ent comedies were reckoned thofe of Luvius Androni-
cus ; among the middle thofe of Pacuvius ; and among
the new ones, thofe of Terence. They likewife di-
ftinguilhed comedy according to the quality of the
perfons reprefented, and the drefs they wore, into
togatae, prastextatas, trabeatae, and tabernarias, which
kft agrees pretty nearly with our farces. Among us,
comedy is diftinguiflied from farce, as the former re-
prefents nature as fhe is; the other diftorts and over¬
charges her. They both paint from the life,, but with
different views: the one to make nature known, the
other to make her ridiculous.
COMENIUS (John Amos), a grammarian and
Proteftant divine, born in Moravia in 1592. He was
eminent for his defign to introduce a new method
of teaching languages ; for which purpofe he publilh-
ed fome effays in 1616, and had prepared fome others,
when the Spaniards pillaged his library, after having
)I 3 CO M
taken the city of Fulnec, where he was minifter and Comet
matter of the fchool. Comenius fled to Lefna, a city H.
of Poland, and taught Latin there. The book he pu- . on^ines' i
blifhed in 1631, under the title of Janua Linguarwn
referata, gained him a prodigious reputation, infomuch
that he was offered a commiffion for regulating all the
fchools in Poland. The parliament of England defi-
red his afiiftance to regulate the fchools in that king¬
dom. He arrived at London in 1641 ; and would
have been received by a committee to hear his plan
had not the parliament been taken up with other mat¬
ters. He therefore went to Sweden, being invited
by a generous patron, who fettled a ftipend upon him
that delivered him from the fatigues of teaching ; and
now he employed himfelf wholly in difcovering ge¬
neral method's for thofe who inftrufted youth. In
1657 he publifhed the different parts of his new me¬
thod of teaching. He was not only taken up with the
reformation of fchools; but he alfo filled his brain with
prophecies, the fall of Antichrift, Millennium, See. At
laft Comenius took it into his head to addrefs Louis
XIV. of France, and to fend him a copy of the pro¬
phecies of Drabiciiis; infinuating that it was to this
monarch God promifed the empire of the world. He
became fenfible at laft of the vanity of his labours,
and died in 1671.
COMET, an opaque, fphcrical, and folid body like
a planet, performing revolutions about the fun in ellip¬
tical orbits, which have the fun in one of their foci.
There is a popular divifion of comets into tailed,
bearded, and hairy comets : though this divifion rather
relates to the different circumftances of the fame co¬
met, than to the phenomena of feveral. Thus when
the light is weftward of the fun, and fets after it, tire
comet is faid to be tailed, becaufe the train follows it
in the manner of a tail: when the comet is eaftward
of the fun, and moves from it, the comet is faid to be
bearded, becaufe the light marches before it in the
manner of a beard. Laftly, when the comet and the
fun are diametrically oppofite (the earth between
them), the train is hid behind the body of the comet,
except a little that appears round it in form of a bor¬
der of hair and from this laft appearance the word
comet is derived ; as cometa, comes from
coma, hair. But there have been comets whofe difk
was as clear, as round, and as well defined, as that of
Jupiter, without either tail, beard, or coma. See A~
stronomy-/kJ«.
COME FARIUM, a curious machine, exhibiting
an idea of the revolution of a comet about the fun.
See AsTRONOMY-jWbc.
COME FEAN, a town of Bohemia in the circle of
Saltz, with a handfome town-houfe. It was taken by
ftorm in 1421, and all the inhabitants, men, women,
and children, put to the fword. It is feated in a fer¬
tile plain, in E. Long. 13. 25. N. Lat. 50. 30.
COME FES, in botany : A genus of the monogy-
ma order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants.
The involucrum is tetraphyllous and triflorous ;• the
calyx tetraphyllous; the capfule tncoccous.
COMFREY. See Symphytum.
COMINES (Philip de), an excellent hiftorian,
born of a noble family in Flanders in 1446. He lived
in a kind of intimacy with Charles the Bold, du.^e of
Burgundy, for about eight years; but being feduced.
to-
G O M f 192 ] C Q. M
i to the court of France hy L.nus XI. he was highly The power of calling thefe alTeinblies'belonged at Comitw.
promoted by him, and executed feveral fuccefsful ne- fitft only to the kings; but upon the eftabliflinvent 0fl-—‘1
gociations. After this king’s death he experienced the democracy, the fame privilege was allowed to molt
many troubles on account of being a foreigner, by the of the chief magiftrates, and fometimes to the pon.
envy of other courtiers, and lay long in prifon before tifices.
he was difcharged ; be died in 1509. Comines was The perfons who had the liberty of voting here
a man of more natural abilities than learning ; he were fuch Roman citizens as belonged to the cutise 5
fpoke feveral living, but knew nothing of the dead or fuch as actually lived in the city, and conformed
languages; he has left behind him fame memoirs of to the cuftoms and rites of their proper curiae ; all
his own times, that are admired by all true judges of thofe being excluded who dwelt without the bounds
hiftory. Catherine de Medicis ufed to fay, that Co- of the city, retaining the ceremonies of their own
mines made as many heretics in politics as Luther had country, though they had been honoured with the
in religion. chitath, or admitted free citizens of Rome. The
Co mines, a' town of French Flanders on the lines place where the curite met was the cmitium, a part of
which the French have made to defend their country the forum : No fet time was appointed for the hold-
againft the Auftrian Netherlands. It is fituated on ing thefe, or a-y other of the comitia, but only as
the river Lis, in E. Long. 3. 1. N. Lat. 50. 30. bufinefs required.
COMITATUS, in law, a county. Ingulphus tells The-people being met together, and confirmed by
us, that England was firft divided into counties by the report of good omens from the augurs (which was
king Alfred ; and the counties into hundreds, and neceffary in all the affemblies), the rogatio, or bufinefs
thefe again into tythings : and Fortefcne writes, that to be propofed to them, w as publicly read. After
regnum Anglia per comitatus, ut regnum Franciaper batt- this (if none of the magiftrates interpofed), upon
■vatus dijllngvitur. Sometimes it is taken for a territory the order of him that prefided in the comitia, the
of jurifdi&ion of a particular place ; as in Mat. Paris, people divided into their proper curias, and confulted
anno 11234. See County. of the matter ; and then the curias being called out,
COMITIA, in Roman antiquity, were general af- as it happened by lot, gave their votes man by man,
femblies of the people, lawfully called by fome ma- in ancient times viva voce, and afterwards by tablets;
giftrate fot the enjomment or prohibition of any thing the molt votes in every curia going for the voice of the
,by their votes. whole curia, and the molt curiae for the general con-
The proper comitia were of three forts; curiata, ^nt tire people.
ccntunata, and trlbuta; with reference to the three In the time of Cicero, the comitia curiata were fo
grand divifions of the city and people into «#*/>, cen- much out of falhion, that they were formed only by
turla, and tribes : For, by comitia calata, which we 3° l'&ar8 reprefenting the 30 curia 5 whence, in his
fometimes meet with in authors, in elder times were fecond oration again!! Rullus, he calls them comitia
meant all the comitia in general; the word calata adumbraia.
from y-xhia, or calo, being their common epithet; though The comitia centuriata were inftituted by Servius
it was at laft reilrained to two forts of aflemblies, thofe Tullius: who, obliging every one to give a true ac-
for the creation of priefts, and thofe for the regulation count of what he was worth, according to thofe ac-
of laft wills and teftaments. • counts, divided the people into fix ranks or clafies.
The condtia curiata owe their .origin to the divifion which he fubdivided into 193 centuries. The firft
which Romulus made of the people into 30 curise ; claffis, containing the equites and richeft citizens,
ten being contained in every tribe. They anfwered conlifted of 98 centuries. The fecond, taking in the
in molt refpefts to the parilhes in our cities, being not tradefmen and mechanics, confifted of 22 centuries,
only feparated by proper bounds and limits, but di- The third, zo. The fourth, 22. The fifth, 30.
ftinguifhed too by their different places fet apart for The fixth, filled up with the poorer fort, but one
the celebration of divine fervice, which was performed century : and this, though it had the fame name with
by particular priefts (one to every curia), with the the reft, yet was feldom regarded, or allowed any
name of cur tones. power in public matters. Hence it. is a common thing
Before the inftitution of the comitia centuriata, all with the Roman authors, when they fpeak of the claffes,
the grand concerns of the ftatc were tranfafted in the to reckon^ no more than five, the fixth not being
■aflembly .of the curiae ; as the election of kings and worth their notice. This laft claffis or order was di-
other < ’ ’ “ “ ’ ’ ’
laws, i
pulfion of the kings,
the privilege to have tribunes and rediles, they elected they could, fupply it with fo little money ; and the
them for fome time at thefe affemblies; but that ce- latter, who paid the lowelt tax of all, were rather
remony being at length tramferred to the coraitia tri- counted and inarfhalled by their heads than by their
buta, the curite were never convened to give their eftates.
votes, except now and then upon account of making Perfonsof the firft rank, by reafon of their pre-emi-
fome particular law relating to adoptions, wills, and nonce, had the name oi tL’Jfici; whence came the name
teftaments, or the creation of officers for an expedi- of clajfici authores for the molt approved writers. AH
tion ; or for electing fome of the priefts, as.the flam;- others, of what claffis foever, were faid to be infra
ties, and the curio maxioms, or fuperintendant of the dajfcm. The aflembly of the people by centuries was
curicmes, who were thcmfelves chofen by every parti- held for the eleftin^ of confuls, cenfors, and praetors ;
cular curia. * as alfo for the judging of perfons.accufed of what they
NJ 8$. called
COM [ 193 ] CO M
Comitia. called crimsn penluellionis, or aclions by which the party
-—v  had (bowed himfelf an enemy to the (late, and for the
confirmation of all fuch laws as were propofed by the
chief magiftrates, who had the privilege of calling thefe
aflemblies.
The place appointed for their meeting was the cam¬
pus martius; becaufe in the primitive times of the com¬
monwealth, when they were under continual appre-
henfions of enemies, the people, to prevent any hid¬
den affault, went armed, in martial order, to hold thefe
affemblies; and were for that reafon forbidden by the laws
to meet in the city, becaufe an army was upon no ac¬
count to be marfhalled within the walls : yet, in latter
ages, it was thought fufficient to place a body of fol-
diers as a guard in the janiculum, where an imperial
ftandard was erefled; the taking down of which deno¬
ted the conclufion of the comitia.
Though the time of holding thefe comitia for other
matters was undetermined ; yet the magiftrates, after
the year of the city 601, when they began to enter on
their place, on the kalends of January, were conftantly
dejigned about the end of July and the beginning of
Auguft.
All the time between their ele&ioft and confirmation
they, continued as private perfons, that inquifition
might be .made into the eleftion, and the other candi¬
dates might have time to enter obje&ions, if they met
with any fufpicion of foul dealing. Yet, at the election
of the cenfors, this cuftom did not hold ; but as Toon
as they-were elefted, they were immediately invefted
with the honour.
By the inftitution of thefe comitiaj Servius Tullius
fecretly conveyed the whole of the power from the
commons: for the centuries of the firft and richeft
clafs being called out firft, who were three more in
number than all the reft put together, if they all agreed,
as generally they did, the bufinefs was already deci¬
ded, and the other clafies were needlefs and infignifi-
cant. However, the three laft fcarce ever came to
vote.
The commons, in the time of the free ftate, to re¬
medy this difadvantage, obtained, that before they
proceeded to voting any matter at thefe comitia, that
century (hould give their fuffrages firft upon whom it
fell by lot, with the name of centuria prerogatives; the
1 reft being to follow according to the order of their
claffes. After the conftitution of the 35 tribes into
which the claffes and their centuries were divided, in
the firft place, the tribes caft lots which (hould be the
prerogative tribe; and then the centuries of the tribes
for the honour of being a prerogative century. All
the other tribes and centuries had the appellation of
jure vacate, becaufe they were called out according to
ftheir proper places.
The prerogative century being chofen by lot, the
chief magiftrate, fitting in a tent in the middle of the
campus martius, ordered that century to come out and
■give their voices ; upon which they prefently feparated
from the reft of the multitude, and came into an inclo-
fed apartment, which they termed fepta, or ovilia, paf-
' fing over the pontes or narrow boards laid there for the
occafion ; on which account, de ponte dejici fignifies to
i>e denied the privilege of voting, and perfons thus dealt
with are called depontani.
At the hither epd of the pontes flood the dirilitores
Vol. V. Fait I.
(a fort of under officers fo called from their marlhal- Comitia.
ling the people), and delivered to every man, in the  
elettion of magiftrates, as many tables as there ap¬
peared candidates, one of whofe names was written
upon every tablet. A proper number of great chefts
were fet ready in the fepta, and every body.threw in
which tablet he pleafed.
By the chefts were placed fome of the public fer-
vants, who taking out the tablets of every century,
for every tablet, made a prick or a point in another
tablet which they kept by them. Thus, the bufinefs
being decided by molt points, gave .occafion to the
phrafe omne tulit punctum, and the like.
The fame method was obferved in the judiciary pro-
cefs at thefe comitia, and in the confirmation of laws ;
except that, in both thefe cafes, only two tablets were
offered to every perfon ; on one of which was written
U. R. and on the other A, in capital letters: the two
firft Handing for uti rogas, “ be it as you defire,” rela¬
ting to the magiftrate who propofed the queftion; and
the laft for anti quo, or “ I forbid it.”
It is remarkable, that though in the eledtion of
magiftrates, and in the ratification of laws, the votes
of that century, whofe tablets were equally divided,
fignified nothing; yet in trials of life and death, if the
tablets pro and con were the fame in number, the per¬
fon was adlually acquitted.
The divifion of people into tribes was an invention
of Romulus, after he had admitted the Sabines into
Rome ; and though he conftituted at that time only
three, yet as the ftate increafed in power, and the
city in number of inhabitants, they rofe by degrees to
35. For a long time after this inftitution, a tribe fig¬
nified no more than fuch a fpace of ground with its in¬
habitants. But at laft the matter was quite altered,
and a tribe was no longeron- urbis, but pars civitatis ; not
a quarter of the city, but a company of citizens living
where they pleafed. This change was chiefly occa-
fioned by the original difference between the tribes in
point of honour. For Romulus having committed all
fordid and mechanic arts to the care 'of ftrangers,
(laves, and libertines ; and referved the more honed
labour of agriculture to the freemen and citizens, who
by this adlive courfe of life might be prepared for
martial fervice ; the tribus rujiica were for this rea¬
fon efteemed more honourable than the tribus urlantc.
And now all perfons being delirous of getting into the
more creditable divifion ; and there being feveral ways
of accompliffing their wifhes, as by adoption, by the
power of cenfors, or the like ; that ruftic tribe which
had the moft worthy names in its roll, had the prefe¬
rence to all others, though of the fame general de¬
nomination. Hence all of the fame great family,
bringing themfelves by degrees into the fame tribe,
gave the name of their family £0 the tribe they ho¬
noured ; whereas at firft the generality of the tribes
did not borrow their names from perfons but from
places.
The firft affembly of the tribes we meet with is
about the year of Rome 263, convened by Sp. Sici-
mus, tribune of the commons, upon account of the trial
of Coriolanus. Soon after, the tribunes of the com¬
mons were ordered to be eledled here; and at laft,
all the inferior magiftrates, and the collegiate priefts.
The fame comitia ferved for the enadting of laws re-
B b latinsr
Comitialis lating to war and peace, and all others propofed by
II the tribunes and plebeian officers, though they had not
, Connna. pr0perjy tbe name of leges, but plebifcita. They were
generally convened by the tribunes of the commons;
but the fame privilege was allowed to all the chief
magiftrates. They were confined to no place ; and
therefore fometimes we find them held in the comitium;
fometimes in the campus martius, and now and then
in the capitol. The proceedings were in moft refpe&s
anfwerable to thofe already defcribed in the account
of the other comitia, and therefore need not be infill¬
ed on. Only we may farther obferve of the comitia
in general, that when any candidate was found to have
moft tablets for a magiftracy, he was declared to be
dejtgned or elefted by the prefident of the affembly;
and this they termed" renunciari conful, preetor, or the
like ; and that the laft fort of the comitia only could
be held without the confent and approbation of the
fenate, which was neceffary to the convening of the
other two.
COMITIALIS morbus, an appellation given to
the Epilepsy, by reafon the comitia of ancient Rome
were diffolved if any perfon in the affembly happened
to be taken with this diftemper.
COMITIUM, in Roman antiquity, a large hall in
the forum, where the Comitia were ordinarily held.
COMMA, among grammarians, a point or charac¬
ter marked thus ( , ), ferving to denote a fliort flop,
and to divide the members of a period. Different au¬
thors define and ufe it differently. According to F.
Buffier, the comma ferves to diftinguilh the members
of a period, in each of which is a verb and the nomi¬
native cafe of the verb : thus, “ That fo many people
are pleafed with trifles, is owing to a weaknefs of
mind, which makes them love- things eafy to be com¬
prehended.” Befides this, the comma is ufed to diftin-
guifti, in the fame member of a period, feveral nouns-
fubftantive, or nouns-adjective, or verbs not united by
a conjunction: thus, “ Virtue, wit, knowledge, are
the chief advantages of a man or, “ A man never
becomes learned without ftudying conftantly, methodi¬
cally, with a guft, application, &c.” If thofe words
are united in the fame phrafe with a conjunction, the
comma ip omittedthus, “ the imagination’ and the
judgment do not always agree.”
The ingenious author of the trad De ratione inter-
pungendi, printed with Voffius’s Element. Rhetor.
Lond. 1724, lays-down the ufe of a comma to be, to
diftinguifh the Ample members of a period or fentence;
i. e. fuch as only confift of one fubjed, and one defi¬
nite verb. But this rule does not go throughout; the
fame author inftancing many particular cafes not yet
included herein, where yet the comma is advifable..
See Punctuation.
It is a general rule that a comma ought not to come
between a nominative and a verb, or an adjedive and
fubftantive, when thefe are not otherwife disjoined:
thus, in the fentence, God ruleth with infinite ivifdom, a
comma between God and ruleth, or between infinite and
rwifdom, would be abfurd. But to this exceptions may
occur; as when not a fingle word, but a fentence,
happens-to be the nominative : thus, in the example
jir ft above given, where the fentence that fo many people
are pleafed with trifles, forms the nominative to the
verb is, 'a comma at trifles is proper, both for the fake
of perfpicuity, and a
paufe.
coinciding with a flight natural Commam-
dinug
Comma, in mufic. See Interval. r
COMMANDINUS (Frederic), born at Urbino in
Italy, and defcended from a very noble family, in the —
16th century. To a vaft flcill in the mathematics, he
had added a greaNknowledge in the Greek tongue,
by which he was well qualified to tranflate the Greek
mathematicians into Latin : accordingly he tranflated
and publiflied feveral, which no writer till then had at¬
tempted ; as Archimedes, Apollonius, Euclid, &c..
COMMANDRY, a kind of benefice or fixed.reve¬
nue belonging to a military order, and conferred on
ancient knights who had done confiderable fervices to-
the order.
There are ftricft or regular commandries, obtained in
order, and by merit; there are others of grace and
favour, conferred at the pleafure of the grand mafter
there are alfo commandries for the religious, in the or¬
ders of St Bernard and St Anthony. The kings of
France have converted feveral of the hofpitals for lepers
into commandries of the order of St Lazarus.
The commandries of Malta are of different kinds;
for as the order confifts of Ic^ights, chaplains, and bro-
thers-fervitors, there are peculiar commandries or re¬
venues attached to each. The knight to whom one
of thefe benefices or commandries is given is called
commander: which agrees pretty nearly with the.
praepofitus fet over the monks in places at a diftance
from the monaftery, vvhofe adminiftration was called
obedicntia; becaufe depending entirely upon the abbot
who gave him his commiffion. Thus it is with the
fimple commanders of Malta, who are rather farmers
of the order than beneficiaries; paying a certain tribute
or rent, called refponfto, to the common treafure of the
order.
COMMELINA, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 6th order, Erf at a. The corolla is hexapeta*
lous; there are three nedlaria, of a cruciform figure,,
and inferted into their proper filaments. There are
ten fpecies, all of them natives of warm climates.
They are herbaceous plants, rifing from two to four
feet high, and adorned with blue or yellow flowers..
Their culture differs in. nothing from that of the com¬
mon exotics.
COMMEMORATION, in a general fenfe, the re¬
membrance of any perfon or thing,, or the doing any
thing to the honour of a perfon’s memory, or in re¬
membrance of any paft event. Thus, the eucharift Is a
commemoration of the fufferings of Jefus Chrift.
COMMEND AM, in the ecclefiaitical law, the truft
or adminiftration of the revenues of a benefice, given
either to a layman, to hold by way of depofitum for
fix months, in order to repairs, &c. or to an ecclefia-
ftic or beneficed perfon, to perform the paftoral duties,
thereof, till once the benefice is provided with a regu¬
lar incumbent.
Anciently the adminiftration of vacant biflioprics
belonged to the neareft neighbouring bifhop ; which is
ftill pradlifed between the archbifliopric of Lyons and
the bilhopric of Autun : on this account they were
called commendatory bifhops.
This cuftom appears to be very ancient. S. Atha-
nafius
3
COM [ i
CsmincB- Haftus fays of himfdf, according to Nigephorus, that
Commcn t^ere t)een given him in commendam, i. e. in admi-
datus. * niftration, another church befides that of Alexandria
w—-y—— whereof he was Hated bilhop.
The care of churches, it feems, which had no pa¬
llor, was committed to a bilhop, till they were provi¬
ded of an ordinary: the regifter of Pope Gregory I.
is full of thefe commiffions, or commendams, granted
during the abfence or ficknefs of a bifliop, or the va¬
cancy of the fee.
Some fay, that Pope Leo IV. firft fet the modern
commendams on foot, in favour ofecclefiaftics who had
been expelled their benefices by the Saracens; to
whom the adminiftration of the vacant churches was
committed for a time, in expectation of their being re-
ftored: though S. Gregory is faid to have ufed the
fame, while, the Lombards defolated Italy.
In a little time the practice of commendams was ex¬
ceedingly abufed; and the revenues of monafteries
given to laymen for their fubfiftence. The bilhops alfo
procured feveral benefices, or even bilhoprics, in com-
rnendam, which ferved as a pretext for holding, them all
without directly violating the canons. Part of the
' abufe has been retrenched; but the ufe of commendams
is Hill retained as an expedient to take off the incom¬
patibility of the perfonby the nature of the benefice.
When a parfon is made bifhop, his parfonage be¬
comes vacant; but if the king give him power, he may
It ill hold it in commendam.
COMMENDATUS, one who lives under the pro¬
tection of a great man. Commendati homines, were
perfons who, by voluntary homage, put themfelves
under the protection of any fuperior lord ; for ancient
homage was either predial, due for fome tenure; or
psrjonal, which was by compullion, as a figu of necef-
COMM
IS an operation by which the wealth, or work, either
of individuals or of focieties, may be exchanged
by a fet of men called merchants, for an equivalent, pro¬
per for fupplying every want, without any interruption
to induftry, or any check upon confumption.
Chap. I. History ^Commerce,
jj) I. General Hiflory.
It is a point as yet undecided by the learned, to
■what nation the invention and firlt ufe of commerce
belonged; fome attribute it to one people, fome to
another, for reafons that are too long to be difcuffed
here. But it feems molt probable that the inhabitants
of Arabia were thofe that firft made long voyages.
It mult be allowed, that no country was fo happily
feated for this'purpofe as that which they inhabited,
being a peninfula waihed on three fides by three fa¬
mous feas, the Arabian, Indian, and Perfian. It is
ulfo certain, that it was very early inhabited ; and the
firft notice we have of any confiderable trade refers
it to the Iftimaelites, who were fettled in the hither
part of Aiabia. To them Jofeph was fold by his
brethren, when they were going down with their ca-
95 ] COM
fary fubje&ion ; or voluntary, with a defire of protec- Commen-
tion ; and thofe who, by voluntary homage, put them- furjjbl°
felves under the prote&ion of any man of power, were Commea*
fometimes called homines ejus commendati, as often oc- tar)-,
curs in Dqomfday. Commendati dimidii were thofe who
depended on two feveral lords, and paid one-half of
their homage to each; and fub-commendati were like
under-tenants under the command of perfons that were
themfelves under the command of fome fuperior lord ;
' alfo there were dimidiifub-commendati, who bore a double
relation to fuch depending lords. This phrafe feems
to be ftill in ufe in the ufual compliment “ Comend me
to fuch a friend,” &c. which is to let him know, “ I
am his humble fervant.”
COMMENSURABLE, among geometricians, an
appellation given to fuch quantities as are menfured by
one and the fame common meafure.
Commensvrable Numbers, whether integers or frac¬
tions, are fuch as can be meafured or divided by fome
other number without any remainder: fuch are 12 and
18, as being meafured by 6 and 3.,
Commensurable in Power, is faid.of right lines, when
their iquares are meafured by one and the fame fpace
or fuperficies.
Commensurable Surds, thofe that being reduced to
. their leaft terms, become true figurative quantities of
their kind ; and are therefore as a rational quantity to
a rational one.
COMMENTARY, or Comment, in matters of li¬
terature, an illuftration of the difficult or obfeure paf-
fages of an author.
Commentary, or Commentaries, likewife denotes a
kind of hiftory, or memoirs of certain tranfadlions,
wherein the author had a confiderable hand : fuch are
the Commentaries of Caefar.
E R C E
mels to Egypt with fpicery, balm, and myrrh. It
may feem itrange to infer from hence, that commerce
was already prattifed by this nation, lince mention is
here made of camels, or a caravan, which certainly
implies an inland trade ; and it mull be likewife al¬
lowed, that balm and myrrh were the commodities of
their country. But whence had they the fpicery? Or
how came Arabia to be fo famous in ancient times for
fpices ? Or whence proceeded that miftake of many
great authors of antiquity, that fpices actually grew
there ? " Molt certainly, becaufe thefe people dealt in
them; and that they dealt in them the firft of any
nation that we know of, appears from this very in-
ftance. Strabo and many other good authors afture
us, that in fucceeding times they were very great
traders; they tell us particularly what ports they had ;
what prodigious magazines they, kept of the richeft
kinds of goods, what wonderful wealth they obtained;
in what prodigious magnificence they lived, and into
what exceffes they fell in refpeft to their expences for
carving, building, and ftatues. All this ftiows that
they were very great traders: and it alfo Ihows, that
they traded to the Eaft. Indies; for from thence only
they could have their fpices, their rich gums, their
fweet-feented woods, and theii ivory, all which it is
B b 2 exprefsly
COMM
exprefsly faid that they had in the greateft abundance.
This therefore proves, that they had an extenfive and
flourifhing commerce ; and that they had it earlier
than any other nation, feems evident from their deal¬
ing at that time in fpices. Befides, there is much lefs
difficulty in fuppofing that they firft difcovered the
route to the Indies, than if we afcribe that diicovery
to any other nation : for in the firft place they lay
neareft, and in the next they lay moll conveniently ;
to which we may add, thirdly, that as the fituation
of their country naturally inclined them to navigation,
fo by the help of the monfoons they might make regu¬
lar voyages to and from the Indies with great facility;
nor is it at all unlikely that this difcovery might be at
firft owing to chance, and to fome of their veffels be¬
ing blown by a ftrong gale to the oppofite coaft, from
•whence they might take the courage to return, by ob-
ferving the regularity of the winds at certain feafons.
All thefe reafons taken together feem to favour this
opinion, that commerce flourilhed firft among them ;
and as to' its confequences in making them rich and
happy, there is no difpute about them.
We find in the records of antiquity no nation cele¬
brated more early for carrying all arts to perfection
than the inhabitants of Egypt; and it is certain alfo,
that no art was there cultivated more early, with
more affiduity, or with greater fuccefs, than trade.
It appears from the foregoing inftance, that the richeft
commodities were carried there by land ; and it is no
lefs certain, that the moil valuable manufactures were
invented and brought to perfection there many ages
before they were thought of in other countries : for,
as the learned Dr Warburton very juftly obferves, at
the time that Jofeph came into Egypt, the people
were not only poffefled of all the conveniences of
life, but were remarkable alfo for their magnificence,
their ptftrtenefs, and even for their luxury ; which ar¬
gues, that traffic had been of long ftanding amongft
them. -To fay the truth, the great advantages deri¬
ved from their country’s lying along the Red Sea, and
the many benefits that accrued to them from the Nile,
which they very emphatically called The River, or The
River of Egypt, and of which they knew how to make
all the ufes that can be imagined, gave them an op¬
portunity of carrying their inland trade not only to a
greater height than in any country at that time, but
even higher than it has been carried any where, Chi¬
na only excepted; and fome people have thought it
no trivial argument to prove the defcent of the Chi-
nefe from the Egyptians, that they have exaCtly the
fame fort of genius, and with wonderful induftry and
care have drawn fo many cuts and canals, that their
country is almoft in every part of it navigable. It
was by fuch methods, by a wife and well-regulated
government, and by promoting a fpirit of induftry
amongft the people, that the ancient Egyptians be¬
came fo numerous, fo rich, fo powerful; and that
their country, for large cities, magnificent ftrudtures,
and perpetual abundance, became the glory and won¬
der of the old world.
The Phoenicians, though they pofieffed only a nar¬
row flip of the coaft of Alia, and were furrounded by
nations fo pov/erful and fo warlike that they were
never able to extend themfelves on that fide, became
famous, by erecting the firft naval power'that makes
E r c E.
any figure in hiftory, and for the railing of which they'
took the molt prudent and effectual meafurcs. In or¬
der to this, they not only availed themfelves of all the
creeks, harbours, and ports, which nature had bellow¬
ed very liberally on their narrow territory, but im¬
proved them in fuch a manner, that they were no lefs
remarkable for their ftrength than confiderable for
their conveniency; and fo attentive they were to
whatever might contribute to the increafe of their
power, that they were not more admired for the vaft
advantages they derived from their commerce, than
they were formidable by their fleets and armies.
They were likewife celebrated by antiquity as the in¬
ventors of arithmetic and aftronomy ; and in the lull
mentioned fcience they mull have been very confider¬
able proficients, fince they had the courage to under¬
take long voyages at a time when no other nation
(the Arabians and Egyptians excepted) durft venture
farther than their own coafts. By thefe arts Tyre
and Sidon became the moll famous marts in the uni-
verfe, and were reforted to by all their neighbours,
and even by people at a confiderable diftance, as the
great ftorehoufes of the world. We learn from the
Scriptures how advantageous their friendlhip and al¬
liance became to the two great kings of Ifrael, David
and Solomon; and we fee, by the application of the
latter for architedls and artills to Hiram king of Tyre,
to what a prodigious height they had carried manu¬
factures of every kind.
It is very certain that Solomon made ufe of their
affiftance in equipping his fleets at Elath and Ezionge-
ber ; and it is very probable that they put him upon
acquiring thofe ports, and gave him the firft hints of
the amazing advantages that might be derived from
the pofleffion of them, and from the commerce he
might from thence be able to carry on. Thefe ports
were moll commodioufly fituated on the Arabian
gulph ; and from thence his velfels, manned chiefly by
Phoenicians, failed to Ophir and Tharfis, where-evtr
thofe places were. Some writers will needs have
them to be Mexico and Peru, which is certainly a
wild and extravagant fuppolition ; others believe that
we are to look for Ophir on the coaft of Africa,
and Tharfis in Spain ; but the molt probable opinion
is, that they' were both feated in the Eaft Indies.
By this’ adventurous navigation he brought into his
country curiofities not only unfeen, but unheard of be¬
fore, and riches in fuch abundance, that; as the Scrip¬
ture finely exprefles it, “ He made filver in Jerufalem
as Hones, and cedar-trees as fycamores that grow in the
plains.” The metaphor is very bold and emphatical;
, but when we confider that it is recorded in this Hi¬
ftory, that the return of one voyage only to Ophir
produced 450 talents of gold, which makes 51,328
pounds of our Troy weight, we cannot doubt of the
immenfe profit that accrued from this commerce. It
is alfo obfervable that the queen of Sheba, or Saba,
which lies in that part of Arabia before mentioned,
furprifed at the reports that were fpread of the mag¬
nificence of this prince, made a journey to his court
on purpofe to fatisfy herfelf, whether fame had not
exaggerated the fadl; and from the prefents fhe made
him of 1 20 talents of gold, of fpices in great abun¬
dance, and precious ftones, we may difeern the true
reafon of her curiofity, which proceeded from an opi-
!97
C O M M
nion that no country could be fo rich as her own.
And there is another circumftance very remarkable,
and which feems ftrongly to fortify what we have ad¬
vanced in the beginning of this fe&ion; it is added,
“ neither were there any fuch fpices as the queen of
Sheba gave to king Solomon which feems to inti¬
mate, that the Arabians had penetrated farther into
the Indies than even the fleets of this famous prince,
and brought from thence other fpices (perhaps nut¬
megs and cloves)- than had ever been feen before. It
was by his wifdom, and by his fteady application to
the arts of peace, all of which mutually fupport each
other, as they are all driven on by the wheel of com¬
merce, which fupplies every want, and converts every
fuperfluity into merchandife, that this monarch railed
his fubjeits to a condition much fuperior to that of
any of their neighbours, and rendered the land of If-
rael, while he governed it, the glory and wonder of
the Eaft. He made great acquifitions without making,
wars; and his fucceffor, by making wars, loft thole
acquifitions. It was his policy to keep all his people
employed ; and, by employing them, he provided e-
qually for the extenfion of their happinefs, and his
own power: but the following kings purfued other
meafures, and other confequences attended them.
The trade of Judea funk almoft as fuddenly as it role,
and in procefs of time they loft thole ports on the
Red Sea, upon which their Indian commerce depend¬
ed.
The whole trade of the univerfe became then, as
it were, the patrimony of the Phoenicians and the
Egyptians. The latter monopolized that of the In¬
dies, and, together with her corn and manufactures,
brought fuch a prodigious balance of wealth continu¬
ally into the country, as enabled the ancient monarchs
of Egypt to compafs all thofe memorable works that
in fpite of time and barbarous conquerors remain the
monuments of their wifdom and power, and are like
to remain fo as long as the world fubfifts. The Phoe¬
nicians drew from Egypt a great part of thofe rich
commodities and valuable manufactures which they
exported into all the countries between their own
and the Mediterranean fea ; they drew likewife a
vaft refort to their own cities, even from countries at
a great diftance ; and we need only look into the
prophets Ifaiah and Ezekiel in order to be convinced
that thefe governments, founded on trade, were infi¬
nitely more glorious and more liable than thofe that
were ere&ed by force. All this we find likewife con¬
firmed by profane hiftories ; and by comparing thefe,
it is evident, that the induftry of the inhabitants of
this fmall country triumphed over all obftacles, procu¬
red the greateft plenty in a barren foil, and immenfe
riches, where, without induftry, there mull have been
the greateft indigence. It is true, that old Tyre was
deftroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, but not till Ihe had
flourilhed for ages; and even then Ihe fell with dig¬
nity, and after a refiftance that ruined the army of
the Great Conqueror of Afia. Out of the alhes of
this proud city the great fpirit of its inhabitants pro¬
duced a Phcenix, little, if at all, inferior in beauty to
its parent. New Tyre was fituated on an ifland ; and
though her bounds were very narrow, yet Ihe became
quickly the miftrefs of the fea, and held that fupreme
dominion till fubdued by Alexander the Great, whom
E R C E.
no power could refill. The ftruggle Ihe made, how¬
ever, though unfuccefsful, was great, and very much
to the honour of her inhabitants : it mull be owned,
that the Greek hero found it more difficult to mailer
this fingle place, than to,overcome the whole power of
Perfia.
The views of the Macedonian prince were beyond
companion more extenfive than his conquefts ; and
whoever confiders Alexander’s plan of power, and
enters into it thoroughly, will think him more a poli¬
tician than he was a conqueror. He framed in his
own mind an idea of univerfal monarchy, which it
was indeed impoffible to accomplilh; but the very no¬
tion of it does him far greater honour than all his vic¬
tories. He thought of placing his capital in Arabia ;
and of difpofing things in fuch a manner, as to have
commanded the moft remote parts of the Indies, at
the fame time that he maintained a connexion with
the moft dillant countries in Europe. He was for
making ufe of force to acquire, hut he very well
knew, that commerce only could preferve an empire,,
that w>as to have no other limits than thofe which na¬
ture had affigned the world. He defired to be ma¬
iler of all; but at the fame time he was willing to be
a wife and'gracious mailer, and to place his happinefs
in that of his people, or rather in making all the na¬
tions of the earth but one people. A vaft, an extra¬
vagant, an impra&icable fcheme it was, of which he
lived not long enough to draw the outlines; but the
fample he left in his new city of Alexandria fufficiently
Ihows how juft and how corredt his notions were, and
how true a judgement he had formed of what might
be effedled by thofe methods upon which he depended.
That city, which'he might be faid to defign with his
own hand, and which was built, as it were, under his
eye, became in fucceeding times all that he expedted,
the glory of Egypt, and the centre of commerce for
feveral ages.
While Tyre wras in the height of her glory, and had
no rival in the empire of the fea, Ihe founded her
noble colony of Carthage on the coaft of Africa. The
lituation of the city was every w'here admirable ; whe¬
ther confidered in the light of a capital, of a ftrong
fortrefs, or of a commodious port. It was equally
diftant from all the extremities of the Mediterranean
fea, had a very fine country behind it, and was not in
the neighbourhood of any power capable of reftraining
its commerce or its growth. It is almoft inexpreffible
how foon its inhabitants became not only numerous
and wealthy, but potent and formidable. By degrees
they extended themfelves on all fides, conquered the
beft part of Spain, and eredfe.d there a new Carthage ;
the Hands of Sicily and Sardinia, or at lealt the
beft part of them, fubmitted likewife to their yoke.
Their conquefts, however, were inconfiderable in ex¬
tent, when compared with their navigation. On one
fide they ftretched as far weftward as Britain ; and
the Scilly Hands, which are now fo inconfiderable,
were to them an Indies, the route to which they ufed
the utmoft induftry to conceal. On the other hand,
they difcovered a great part of the coaft of Africa,
the Canary Hands; and fome there are who believe
they full found the way to America. While they
confined themfelves to trade, and the arts which be¬
longed thereto, their power was continually increa-
hng i;
i'9^
C O M M
ling; but when induftry gave way to luxury, and a
fpirit of ambitipn banilhed their old maxims of fruga¬
lity and labour, their acquiiitions remained at a Hand.
The Romans began to grow jealous of their naval
power, which it coll them two obftinate wars of 40
years-continuance to humble. When Ihe was at length
dellroyed, her very rums were majeftic ; for at the
beginning of the third fatal Punic war, this city con¬
tained 706,000 inhabitants alone, and had 300 cities
in Africa under her dominion. Such was the empire
of Cartilage, railed entirely by commerce ; and to
which, if Ihe had been content to have applied her-
•felf with the fame fteadinefs in her higheft profperity
as in her early beginnings, there is no doubt Ihe had
preferved her freedom much longer than fhe did ; for
as thrift, and diligence, and good faith, are, the pillars
of a.commercial Hate ; fowhen thefe are once lhaken,
it is not only natural that Hie Ihould decline, but una¬
voidable alfo. '
The Ptolemies, who were the fucceflbrs of Alex¬
ander in Egypt, entered deeply into that hero’s fcheme,
and reaped the benefit of his wife efiablilhment. Pto¬
lemy Philadelphus, by encouraging trade, made his
fubjefts immenfely rich, and himfelf inexpreflibly
powerful. We are told by an1 ancient author, that he
had 12O gallies of war of an enormous fize, and up¬
wards of 4oa6,*other veffels, fmall and great. This
would appear incredible, if other wonders' were not
related of him, which feem to explain and confirm
thefe. He raifed a new city on thy coaH of the Red
Sea ; he was*at an immenfe expence in opening har¬
bours, conflrudling quays, in raifing inns at proper
diHances on the road, and in cutting a canal from fea
to fea. A prince who comprehended the importance
of commerce to a degree that induced him to dare
fuch expences as thefe, might have what treafures,
what armies, what fleets he pleafed. 'In his time,
Alexandria appeared in pomp and fplendor. She
owed her birth to Alexander ; but it was Ptolemy,
who caught a double portion of his mailer’s fpirit,
■which raifed her to that magnificence that ages could
not deface. We may guefs at what file was in her
glory, by what we are told was the produce of her
cuHoms, which fell little (hort of two millions of our
money annually ; and yet we cannot fuppofe that
Ptolemy, who underHood trade fo well, would cramp
it by high duties, or extravagant impoiitions. When
the revenue of the prince from a Angle port was fo
great, what muH have been the riches of his fub-
jedls!
But what fliows us Alexandria in the higheH point
of light, is the credit Hie maintained after Egypt funk
•from an empire into a province. The Romans them-
felves were flruck with the majeHy of her appearance;
and though till then they had little regarded traffic,
yet they were not long befofe they comprehended
the advantages of fuch a, port, and fuch a mart as
Alexandria ; they confirmed her privileges, they pro-
te£Ud her inhabitants, they took every meafure poffi-
ble to preferve her commerce; and this with fo good
an effedl, that Hie adlually preferved it longer than
Rome herfelf could preferve her power. She follow¬
ed, indeed, the fortune of the empire ; and became at
lall dependent upon Conflantinople, when its founder
removed thither the capital of the empire ; and his
E R C E.
fucceflbr found means to transfer alfo a part of the
trade of Alexandria to the fame place. Yet this city
continued Hill to hold up her head, and though Hie
funk under the barbarous power of the Arabs, yet
they grew poliffied by degrees ; by degrees Hie reco¬
vered fomewhat of her ancient pre-eminence; and
though Hie never rofe to any thing like her former
luflre, yet Hie remained the centre of what little 'trade
there was in the world ; which is more than can be
faid of almoH any place that has fallen under the Mo¬
hammedan power.
When the Roman empire was over-run bv barbari¬
ans, and arts and fciences funk with that power which
had cultivated and protected them, commerce alfo vi-
fibly declined; or, to fpeak with greater propriety,
was overwhelmed and loH. When that irruption ot
various nations had driven the Roman policy out of
the greated part of Europe, fome draggling people,
either forced by neceffity, or led by inclination, took
dicker in a few draggling iflands that lay near the
coaH of Italy, and which would never have been
thought worth inhabiting in a time of peace. This
was in the 6th century ; and at their firil fixing there
they had certainly nothing more in view than living in
a tolerable Hate of freedom, and acquiring 4 fubfidence
as well as they could. Thefe iflands being divided
from each other by narrow channels, and tbofe chan¬
nels fo encumbered by ihallows that it was impoffible
for Hrangers to navigate them, thefe refugees found
themfelves tolerably fafe ; and uniting amongfl them-
felves for the feke of improving their condition, and
augmenting their fecurity, they became in the 8th
century a well-fettled government, and aflumed the
form of a republic.
Simple and mean as this relation may appear, yet it
is a plain and true account of the rife, progrefs, and
eflablifliment of the famous and potent republic of Ve¬
nice. Her beginnings were indeed weak and flow;
but when the foundation was once well laid, her
growth was quick, and the increafe of her power a-
mazing. She extended her commerce, on all fides ;
and taking advantage of the barbarous maxims of the
Mohammedan monarchies, flie drew to herfelf the
refits of the Indian trade, and might, in fome fenfe,
e faid to make Egypt a province, and the Saracens
her fubjedts. By this means her traffic fwelled beyond
conception ; ftie became the common tmart of all na¬
tions; her naval power arrived at a prodigious height;
and, making ufe of every favourable conjedlure, fhe
flretched her conqued not only over the adjacent Ter¬
ra Firma of Italy, but through the iflands of the Archi¬
pelago, fo as to be at once miflrefs of the fea, of
many fair and fruitful countries, and of part of the
great city of Conilantinople itfelf. But ambition, and
the defire of lording it over her neighbours, brought
upon her thofe evils which firfi produced a decay of
trade, and then a declenlipn of power. General hi-
Hories indeed aferibe this to the league of Cambray,
when all the great powers in Europe combined againH
this republic; and in truth, from that period the
finking of her power is truly dated; but the Venetian
writers very juHly obferve, that though this effedl
followed the league, yet there was another more la¬
tent, but at the fame time a more effedlual caufe,
which was, the falling off bf their commerce ; and
m
C O M M
tTiey Have ever fince been more indebted to their
•wifdom'than their power; to the prudent concealing
of their own weaknefs, and taking advantage of the
errors of their enemies, than to any other caufe, for
their keeping up that part which they ftill bear, and
which had been loft long ago by any other nation but
themfelves.
At the fame time that Venice rofe, as it were, out
of the fea, another republic was eretted on the coaft
of Italy. There could not well be a worfe fituation
than the narrow, marihy, unprofitable, and unwhole-
fome ifiands in the Adriatic, except the rocky, barren,
and inhofpitable Ihores of Liguria ; and yet as com¬
merce railed Venice the Rich on the one, fo (he ereft-
ed Genoa the Proud on the other. In fpite of ambi¬
tious and warlike neighbours, in fpite of a confined
and unproducing country, and, which were ftill great¬
er impediments, in fpite of perpetual faftions and
fucceffive revolutions, the trade of Genoa made her
rich and great. Her merchants traded to all countries,
and throve by carrying the commodities of the one to
the other. Her fleets became formidable ^ and, be-
fides the adjacent ifland of Corfica, ftie made larger
and important conquefts. She fixed a colony at Caffa,.
and was for fome time in- poffefiion of the coafts on
both fides of the Black Sea. That emulation which
is natural to neighbouring nations, and that jealoufy
which rifes from the purfuit of the fame miitrefs, com¬
merce, begat continual wars between thefe rival re¬
publics; which, after many obftinate and bloody bat¬
tles, were at la ft terminated in favour of Venice,
by that famous victory of Chiozza gained by her doge
Andrew Contarini, from which time Genoa never
pretended to be miftrefs of the fea. Thefe quarrels
were fatal to both ; but what proved more immedi-
.ately deftru&ive to the Genoefe, was their avarice,
which induced them to abandon the fair profits of
trade for the fake of that vile method of acquiring
wealth by ufury.
But we muft now look to another part of the World.
In the middle age of the German empire, that is,
about the middle of the 13th century, there was
formed a confederacy of many maritime cities, or at
leaft of cities not far from the fea. This confederacy
folely regarded commerce, which they endeavoured
to promote and extend, by interefting therein a great
number of perfons, and endeavouring to profit by
their different views and (Afferent lights. Though the
cities of Germany held the principal rank in the Teu¬
tonic Hanfe, they did not however forbear affociating
many other cities, as well in France as in England and
in the low countries; the whole, however, without
hurting the authority, witHbut prejudice to the rights,
of the fovereign on whom they depended. This confe¬
deracy had its laws, its ordinances, and its judgments,
which were obferved with the fame refpeft as the ma¬
ritime code of the Rhodians, who palling for the ab-
left feamen in all antiquity, their conftitutions were
obferved by the Greeks and Romans. The Teutonic
Hanfe grew in a ftiort time to fo high a rank in power
and authority by the immenfe riches it acquired, that
princes themfelves rendered it a fincere homage from
principles of efteem and admiration. Thofe of the
north principally had frequent bccafion for their cre¬
dit, and borrowed of them confiderable fums. The
E R C E.
grand mailers- of the Teutonic order, who were at
that time fovereigns of Livonia, declared themfelves
Confervators of the rights and privileges of the Hanfe:
all fucceeded, not only to, but beyond their willies ;
and Germany, charmed with their progrefs, looked
on them with the fame eyes as a curious gardener
does on certain rare plants, though not of his own
railing and culture. The kings of France and Eng¬
land granted alfo various privileges to the Teutonic
confederacy; they exempted their veffels in cafe of
fhipwreck from all demands whatfoever from the ad¬
miralty, or from private perfons; they forbade any
difturbance to their navigation at all times, and even
when France was at war with the emperor, or the
princes of the north. In fine, during the courfe of
thofe unhappy wars which were ftyled Croifades, the
Hanfe was fignally confulted, and gave always puif-
fant fuccours in money and in (hips to the Chriftians
oppreffed by infidels. It? is aftonilhing, that cities at fo
great a diftance from each other, lubjeht to different
kings, fometimes in open war, but always jealous of
their rights, fhould be able to confederate and live to¬
gether in fo Uriel an union. But when this union had
rendered them very rich and powerful, it cannot feem
at all ftrange, that on the one hand they grew arro¬
gant [and overbearing, took upon them not only to
treat with fovereigns on the foot of equality, but e-
•ven to make war with them, and more than once with
fuccefs. It will, on the other hand, appear ftill lefs
ftrange, that fuch behaviour as this awakened various
princes to a more particular view of the dangers that
fuch a league might produce, and the advantages that
would naturally flow to their refpedtive ftates, by re¬
covering their trade thus made over, at leaft in fome
part to others, entirely to themfelves ; and thefe, in
few words, were the caufes of the gradual declenfion
of the Hanfiatic alliance : which, however, is not to¬
tally, diffolved at this day ; the cities of Lubeck, Ham¬
burgh, and Bremen, maintaining fufficient marks of that
fplendor and dignity with which this Confederacy was
once adorned.
We muft now turn our eyes to Portugal and Spain,,
where in the fpace of about 50 years there happen¬
ed a train of events which gradually led on to fuch dif-
coveries as changed the whole face of affairs in the
commercial world, and gave to the knowledge of later
ages what for fome thoufand years had been kept fe-
cret from all mankind, we mean a perfedl and diftinft
notion of that terraqueous globe which- they inhabit.
The kingdom of Portugal was fmall, but well cultiva¬
ted,.very populous, and bleffed with a variety of good
ports; all which, however, had flood them in little
Head, if they had not had a fucceffion of wife princes,,
who, inftead of involving themfelves in war with
their r^ighbours to gratify their ambition, endeavour¬
ed to extend the happinefs and wealth of their fubjedts,.
and by fo doing their own power, in the fofter and
more fuccefsful method of prote&ing arts and fciences,
encouraging induftry, and favouring trade. This, with
the convenient fituation of their country, in the begin-
ning of the 15th century, prompted fome lively fpirits
to attempt difeoveries; and thefe, countenanced by an
heroic young prince, pufhed on their endeavours with
fuch fuccefs, that ftep by ftep the coaft of Africa was
furveyed as far as the Cape of Good Hope, to which
they
200
COMM
they gave that name. The point they had in view
was a new route to the Eaft Indies, which Vafqueze
de Gama happily difcovered ; and in a fhort fpace of
time Portugal, from one of the leaft confiderable,
grew to be one of the richeft powers in Europe, gain¬
ed prodigious dominions in Alia and Africa, and rai¬
led a naval power fuperior to any thing that had been
feen for many ages before.
See Colum- But while this was doing, Chriftopher Columbus, a
bus (Chrijlo- Genoefe of great capacity, though of almoft unknown
pber.) . original, who had been bred to the fea from his youth,
and who had carefully Itudied what others made a
trade, formed in his mind the amazing proje& of
counteradling experience, and failing to the Indies by
a weft courfe. He offered this project to the Portu-
guefe, by whom it was coniidered and rejedled as a
chimera. He propofed it afterwards to other ftates,
but with no better fortune; and at la It owed the dif-
covery of the New World to the high fpirit of a he¬
roine, the famous Ifabella queen of Callile, who al¬
moft at her own expence, and with very little coun¬
tenance from her hulband, who yet was ftyled Ferdi¬
nand the Wife, furnifhed the adventurous Columbus
with that poor fquadron, with which at once, in fpite
of all the difficulties that the envy of his officers, and
the obftinacy of his mutinous crew, threw in his way,
he perfe&ed his defign, and laid open a new Indies,
though in reality he aimed at the difcovery of the old.
Neither was this noble effort of his matchlefs under-
ftanding defeated; for after his deceafe, Ferdinand
Magellan, a Portuguefe, propofed to the emperor
Charles V. the difcovery of a paffage to the fpice iflands
by the South Seas, which was what Columbus aimed
at; and though Magellan lived not to return, yet in
one voyage the difcovery was perfected. It is incon¬
ceivable almoft how many and how great benefits
accrued to Europe from thefe difcoveries ; of which,
however, it is certain, that the Portuguefe made a
very indifferent, and the Spaniards much worfe, ufe ;
the former making llav.es of, and the latter rooting
out, the natives. This, as it was a moft ungrateful
return to divine Providence for fo high a bleffing; fo
it might have been eafily forefeen it would prove, as
experience has Ihown it did .prove, highly prejudicial
to their own interefts, by depopulating very fine coun¬
tries, which have been thereby turned into defarts:
and though on their firft difcovery infinite treafures
were returned from them, which were coined in the
mints of Spain; yet by an obftinate purfuit of this
falfe policy, the Spanifli illands in the Weft Indies are
now brought fo low as to be fcarce worth keeping.
The conlequences that naturally followed on the dif¬
covery 'of a palfage by the Cape of Good Hope, and
of a fourth part of the globe in the weftcrn hemi-
fphere, were, as it has been already hinted, the caufe
.of an entire change in the- ftate of Europe, and produ¬
ced, not only in Portugal and Spain, but in moft other
nations, a defire of vifiting thefe remote parts, of e-
ftablilhing colonies, of fetting manufactures on foot,
of exporting and importing commodities, and of rai¬
ling, fettling, and protecting new manufactures. By
this means, as the reader cannot but perceive, not only
particular nations brought about fignal advantages to
themfelves, but Europe in general received a laiting
N° 85.
E R G E.
and invaluable benefit: for its potentates made them-
ft-lves'formidable, and even terrible, in thofe diftant
parts of the earth, where their fame had hardly
reached before. It is however true, that this has not
been carried on as high as it might have been;-for
though there was room enough for every nation to
have had its (hare, and though it might be riemonftra-
ted that the good of the whole would have contribu¬
ted fulficiently to the profit of every ftate, the fubje&s
of which had engaged in this traffic; yet, inftead of
profecuting fo natural and fo equitable a meafure,
they have taken a quite "contrary courfe ; and by de¬
crying, attacking, and deftroying each other, have
very much leffened that prodigious reverence which
the Afiatics, Africans, and Americans, at firft had for
the inhabitants of Europe.
The naval power of the Portuguefe received an in¬
curable wound by falling under the power of the Spa¬
niards : and though human policy would have fug-
gefted, that this alone muft have raifed the latter to
the monopoly of commerce, and the univerfal domi¬
nion of the fea; yet the very purfuit of a defign fo
vifibly detrimental to the intereft of mankind, proved
very quickly their ruin alfo. For the Spaniards, from
the natural haughtinefs of their temper, milled by the
boundlefs ambition of their princes, and endeavouring
to become the lords of Europe, forced other nations in
their own defence to make a much quicker progrefs
in navigation than otherwife they could have done.
For the Englilh and Dutch, who till this time feemed
blind to the advantages of their fituation, had their
eyes opened by the injuries they received ; and by
degrees the paffion of revenge infpired them with de-
figns that poffibly public fpirit had never excited. In
fhort, the pains taken by Spain to keep all the riches
that flowed from thefe difcoveries to herfelf, and the
dangerous, deteftable, and deftnnftive purpofes to
which Ihe applied the immenfe wealth that flowed in
upon her from them, produced effects diredtly oppofite
to thofe which fhe propofed, and made her enemies rich,
great, powerful, and happy, in proportion as her com¬
merce dwindled away, and as her naval power funk and
crumbled to pieces, merely by an improper difplay, an
ill-managed exertion, and a wrong application of it.
It was from hence that the inhabitants of the Seven
Provinces, whom her oppreffion had made poor, and
her feverities driven mad, became firft free, then po¬
tent, and by degrees rich. Their diftrefles taught
them the neceffity of eftabliftiing a moderate and equal
government; the mildnefs of that government, and
the bleffings which it procured to its fubjedts, raifed
their number, and elevated their hopes. The confe-
quences became quickly vifible, and in a ftiort fpace of
time amazing both to friends and enemies; every fifh-
ing village improved into a trading-town ; their little
towns grew up into large and magnificent cities;
their inland boroughs were filled with manufactures;
and in lefs than half a century the diftreffed States of
Holland became high and mighty; nay, in fpite of
the danger and expences which attended a war made
all that time againft a fuperior force, thefe people,
furrounded with enemies, loaded with taxes, expofed
to perfqnal fervice, and to a thoufand other difad-
vantages, grew up to fuch a ftrength as not only made
4 thP
2Dt
COMM
the Spaniards defpair of reducing them any more un-
«ier their dominion, but inclined them to wiih, and at
laft forced them to feek, their friendfhip.
This, at leaft as far as either ancient or modern hi-
ftories inform us, was the quickeft and ftrongeft of all
the productions of commerce that the'”world has ever
feen. For it is out of difpute, that the republic of the
United Provinces owes her freedom, her power, and
her wealth, to induftry and trade entirely. The
greateft part of the country is far from being fer¬
tile ; and what is fo, produces not enough to fuffice
the tenth pait of its inhabitants for the tenth part of
the year: the climate is rather tolerable than whole-
fome ; and its havens are rather advantageous from
the difficulty of entering them, than from their com-
modioufnefs in any other refpeft. Native commo¬
dities they have few or none ; timber and maritime
llores are entirely wanting; their country cannot
hoaft fo much as of a coal-mine ; and yet thefe pro¬
vinces, upon which nature has beftowed fo little, in
confequence of an extenfive trade, are enriched with
all things. Their ftorehoufes are full of corn, even
when the harveft in corn-countries fails ; there is no
commodity, how bulky foever, or however fcarce and
hard to come at, which may not be had from their
magazines. The flopping of Holland is prodigious ;
and to fee the quantities of naval (lores with which
their yards and ports abound, aftonifhes thofe who are
unacquainted with the vigour of that caufe which pro¬
duces this abundance. But above all, the populouf-
nefs of this country is the greateft. miracle. That men
•fhould refort to a Canaan, and defire to live in a land
flowing with milk and honey, is nothing ftrange ; but
that they fhould make it their choice to force nature,
to raife palaces, lay out gardens, dig canals, plant
woods, and ranfack all the quarters of the earth for
fruit and flowers, to produce an artificial paradife in a
dead plain, or upon an ingrateful heath in the midft of
fogs and (landing lakes, would, in fo critical an age as
this, pafs for a fable, if the country did not lie fo near
us, as to put the truth of it out of queftion.
§ 2. Britljh Hijlory,
We may eafily conceive, that foreign commerce
by the natives of this ifland mull have been a work
of time; for men think firft of neceffaries, then of
conveniences, and laft of fuperfluities. Thofe who
came originally from the_ continent might have better
notions of things; but as it muft be prefumed that
either fear or indigence drove them hither, fo it is
eafy to apprehend that fucceeding generations muft
for fome time fink much below their anceflors, in their
notions of the commodities of life ; and, deriving their
manners from their circumftances, become quite ano¬
ther fort of people. But thofe on the oppofite conti¬
nent, knowing that this ifland was inhabited, and ha¬
ving the ufe, though in ever fo imperfect a degree,
of veflels, and of foreign traffic, came over hither,
and bartered their goods for the raw commodities of
the Britons, till by degrees perhaps they taught the
latter to make fome improvement in thofe flight lea¬
ther and wicker boats, which they ufed for pafiing
their own rivers, and creeping along their coafts, till
at laft they ventured themfelves over to Gaul, and en¬
tered upon fome kind of correfpondence with their
neighbours. All this is fo deducible from the laws of
Vou V. Part I.
E R C E.
nature, that we might have divined thus much by the
light of reafon, if we had not the commentaries of
Csefar to guide us, and to ftrengthen by the authority
of hiftory the fa&s that might have been found out by
the force of rational conjecture.
Things were precifely in this fituation when the
Romans invaded Britain ; and there is no doubt that
our anceftors falling under the power of that empire,
and under its power at a time when with refpeCl to
arts and fciences it was in a moft flourifhing condition,
was a great advantage to them; and though from
their love of civil liberty, which, when under the di-
reftion of reafon, is the moft natural and laudable of
all paffions, they made a long and vigorous, and in
fome fenfe a noble and glorious refiflance; yet by
degrees they caught the manners and cuftoms of their
conquerors, and grew content to be happy rather than
free. With learning and politenefs the Romans in¬
troduced foreign commerce; and according to the
nature of their policy, as they made high roads through
the ifland, eftablifhed colonies in proper places, and
fixed (landing camps, which were a kind of for-
trefies, where they thought proper; fo they were no
lefs careful with regard to marts or emporiums for
the conveniency of traders, and of which what they
found is uncertain : but that they left many, is with¬
out queftion ; and amongfl the reft London, which is
not more famous for her prefent extenfive trade, than
venerable for her unrecorded antiquity.
When the Romans unwillingly left Britain, and the
Britons as unwillingly made way for the Saxons, a
new deluge of barbarity overflowed this ifland : al-
moft all the improvements of our civilized conquerors
were defaced ; and, upon the eftablifhment as it were
of a new people, things were all to begin again.
This neceffarily took up a great deal of time; and
before they were in any tolerable pofture, the Saxons
found themfelves diftrefled by frefh fwarms of barba¬
rians. Yet there ftill remains fome evidences of their
having been acquainted with, inclined to, and, if their
circumftances would have permitted, moft certainly
would have entered upon and carried foreign com¬
merce to a great height. We have authentic tefti-
monies, that Alfred the Great formed proje&s of vaft
difcoveries ter the North, as he a&ually fent perfons
of great prudence and abilities into the Eaft; and the
curio fitiqs which they brought home were for many
ages preferved in the treafury of the church of Saliftmry.
As for the Danes, they were not long our mailers:
but as they became fo by a maritime force, and as
their countrymen had eftablifhed themfelves not only
on the oppofite ftrore of France, but in other parts of
Europe ; fo it is reafonable to believe that they held
fome correfpondence with them from hence; and
that, if their dominion had lafted longer, this might
have been better regulated, and produftive of many
advantages. But they had foon to do with their bre¬
thren in another way: for the Normans, men of the
fame race, but better eftabliftied in another country,
difpoflefled them here; and partly under colour of
right, partly by force, ele&ed that monarchy, which,
not without various alterations and changes, fubfifts
even to our times, and to the fubfiftence of which,
with the help of thofe djanges and alterations, we
owe that happy conftituflbn under which we live;
that univerfal improvement which adorns the face of
C c our
«02
G O M M
«ur country • tliat domeftic trade which nouriihes fo
numerous a people, by plentifully rewarding their in-
dult'ry; and that extenfive commerce which is at
once the fource of our wealth and the fupport of our
liberty.
It cannot be expefted, that, in a work like this, we
fhoilld attempt to trace the progrefs of trade through
every reign, fhow how it was encouraged and pro-
tefted, or difcountenanced and checked ; what occa-
iions were luckily feized, or what opportunities un-
forunately loft. It may be fufficient for us, after
what has been already faid, to obferve, that the opi¬
nion Commonly entertained, of our having little or no
trade before the reign of queen Elizabeth, is very far
from being well founded.
In fa6t, the reign of that princefs was great and
glorious, in whatever light we confider it; but it was
moft fo im this, that, under Providence, it became
great and glorious by the wifdom and prudence of the
queen and her minifters. The Englifti nation never
was in fo defperate a condition as at her acceffion.
The ctown was in debt, the treafury empty, the na¬
tion involved in a foreign war dir'edtly againft her
own interefts, her coafts naked ; in a word, without
credit abroad, and without concord at home, no fet¬
tled religion, the great men fplit into fictions, and
the common people diftrafled and deje&ed. Sad
circumftances thefe ! and yet from hence arofe the
grandeur of that reign, and the eftabliftiment of our
commerce. The queen found herfelf obliged to ait
with great caution', to derive affiftance from every
quarter, to employ it faithfully, and to promote to
the utmoft of her power the welfare of her fubjeits,
whom nothing but the public-fpiritedftefs of her go¬
vernment could enable to grow rich enough to fupport
the neceffary expences of the crown. It was this
gave a popular turn to her councils. She encouraged
her fubjeits to arm againft the Spaniards, that they
might be accoftomed to .the fea, and acquire that
knowledge in navigation, with which, till then, they
had been unacquainted. She paffed many laws for
the public good, erefted feveral companies, and faw
that thofe companies purfued the ends for which they
were erefted; in ihort, (he did every thing that could
be expefted, during the whole eourfe of her reign,
to excite and encourage induftry at home, and to
enable us to make a proper figure abroad. Jfv a word,
Ihe furniftied us with ftock and credit, put' us upon
improving our commodities and manufaftures, brought
the art of (hip-building amongft us, filled our ports
with able feamen, (bowed a juft refpedt to Englifti
merchants, reduced Ireland fo as to render it bene¬
ficial to Britain, and approved our fending colonies
into America ; and thus the feeds of Britifti wealth
were fown in her time, though the harveft was reap¬
ed in the days of her fucceflbrs. See the articles
Coalery, Colony, Fjsueries, Manufactured,
Shipping, and Trade.
Chap. II. Principles o/*Commerce.
§ I. Origin of Trade.
The moft Ample of all trade is that which is car-
xied on by bartering the necefiary articles of fubfift-
*nce. If we fuppofe the earth free to the firft pof-
E R C E.
fefior, this perfon who cultivates it will firft; draw
from it his food, and the furplus will be the ohjeft of
barter: he will give this in exchange to any one who
will fupply his other wants. This naturally fuppofes
both a furplus quantity of food produced by labour,
and alfo free hands; for he who makes a trade of
agriculture cannot fupply himfelf with all other
neceftaries, as well as food; and he who makes a
trade of fupplying the farmers with fuch neceffaries,
in exchange for his furplus of food, cannot be employ¬
ed in producing that food. The more the neceffities
of man increafe, the more free hands are required to
fupply them; and the more free hands are required,
the more furplus food muft: be produced by additional
labour, to fupply their demand.
This is the leaft complex kind of trade, and may be
carried on to a greater or lefs extent, in different
countries, according to the different degrees of the
wants to be fupplied. In a country where there is no
money, nor any thing equivalent to it, the wants of
mankind will be confined to few objefts; to wit, the
removing the inconveniences of hunger, third, cold,
heat, danger, and the like. A free man, who, by his
induftry, can procure all the comforts of a Ample life,
will enjoy his reft, and work no more : and, in ge¬
neral, all increafe of work will ceafe, -fo foon as the
demand for the purpofes mentioned comes to be fatis-
fied. There is a plain reafon for this. When the
free hands have procured, by their labour, where¬
withal to fupply their wants, their ambition is fatis-
fied : fo foon as the huibandmen have produced the
neceffary furplus for relieving theirs, they work no
more. Here then is a natural ftop put to induftry,
confequently to bartering.
The next thing to be examined is, how bartering
grows into trade, properly fo called and underftood,
according to the definition given of it above ; how
trade comes to be extended among men ; how ma¬
nufactures, more ornamental than ufeful, come to be
eftabliftied; and how men come to fubmit to labour,,
in order to acquire what is not abfolutely neceffary
for them.
This, in a free fodety, is chiefly owing to the in¬
troduction of money, and a tafte for fuperfluities in
thofe who poffefs it.
In ancient times, money was not wanting; but the
tafte for fuperfluities not being in proportion to it,
the fpecie was locked up. This was the cafe in Eu¬
rope four hundred years ago. A new tafte for fuper-
fluity has drawn, perhaps, more money into circula¬
tion, from our own treafures, than from the mines of
the new world. The poor opinion we entertain of
the riches of our forefathers, is founded upon the
modern way of eftimating wealth, by the quantity of
coin in circulation, from which we conclude, that the
greateft part of the fpecie now in our hands muft; have
come from America.
It is more, therefore, through the tafte of fuper-
fluity, than in confequence of the quantity of coin,
that trade comes to be eftabliftied ; and it is only-
in confequence of trade that we fee induftry carry
things in our days to fo high a pitch of refinement and
delicacy. Let us illuftrate this, by comparing toge¬
ther the different operations of barter, fale, and com¬
merce*
When
COMM
When reciprocal wants are fupplied by barter,
there is not the fmallell occafion for money : this is
the moft Ample of all combinations.
When wants are multiplied, bartering becomes more
difficult: upon this money is introduced. This is the
common price of all things: it is a proper equivalent
in the hands of thofe who want, perfectly- calculated
to fupply the occafions of thofe who, by induftry, can
relieve them. This operation of buying and felling is
a little more complex than the former; but dill we
have here no idea of trade, becaufe we have not in¬
troduced the merchant, by whofe induftry it is car¬
ried on.
Let this third perfon be brought into play, and the
whole operation becomes clear. What before we
called 'wants, is :here reprefented by the confumer ;
what we called induftry, by the manufacturer; what
we called money, by the merchant. The merchant
here reprefents the money, by fobftituting credit in
its place; and as the money was. invented to facili¬
tate barter, fo the merchant, 'with his credit, is a new
refinement upon the ufe of money. This renders it
ftill more effectual in performing the operations of
buying and felling. This operation is trade : it re¬
lieves both parties of the whole trouble of tranfpor-
tation, and adjufting wants to wants, or wants to
money ; the merchant reprefents by turns both the
confumer, the manufacturer, and the money. To
the cqnfumer he appears as the whole body of manu¬
facturers ; to the manufacturers as the whole body of
confumers; and to the one and the other clafs his credit
fupplies the ufe of money. This is fufficier.t at pre-
fent for an illuftration. We now return to the Ample
operations of money in the hands of the two contrac¬
ting parties, the buyer and the feller, in order to (how
how men come to fubmit to labour in order to acquire
fuperfluittes.
So foon as money is introduced into a country, it
becomes an univerfal sbjeCt of want to all the inhabi¬
tants.
The confequence is, that the free hands of the (late,
•who before (topt w-orking, becaufe all their wants
were provided for, having this new objeCf of ambi¬
tion before their eyes, endeavour, by refinements
upon their labour, to remove the fmaller inconve¬
niences which refolt from a fimplicity of manners.
People, who formerly knew but one fort of clothing
for all feafons, willingly part with a little money to
procure for themfelves different forts of apparel pro¬
perly adapted to fommer and winter, which the inge¬
nuity of manufacturers, and their defire of getting
money, may have fuggefted to their invention.
Indeed thefe refinements feem more generally ow¬
ing to the induftry and invention of the manufactu¬
rers (who by their ingenuity daily contrive me.ans of
foftening or relieving inconveniences, which mankind
feldom perceive to be fuch, till the way of removing
them is contrived), than to the tafte of luxury in the
rich, who, to indulge their eafe, engage the poor to
become induftrious.
Let any man make an experiment of this nature
upon himfelf, by enterifig into the firft (hop. He will
no where fo quickly difeover his wants as there. Every
thing he fees appears either neceffary, or at lead highly
convenient; and he begins to wonder how he could
ERG E.
have been fo long without that which the ingenuity, of
the workman alone had invented, in order that irom
the novelty it might excite his defire; for perhaps
when it is bought, he will never once think of it more,
nor ever apply it to the ufe for which it at firft ap¬
peared fo neceffary.
Here then is a reafon why mankind labour though
not in want. They become defirous of poffeffing the
very inftruments of luxury, which their avarice or
ambition prompted them to invent for the ufe of
others.
What has been faid reprefents trade in its infancy,
or rather the materials with which that great fabric
• is built.
We have formed an idea of the wants of mankind
multiplied even to luxury, and abundantly fopplied by
the employment of all the free hands fet apart for that
purpofe. But if we fuppofe the workman himfelf dif-
pofing of his work, and purchafing with it food from
the farmer, cloaths from the clothier ; and, in general,
feeking for the fupply of every want from the hands
of the perfon direCtly employed for the purpofe of re -
lieving it; this will not convey an idea of trade ac¬
cording to our definition.
Trade and commerce are an abbreviation of this
long procefs : a fcheme invented and fet on foot by
merchants, from a principle of gain, fupported and ex ¬
tended among men, from a principle of general utility
to every individual, rich or poor, to every fociety,
great or fmall.
Inftead of a pin-maker exchanging his pins with 50
different perfons, for whofe labour he has occafion, he
fells all to the merchant for money or for credit; and,
as occafion offers, he purchafes all his wants, either
direftly from thofe who fupply them, or from other
merchants who deal with manufacturers in the fame
way his merchant dealt with him.
Another advantage of trade is, that induftrious peo¬
ple in one part of the country, may fupply cuftomers
in another, though diftant. They may eftablilh them¬
felves in the moft commodious places for their refpec-
tive hufinefs, and help one another reciprocally, with¬
out making the diftant parts of the country fuffer for
want of their labour. They are likewife expofed
to no avocation from their work, by feeking for cuf-
tomers,
Trade produces many excellent advantages; it marks
out to the manufacturers when their branch is under or
overftocked with hands. ’ If it is underftocked, they
will find more demand than they can anfwer : if it is
overftock'ed, the fale wifi be (low.
Intelligent men, in every profeffion, will eafily dif¬
eover when thefe appearances are accidental, and when
they proceed from the real principles of trade.
Pofts, and correfpondence by letters, are a confe¬
quence of trade ; by the means of .which merchants are
regularly informed of every augmentation or dimi¬
nution of induftry in every branch, in every part of
the country. From this knowledge they regulate the
prices they offer ; and as they are many, they ferve as
a check upon one another, from the principles of com¬
petition.
From the current prices, the manufacturers are as
well informed, as if they kept the correfpondence
themfelves: the ftatefman feels perfectly where hands
C c 2 are
204
COMM
are wanting, and young people deftined to induftry,
obey, in a manner, the call of the public, and fall na¬
turally in to fupply the demand.
Two great affiftances to merchants, efpecially in the
infancy of trade, are public markets for colle&ing the
work of fmall dealers, and large undertakings in the
manufacturing way by private hands. By thefe means
the merchants come at the knowledge of the quantity
of work in the market, as on the other hand the ma¬
nufacturers learn, by the fale of the goods, the'extent
of the demand for them. Thefe two things being
juftly known, the price of goods is eafily fixed.
Public fales ferve to correCt the fmall inconveni¬
ences which proceed from the operations of trade. A
fet of manufacturers got all together into one town,
and entirely taken up with their induftry, are thereby
as well informed of the rate of the market as if every
one of them carried thither his work ; and upon the
arrival of the merchant, who readily takes it off their
hands, he has not the leaft advantage over them from
his knowledge of the ftate of demand. This man
both buys and fells in what is called wholefale ; and
from him retailers purchafe, who diftribute the goods
to every confumer throughout the country. Thefe
lail buy from wholefale merchants in every branch, that
proportion of every kind of merchandize which is
fuitable to the demand of their borough, city, or pro¬
vince.
Thus all inconveniences are prevented, at fome ad¬
ditional coft to the confumer, who muft naturally re-
imburfe the whole expence. The diftance of the
manufacturer, the obfcurity of his dwelling, the ca¬
price in felling his work, are quite removed; the re¬
tailer has all in his Ihop, and the public buys at a cur¬
rent price.
§ 2. Hotu the prices of Goods are determined by Trade.
In the price of goods, two things muft be confider-
ed as really exifting, and quite different from one an¬
other ; to wit, the real value of the commodity, and
the profit upon alienation.
I. The firft thing to be known of any manufacture,
when it comes to be fold, is, how much of it a perfon
can perform in a day, a weekt a month, according to
the nature of the work, which may require more or
lefs time to bring it to perfection. In making fuch
eftimates, regard is to be had only to what, upon an
average, a workman of the country in general may
perform, without fuppofing him the belt or the worft
in his profeffion, or having any peculiar advantage or
difadvantage as to the place where he works.
Hence the reafon why fbme people thrive by their
induftry, and others not; why fome manufactures
flourilh in one place, and not in another.
II. The feeond thing to be known is, the value of
the workman's fubfiftence, and neceffary expence, both
for fupplying his perfonal wants, and providing the
inftruments belonging to his profeflion, which muft be
taken upon an average as above; except when the
nature of the work requires the prefence of the work¬
man in the place of confumption ; for although fome
trades, and almoft every manufacture, may be carried
on in places at a diftance, and therefore may fall under
one general regulation as to prices ; yet others there
E R C E.
are, which, by their nature, require the pre fence of
the workman in the place of confumption; and ia
that cafe the prices muft be regulated by circumftances
relative to every particular place.
III. The third and laft thing to be known, is the
value of the materials, that is, the firft; matter employ¬
ed by the workman ; and if the objeCt of his induftry
be the manufacture of another, the fame procefs of in¬
quiry muft be gone through with regard to the firft as
with regard to the fecond: and thus the moft complex
manufactures may be at laft; reduced to the greatefl
limplicity.
Thefe three articles being known, the price of ma¬
nufacture is determined. It cannot be lower than the
amount of all the three, that is, than the real value;
whatever it is higher, is the manufacturer’s profit.
This will ever be in proportion to demand, and there¬
fore will fluctuate according to circumftances.
Hence appears the neceflity of a great demand, in
order to promote flourilhing manufactures.
By the extenfive dealings of merchants, and their
conftant application to the ftudy of the balance of
work and demand, all the above circumftances are
known to them, and are made known to thednduftri-
ous, who regulate their living and expence according
to their certain profit.
Employ a workman in a country where there is
little trade or induftry, he proportions his price al¬
ways to the urgency of your want, or your capacity
to pay ; but feldom to his own labour. Employ an¬
other in a country of trade, he will not impofe upon
you, unlefs perhaps you be a ftranger, which fuppofea
your being ignorant of the value; but employ the
fame workman in a work not ufual in the country*
confequently not demanded, confequently not regu¬
lated as to the value, he will proportion his price as in
the firft fuppofition.
We may therefore conclude, from what has been
faid, that in a country where trade has been eitablifh-
ed, manufactures muft flourilh, from the ready fale, the
regulated price of work, and the certain profit refult-
ing from induftry. Let us next inquire into the con*
fequences of fuch a fituation.
$ 3. How foreign Trade opens to an induflrious People.^
and the Confequences of it to the Merchants who fet it
on foot.
The firft confequence of the fituation defcribed in
thd"preceding feCtion is, that wants are eafily fupplied
for the adequate value of the thing wanted.
The next confequence is, the opening of foreign
trade, under its two denominations of pafiive and
aClive. Strangers and people of diftant countries,
finding the difficulty of having their wants fupplied at
home, and the eafe of having them fupplied from this
country, immediately have recourfe to it. This is paf-
five trade. The aCtive is when merchants, who have
executed this plan at home with fuecefs, begin to tran-
fport the labour of their countrymen into -other re¬
gions, w hich either produce, or are capable of produ¬
cing fuch articles of confumption, proper to be manu¬
factured, as are moft demanded at home ; and con-
fequently will meet with the readieft fale, and fetch,
the largeft profits.
He*
205
COMM
Here then is the opening of foreign trade, under its
two denominations of active and paffive.
What then are the confequences of this new com¬
merce to our merchants, who have left their homes in
queft of gain abroad ?
The firft is, that, arriving in any new country, they
find themfelves in the fame fituation, with regard to
the inhabitants, as the workman in the country of no
trade, with regard to thoie who employ him ; that
is, they proportion the price of their goods to the
eagernefs of acquiring, or the capacity of paying, in
the inhabitants, but never to their real value.
The firft profits then, upon this trade, muft be very
confiderable; and the demand from fuch a country
will be high or low, great or fmall, according to the
fpirit, not the real wants of the people : for thefe in
all countries muft firft be fupplied by the inhabitants
themfelves, before they ceafe to labour.
If the people of this not-trading country be abun¬
dantly furnifhed with commodities ufeful to the traders,
they will eafily part with them, at firft, for the inftru-
ments of luxury and eafe ; but the great profit of the
traders will infenfibly increafe the demand for the pro-
dudtions of their new correfpondents; this will have
the effect of producing a competition between them¬
felves, and thereby throwing the demand on their fide.
This is perpetually a difadvantage in traffic; the moft
unpblifhed nations in the world quickly perceive the
effects of it; and are taught to profit by the difeovery,
in fpite of the addrefs of thofe who are the moft ex¬
pert in commerce.
The traders will therefore be very fond of falling
upon every method and contrivance to infpire this
people with a tafte of refinement and delicacy. A-
bundance of fine prefents, confifting of every inftru-
ment of luxury and fuperfluity, the beft adapted to the
genius of the people, will be given to the prince and
leading men among them. Workmen will even be
employed at home, to ftudy the tafte of the ftrangers,
and to captivate their defires by every poffible means.
The more eager they are of prefents, the more laviffi
the traders will be in beftowing and diverfifying them.
It is an animal put up to fatten; the more he eats, the
fooner he is fit for daughter. When their tafte for
fuperfluity is fully formed, when the relifh for their
former iimplicity is fophifticated, poifoned, and obli¬
terated, then they are furely in the fetters of the
traders, and the deeper they go, the lefs poffibility
there is of their getting out. The prefents then will
die away, having ferved their purpofe: and if after¬
wards they are found to be continued, it will probably
be to fupport the competition againft other nations,
who will incline to (hare of the profits.
If, on the contrary, this not-trading nation does not
abound with commodities ufeful to the traders, thefe
will make little account of trading with them, whatever
their turn may be ; but, if we fuppofe this country in¬
habited by a laborious people, who, having taken a
tafte for refinement from the traders, apply themfelves
to agriculture, in order to produce articles of fub-
fiftence, they will folicit the merchants to give them
part of their manufaftures in exchange for thofe ; and
this trade will undoubtedly have the effe&of multiplying
atunbers in the trading nation. But if food cannot be
E R C E.
furniflied, nor any other branch of prodinftion found
out to fupport the correfpondence, the tafte for refine¬
ment will foon die away, and trade will flop in this
quarter.
Had it not been for the furs in thofe countries ad¬
jacent to Hudfon’s Bay, and in Canada, the Europeans
never would have thought of fupplying inftruments of
luxury to thofe nations ; and if the inhabitants of thofe
regions had not taken a tafte for the inftruments of
luxury furnifhed to them by the Europeans, they ne¬
ver would have become fo indefatigable nor fo dex¬
terous hunters. At the fame time we are not to fuppofe,
that ever thefe Americans would have come to Europe
in queft of our manufaftures. It is, therefore, owing
to our merchants, that thefe nations are become in any
degree fond of refinement; and this tafte, in all proba¬
bility, will not foon exceed the proportion of the pro-
dufftions of their country. From thefe beginnings of
foreign trade it is eafy to trace its increafe.
One ftep towards this, is the eftablifhing correfpon-
dences in foreign countries; and thefe are more or lefs
neceflary in proportion as the country where they are
eftablilhed is more or lefs polifhed or acquainted with
trade. They fupply the want of polls, and point out
to the merchants what proportion the produftions of
the country bear to the demand of the inhabitants for
manufactures. This communicates an idea of com¬
merce to the not-trading nation, and they infenfibly
begin to fix a determined value upon their own pro¬
ductions, which perhaps bore no determined value at
all before.
Let us trace a little the progrefs of this refinement
in the favages, in order to flrow how it has the effeCl of
throwing the demand upon the traders, and of creating
a competition among them, for the productions of the
new country.
Experience fhows, that, in a new difeovered coun¬
try, merchants conftantly find fome article or other of
its productions, which runs out to a great account in
commerce; and we fee that the longer fuch a trade
fnbfifts, and the more the inhabitants take a tafte for
European manufactures, the more their own produc¬
tions rife in their value, and the lefs profit is made by
trading with them, even in cafes where the trade is car¬
ried on by companies ; which is a very wife inftitution.
for one reafon, that it cuts off a competition between our
merchants.
This is the beft means of keeping prices low in fa¬
vour of the nation; however it may work a contrary
effeCt with refpeCt to individuals who muft buy from
thefe monopolies.
When companies are not eftabliftved, and when trade
is open, our merchants, by their eagernefs to profit by
the new trade, betray the fecrets of it; they enter into
competition for the purchafe of the foreign produce ;
and this raifes prices, and favours the commerce of the
moft ignorant favages.
§ 4- Confequences of the latrodudlon of a pq/ftve fo¬
reign Trade among a People who live in Simplicity and
Idlenefs.
We now fuppofe the arrival of traders,, all in one
intereft, with inftruments of luxury and refinement, at
a port in a country of great fimplicity of manners,
abundantly
o6
COMM
abundantly provided bynature’with great advantages for
commerce, and peopled by a nation capable of adopt¬
ing a tafte for fuperfluities.
The firft thing the merchants do is, to expofe their
goods, and point out the advantages of many things,
either agreeable or ufeful to mankind in general, fuch
as wines, fpirits, inftruments of agriculture, arms and
ammunition for hunting, nets for fiihing, manufactures
for clothing, and the like. The advantages of thefe
are prefently perceived, and ftich commodities are eager¬
ly fought after.
The natives, on their fide, produce what they moil
efteem, generally fomething fuperfluous or ornamen¬
tal. The traders, after examining all circumftances,
determine the objeft of their demand, giving the kail
quantity poffible in return for this fuperfluity, in order
to imprefs the inhabitants with a high notion of the
value of their own commodities; but as this parfimony
may do more hurt than good to their intereft, they are
very generous in making prefents, from the principles
mentioned above.
When the exchange is completed, and the traders
'depart, regret is commonly mutual; the one and the
other are forry that the fuperfiuities of t{m country fall
fhort. A return is promifed by the traafirs, and alfu-
rances are given by the natives of a better provifion
another time.
What are the firll confequenees of this revolution ?
It is evident, that, in order to fupply an equivalent
for this new want, more hands mull be fet to work
than formerly. And it is evident alfo, that this aug¬
mentation of induftry will not effentially increafe num¬
bers : Why ? Becaufe the produce of the induftry is,
in this cafe, intended to be exported. But, if we
can find out any additional confumption at home, even
implied by this new trade, it will have the effeft of aug¬
menting numbers. An example will make this plain.
JLet us fuppofe the fuperfluity of this country to be
the flcins of wild-beafts, not proper for food ; the ma¬
nufacture fought for, brandy. The brandy is fold for
furs. He who has furs, or he who can fpare time to
hunt fpr them, will drink brandy in proportion: but
there is no reafon to conclude from this Ample opera¬
tion, that one man more in the country muft necelTa-
rily be fed, or that any augmentation of agriculture
muft of confequence enfue from this new traffic.
But kt us throw in a circumftance which may imply
an additional confumption at home, and then examine
the confequences.
A poor creature who has no equivalent to offer for
food, who is miferable, and ready to perifh for want
of fubfiftence, goes a hunting, and kills a wolf; he
comes to a farmer with the fkin, and fays, You are
well fed, but you have no brandy; if you will give
me a loaf, I will give you this ikin, which the ftran-
gers are fo fond of, and they will give you brandy.
But, fays the farmer, I have no more bread than what
is fufficient for my own family. As for that, replies
the other, I will come an4 dig in your ground, and
vou and I will fettle our account as to the fmall quan¬
tity I defire of you. The bargain is made ; the poor
fellow gets his loaf, and lives at kaft ; perhaps he
marries, and the farmer gets a dram. But had it not
been for this dram, that is, this new want, which was
purchafed by the induftry of this poor fellow, by what
5
E R C E.
argument could he have induced the farmer to part
with a loaf ?
Here the fentiment of charity is excluded. This
alone is a principle of multiplication ; but as true it is
on the other hand, that could the poor fellow have got
bread by begging, he would not probably have gone a
hunting.
Here then it appears, that the very dawning of
trade, in the moft unpoliffied countries, implies a mul¬
tiplication. This is enough to point out the firft ftep,
and to conned the fubjed of our prefent inquiries with
what has been already difcuffed in relation to other cir¬
cumftances.
So foon as all the furs are difpofed of, and a tafte for
fuperfluity is introduced, both the traders and the na¬
tives will be equally intercfted in the advancement of in¬
duftry in this country. Many new objcdts of profit
for the firft will be difcovered, which the proper employ¬
ment of the inhabitants, in reaping the natural advan¬
tages of their foil and climate, will make effe&ual.
The traders will therefore endeavour to fet on foot ma¬
ny branches of induftry among the favages, and the
allurements of brandy, arms, and clothing, will animate
thefe in the purfuit of them.
When once this revolution is brought about; when
thofe who formerly lived in fimplicity become induftri-
ous; manners put on a new face.
That is to fay, we now find two trading nations
inftead of one, with this difference, however, that as
hitherto we have fuppofed che merchants all in one
intereft, the compound demand, that is, the competi¬
tion of the buyers, has been, and muft (till continue on
the fide of the natives. This is a great prejudice to
their intereft : but as it is not fuppofed fuflicient to
check their induftry, nor to reftrain their confumption
of the manufactures, let us here examine a little more
particularly the confequences of the principle of de¬
mand in fuch a fituation ; for although we allow, that
it can never change fides, yet it may admit of different
modifications, and produce different effedts, as we fltall
prefently perceive.
The merchants we fuppofe all in one intereft, confe-
quently there can be no competition among them; con-
fequently no check can he put upon their raifing their
prices, as long as the prices they demand are complied
with. So foon as they are railed to the full extent of
the abilities of the natives, or of their inclination to
buy, the merchants have the choice of three things,
which are all perfe&ly in their option ; and che pre¬
ference to be given to the one or the other, depends
entirely upon themfelves, and upon the circumftances
we are going to point out.
Firft, they may fupport their high demand ; that
is, not lower their price; which will preferve a high
eftimation of the manufactures in the opinion of the
inhabitants, and render the profits upon their trade
the grcateft poffibk. This part they may poffibly
take, if they perceive the natives doubling their dili¬
gence, in order to become able, in time, to purchafe
confiderabk cargoes at a high value ; from which fup-
pofition is implied a ftrong difpofition in the people to
become luxurious, fince nothing but want of ability
prevents them from complying with «the highiil de¬
mand : but'ftill another circumftance muft concur, to
engage the merchants not to lower their price. The
great
COMM
great proportion of the goods they feek for in re¬
turn, muft be found in the hands of a few. This will
be the cafe if flaveiy be eftablilhed; for then there
muft be many poor and few rich : and they are com¬
monly the rich confumers who proportion the price
they offer, rather to their defires, than to the value of
the thing.
The fecond thing which may be done is, to open the
door to a great demand ; that is to lower their prices.
This will link the value of the manufactures in the opi¬
nion of the inhabitants, and tender profits lets in pro¬
portion, although .indeed, upon the voyage, the pro-
•fits may be greater.
This part they will take, if they perceive the in¬
habitants do not incline to confume great quantities of
the merchandize at a high value, either for want of
abilities or inclination ; and alfo, if the profits upon
the trade depend upon a large confumption, as is the
cafe in merchandize of a low value, and fuited chiefly to
the occafions of the lower fort. Such motives of ex¬
pediency will be fulficient to make them negleCt a high
demand, and prefer a great one ; and the more, when
there is a likelihood that the confumption of low-priced
goods in the beginning may beget a tafte for others of
a higher value, and thus extend in general the tafte of
Superfluity.
A third part to be taken, is the leaft politic, and
perhaps the moft Familiar. It is to profit by the com¬
petition between the buyers, and encourage the ri-
fing of'demand as long as pofiible; when this comes
to a flop, to make a kind of auction, by firft bringing
down the prices to the level of the higheft bidders,
and fo to defcend by degrees, in proportion as de¬
mand finks. Thus we may fay with propriety, that
demand commonly becomes great, in proportion as
prices fink. By this operation, the traders will profit
as much as poffible, and fell off as mucMoftheir goods
as the profits will permit.
But this plan, in a new difcovered country, is not po¬
litic, as it both difcovers a covetoufnefs and a want of
faith in the merchants, and alfo throws open thefecrets
of their trade to thofe who ought to be kept ignorant
of them.
Let us next fuppofe, that the large profits of our
merchants fhall be difcovered by others, who arrive at
the fame ports in a feparate intereft, and who enter into
no combination which might prevent the natural effefts
of competition.
Let the Rates of demand among the natives be fup-
pofed the fame as formerly, both as to height and great-
nefs, in confequence of the operation of the different
principles, which might have induced our merchants
to follow one or other of the plans we have been de-
fcribing; we muft, however, ftill fuppofe, that they
have been careful to preferve confiderable profits upon
every branch.
if we fuppofe the inhabitants to have increafed in
numbers, wealth, and tafte for fuperfluity, fince the
laft voyage, demand will be found rather on the ri¬
ling hand. Upon the arrival of the merchants in com¬
petition with the former, both will offer to fale : but
if both ftand to the fame prices, it is very natural to
fuppofe, that the former dealers will obtain a prefer¬
ence ; as, cateris parilus, it is always an advantage to
know and to be known. The laft, comers, therefore,.
E II C E.
have no other way left to counterbalance this advan¬
tage, but to lower their prices.
This is a new phenomenon : here the fall of prices
is not voluntary as formerly; nor contented to from
expediency ; not owing to a failure of demand, but
to the influence of a new principle of commerce, to
wit, a double competition, which we lhall now exa¬
mine.
§ 5. Of double Competition.
When competition is much ftronger on one fide
of the contrail than on the ether, it is called fimple.
This is the fpecies of competition which is implied in
the term high demand, or when it is faid that demand
raifes prices.
Double competition is, when, in a certain degree, it
takes place on both Tides of the contra# at once, or
vibrates alternately from one to the other. This is
what reftrains prices to the adequate value of mer¬
chandize.
The great difficulty is to diftinguifli clearly between
the principles of demand and thofe of competition : here
then follows the principal differences between the two,
relatively to the effe#s they produce feverally in the
mercantile contract of buying and felling, which we
here exprefs Ihortly by the word contract.
Simple demand is what .brings the quantity of a-
commodity to market. Many demand, who do not
buy; many offer, who do not fell. This demand is.
called great or fmall; it is faid to increafe, to augment,
to fwell; and is expreffed by fhefe and other fynoni-
mous terms, which mark an augmentation or diminu¬
tion of quantity. In this fpecies, two people never de¬
mand the fame thing, but a part of the fame thing, or
things quite alike.
Compound demand is the principle which raifes prices,
and can never make them fink; becaufe in this cafe
more than one demands the very fame thing. It is
folely applicable to the buyers, in relation to the price
they offer. This demand is called high or low, and is
faid to rife, to fall, to mount, to fink, and is expreffed
by thefe and other fynonimous terms.
Simple competition, when between buyers, is th’6 fame
as compound or high demand; but differs from it in fo
far, as this may equally take place among fellers, which
compound demand cannot; and then it works a con¬
trary effe# : it makes prices fink, and is fynonimous
with low demand : it is this competition which over¬
turns the balance of work and demand.
Double competition is what is underftood to take
place in almoft every operation of trade; it is this
which pervents their exceffive rife of prices; it is this
which prevents their exceffive fall. While double
competition prevails, the balance is perfed, trade and
induftry flourifli.
The capital diftindion, therefore, between the terms
demand and competition is, that demand is conftantly re¬
lative to the buyers ; and when money is not the price,
as in barter, then it is relative to that fide upon which
the greateft competition is found.
We therefore fay, with regard to prices, demand is
high or low. With regard to the quantity of merchandise,.
demand is great or fmall. With regard to competition, it
is always called great or fmall, Jlrong or weak.
Competition is, with equal propriety, applicable to.
both;
208
COMMERCE.
both parties in the contraft. A competition among
buyers is a proper expreffion ; a competition among fel¬
lers, who have the merchandize, is fully as eafily under-
ftood, though it be not quite fo ftriking, for reafons
which an example will make plain.
You come to a fair, where you find a great variety
of every kind of merchandize, in the polfcfiion of dif¬
ferent merchants. Thefe, by offering their goods to
fale, conftitute a tacit competition ; every one of them
wifhes to fell in preference to another, and at the fame
time with the beft advantage to himfelf.
The buyer begins, by cheapening at every fhop.
The firft price allied marks the covetoufnefs of the
feller; the firft price offered, the avarice of the buyer.
From this operation competition begins to work its
effefts on both fides, and fo becomes double. The
principles which influence this operation are now to
be deduced.
It is impoffible to fuppofe the fame degree of eager-
nefs, either to buy or fell, among feveral merchants ;
becaufe the degree of eagernefs is exactly in propor¬
tion to their views of profit; and as thefe muft neceffarily
be influenced and regulated by different circumftances,
that buyer, who has the beft profpedl of felling again
with profit, obliges him, whofe profpeft is not fo good,
to content himfelf with lefs; and that feller, who has
bought to the beft advantage, obliges him, who has
paid dearer for the merchandize, to moderate his de¬
fire of gain.
It is from thefe principles, that competition among
buyers and fellers muft take place. This is what con¬
fines the fluftuation of prices within limits which are
compatible with the reafonable profits of both buyers
and fellers; for we muft conftantly fuppofe the whole
operation of buying and felling to be performed by
merchants; the buyer cannot be fuppofed to give fo
high a price as that which hf expefts to receive
when he diftributes to the confumers, nor can the
feller be fuppofed to accept of a lower than that which
he paid to the manufafturer. This competition is
properly called double, becaufe of the difficulty to de¬
termine upon which fide it Hands; the fame merchant
may have it in his favour upon certain articles, and
againft him upon others ; it is continually in vibration,
and the arrival of every poft may lefs or more pull down
the heavy fcale.
In every tranfaftion between merchants, the profit
refulting from the fale muft be exactly diitinguifhed
from the value of the merchandize. The firft may
vary, the laft never can. It is this profit alone which
can be influenced by competition ; and it is for that
reafon we find fuch uniformity every where in the prices
of goods of the fame quality.
The competition between fellers does not appear
fo ftriking as that between buyers; becaufe he who
offers to fale, appears only paflive in the firft opera¬
tion ; whereas the buyers prefent themfelves one af¬
ter another; they make a demand when the mer¬
chandize is refufed to one at a certain price ; a fecond
either offers more, or does not offer all: but fo foon
as another feller finds his account in accepting the price
the firft had refufed, then the firft enters into compe¬
tition, providing his profits will admit his lowering the
firft price; and thus competition takes place among the
86,
fellers, until the profits upon their trade prevent prices
from falling lower.
In all markets this competition is varying, though
infenfibly, on many occafions; but in others the vi¬
brations are very perceptible. Sometimes it is found
ftrongeft on the fide of the buyers; and in proportion
as this grows, the competition between the fellers di-
minilhes. When the competition between the former
has raifed prices to a certain ftandard, it comes to a
flop; then the competition changes fides, and takes
place among the fellers, eager to profit of the higheft
price. This makes prices fall; and according as they
fall, the competition among the buyers dimini/hes.
They ftill wait for the loweft period. At laft it comes;
and then perhaps fame new circumftance, by giving
the balance a kick, difappoints their hopes. If there¬
fore it ever happens, that there is but one intereft up¬
on one fide of the contraft, as in the example in the
former feftion, where we fuppofed the fellers united,
you perceive, that the rife of the price, occafioned by
the competition of the buyers, and even its coming to
a flop, could not poffibly have the effeft of producing
any competition on the other fide; and therefore, if
prices come afterwards to fink, the fall muft have pro¬
ceeded from the prudential confiderations of adapting
the price to the faculties of thofe who, from the height
of it, had withdrawn their demand.
From thefe principles of competition, the foreftalling
of markets is made a crime, becaufe it diminiflies the
competition which ought to take place between dif¬
ferent people, who have the fame merchandize to of¬
fer to fale. The foreftaller buys all up, with an in¬
tention to fell with more profit, as he has by that means
taken other competitors out of the way, and appears
with a fingle intereft on one fide of the contraft, in
the face of many competitors on the other. This per-
fon is punifhed by the ftate, becaufe he has prevented
the price of the merchandize from becoming juftly
proportioned to the real value ; he has robbed the pub¬
lic and enriched himfelf; and in the punilhment he
makes reftitution. Here occur two queftions to be re-
folved, for the fake of illuftration.
Can competition among buyers poffibly take place,
when the provifion made is more than fufficient to fupply
the quantity demanded .? On the other hand, can compe¬
tition take place among the fellers, when the quantity
demanded exceeds the total provifion made for it ?
We think it may in both cafes; becaufe in the one
and the other, there is a competition implied on one
fide of the contraft, and the very nature of this com¬
petition implies a poffibility of its coming on the other,
provided feparate interefts be found upon both fides.
But to be more particular :
i. Experience flrows, that however juftly the pro¬
portion between the demand and the fupply may be
determined in faft, it is ftill next to impollible to dif-
coyer it exaftly, and therefore the buyers can only re¬
gulate the prices they offer, by what they may reafon-
ably expeft to fell for again. The fellers, on the
other hand, can only regulate the prices they expeft,
by what the merchandize has coft them when brought
to market. We have already Ihown, how, under
fuch circumftances, the feveral interefts of individuals
affeft each other, and make the balance vibrate.
209
COMM
2. The proportion between the fupply and the de¬
mand is feldom other than relative among merchants,
who are -fuppofed to buy and felf, not from heceffity,
but from a view to profit. What we mean by rela¬
tive is, that their demand is great or fmall according
to prices; there may be a great demand for grain at
35 s. per quarter, and no demand at all for it at 40 s. ;
that- is, among merchants.
It is effential to attend to the fmalleft circumftance
in matters of this kind. The circumftance we mean,
is the difference we find in the effeft of competition,
when it takes place purely among merchants on both
fides of the contraft, and when it happens, that either
the confumers mingle themfelves with the merchant-
buyers or the manufacturers, that is, the furnilhers,
mipgle themfeives with the merchant-fellers. This
combination we lhall illuftrate by the folution of ano¬
ther queflion, and then conclude with a few refleftions
upon the whole.
Can there be no cafe formed, where the competi¬
tion upon one fide may fubfift, without a poflibility of
its taking place on the other,’although there fhould be
feparate interefts upon both ?
The cafe is hardly fitppofable among merchants, who
buy and fell with a view to profit; but it is abfolutely
fuppofable, and that is al!, when the direft confumers
are the buyers ; when the circumftances of one of the
parties is perfectly known ; and when the competition
is fo ftrong upon one fide, as to prevent a polfibility
of its becoming double, before the whole provifron is
fold off, or the demand fatisfied. Let ns have re-
courfe to examples.
Grain arriving in a fmall quantity, at a port where
the inhabitants are ftarving, produces fo great a com¬
petition among the confumers, who are the buyers,
that their necefilty becomes evident"; all the grain is
generally bought up before prices can rife fo high as
to conic to a ftop ; becaufe nothing but want of mo¬
ney, that is, an impoffibility of complying with the
prices demanded by the merchants, can reftrain them :
but if you fuppofe, even here, that prices come natu¬
rally to a7 ftop ; or that, after tome time, they fall
lower, from prudential confiderations; then there is
a poffibility of a competition taking place among the
fellers, from the principles above deduced.' If, on the
contrary, the Hep is not natural, but occafioned by the
interpofition of the magiftrate* from humanity, or the
like, there wilt be no competition, becaufe then the
principles of commetce are fufpended ; the fi llers are
reftrained c n one fide, and they reft rain the buyeis on
the other. -'Or rather indeed, it is the magiftrate, or
compafliorv, who in a manner fixes the price, and per¬
forms the office of both buyer and feller.
A 'better example ftiil may be found, in a competi¬
tion among fellers ; where it may be fo ftrong as to
render a commodity in a manner of no value at all, as
in the cafe of an uncommon and unexpedfed draught
of fifn, in a place of fmall confumption, when no pre¬
parations have been made for faking them. There
can be then no competition among the buyers; be¬
caufe the market cannot laft, and they find themfelvts
-entirely maflers, to give what price they pleafe, be¬
ing fare the fellers muff accept of it, or lofe their mer¬
chandize. In the firft example, humanity commonly
Hops the aftivity of the ptinciple of competition ; in
Vol. V. Part I.
E R C F.
the other, it is flopped by a certain degree of fair deal¬
ing, which forbids the accepting of a merchandize for
nothing.
In proportion therefore as the rifing of prices can
flop demand, or the finking of prices can increafe it,
in the fame proportion will competition prevent either
the rife or the fall from being carried beyond a certain
length : and if fuch a cafe can be put, where the rifing
of prices cannot ftop demand, nor the lowering of
prices augment it, in fitch cafes double competition has
no tffeft; becaufe thefe circumftances unite the mofb
feparate interefts of buyers and fellers in the mer¬
cantile contracff ; and when upon one fide there is
no feparate interelt, there can then be no competi¬
tion.
From what has been faid, wp may form a judgment
of the various degrees of competition. A book not
worth a fhilling, a fifh of a few pounds weight, are
often fold for confiderable fums. The buyers here are
not merchants. When an ambaffador leaves a court in
a hurry, things are fold for lefs than the half of their
value : he is no merchant, and his fituation is known.
When, at a public market, there are found confumers,
who make their provifion ; or manufafturers, who dif-
pofe of their goods for prefent fubfiftence ;v the mer¬
chants, who are refpeftively upon the oppofite fide of
the contraft to thefe, profit of their competition ; and
thofe who are refpe&ively upon the fame fide with
them, ftand by with patience until they have finilhed
their bufinefs. Then matters come to be carried on
between merchant and merchant, and then profits may
rife and fall, in the proportion of quantity to demand ;
that is to fay, if the provifion Is lefs than the demand,
the competition among the demanders, or the rife of
the price, will be in the compound proportion of the
falling fhort of tWcommodity, and of the profpeft of
felling again with profit. It is this combination which
regulates the competition, and keeps it within bounds.
It can affeft but the profits upon the tranfaftion : the
intrinfic value of the commodity ftands immoveable:
nothing is ever fold below the real value; nothing is
ever bought for more than it may probably bring.
We mean in general. Whereas, fo loon as confume.s
and needy manufadurers mingle in the operation, all
proportion is loft. The competition between them is
too ftrong' for the merchants; the balance vibrates by
jerks. In fuch markets merchants feldom appear : the
principal obje&s there, are the fruits and productions
of the earth, and articles of the firft neceffity for life,
not manufactures ftrictly fo called. A poor fellow
often fells to purchafe bread to eat; not to pay what
he did eat while he was employed in the work he dif-
pofes of. The confumer often meafures the value of
what he is about to purchafe, by the weight of his
purfe, and his defire to confume.
^ 6. Of what is called Expence, Profit, and Lofis.
The term expence, when fimply expreffed, without
any particular relation, i; always underilood to be re¬
lative to money. This kind is diftinguiffied under the
three heads of private, pul-tic, and national.
I- Private expence is what a private perfon, or pri¬
vate fociety, lays out, either to provide articles of con-
fumption, or fomething more permanent, which may
be conducive to their eafe, convenience, or advantage.
I) d Thug
210
COMMERCE.
Thus we fay, a large domejlk expence, relative to one
who fpends a great income. We fay,, a merchant has
been at great expence for magazines, for. living, for
clerks, &c. but never»that he has been at any in,buy*
ing goods. In the fame way a manufa&urer may ex¬
pend for building, machine?, horfes, and carriages, but
never for the matter he manufactures. When a thing
is bought in order to be {old again, the fum employ¬
ed is called money when it is bought not
to be fold, it may be faid to be expended.
2. Public expence is the employment of that money
which has been contributed by individuals for the cur¬
rent fervice of the date. The contribution, or ga¬
thering it together, reprefents the effe&s of many ar¬
ticles of private expence; the laying it out when col-
leCted, is public expence.
3. National expence is what is expended out of the
country ; this is what diminiihes national wealth. The
principal diftinCtion to be here attended to is between
public expence, or the laying out of public money, and
national expence, which is the alienating the nation’s
wealth in favour of ftrangers.. Thus the greateft. pub¬
lic expence imaginable maybe no national expence j.
becaufe the money may remain at home. Gn the o-
ther hand, the fmalleft public, or even private expence,
"may be a national expence; becaufe the money, may
go abroad.
Profit and lofs is divided into pofitive, relative^ and
compound. Pofitive profit implies no lofs to any body ;
it refults from an augmentation of labour,.induftry, or
ingenuity, and has the effeCt of fwelling or augment¬
ing the public good.
Pofitive lofi implies no profit to any.body ; it is what
refults from the ceffation of the former, or of the ef-
fedls refulting from it, and may be faid to diminilh the
public good.
Relative profit is what implies a lofs to fomebody :;
it marks a vibration of the balance of wealth between
parties, but implies no addition to the general dock..
Relative lofs is what, on the contrary, implies a pro¬
fit to fomebody ; it alfo marks a vibration of the ba¬
lance, but takes nothing from the general dock.
The compound is eafily underdood ; it is that fpecies
of profit and lofs which is partly relative and partly
pofitive.
J 7. The general confequences refulting to a trading
Nation, upon the opening of an active foreign Com¬
merce.
A nation which remains paffive in her commerce
is at the mercy of thofe who are a&ive, and mud be
greatly favoured indeed by natural advantages, or by
a condant flux of gold and filver from her mines, to
be able to fupport a correfpondence not- entirely hurt¬
ful to the augmentation of her wealth.
When we look upon the wide field which here opens
to our view, we are perplexed with too great a variety
of obje&s. In one part, we fee a decent and comely
beginning of indudry ; wealth flowing gently in to re-
compence ingenuity ; numbers both augmenting, and
every one becoming daily more ufeful to another; agri¬
culture proportionally extending itfelf; no violent re¬
volutions; no exorbitant profits ; no infolence among
the rich ; no exceflive mifery among the poor ; multi¬
tudes employed in producing; great economy upon
confumption ; and all the indrumentS'of luxury, daily-
produced by the hands of the diligent, going out of
the country for the fervice of drangers; not remaining
at home for the gratification of fenfuality. At lad
the augmentations come infenfibly to a flop. Then
thefe rivers of wealth, which were in brifle circulation
through the whole world, and which returned to this
trading nation as blood returns to the heart, only to
be thrown out again by new pulfations, begin to be
obdrufted in their courfe and flowing abroad more
flowly than before, come to form dagnations at home..
Thefe, impatient of redraint, foon burd out into do-
medic circulation. Upon this cities fwell in magni¬
ficence of buildings; the face of the country is adorn¬
ed with palaces, and becomes covered with groves ;
luxury {hines triumphant in every part; inequality be¬
comes more linking to the eye ; and want and mifery
appear more deformed, from the contrad : even for¬
tune grows more whimfical in her incondancy; the
beggar of the other day now rides in his coach ; and
he who was born in a bed of date, is feen to die in a
goal or in an alrnsrhoiife. Such are the effefls of
great domedic circulation..
The flatefman looks about with amazement; he.
who was wont to confider himfelf as the firfl man in
the fociety in every refpeft, perceives himfelf, per¬
haps, eclipfed by the luflre of private wealth, which
avoids his grafp when he attempts to feize it. This
makes his government more complex and more diffi¬
cult- to be. carried on ; he mud now avail himfelf of
art and addrefs, as well as of power and force. By
the help of cajoling and intrigues, he gets a little into
debt;; this lays a foundation for public credit, which,
growing by degrees, and in itsprogrefs affuming many
new forms, becomes, from the mod tender begin¬
nings, a mod formidable monfler,. driking terror into
thofe who cherilhed it in its infancy. Upon this, as
upon a triumphant war-horfe, the flatefman gets a-
dride ; he then appears formidable a-new ; his head
turns giddy ; he is choaked with the dud he has rai-
fed ;. and at the moment he is ready to fall, to his ut¬
ter aflonifliment and furprife, he finds a drong mo¬
nied intered; of his own creating, which, indead of
fwallowing him up as he apprehended, flies to his
fupport. Through this he gets the better of all oppo-
fition, he eflablidies taxes, multiplies them, .mortgages
his fund of fubfidence ; either becomes a bankrupt,
and rifes again from his afhes ; or if he be lefs auda¬
cious, he flands trembling and tottering for a while on
the brink of the political precipice. From one or the
other of thefe perilous fituations, he begins to difeover
an endlefs path, which, after a multitude of windings,.
dill returns into itfelf, and continues an equal courfe
through this vad labyrinth.
It is now full time to leave off rhapfody, and re¬
turn to reafoning and cool enquiry, concerning the
more immediate and more general effedls and revolu¬
tions produced by the opening, of a foreign trade in a
nation of indudry.
The firff and mod fenfible alteration will be an in-
creafe of demand for manufa&urers, becaufe by fup-
plying the wants of drangers, the number of confu-
mers will now be confiderably augmented. What a-
gain will follow upon this, mud depend upon circum-
dancea.
If
211
COMM
If this revolution in the ftate of demand fhould
prove too violent, the confequence of it will be to
raife demand ; if it fhould prove gradual, it will in-
creafe it. This diftin&ion is well underftood, and the
confequence appears juft : for, if the fupply do not
increafe in proportion to the demand, a competition
will enfue among the demanders; which is the com¬
mon effeft of fuch fudden revolutions. If, on the o-
ther hand, a gentle increafe of demand (hould be ac¬
companied with a proportional fupply, the whole in-
duftrious fociety will grow in vigour, and in whole-
fome ftature, without being fenfible of any great advan¬
tage or inconveniency ; the change of their circum-
flances will even be imperceptible.
The immediate effefts of the violent revolution
will, in this example, be flattering to fome and difa-
greeable to others. Wealth will be found daily to
augment, from the rifing of prices,, in many branches
of induftry. This will encourage the induftrious claf-
fes, and the idle confumers at home will complain.
We have already dwelt abundantly long upon the ef-
fe6l refulting from this to the lower clafles of the
people, in providing them with a certain means of
fubflftence. Let us now examine in what refpeft
even the higher clafles will be made likewife to feel
the good efife&s of this general change, although at
firft they may fuffer a temporary inconveniency from
it.
Farmers, as has been obferved, will have a greater
difficulty in finding fervants, who, inftead of labouring
the ground, will chufe to turn thymfelves to manufac¬
tures. This we have confidered in the light of pur¬
ging the lands of fuperflnous mouths; but every con¬
fequence in this great chain of politics draws other
confequences after it, and as they follow one another,
things put on different faces, which affedf clafles dif¬
ferently. The purging of the land is but one of the
firft ; here follows another.
The defertion of the lands employed in a trifling
agriculture will at firft, no doubt, embarrafs the far¬
mers ; but in a little time every thing becomes balan¬
ced in a trading nation, becaufe here every induftrious
man muft advance in profperity, in fpite of all general
combinations of circumftances.
In the cafe before us, the relative profits upon farm¬
ing muft footv become greater than formerly, becaufe
of this additional expence which muft affedl the whole
clafs of farmers ; confequently, this additional expence,
inftead of turning out to be a lofs to either landlord or
farmer, will, after fome little time, turn out to the
advantage of both ; becaufe the produce of the ground,
being indifpenfably neceflary to every body, muft in
every article increafe in its value. Thus in a ftiort
time accounts will be nearly balanced on all hands ;
that is to lay, the fame proportion of wealth will,
tateris paribus, continue the fame among the induf-
trions. We fay among the induftrious ; for thofe
who are either idle, or even negligent, will be great
lofers.
A proprietor of land, inattentive to the caufesof his
farmer’s additional expence, may very imprudently
fuffer his rents to fall, inftead of affifting him on a pro¬
per occafion, in order to make them afterwards rife
the higher.
Thofe who live upon a determined income in mo
E R C E.
ney, and who are nowife employed in traffic, nor in
any fcheme of induftry, will, by the augmentation
of prices, be found in worfe circumftances than be¬
fore.
In a trading nation every man muft turn his talents
to account, or he will undoubtedly be left behind in
this univerfal emulation, in which the mod induftrious,
the moft ingenious, and the moll frugal, will conftantly
carry off the prize.
This confideration ought to be a fpur to every
body. The richeft men in ^ trading nation have no
fecurity agaiaft poverty; we mean proportional po¬
verty ; for though they diminilh nothing of their in¬
come, yet, by not increafing it in proportion to others,
they lofe their rank in wealth, and from the firft clafs
in which they flood they will Aide infenfibly down to
a lower.
There is one confequence of an additional benefi¬
cial trade, which raifes demand and increafes wealth ;
but if we fuppofe no proportional augmentation of
fupply, it will prove at bell but an airy dream which
lafts for a moment; and when the gilded feene is
palled away, numberlefs are the inconveniences which
are feen to follow.
We lhall now point out the natural confequences of
this augmentation of wealth drawn from foreign na¬
tions, when the ftatefman remains inattentive to in¬
creafe the fupply both of food and manufadlures, in
proportion to the augmentation of mouths, and of the
demand for the produceof indtiftry.
In fuch a fituation profits will daily fwell, and every
fcheme for reducing them within the bounds of mo¬
deration, will be looked upon as a hurtful and unpo¬
pular meafure : be it fo ; but let us examine the con¬
fequences.
We have faid, that the rife of demand for manu-
faCtures naturally increafes the value of work: now
we muft add, that under fuch circumflances, the aug¬
mentation of riches in a country, either not capable
of improvement as to the foil, or where precautions
have not been taken for facilitating a multiplica¬
tion of inhabitants, by the importation of fubfift-
ence, will be produdlive of the moll calamitous confe¬
quences. '
On one fide, this wealth will effedlually diminiffi
the mafs of the food before produced; and on the
other, will increafe the number of ufelefs confumers.
The firft of thefe circumftances will raife the demand
for food; and the fecond will diminilh the number
of ufeful free hands, and confequently raife the price
of manufadlures: here are ftiortly the outlines of this
progrefs.
The more rich and luxurious a people are, the more
delicate they become in their manner of living; if
they fed on bread formerly, they will now feed' on
meat; if they fed on meat, they will now feed on
fowl. The fame ground which feeds a hundred with
bread,, and a proportional quantity of animal food,
will not maintain an equal number of delicate livers.
Food tnuft then become more fcarce ; demand for it
rifes; the rich are always the ftrongeft in the mar¬
ket ; they confume the food, and the poor are forced
to ftarve. Here the wide door to modern diftrefs
opens; to wit, a hurtful competition for fubfiftence.
Farther,, when a people become rich, they think lefs
Dd 3 of
12
COMM
of economy ; a number of ufelefs fervants are hired,
to become an additional dead weight on confumption ;
and when their ftarving countrymen cannot fiipply the
extravagance of the rich fo cheaply as other nations,
they either import inftruments of foreign luxury, or
feck to enjoy them out of their own country', and
thereby make reftitution of their gains.
Is it not therefore evident, that if, before things
come to this pafs, additional fubfiilence be not provi¬
ded by one method or other, the number of inhabi¬
tants muit diminiih ; although riches may daily in-
creafe by a balance of additional matter, fuppofed to
be brought into the country in confequence of the hi¬
therto benelicial foreign trade ? This is not all. We
fay farther, that the beneficial trade will laft for a
time only. For the infallible confequence of the rife
of prices at home will be, that thofe nations which at
lirft confumcd your, mannfa&ures, perceiving the gra¬
dual increafe of their price, will begin to work for
themfelves; or finding out your rivals who can fup-
p!y them cheaper, will open their doors to them.
Tliefe again, perceiving the great advantages gained
by your traders, will begin to fupply the market; and
lince every thing muit be cheaper in countries where
we do not fuppofe the concurrence of all the circum-
itarices mentioned above, thefe nations will fupplant
you, and be enriched in their turn.
Here comes a new revolution. Trade is come to
a ftop: what then becomes of all the hands which
were formerly employed in fupplying the foreign de¬
mands ?
Were revolutions fo fudden as we are obliged to
reprefent them, all would go to wreck; in proportion
as they happen by quicker or flower degrees, the in¬
conveniences are greater or fmaller.
Prices, we have faid, are made to rife by compe¬
tition. If the competition of the ftrangers w'as what
railed them, the diltrefs upon the manufadlurcrs w ill
be in proportion to the fuddennefs of their deferting
the market. If the competition was divided between
the ftrangers and the home-confumers, the inconve¬
niences w'hich enfue will be lefs; becaufe the defer-
tion of the ftrangers will be in fome meafure made up
by an increafe of home-confumption which will follow
upon the fall of prices. And if, in the third cafe, the
natives have been fo imprudent, as not only to fup-
port a competition with the ftrangers, and thereby
difguft them from coming any more to market, but
even to continue the competition between themfelves,
the whole lofs fuftained by the revolution will be na¬
tional. Wealth will ceafe to augment; but the in¬
conveniences, in place of being felt by the manufac¬
turers, will only affett the ftate ; thofe will continue
in affluence, extolling the generofity of their coun¬
trymen, and defpifing the poverty of the ftrangers who
had enriched them.
Domeftic luxury will here prove an expedient for
preferving from ruin the induftrious part of a people,
wrho in fubfifting themfelves had enriched their coun¬
try. No change will follow in their condition; they
will go on with a painful affiduity to labour: and if
the confequenees of it become now hurtful to one part
of the ftate, they muft at lealt be allowed to be ef-
fentially neceflary for the fupport of the other.
But that luxury is no neceffary concomitant of fo-
E R C E.
reign trade, in a nation where the true principles of
it are underftcod, will appear very plain, from a con¬
trail we are now going to point out, in the example-
of a modern ftate, renowned for its commerce and
frugality. The country is Holland.
A fet of induftrious and frugal people were aflem-
bled in a country by nature fubject to many inconve¬
niences, the removing of which nectflarily employed
abundance of hands. Their fituation upon the conti¬
nent, the power of their former mailers, and the am¬
bition of their neighbours, obliged them to keep great
bodies of troops. Thefe two articles added to the
numbers of the tommunity, without, either enriching
the ftate by their labour exported, or producing food
for themfelves or countrymen.
The fcheme of a commonwealth was calculated to
draw together the induftrious; but it has been ilill
more ufeful in fubfifting them : the republican form
of government being there greatly fubdivided, veils
authority fufiicient in eyery part of it, to make fuitable
provifion for their own fubfiftence ;, and the tie which
unites them, regards only matters of public concern.
Had the whole been governed by one fovereign, or by
one council, this important matter never could have
been effedluated. „
It would be impoflible for the moil able minifter
that ever lived, to provide nouriihment for a country
fo extendeft as France,, or even as England, fuppo-
fing thefe as fully peopled as Holland is; even although
it ihould be admitted that a fuindent quantity of food
might be found in other countries for their fubfiftence.
The enterprife would be too great, abufes would mul¬
tiply ; the confequence would be, that the inhabitants
would die for want. But in Holland the cafe is dif¬
ferent : every little town takes care of its own inha¬
bitants ; and this care being the object of application
and profit to fo many perfons, is accompliihed with
fueccfe.
When once it is laid down as a maxim in a coun¬
try, that food muft of riecefiky be got from abroad in
order to feed the inhabitants at home, the corn-trade
becomes confiderable, and at the-fame time certain, re¬
gular, and permanent. This was the cafe in Holland:
as the inhabitants were induftrious, the neceffary con¬
fequence has been, a very extraordinary multiplica¬
tion; and at the fame time fuch an abundance of grain,
that, inftead of being in want themfelves, they often
fupply their neighbours. There are many examples
of England’s being fupplied with grain from thence ;
and, which is ftill more extraordinary, from the re¬
exportation of the very produce of its own fruitful
foil.
It is therefore evident, that the only way to .fup¬
port induftry, is to provide a fupply of fubfiftence,
conftantly proportional to the demand that may be
made for it. This is a precaution indifpenfably ne¬
ceffary for preventing hurtful competition. This is
the particular care of the Dutch : fo long as it can be
effectual, their ftate can fear no decline; but when¬
ever they come to be diftreffed in. the markets, upon
which they depend for fubfiftence, they will fink into
ruin. It is by mere dint of frugality, cheap and par-
fimonious living, that the navigation of this induftri¬
ous people is fupported. Conftant employment, and
an accumulation of almoft imperceptible gains, fill
their
213
COMM
their coffers with wealth, in fpite of the large outgo¬
ings to which their own .proper nourifhment yearly-
forces them. The large prouts upon induftry in other
countries, which are no proof of generoflty, but a fa¬
tal effedt of a fcanty fubfiftence, is far from dazzling
their eyes. They fddom are found in the lift of
competitors at any foreign port; if they have their
cargo to difpofe of, they wait with pleafure in their
own veffels, confuming their own provifions, and at
laft accept of what others have left. It may be faid,
that many other circumftances concur in favour of the
Dutch, befides the article of fubfiftence. Without dif-
puting this matter, it may be obferved, that if a com¬
putation be made of the hands employed in providing
fubfiftence, and of thofe who are feverally taken up
in fupplying ever)’ other want, their numbers will be
found nearly to balance one another in the moft luxu¬
rious countries. From this we may conclude, that
the article of food, among the lower clafl'es, muft bear
a very high proportion to all the other articles of their
E R C E.
corifumption ; and therefore a diminution upon the
price of fubfiftence, muft be of infinite confequence to
manufacturers who are obliged to buy it. From this
confideration, let us judge of the confequence of fuch
augmentations upon the price of grain as are familiar
to us ; 30 or 4.0 /rr cent, feems nothing. Now this
augmentation operates upon two-thirds, atleaft, of the
whole expence of a labouring man : let any one who
lives in tolerable affluence make the application of this
to himfelf, and examine how he would manage his
affairs, if, by accidents of rains or winds,j his expences
were to rife 30 per cent, without a pofiibility of re-
ftraining them; for this is unfortunately the cafe with
all the lower claffes. From whence it may be con¬
cluded, that the keeping food cheap, and ftiil more the
preferving it at all times at an equal ftandard, is the
fountain of the wealth of Holland ; and that any hurt¬
ful competition in this article muft beget a diforder
which will affect the whole of the manufacturers of a:
ftate.
COM
Contmercy COMMERCY, a handfome town of France in the
„ II . duchy of Bar, with the title of a principality, and a
t0..yi magnificent caftle. It is feated on the river Menle, in
u—y-—1 E. Long. 5. 24. N. Eat. 48. 20.
COMMERSONIA, in botany: A genus of the
pentagynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. The calyx is a monophyllous, five-parted,
corollifero is perianthium, with ftiarp ovated fegments;
the corolla has five linear petals ; the ftamina are five
very fhort filaments at the bafes of the petals ; the
peiicarpium a globular, hard, quinquelocular nut, with
two ovated feeds in each divifion.
CO MM [NATION, an office in the liturgy of th£
church of England, appointed to be read on Affi-
Wednefday, or the firft day of Lent. It is fubftitu-
ted in the room of that godly diJcipUne in the primitive
church, by which (as the introduction to the office
expreffes it), “ fuch perfons, as flood eonvifted of no¬
torious fins, were put to open penance, and puniffied
in this world, that their fouls might be faved in the
day of the Lord ; and that others, admonifhed by
their example, might be the more afraid to offend.”
This difcipline, in after ages, degenerated, in the
church of Rome, into a formal confeffion of fins upon
Afh-Wednefday, and the empty ceremony of fprink-
ling allies upon the heads of the people. Our refor¬
mers wifely rejedled this ceremony, as mere ffladow
and (how; and fubftituted this office in its room, which
is, A denunciat'wn of GotPs anger and judgment againjl
jinners; that the people, being apprized of God’s
wrath and indignation againft fin, may not, through
want of difcipline in the church, be encouraged to
follow and purfue them ; ,but rather be moved to
lupply that difcipline to themfelves, and fo to a-
void being judged and condemned at the tribunal of
God.
COMMINATORY, an appellation given to what¬
ever threatens puniffiment, or fome penalty. Thus,
in. France, when an exile is enjoined not to return un¬
der pain of death, it is deemed a comminatory penal¬
ty ; iince, if he_do return, it is not ftridtly executed ;
COM
but a fecond injun&ion is laid on him, which is more Comminge*
than comminatory, and, from the day of the date
thereof, imports death without remedy. f.,ry_
COMMlNGES, a province of France, 45 miles in  v <
length, and 15 in breadth; bounded on the north by
Gafcony, on the fouth by Catalonia, on the eaft by
Coufferans, and on the weft by Bigorra. Its princi¬
pal trade confifts in cattle, mules, and corn. St Ber¬
trand is the capital town.
COMMINUTION, denotes the breaking, or rather
grinding, a body to very fmall particles.
COMMIRE (John), a celebrated Latin poet, born
at Amboife in 1625, entered into the fociety of the
Jefuits, and taught polite literature and divinity. He
died at Paris in 1702. We have a volume of his
Latin poems, and a collection of his pofthumous
works. His odes and fables are more particularly ad¬
mired.
COMMISSARY, in the eccleilaftical law, an offi¬
cer of the biftiop, who exercifes fpiritual jurifdxciion in
places of a diocefe fo. far from the Epifcopal fee, that
the chancellor cannot call the people to the biffiop’s-
principal confiftory court, without giving them too
much inconveniency.'
Commissart-Court, in Scotland, a court original¬
ly conftituted by the bilhops for executing in their
name an ufurped jurifdidtion ; and was anciently cal¬
led the hjhopds court, curia Chrijtianitatis, or conjijlorial
court. This court was modelled by queen Mary at
the Reformation, and continues till this day.
Commissary, in a military, fenfe, is of different
forts.
CoMMissARr-Cencral of the Mujlcrs, an officer ap¬
pointed to mufter the army, as often as the general
thinks proper, in order to know the ftrength of each
regiment and company, to receive and infpeft the
muftcr-rolls, and to keep an exaft ftate of the ftrength
of the army.
Commissary of Horfes, an officer in the artillery,
appointed to have the infpe&ion of the artillery-horfes,
to fee them jnuftered, and to fend fuch orders as he
receives.
C O M [ 214 ] COM
Comnuf- receives from the commanding officer of the artillery,
kfy by fome of the conductors of horfes, of which he has
Commit- ^ certain number for his affiftants.
fion. Com miss art of Provifwns, an officer who has the
charge of furnifliing the army with provillons.
Commjssart of Stores, an officer in the artillery, who
has the charge of all the ftores, for which he is ac¬
countable to the office of ordnance.
COMMISSION, In common law, the warrant or
letters patent, which all perfons exercifmg jurifdiCtion
have to empower them to hear or determine any caufe
or fuit, as the com-miffion of the judges, &c.
Commission of Bankruptcy, is the commiffion that
rflues from the lord chancellor, on a perfon’s becom¬
ing a bankrupt within any of the ftatutes, diredled to
certain commiffioners appointed to examine Into it,
and to fecure the bankrupt’s lands and eflfefts for the
fatisfaftion of his creditors. See the article Bank¬
rupt.
The proceedings on a commiffion of bankrupt may
be divided, 1. Into thofe which affedt the bank¬
rupt himfelf. 2. Into thofe which affedt his pro-
perty.
Blacipone's j. As to thofe ot the former kind, there mull in
Comment, ^ piace ke a petition to the lord chancellor by
one creditor to the amount of L. zoo, or by two to
the amount of L. 150, or by three or more, to the
amount of L. 200 ; upon which he grants a commif-
lion to fuch difcreet pei fons as to him fhall feem good,
who are then ftyled commiffioners of bankrupt. The
petitioners, to prevent malicious applications, muft be
bound in a fecurity of I- 200, to make the party a-
mends, in cafe they do not prove him a bankrupt. And
if, on the other hand, they receive any money or ef-
fefts from the bankrupt, as a recompenfe for fuing
out the commiffion, fo as to receive more than their
rateable dividends of the bankrupt’s eftate, they forfeit
not only what they ffiall have fo received, but their
whole debt. When the commiffion is awarded and if-
fued, the commiffioners are to meet at their own ex¬
pence, and to take an oath for the due execution of
their commiffion, and to be allowed a fum not exceed¬
ing 20s.per. diem each, at every fitting. And no com¬
miffion of bankruptcy lhall abate or be void on any de-
mife of the crown.
When the commiffioners have received their com¬
miffion, they are firft to receive proof of the perfon’s
being a trader, and having committed fome aft of
bankruptcy; and then to declare him bankrupt, if pro¬
ved fo; and to give notice thereof in the gazette, and
at the fame time to appoint three meetings. At one
of thefe meetings an eleftion muft be made of af-
fignees, or perfons to whom the bankrupt’s eftate lhall
be affigned, and in whom it Ihall be veiled for the be¬
nefit of the creditors; which affignees are chofen by
the major part, in value, of the creditors who lhall
then have proved their debts; but may be originally
appointed by the commiffioners, and afterwards ap¬
proved or rejefted by the creditors: but no creditor
lhall be admitted to vote in the choice of affignees,
whofe debt, on the balance of accounts, does not
amount to L. 10. And at the third meeting at far-
theft, which muft be on the 42 ft day after the adver-
tifement in the gazette, the bankrupt, upon notice al-
£0 perfonally ferved upon him, or left at his ufual
place of abode, muft furrender himfelf perfonally to CommiC-
the commiffioners, and muft thenceforth in all refpefts fi°n‘
conform to the direftions of the ftatutes of bankrupt-
cy; or, in default thereof, lhall be guilty of felony
without benefit of clergy, and lhall fuffer death, and
his goods and eftate lhall be divided among his credi¬
tors.
In cafe the bankrupt abfeonds, or is likely to run
away between the time of the commiffion ilfued and
the laft day of furrender, he may, by warrant from
any judge orjuftice of the peace, be apprehended and
committed to the county gaol, in order to be forth¬
coming to the commiffioners, who are alfo empower¬
ed immediately to grant a warrant for feizing his
goods and papers.
When the bankrupt appears, the commiffioners are
to examine him touching all matters relating to his
trade and effefts. They may alfo fummon before them,
and examine, the bankrupt’s wife, and any other per-
fon whatfoever, as to all matters relating to the bank¬
rupt’s afiairs: And in cafe any of them lhall refufe to
anfwer, or lhall not anfwer fully, to any lawful quef-
tion, or lhall refufe to fubferibe fuch their examina¬
tion, the commiffioners may commit them to prifon
without bail, till they make and fign a full anfwer;
the commiffioners fpecifying in their warrant of com¬
mitment the queftion fo refufed to be anfwered. And
any gaoler, permitting fuch perfon to efcape or go out
of prifon, lhall forfeit L.. 500 to the creditors.
The bankrupt, upon this examination, is bound, up¬
on pain of death, to make a full difeovery of all his
eftate and effefts as well in expeftancy as poffeflion,
and how he has difpofed of the fame; together with
all books and writings relating thereto: and is to de¬
liver up all in his power to the commiffioners (ex¬
cept the neceffary apparel of himfelf, his wife, and
his children) ; or, in cafe he conceals or embezzles
any effefts to the amount of L. 20, or with-holds any
book or writings, with intent to defraud his credi¬
tors, he lhall be guilty of felony without benefit of
clergy.
After the time allowed the bankrupt for fuchedifco-
very is expired, any other perfon voluntarily difeo-
vering any part of his eftate before unknown to the
affignees, fhall be intitled to five per cent, out of the
effefts fo difeovered, and fuch farther reward as the
affignees and commiffioners lhall think proper. And
any truftee wilfully concealing the eftate of any bank¬
rupt, after the expiration of 42 days, Hi all forfeit
L. zoo, and double the value of the eftate concealed,
to the creditors.
Hitherto every thing is in favour of the creditors;
and the law feems to be pretty rigid and fevere againft
the bankrupt; but, in cafe he proves honeft, it makes
him full amends for all this rigour and feverity. For,
if the bankrupt hath made an ingenuous difeovery,
hath conformed to the direftions of the law, and hath
afted inwall points to the fatisfaftion of his creditors;
and if they, or four parts in five of them in number
and value (but none of them creditors for lefs than
L. 20), will Tign a certificate to that purport; the
commiffioners are then to authenticate fuch certificate
under their hands and feals, and to tranfmit it to the
lord chancellor: and he, or two judges whom he lhall
appoint, on oath made by the bankrupt that fuch cer¬
tificate
Gommif- tificate was obtained without fraud, may allow the
fion- ' fame -; or difallow it, upon caufe fliowu by any of the
creditors of the bankrupt.
If no caufe be (hown to the contrary, the certifi¬
cate is allowed of courfe ; and then the bankrapt is
intitled to a decent and reafortable allowance out of
his effects, for his future fupport and maintenance,
and to put him in a way of honeft induftry. This al¬
lowance is alfo in proportion to his former good be¬
haviour, in the early difcovery of the decline of his
affairs, and thereby giving his creditors a larger di¬
vidend. For if his effedts will not pay one half of his
debts, or ics. in the pound, he is left to the difcretion
of the commiffioners and affighees, to have a compe¬
tent fum allowed him, not exceeding 3 per cent. ; but
if they pay 10s. in the pound, he is to be allowed
5 per cent. ; if 12 s. and 6d. then 7^- per tent.; and if
1 $s. in the pound, then the bankrupt fliall be allow¬
ed 10 per cent. ; provided that fuch allowance do not
in the firft cafe exceed L. 20©, in the fecond L.ijo,,
and in the third L. 300.
Befides this allowance, he has alfo an indemnity
granted him; of being free and difcharged for ever
from all debts owing by him at the time he became a
bankrupt; even though judgment fhall have been ob¬
tained againft him, and he lies in prifon upon execution
for fuch debts ; and, for that among other purpofes,
all proceedings on commiffion of bankrupt, are, .on pe¬
tition, to be entered on record, as a perpetual bar
againft aftions to be commenced upon this account:
though, in general, the production of the certificate
properly allowed fhall be fufficierit evidence of all pre¬
vious proceedings. Thus the bankrupt becomes a
clear man again ; and, by the affiftance of his allow¬
ance and his own induftry, may become a ufeful mem¬
ber of the commonwealth : which is the rather to be
expefted, as he cannot be intitled to thefe benefits,
but by the teftimony of his creditors themfelves of
his honeft and ingenuous difpofition ; and unlefs his
failures have been owing to misfortunes, rather than
to mifconduCt and extravagance.
2. As to the proceedings which affeCt the bankrupt’s
property.
By virtue of the ftatutes before mentioned, all the
perfonal eftate and effeCts of the bankrupt are con-
fidered as veiled, by the aCt of bankruptcy, in the
future affignees of his commiffioners, whether they be
goods in aCtual poffeffion, or debts, contracts, and o-
ther chofes in aCtion ; and the commiffioners by their
warrant may caufe any houfe or tenement of the
bankrupt to be broke open, in order to enter upon
and feize the fame. And when the affignees are cho-
fen or approved by the creditors-, the commiffioners
are to affign every thing over to them; and the
property of every part of the eftate is thereby as
fully veiled in them as it was in the bankrupt him-
felf, and they have the fame remedies to recover it.
The property vetted in the affignees is the whole
that the bankrupt had in himfelf, at the time he com¬
mitted the firft aCt of bankruptcy, or that has been
vetted in him fince, before his debts are fatisfied or
agreed for» Therefore it is ufually faid, that once a
bankrupt, and always a bankrupt: by which is meant,
that a plain direCt aCt of bankruptcy once committed,
cannot be purged, or explained away, by any fubfe-
quent conduCt, as a dubious equivocal a£t may be; but Commif-
that, if a commiffion is afterwards awarded, the com-, ft00, ,
miffion and the property of the affignees fhall have a re- "v
lation, or reference, back to the firft and original aCt of
bankruptcy. Infomuch that all tranfaCtions of the
bankrupt are from that time abfolutely null and void,
either with regard to the alienation of his property, or
the receipt of his debts from fuch as are privy to his
bankruptcy; for they are no longer his property, or
his debts, but thofe of the future affignees.- And if an
execution be fued out, but not ferved and executed
on the bankrupt’s effeCts till after the aCt of bank¬
ruptcy, it is void, as againft the affignees. But the
king is not bound by this fictitious relation^ nor is
within the ftatutes of bankrupts; for if, after the aCt
of bankruptcy committed, and before; the affignment
of his effeCts, and extent iffues for the debt of the
crown, the goods are bound thereby. In France this
doCtrine of relation is carried to a very great length ;
for there, e very aCl of a merchant, for 1 o days prece¬
dent to the a<ft of bankruptcy, is prefumed to be frau¬
dulent, and is therefore void. But with us the law
Hands upon a more reafonable footing: for as thefe
aCts of bankruptcy may fometimes be fecret to all but.
a few, and it would be prejudicial to trade to carry
this notion to its utmoft length, it is provided by ftat.
19 Geo. II. c. 32. that no money paid by a bankrupt
to a. bonaJlde, or real, creditor, in a courfe of trade,
even after an aCt of bankruptcy done, lhall be liable
to be refunded. Nor by ftat. 1 Jac. I. c. 15. fiiall any
debtor of a bankrupt that pays him his debt without
knowing of his bankruptcy, be liable to account for it
again. The intention of this relative power being
only to reach fraudulent tranfaCtions, and not to dif-
trefs the fair trader.
The affignees may purfue any legal method of re¬
covering this property fo vetted in them, by their own
authority; but cannot commence a fuit in equity, nor
compound any debts owing to the bankrupt, nor refer
any matters to arbitration, without the confent of the
creditors, or the major part of them in value, at a
meeting to be held in purfuance of notice in the ga¬
zette..
When they have got in all the effeCts they can rea-
fon^bly hope for, and reduced them to ready money,
the affignees muft, within 12 months after the com¬
miffion iffued, give 21 days notice to the creditors of
a meeting for a dividend or diftribution ; at which
time they muft produce their accounts, and verify
them upon oath, if required. And then the commif-
fioners fhall difeCt a dividend to be made, at fo much
in the pound, to all creditors who have before proved,
or fhall then prove, their debts. This dividend muit
be made equally, and in .a rateable proportion, to all
the creditors, according to the quantity of their debts;
no regard being had to the quality of them. Mort¬
gages, indeed, for which the creditor has a real fecu-
rity in his own hands, are entirely fafe; for the com¬
miffion of bankrupt reaches only the equity of re¬
demption. So are alfo perfonal debts, where the cre¬
ditor has a chattel in his hands, or a pledge or pawn,
for the payment, or has taken the debtor’s lands or
goods in execution. And, upon the equity of the
ftat. 8 An. c. X‘4 (which direCts, that upon all execu¬
tions of goods being on any premiffes demifed to a te>
3. naut.
C O M [ 216 1 C O M
nant, one year’s rent and 'no more ftiall, if due, be
paid to the landlord) it hath alfo been held, that under
a commiffion of bankrupt, which is in the nature of a
llatute execution, the landlord lhall be allowed his ar¬
rears of rent to the fame amount, in preference to o-
ther creditors, even though he hath neglected to dif-
trein while the goods remained on the premifles :
which he is otherwife intitled to do for his entire
rent, be the quantum what it may. But -otherwife
judgments and recognizances (both which are debts
of record, and therefore at other times have a -pri¬
ority), and alfo bonds and obligations by deed or fpe-
cial inftrument (which are called debts by fpecialty,
and are ufually the next in order), thefe are all put on
a level with debts by mere fmrple contrail, and all
paid pari pajfu. Nay, fo far is this matter carried,
that, by the exprefs provifion of the ftatutes, debts
not due at the time of the dividend made, as bonds
or notes of hand, payable at a future day, lhall be
paid equally with the red, allowing a difcount or
drawback in proportion. And infurances, and obli¬
gations upon bottomry or refpondentia, bona Jic!e,
made by the bankrupt, though forfeited after the
commiffion is awarded, lhall be looked upon in the
fame light as debts contradled before any act of bank¬
ruptcy.
Within 18 months after the commiffion iflued, a
fecond and final dividend Ihall be made, unlefs all the
effefts were exhaufted by the firft. And if any furplus
remains, after paying every creditor his full debt, it
lhall be reftored to the bankrupt. This is a cafe
which fometimes happens to men in trade, who invo¬
luntarily, or at lead unwarily, commit ails of bank¬
ruptcy, by abfeonding and the like, while their effefts
are more than fufficient to 'pay their creditors. And
if any fufpicious or malevolent creditor will take the
advantage of fuch afts,. and fue out a commiffion, the
bankrupt has no remedy, but mud quietly fubmit to
the effefts of his own imprudence : except that, upon
fatisfadlion made to all the creditors, the commiffion
may be fuperfeded. This cafe may alfo happen when
a knave is defirous of defrauding his creditors, and is
compelled, by a commiffion, to do them that judice
which otherwife he wanted to evade. And there¬
fore, though the ufual rule is, that all intered on debts
carrying intered fhall ceafe from the time of iffuing
the commiffion, yet in cafe of a furplus left after pay¬
ment 'of every debt, fuch intered lhall again revive,
and be chargeable on the bankrupt or his reprefenta-
tives.
Commission of Lunacy, iffiies out of the court of
chancery, whether a perfon reprefented to be a luna¬
tic, be fo or not. See Lunacy.
Commission of Leinds, a court at Edinburgh, which
came In’place of a committee of the Scottilh parlia¬
ment, for creeling new parilhes, and valuing teinds
for the fupport of the clergy. It is veded in the Lords
of feffion. See Law, n°clix. it.
CoMMTssroN-Oficers. See Officers.
Commission, in commerce. See Factorage.
COMMISSIONER, a perfem authorifed by com¬
miffion, letters patent, or other lawful warrant, to
examine any matters, or execute any lawful commif¬
fion.
N° 86.
Commissioned in the General dffembly of the church ox
Scotland. See Assembly (General).
Commissioners of the Cujloms. See Customs.
Commissioners of Excife. See Excise.
Commissioners of the Navy. See Navy.
Lords Commissioners of the 'Treafury. See Trea¬
sury and Exchequer.
COMMISSURE, a term ufed by fume authors,
for the fmall meatufes or interdices of bodies ; or the
little clefts between the particles; efpecially when thofe
particles are broadilh and flat, and lie contiguous to
one another, like thin plates or lamellse. The word
literally fignifies a joining, or connecting of one thing
to another.
Commissure, in architefture, &c. denotes the joint
of two Hones, or the application of the furface of the
one to that of the other. See Masonry.
Among anatomids, commiffure is fometimes alfo ufed
for a future of the cranium or Ikull. See Suture.
COMMITMENT, in criminal law, is the fending
to prifon a perfon who hath been guilty of any crime.
This takes place where the offence is not bailable, or
the party cannot find bail ; mud be by proper war¬
rant, containing the caufe of the commitment; and
continues till put an end to by the courfe of law
(fee Trial) ; imprifonment being intended only for
fafe cudody, and not for punidiment (See Arrest¬
ment and Bail). In this dubious interval between
the commitment and trial, a prifoner ought to be ufed
with the utmod humanity; and neither be loaded
with needlefs fetters or fubjefted to other hardfhips
than fuch as are abfoluteiy requiiite for the purpofe of
confinement only : though what are fo requiiite mud
too often be left to the diferetion of the gaolers ; who
are frequently a mercilefs race of men, and, by being
converfant in feenes of mifery, fteeled againil any ten¬
der fenfation.
COMMITTEE, one or more perfons to whom the
confideration or ordering of a matter is referred,
either by fume court, or by the confent of parties to
whops it belongs.
Committee of Parliament, a certain number of mem¬
bers appointed by the houfe for the. examination of a
bill, making a report of an inquiry, procefs of the houfe,
&c. See Parliament.
Sometimes the whole houfe is refolved into a com-
mitte ; on which occafion each perfon has a right to
fpeak and reply as much and as often as he pleafes : an
expedient they ufually have recourfe to in extraordinary
cafes, and where any thing is to be thoroughly can-
vaffed. When the houfe is not in a committee, each
gives his opinion regularly, and is only allowed to fpeak
once, unlefs to explain himfelf.
The handing committees, appointed by every new
parliament, are thofe of privileges and eledlions, of
religion, of grievances, of courts of juftiee, and of
trade; though only the former aCl.
COMMIXTION, in Scots law, is a method of ac¬
quiring p*y«$perty, by mixing or blending together dif¬
ferent fubTlances belonging to different proprietors.
See Law, Part III. N°clxii. 8.
COMMODATE, Commodatum, in the civil ju-
rifprudence, the loan or free conceffion of any thing
moveable or immoveable, for a certain time,' on con-
2 dition
Commlf.
fiouer
COM [2
'• dltion of relloring again the fame individual after a
certain term. The commodate is a kind of loan :
there is this difference, however, between a loan and
j a commodate, that the latter is gratis, and does not
transfer the property: the thing mult be returned in
effence, and without impairment: fo that things which
confume by ufe or time cannot be objedts of a com¬
modate, but of a loan ; in regard they may be return¬
ed in kind, though not in identity. See Law, Pail III.
N° clxxiii. 8.
COMMODIANUS (Gaweus), a Chriflian author
in the 4th century, who wrote a work in Latin verfe,
intitled Inftrudtions; the moral of which is excellent,
but the verfe extremely heavy. M. Davies publifhed
a fine edition of it in 1711, at the end of Minucius
Felix.
COMMODITY, in a general fenfe, denotes all
forts of wares and merchandizes whatfoever that a per-
fon deals or trades in.
Staple Commoditiks, fuch wares and merchandizes
as are commonly and readily fold in a market or ex¬
ported abroad; being for the moft part the proper
produce or manufadlure of the country.
COMMODORE, a general officer in the Britifh
marine, invefledwith the command of,a detachment of
fhips of war deftined on any particular enterprife,
during which time he bears the rank of brigadier-
general in the army, and is diftinguifhed from the in¬
ferior fhips of his fquadroh by a broad red pendant
tapering towards the outer end, and fometimes fork¬
ed. The word is corrupted from the Spariifh, comen-
dacloT.
Commodore is alfo a name given to fome feleft fhip
in a fleet of merchantmen, who leads the van in time
of war, and caries a light in his top to conduct the reft,
and keep them together. He is always the oldeft cap¬
tain in the fleet he commands.
COMMODUS (L. Aurelius Antoninus), foh of
M. Antoninus, fucceeded his father in the Roman
empire. He was naturally cruel and fond of indul¬
ging his licentious propenfities. He wifhed to be cal¬
led Hercules; and, like that hero, he adorned his
fhoulders with a lion’s fl<jn, and armed his hand with
a knotted club. He puolicly fought with the gladi¬
ators, and boafted of his dexterity in killing the wild
beatts in the amphitheatre. He required divine ho¬
nours from the fenate, and they were granted. He
was wont to put fuch an immenfe quantity of gold
duft in his hair, that when he appeared bare-headed in
the funfhine, his head glittered as if furrounded with
fun-beams. Martia, one of his concubines, whofe
death he had prepared, poifoned him ; but as the poi-
fon did not quickly operate, he was ftrangled by a
wreftler. He died in the 31ft year of his age, and
the 13th of his reign. It has been obferved, that he
never trufted himfelf to a barber ; but always burnt
his beard, in imitation of the tyrant Dionyfius.
,A.D. 192.
COMMON, Communis, fomething that belongs to
all alike ; is owned or allowed by all; and not confined
to this more than that. In which fenfe, common ftands
You. V. Part L
17 1 COM
oppofed to proper, peculiar, &c. Thus, the earth is Common,
faid to be our common mother ; in the firft or golden
age all things were in common, as well as the fun and
elements: the name animal is common to man and beaft;
that of fubftance to body and fpirit.
Common, Commuma, (i. e. quod ad omnesperiinet), in
law, fignifies that foil, the ufe whereof is common to a
particular town or lordftiip ; or it is a profit that a man
hath in the land of another perfon, dually in common
with others; or a right which a perfon hath to put his
cattle to pafture into ground that is not his own.
And there is not only common of pafture, but alfo
common of pifeary, common of eftovers, common of
turbary, &c. And in all cafes of common, the law
doth much refpeft the cuftom of the place ; for there
the rule is, confuetuclo loci ejl ohfervanda. See Com-
MONTY.
Common Council. See Council.
Common Law, that body of law received as rules
in thefe kingdoms, before .any ftatute was ena6ted
in parliament to alter the fame. See Law, Part II.
n° 36‘
Common-place Book, is a regifter of what things
occur, worthy to be noted, in the courfe of a man’s
thinking or ftudy, fo difpofed a* that among a num¬
ber of fubjefts any one may be eafily found. The ad¬
vantages of making a common-placfe book are many:
it not only makes a man read with accuracy and at¬
tention, but induces him infenfibly to think for him¬
felf, provided he confiders it not fo much as a regifter
of fentiments that (trike him in the courfe of reading,
but as a regifter of his own thoughts upon various fu'b-
je&s. Many valuable thoughts occur even to men of
no extraordinary genius. Thefe, without the affift-
ance of a common-place book, are generally loft:
both to himfelf and others. There are various me¬
thods of arranging common-place books; that of Mr
Locke is as good as any that have hitherto been con¬
trived,
The firft: page of the book you intend to take down
their common-place in, is to ferve as a kind of index
to the whole, and to contain references to every place
or matter therein ; in the commodious contrivance of
which index, fo as it may admit of a fufficient copia or
variety of materials, without any confufion, all the fe-
cret of the method coniifts.
In order to this, the firft page, as already mention¬
ed, or, for more room, the two firft pages that front
each other, are to be divided, by parallel lines, into
25 equal parts ; whereof every fifth line is to be diftin-
guiftied by its colour or other circumftance. Thefe
lines ere to be cut perpendicularly by others, drawn
from top to bottom; and in the feveral fpaces thereof,
the feveral letters of the alphabet, both capital and mi-
nufcle, are to be duly wrote.
The form of the lines and divifions, both horizontal
and perpendicular, with the manner of writing the let¬
ters therein, will be conceived from the following fpe-
cimen ; wherein, what is to be done in the book for
all the letters of the alphabet, is here fliown in the
fi»ft four, B, C, and D.
A
Common.
COM
[ 218 ]
COM
The index of the common-place book thus formed,
matters are ready for the taking down any thing
therein.
In order to this, confider to what head the thing
you would enter is moft naturally referred; and un¬
der which one would be led to look for fuch a thing :
in this head, or word, regard is had to the initial let¬
ter, and the firft vowel that follows it; which are the
chara&eriftic letters whereon all the ufe of the index
depends.
Suppofe (e. gr.) I would enter down a paffage that
refers to the head lequty- B, I confider, is the initial
letter, and e the firfl; vowel: then, looking upon the
index for the partition B, and therein the line e
(which is the place for all words whofe firll letter is b,
and firft vowel e; as beauty, benejicence, bread, breed¬
ing, blemt/hes), and finding no numbers already down
to diredl me to any page of the book where words of
this charafteriftic have been entered, I turn forward
to the firft blank page I find (which, in a frefti book,
as this is fuppofed to be, will be page 2d), and here
write what I have occafion for on the head beauty;
beginning the head in the margin, and indenting all
the other fubfervient lines, that the hea'd may ftand
out and fhow itfelf: this done, I enter the page where
it is wrote, 2, in the index ia the fpace Be; from
which time, the clafs be becomes wholly in poffeffion
of the 2d and 3d pages, which are configned to letters
of this charafteriftic.
Had I found any page or number already entered
in the fpace B e, \ muft have turned to the page, and
have wrote my matter in what room was left therein :
fo, if after entering the paffage on beauty, I ftiould
have occafion for benevolence, or the like, finding the
number 2 already poffeffed of the fpace of this cha-
rafteriftic, I begin the paffage on benevolence in the
remainder of the page, which not containing the whole,
I carry it on to page 3d, which is alfo for b e; and add
the number 3 in the index.
Common Pleas is one of the king’s courts now held
conftantly in Weftminfter-hall, but in former times was
moveable.
All civil caufes, as well real as perfonal, are, or
were formerly, tried in this court, according to the
ftridt law of the land. In perfonal and mixed actions
it has a concurrent jurifdiction with the king’s bench,
but has no cognizance of pleas of the crown. The
actions belonging to the court of common pleas come
thither by original, as arrefts and outlawries ; or by
privilege, or attachment for or again ft privileged per-
fons ; or out of inferior courts, not of record, by pone,
mordant, accedas ad curiam, writ of falfe judgment, &.c.
The chief judge of this court is called lord chief jujlice
of the common pleas, who is affifted by three other judges.
The other officers of the court are the cujlos brevium,
who is the chief clerk ; three prothonotaries, and their
fecondaries; the clerk of the warrants, clerk of the
effoins, 14 filazers, 4 exigentors, a clerk of the juries,
the chirographer, the clerk of the king’s filver, clerk
of the treafury, clerk of the feal, clerk of the outlaw¬
ries, clerk of the inrolment of fines and recoveries, and
clerk of the errors.
CoMMON-Prayer is the liturgy in the church of Eng¬
land: (See Liturgy.) Clergymen are to ufc the public
form of prayers prefcribed by the Book of Common
Prayer ; and refufing to do fo, or ufing any other pub¬
lic prayers, are punifhable by flat. 1 Eliz. c. ii.
Common, in grammar, denotes the gender of nouns
which are equally applicable to both fexes: thus, parens,
“ a parent,” is of the common gender.
Common, in geometry, is applied to an angle, line,
or the like, which belongs equally to two figures.
Common Divifor, a quantity or number which exactly
divides two or more other quantities or numbers, with¬
out leaving any remainder.
COMMONALTY, the lower of the two divifions
of the civil ftate. See Civil State.
The commonalty, like the nobility, are divided into
feveral degrees: and as the lords, though differentffn
rank, yet all of them are peers in refpedl of their no¬
bility ; fo the commoners, though fome are greatly
fuperior to others, yet all ar£ in law commonalty, in
refpeft of their want of nobiu.y.
1. The firft name of dignity next beneath a peer
was anciently that of vidames, vice-domini, or valvafors:
who are mentioned.by our ancient lawyers as viri mag-
na dignitatis; and Sir Edward Coke {peaks highly of
them. Yet they are now quite out of ufe; and our
legal antiquarians are not agreed upon even their ori¬
ginal or ancient office.
2. Now, therefore, the firft perfonal.dignky after the
nobility is a knight of the order of St George, or of
the garter, firft inftituted by Edw. III. A. D. 1344.
3. Next (but not till after certain official dignities,
as privy-counfellors, the chancellors of the exchequer
and duchy of Lancafter, the chief juftice of the king’s
bench, the mafter of the rolls, and tht other Engliih.
judges), follows a knight banneret-; who indeed, by
ftatutes 5.Richard II. flat. 2. c. 4. and 14 Richard II.
c. 11. is. ranked next after barons; and his precedence
before the younger fans of vifcounts was confirmed, to
him by order of King James I. in the tenth year of his
reign. But in order to intitle him to this rank, he
muft have been created by the king in perfon, in the
field,
Ceflitnonal-field, under the royal banners, in time of open war ;
elfe he ranks after
Commoner. ^ Baronets; who are the next in order : which title
v is a dignity of inheritance, created by letters patent,
and ufually defcendible to the ifTite-male. See Baro¬
nets.
5. Next follow knights of the Bath. See Bath.
6. The lalt of thefe inferior nobility are knights ba¬
chelors; the moft ancient, though the loweft, order of
knighthood amongft us. See Bachelor.
7. The above, with thofe enumerated under the ar¬
ticle Nobility, Sir Edward Coke fays, ant all the
names of dignity in this kingdom} efquires and gentlemen
being only names of 'ivorjhip. But before thefe laft the
heralds rank all colonels, ferjeants at law, and doctors
in the three learned profeffions.
8. Efquires and gentlemen are confounded together
by Sir Edward Coke; who obferves, that every ef-
quire is a gentleman, and a gentleman is defined to
be one qui arma gerit, “ who bears coat-armour the
grant of which adds gentility to a man’s family : in
like manner as civil nobility among the Romans was
founded in the jus imaginum, or having the image of
one anceftor at leak who had borne fome curule of¬
fice. It is indeed a matter fomewhat unfettled what
conftitutes the diftindfion, or who is a real efquire ;
for it is not an eftate, however large, that confers this
• rank upon its owner. Camden, who was himfelf a
herald, diftinguilhes them the moft accurately; and he
reckons up four forts of them: ift, The eldeft fons of
knights, and their eldeft fons, in perpetual fucceffion.
2dly, The eldeft fons of younger fons of peers, and
their eldeft fons, in like perpetual fucceffion: both
which fpecies of efquires Sir Henry Spelman intitles
armigeri natalitiu 3dly, Efquires created by the king’s
letters patent, or other inveftiture ; and their eldeft
fons. 4thly, Efquires by virtue of their office; as
juftices of the peace and others who bear any office
of truft under the crown. To thefe may be added
the efquires of the knights of the bath, each of whom
conftitutes three at his inftallation ; and all foreign,
fiay, Irifti peers; for not only thefe, but the eldeft fons
of peers of Great Britain, though frequently titular
lords, are only efquires in the law, and muft be fo
named in all legal proceedings.
9. As for gentlemen, fays Sir Thomas Smith, they
be made good cheap in this kingdom : for whofoever
ftudieth the laws of the realm, who ftudieth in the u-
niverfities, who profeffeth literal fciences, and (to be
fhort) who can live idly and without manual labour,
and will bear the part, charge, and countenance of a
gentleman, he ffiall be called mailer, and lhall be taken
for a gentleman.
10. A yeoman is he that hath free land of 40 s. by
the year; who is thereby qualified to ferve on juries,
vote for knights of the (hire, and do any other aft
where the law requires one that is probus et legalis
homo.
11. The reft of the commonalty are tradefmen, arti¬
ficers, and labourers; who (as well as all others) muft, in
purfuance of the ftatute 1 Henry V. c. 5. be ftyled by
the name and addition of their eftate, degree, or myfte-
ry, in all actions and other legal proceedings.
COMMONER, or Gentleman-Commoner, in
the univerfities, a ftudent entered in a certain rank.
COMMONS, or House of Commons, a denoipina- Common*,
tion given to the lower houfe of parliament. See Par- Contmonty.
LI A M ENT. *
The commons confift of all fuch men of any pro¬
perty in the kingdom as have not feats in the houfe
of lords, every one of whom has a voice in parlia¬
ment, either perfonally or by his reprefentatives.
In a free ftate, every man, who is fuppofed a free a-
gent, ought to be in fome meafure his own gover¬
nor ; and therefore a branch at leaft of the legifla-
tive power fhould refide in the whole body of the
people. And this power, when the territories of the
ftate are fmall, and its citizens eafily known, Ihould be
exercifed by the people in their aggregate or collec¬
tive capacity, as was wifely ordained in the petty re¬
publics of Greece, and the firft rudiments of the Ro¬
man ftate. But this will be highly inconvenient when
the public territory is extended to any confiderable
degree, and the number of citizens is increafed. Thus
when, after the focial war, all the burghers of Italy
were admitted free citizens of Rome, and each had a
vote in the public aflemblies, it became impoffible to
diftinguifti the fpurious from the real voter, and from
that time all elections and popular deliberations grew
tumultuous and diforderly ; which paved the way for
Marius and Sylla, Pompey and Cadar, to trample on
the,liberties of their country, and at laft to dilfolve
the commonwealth. In fo large a ftate as ours, there¬
fore, it is very wifely contrived, that the people fhould
do that by their reprefentatives which it is imprac¬
ticable to perform in perfon ; reprefentatives chofen
by a number of minute and feparate diftrifts, where¬
in all the voters are or may be eafily diftinguifhed.
The counties are therefore reprefented by knights,
elefted by the proprietors of lands; the cities and bo¬
roughs are reprefented by citizens and burgefles, cho¬
fen by the mercantile or fuppofed trading intereft of
the nation ; much in the fame manner as the burghers
in the diet of Sweden are chofen by the corporate
towns, Stockholm fending four, as London does with
us, other cities two, and fome only one. The num¬
ber of Englifh reprefentatives is 513, of Scots 45 ; in
all 558 ; and every member, though chofen by one
particular diftrift, when elefted and returned, ferves
for the whole realm : for the end of his coming thi¬
ther is not particular, but general; not barely to ad¬
vantage his conftituents, but the commonwealth; to
advife his majefty, as appears from the writ of fum-
mons, “ de Communi confilio fiiper negotiis quibuf-
dam arduis et urgentibus, regem, ftatum, et defenfio-
nem regni Anglias et ecclefias Anglicans concer-
nentibus.” And therefore he is not bound, like a de¬
puty in the United Provinces, to confult with, or take
the advice of, his conftituents upon any particular
point, unlefs he himfelf thinks it proper or prudent fo
to do.
The peculiar laws and cuftoms of the houfe of com¬
mons relate principally to the raifing of taxes, and the
eleftions of members to ferve in parliament. See
Taxes and Elections.
Doctors Commons. See College 0/* Civilians.
ProElor of the Commons. See Proctor.
COMMONTY, in Scots law, fometimes fignifies
lands belonging to two or more common proprie¬
tors ; fometimes a heath or muir though it fhould be-
COM r 220 I COM
Common- Jong in property to one, if there has been a protnifeu-
wealth ous poff£ffion Up0n by pafturage ; and theadl 1695,
Comma- mentions commonties belonging in property to the
nion. king and to royal boroughs. See Law, Part III.
t“—v"' 1 ■' N° clxxv. 16.
COMMONWEALTH. See Republic.
COMMOTE, an ancient term in Wales, denoting
half a cantred, or hundred ; containing 50 villages.
See Hundred. Wales was anciently divided into
three provinces ; Pach of thefe fubdivided into can-
treds, and every cantred into two commotes or hun¬
dreds. Silvefter Girald, however, tells us in his iti¬
nerary, that a commote is but a quarter of a hundred.
COMMUNES, in botany, the name of a clafs in
Linnaeus’s methodui Calycina, confiding of two plants
which, like teazel and dandelion, have a calyx or iiow-
er-cup common to many flowers or florets. Thefe
are the aggregate or cbmpound flowere of other fy-
ftems.
COMMUNIBUS locis, a Latin term, infrequent
ufe among philofophical, &c. writers ; implying feme
medium, or mean relation, between feveral places.
Hr Keil fuppofes the ocean to be one quarter of a mile
deep, commumbus loots, q. d. at a medium, or taking
one place with another.
Comm uni bus Jlnnis, has the fame import with re¬
gard to years, that communibuf loch has with regard
to places. Mr Derham obferves that the depth of
rain, communibiu annis, or one year with another,
were it to ftagnate on the earth, would amount in
Townley in Lancalhire, to 424 inches; at Upminfter
in Effex, to 19^ ; at Zurich, 32^ ; at Pifa, 435-; and
at Paris to 19 inches.
COMMUNICATING, in theology, the aft of re¬
ceiving the facrament of the eucharift. Thofe of the
reformed, and of the Greek church, communicate under
both kinds ; thofe of the Romifli, under only one. The
oriental communicants receive the fpecies of wine by a
fpoon, .and anciently they fucked it through a pipe,
as has been obferved by Beat. Rheanus on Tertullian.
COMMUNICATION, in a general fenfe, the ad
of imparting fomething to another.
Communication is alfo ufed for the conne&ion of
one thing with another, or the paflage from one place
to another : thus a gallery is a communication be¬
tween two apartments.
Communication of motion, the ad whereby a
body at reft is put into motion by a moving body ; or,
it is the acceleration of motion in a body already mo-
vIn2-
Lines of Communication, in military matters,
trenches made to continue and preferve a fafe corre-
fpondence between two forts or polls ; or at a liege,
between two approaches, that they may relieve one
another.
Canal of Communication. See Canal.
COMMUNION, in matters of religion, the being
united in dodrine and difeipline ; in which fenfe of
the word, different churches are faid to hold commu¬
nion with each other.
In the primitive Chriftian church, every bifhop was
obliged, after his ordination, to fend circular letters
to foreign churches, to lignify that he was in commu¬
nion witli them. The three grand communions into
which the Chriftian church is at prefent divided, is
that of the church of Rome, the Greek church, and Commu-
the Frotellant church : but originally all Chriftians nijl>-
were in communion with each other, having one com- “-'"V—J
mon faith and difeipline.
Communion is alfo ufed for the ad of communi¬
cating the lacrament of the eucharift, or the Lord’s
fupper.
The fourth council of Lateran decrees, that every
believer lhall receive the communion, at leaft, at Ealler;
which feems to import a tacit defire, that they fhould
do it oftener ; as, in effed, they did it much oftener
in the primitive days. Gratian, and the mailer ef the
fentences, preferibe it as a rule for the laity, to com¬
municate three times a-yeqr, at Eailer, Whitfuntide,
and Chriftmas. But in the 13th century, the practice
was got on foot, never to approach the euchaiill ex¬
cept at Eailer ; and the council thought lit to enjoin
it then by a law, left their coldnels and remiffnefs
Ihould go farther Hill. And the council of Trent re¬
newed the fame injundion, and recommended fre¬
quent communion without enforcing it by an exprefs
decree.
In the ninth century, the communion was Hill re¬
ceived by the laity in both kinds; or, rather, the fpe-
cies of bread was dipped in the wine, as is owned by
the Romaniits themfelves. (Ada SS. Benedid. Saec.
III.) M. de Marca obferves, that they received it at
foil in their hands, Hill, de Bearn, and believes the
communion under one kind alone to have had its rife in
the Well under pope Urban II. in 1096, at the time
of the conqueft of the Holy Land. And it was more
folemnly enjoined by the council of Conllance in 1414.
The twenty-eighth canon of the council of Clermont
enjoins the communion to be received under both
kinds, dillindly ; adding, however, two exceptions j
the one of neceffity, the other of caution, nifi per necef~
Jitatem & cautelam ; the firll in favour of the ftek, the
fecond of the abltemious, or thofe who had an aver-
lion for wine.
It was formerly a kind of canonical punifliment, for
clerks guilty of any crime, to be reduced to lay commu¬
nion, i. e. only to receive it as the laity did, viz. under
one kind.
They had another punilhment of the fame nature,
though under a different name, called foreign commu¬
nion; to which the canons frequently condemned their
bilhops and other clerks. This punilhment was not
any excommunication, or depofition ; but a kind of
fufpenfion from the fun&ion of the order, and a de¬
gradation from the rank they held in the church.
It had its name becaufe the communion was only
granted to the criminal on the foot of a foreign clerk,
i. e. being reduced to the lowell of his order, he took
place after all thofe of his rank, as all clerks, &c. did
in the churches to which they did not belong. The
fecond council of Agda orders every clerk that abfents
himfelf from the church to be reduced to foreign
communion.
Communion Service, in the liturgy of the church
of England, the office for the adminillration of the ho¬
ly facrament, extradled from feveral ancient liturgies,
as thofe of St Bafil, St Ambrofe, &c.
By the lall rubric, part of this fervice is appointed
to be read every Sunday and holyday, after the morn¬
ing prayer, even though there be no communicants.
COM-
COM [2
Gommu- COMMUNITY, denotes a foeiety of men living
nitV in the fame place, under the fame laws, the fame re-
r 'Llonguhm0118’ and the fame cuftoms.
> COMMUTATION, in law, the change of a penal¬
ty or punilhment from a greater to a Ida; as when
death is commuted for baniihment, &c.
COMNENA (Ann) daughter of Aiexus Comnenus
emperor of the Eaft ; memorable for her great learn¬
ing and virtue, and for her Hiftory of the life and ac¬
tions of her father, which is highly efteemed. She
flourifhed about the year 1117. The hiltory, which
is in 15 books, was firft publifhed very imperfectly by
Hefchelius in 1610; and afterwards printed in the
colle&ion of the Byzantine hiftorians, with a diffufe
and incorreCI Latin verfion by the Jefuit Pofiiraus, but
with excellent notes by the learned Du Frefne.
COMO, a ftrong and populous town of Italy, in the
duchy of Milan, and in the Comafco, with a bifhop’s
fee. It was taken by the Imperialills in 1706, and is
feated on a lake of the fame name in E. Long. 8. 57.
N. Lat. 45, 45.
- Como, the lake fo called, is the largeft in Italy. It
is fituated in the duchy of Milan in the Comafco, on
the confines of Swifferland and the Grifons. It is 88
miles in circumference, yet is not above 6 miles over
in any part.
* COMORA iflands, lie between the north end of the
ifland of Madagafcar and the coaft of Zanguebar,
from 10 to 15 degrees fouth latitude. Authors differ
greatly with regard to their number, fome fpeaking
of three, others of five, and fome of eight of thefe
illands. They all abound in horned cattle, iheep, hogs,
and a variety of fruits common in warm countries.
They are faid alfo to produce a kind of rice which
turns of a violet colour when boiled. The moft re¬
markable of them, and which the Europeans are beft
acquainted with, is the ifland of Johanna. See that
article.
COMORIN, or Cape Comorin, the moft foutherly
promontory of the Hither India, lying north-weft of
the ifland of Ceylon.
COMORRA, a handfome and large town of Lower
Hungary, and capital of a territory of the fame
name. It is fo well fortified, that the Turks could
never take it. The greateft part of the inhabitants
are Hungarians or Ruffians, who are very rich, and
are of the Greek religion. It is feated on the river
Danube^ in the ifland of Sihut. E. Long. 18. 25.
N. Lat. 47. 50.
COMOSAi, in botany, from Coma. An order of
plants in the former editions of Linnaeus’s Fragments
of a Natural Method, confifling of the fpiked willow
or fpiraea frutex, dropwort, and greater meadow-
fweet. Thefe, though formerly diftinft genera, are
by Linnaeus colle&ed into one, under the name of Jpi-
raa. The flowers growing in a head, referable a bufh,
or tuft of hair, which probably gave rife to the epithet
Comofa.
COMPACT, in philofophy, is faid of bodies which
are of a clofe, denfe, and heavy texture, with few pores,
and thofe very fmall.
Compact, in a legal fenfe, fignifies an agreement,
orcontraft ftipulated between feveral parties.
COMPANION, one with whom a man frequently
converfes.
21 ] COM
As the human mind cannot always be on the Companion
ftretch, nor the hands always employed in labour, re- * "r'
creation becomes both agreeable and neceffary. Of
all recreations, that of the company of a few chofen
companions muft be allowed to be the moft manly and
moft improving : but as in thofe hours of recreation we
are moil in danger of being milled, being generally at
fuch feafons more off our guard than ufual, the great-
eft care Ihould be taken in making choice of which to
affociate with ; for according to our choice of them,
both our character and difpofition will receive a tinc¬
ture, as waters palling through minerals partake of
their tafte and efficacy. This is a truth fo univerfally
received, that it is become a proveib both in the natu¬
ral and moral world, That a man is known by his
company. As by chemiftry we learn, that difcordant
mixtures produce nothing but broil and fermentation
till one of them gets the afcendency of the reft; fo
from fcripture we learn, that two cannot walk toge¬
ther except they be agreed. From which we may fee,
how impoflible it is for anyone to be thought a perfon of
real goodnefs and integrity, whilft he choofeth for his
companions the abandoned and licentious.
By herding with fuch,' he will not only lofe his
chara&er, but his virtue; for whatever fallacious di-
ftinftion he may be pleafed to make between the men
and their vices, in the end the firft generally qualifies
the laft ; and by ceafing to hate them he will foon learn
both to love and pra&ife them. In Ihort, the fociety
of lenfual men is peculiarly enfnaring. The malignity
of their contagion doth not appear all at once. Their
frolics firft appear harmlefs ; then, when partaken ofr
they leave a longing relifh behind them; and one ap¬
pointment makes way for another, one expence leads
on to a fecond; and fo time and fortune are wafted
away to very bad purpofe. Then one appetite craves,
and another muft be gratified, till all become too im¬
portunate to be denied; which verifies what the wifelt
of men long fince faid, “ That the beginning of fin is
like the breaking forth of waters, which when it once
maketh an entrance, carrieth all before it with ruffling
impetuofity.” Some pangs of remorfe may be felt by
the infatuated creature on his firft degeneracy, and
fome faint refolutions againft being feduced any more ;
which will no fooner be difeovered by thofe leaders to
deftru&ion, but all arts will be ufed to allure him
back to bear them company in the broad beaten path
to ruin. Of all which methods, none is more to be
dreaded than raillery; for this is generally exercifed
with all its force, and too often proves fatal. An¬
other method ufed to miflead the young novice not
yet hackneyed in vice, and no lefs dangerous than the
other, is to call evil good, and good evil. Luff and fen-
fuality muft pafs for love and gallantry ; revenge and
malice, for heroifm. But fteadinefs fhould be fhbwn, by
holding fuch pefts of fociety in derifion, and looking on
them with contempt j by appearing unmoved by their
ill founded banters, and unftung by their impious
Jeffs.
Upon the whole, in order to efcape the danger
which attends the keeping of evil company, let thofe
you affociate with be perfons as carefully educated
and as honeftly difpofed as yourfelfof a good moral
character, not given to any known vice; whofe lives-
are temperate, and whole expences are moderate : with,
fuch.
COM [2:
fuch company as thefe, you will neither get difcredit,
nor degenerate into excefs. You will be a mutual
check to each other; and your reputation will be fo
eftablifhed, that it will be the ambition of others to be
admitted members of your fociety. Seledt thofe for
your companions who are men of good fenfe and un-
dellanding; and, if poffible, who excel in fome art,
fcience, or accomplifhment; that fo, in the courfe of
your acquaintance, your very hours of amufement may
contribute to your improvement; and for the molt
part fuch are open and communicative, and take as
much pleafure in being heard as you to be informed.
By purfuing fuch a condudt, you will be an ornament
and ufeful member of fociety.
COMPANY, a eolleftive term, underftood of feve*
ral perfons aflembled together in the fame place, or
with the fame defign. The word is formed of the
French compagnie, and that of companio, or companies,
which, Chifflet obferves, are found in the Salic law,
tit. 66. and are properly military words, underftood of
foldiers, who, according to the modern phrafe, are
comrades or mefs-mates, i. e. lodge together, eat toge¬
ther, &c. of the Latin cum “with”, anipanis “bread.”
It may be added, that in fome Greek authors under
the weftern empire, the word xu^ana occurs in the
fenfe of fociety.
Company, in a familiar or fafhionable fenfe, is ufed
for an aflemblage of perfons met for the purpofe of con-
verfation, paftime, or feftivity.
The love of company and of facial pleafures is na¬
tural, and attended with fome of the fweeteft fatisfac-
tions of human life ; but, like every other love, when
it proceeds beyond the limits of moderation, it
ceafes to produce its natural effeft, and terrninates
in difguftful fatiety. The foundation-ftone and the
pillar on which we build the fabric of our felicity,,
mull be laid in our own hearts. Amufement, mirth,
agreable variety, and even improvement, may be fome-
times fought in the gaiety of mixed company, and in
the ufual diverfions of the world; but if we found
our general happinefs on thefe, we fhall do little
more than raife cattles in the air, or build houfes on
the fand.
To derive the proper pleafure and improvement from
company, it ought to be feleft, and to confift of per¬
fons of character, refpe&able both for their morals and
their underftandings. Mixed and undiftinguilhed fo¬
ciety tends only to diffipate our ideas, and induce a
laxity of principles and pradlice. The pleafure it af¬
fords is of a coarfe, mixed, noify, and rude kind. In¬
deed, it commonly ends in wearinefs and difguft, as
even they are ready to confefs who yet conftantly
purfue it, as if their chief good confifted in living in a
crowd.
Among thofe, indeed, who are exempted by their cir-
curoftances from profeffional and official employments,
and who profeffedly devote themfelves to a life of plea¬
fure, little elfe feems to conftitute the idea of it, but an
unceafing fucceffion of company, public or private. The
drefs, and other circumftances preparatory to the enjoy¬
ment of this pleafure, fcarcely leave a moment for re-
fle&ion. Day after day is fpent in the fame toilfome
round, till a habit is formed, which renders diffipation
neceffary to exiftence. One week without it would pro¬
bably induce a lownefs of /pints, which might termi-
;2 1 COM
nate in defpair and fuicide. When the mind has no
anchor, it will fuffer a kind of fhipwreck ; it will fink
in whirlpools, and be daftied on rocks. What, indeed,
is life or its enjoyments without fettled principles, laud¬
able purpofes, mental exertions, and internal comfort ?
It is merely a vapour, or, to drop the language of figure
on fo ferious a fubjedl, it is a ftate worfe than non-entity,
fince itpoffefies a reftlefs power ofadlion, produ&ive of
nothing but mifery.
It is recommended, therefore, to all who wifti to
enjoy their exiftence (and who entertains not that
vvifh ?), that they fliould acquire a power not only of
bearing, but of taking a pleafure in, temporary folitude.
Every one muft, indeed, fometimes be alone. Let him
not repine when he is alone, but learn to fet a value on
the golden moments. It is then that he is enabled to
ftudy himfelf and the world around him. It is then
that he has an opportunity of feeing things as they are,
and of removing the deceitful veil, which almoft every
thing affumes in the bufy feene of worldly employ¬
ments. The foul is enabled to retire into herfelf, and
to exert thofe energies which are always attended with
fublime pleafure. She is enabled to fee the dependent,
frail, and wretched ftate of man as the child of nature ;
and incited by her difeovery, to implore grace and pro-
tedlion from the Lord of the univerfe. They, in¬
deed, who fly from folitude, can feldom be religious ;
for religion requires meditation. They may be faid
to “ lire without God in the World ;” not, it is true,
from atheiftical principles, but from a careleflhefs of
difpofition ; a truly deplorable ftate, the confcioufnefs
of which could not fail to cloud the gaiety of thofe hal¬
cyon beings who fport in the funlhine of unremitted
pleafure.
There is no doubt but that man is made for a&ion,
and that his duties and pleafures are often moft nume¬
rous and moft important amidft the bufy hum of men.
Many vices, and many corrupt difpofitions, have been
foftered in a folitary life. Monkery is not favourable
to human nature or human happinefs; but neither is
unlimited diffipation.
In ftiort, let there be a fweet interchange of retire¬
ment and aflbeiation, of repofe and aftivity. A few
hours fpent every day by the votaries of pleafure in
ferious meditation, would render their pleafure pure,
and more unmixed with mifery. It would give them
knowledge, fo that they would fee how far they might
advance in their purfuit without danger; and refolu-
tion, fo that they might retreat when danger approach¬
ed. It would teaqh them how to live, a knowledge
which indeed they think they poflefs already; and it
would alfo teach therh, what they are often too little
felicitous to learn, how to die.
Company, in a commercial fenfe, is a fociety of
merchants, mechanics, or other traders, joined together
in one common intereft.
When there are only two or three joined in this
manner, it is called a partnerfhip; the term company
being reftrained to focieties confifting of a confiderable
number of members, aflbeiated together by a charter
obtained from the prince.
The mechanics of all corporations, or towns incor¬
porated, are thus eredted into companies, which have
charters of privileges and large immunities.
Company feems more particularly appropriated to
thofe
COM [ 223 ] COM
Company, thofe grand aflbciations fet on foot for the commerce der to confine the competition to as fmall a number Company,
of the remote parts of the world, and veiled by char- of perfons as pofiible, endeavoured to fubjedl the trade J
ter with peculiar privileges. to many burdenfome regulations. When the law has
When companies do not trade upon a joint flock, reftrained them from doing this, they have become al-
but are obliged to admit any perfon, properly qua- together ufelefs and infignificant.
lifted, upon paying a certain fine and agreeing to fub- The regulated companies for foreign commerce,
mit to the regulations of the Company, each mem- which at prefent fubfift in Great Britain, are, The
her trading upon his own flock and at his own rifle, Hamburgh Company, The Ruflia Company, the Eaft-
they are called Regulated Companies. When they trade land Company, the Turkey Company, and the Afri-
upon a joint flock, each member fharing in the com- can Company.
mon profit or lofs in proportion to his ftiare in this 1. The Hamburgh Company is the oldeft trading efta-
ftock, they are called Joint-Jlock Companies. Such com- blilhment in the kingdom ; though not always known
panics, whether regulated or joint-flock, fometimes by that name, nor reltrained to thofe narrow bounds
have, and fometimes have not, exclufive privileges. under which it is now confined. It was firft called
However injurious companies -vith joint-flock, and the Company of merchants trading to Calais, Holland,
incorporated with excluiive privileges, may at this time Zealand, Brabant, and Flanders : then it acquired the
be reckoned to the nation in general, it is yet certain general title of Merchant-adventurers of England; as
that they were the general parent of all our foreign being compofed of all the Englifli merchants who tra-
commerce ; private traders being difeouraged from ha- ded to the Low Countries, the Baltic, and the Ger-
zarding their fortunes in foreign countries, until the man ocean. Laflly, it was called the Company of
method of traffic had been firft; fettled by joint-flock Merchant-adventurers of England trading to Hamburgh.
companies. But fince the trade of this kingdom and This company was firft incorporated by Edward I.
the number of traders have increafed, and the methods in 1296 ; and eftabliftied again, by charter, in 1406,
of affurance of (hipping and merchandize, and the navi- under the reign of king Henry IV. It was afterwards
gation to all parts of the known world, have become fa- confirmed, and augmented with divers privileges, by
miliar to us, thefe companies, in the opinions of moft many of his fuccefibrs. Before the charter of Hen-
men, have been looked upon in the light of monopo- ry IV. all the Englilh merchants who trafficked out
lies ; their privileges have therefore been leflened from of the realm, were left to their own diferetion, and
time to time, in order to favour a fiee and general managed their affairs with foreigners as might be
trade: and experience has fhown, that the trade of moft for their refpeftive interefts, without any re¬
tire nation has advanced in propoition as monopolies gard to the general commerce of the nation. Henry,
have been difeouraged. In (hoit, as all reftri&ions of obferving this diforder, endeavoured to remedy it, by
trade are found to be hurtful, nothing can be more uniting all the merchants in his dominions into one
evident, than that no company whatfoever, whether body ; ' wherein, without lofing the liberty of trading
they trade in a joint:flock or only under regulation, each for himfelf, they might be governed by a corn-
can be for the public good, except it maybe eai'y for pany hill fubfifting ; and be fubjeht to regulations,
all or any of his majefty’s fubjefts to be admitted into which (hould fecure the general intereft of the nation-
all or any of the faid companies, at any time, and for al commerce, without prejudice to the intereft of par-
a very inconfiderable fine. ticulars. With this view', he granted all the mer-
I. REGULATEoCompanies refemble, in every refperft, chants of his dates, particularly thofe of Calais, then
the corporations of trades, fo common in the cities in his hands, a power of affociating themfelves into
and towns of all the different countries of Europe; and a body politic, with diredfors and governors, both in
are a fort of enlarged monopolies of the fame kind. England and abroad ; to hold affemblies, both for the
As no inhabitant of a towm can exercife an incorpo- direbfion of bufinefs and the deciding of controver-
rated trade, without firft obtaining his freedom in fios among merchants; make law's; punifli delinquents;
the corporation ; fo in moft cafes no fubjeft of the and impofe moderate duties and taxes on merchan-
ftate can lawfully carry on any branch of foreign trade, dizes, and merchants, to be employed in the fervice
for which a regulated company is eftabliftied, without of the corporation. Thefe few articles of the char-
firft becoming a member of that company. The mo- ter of Henry IV. were afterwards much augmented
nopoly is more or lefs ftridf according as the terms of by Henry VII. who firft gave them the title of Mer-
admiffion are more or lefs difficult; and according as chant-adventurers to Calais, Holland, &c. gave them a
the direhfors of the company have more or lefs autho- power of proclaiming and continuing free fairs at Ca¬
nty, or have it more or lefs in their power to manage Lis; and ordered, that to be reputed a member of
in fuch a manner as to confine the greater part of the the fociety, each perfon pay twenty marks fterling
trade to themfelves and their particular friends. In and that the feveral members Ihorild attend the general
the moft ancient regulated companies the privileges of meetings, or courts, appointed by the .directors, whe-
apprenticefhip were the fame as in other corporations; ther at London, Calais, or elfewhere.
and intitled the perfon who had ferved his time to a A petition being made to queen Elizabeth, in 1564^
member of the company, to become himfelf a mem- for an explanation of certain articles in the charter of
ber, either without paying any fine, or upon paying Henry VII. and a confirmation of the reft granted by
a much fmaller one than what was exafted of other other kings ; that princefs, by a charter of the fame
people. The ufual corporation fpirit, wherever the year, declares, that to end all difputes, they (hall be
law does not reftrain it, prevails in all regulated com- incorporated anew, under the title of the Company of
panics. When they have been allowed to a£f accord- Merchant-adventurers of England; that all who were
ing to their natural genius, they have always, in or- members of the former company (hould, if they de-
4 fireiL
COM r 224 ] COM
Company. fired it, be admitted members of this; that they fhould ding to Archangel, and other ports of Mufcovy, not Company,
have a common feal; that they fnould admit into their yet frequented by the Engliih.
fociety what other perfons, and on what terms, they
pleated, and expel them again on. mifbehaviour; that
the city of Hamburgh and neighbouring cities fliould
be reputed within their grant, together with thofe of
the Low Countries, &c. in that of the former com¬
pany ; that no member fhould marry out, of the king¬
dom, nor purchafe lands, See. in any city beyond tea;
and that thofe who do, (hall be, ipfo fa5lo, excluded
for ever. Twenty-two years after this firft charter,
This charter, not being fufficiently guarded, was
confirmed by parliament in the eighth year of queen
Elizabeth ; wherein it was enafted, that in regard the
former name was too long, they fliould now be called
Company of Englijh Merchants for difeovering new trades;
under which name, they fliould be capable of acqui¬
ring and holding all kind of lands, manors, rents, &c.
not exceeding a hundred marks/w ann. and not held
of her majefty; that no part of the continent, ifland,
queen Elizabeth granted them a fecond ; confirming harbour, &c. not known or frequented before the firll
the former, and further granting them a privilege of enterprize of the merchants of their company, fituated
exclufion; with a power of erefting in each city
within their grant a handing council.
The revolutions which happened in the Low Coun¬
tries towards the end of the fixteenth century, and
which laid the foundation of the republic of Hol¬
land, having hindered the company from continuing
their commerce with their ancient freedom ; it was
obliged to turn it almoft wholly to the fide of Ham¬
burgh, and the cities on the German ocean : from
which change, fame people took .occafion to change
its name to that of the Hamburgh Company; though
the ancient title of Merchant-adventurers is ftill retain¬
ed in all their writings.
About the middle of the laft century, the fine for
admiflion was fifty, and at one time one hnndred
pounds, and the conduit of the company was faid to
lie extremely oppreffive. In 1643, in 1645, and in
1661, the clothiers and free traders of the weft of
England complained of them to parliament, as of mo-
nopoli fts who confined the trade and oppreffed the ma-
nufaifures of the country. Though thofe complaints
produced no aft of parliament, they had probably in¬
timidated the company fo far, as to oblige them to
reform their conduft. The terms of admiffion are
now faid to be quite eafy; and the direftors either
have it not in their power to fubjeft the trade to any
to the north, or north-weft, or north-eaft of London;
nor any part of the continent, iflands, &c. under the
obedience of the emperor of Ruflia, or in the coun¬
tries of Armenia, Media, Hyrcania, Perfia, or the
Cafpian fea, ihould be vifited by any fubjefts of Eng¬
land, to exercife any commerce, without the confent
of the faid company, on pain of confifcation. The
faid company {hall ufe no ftlips in her new commerce
but thofe of the nation ; nor tranfport any cloths,
ferges, or other woollen fluffs, till they have been
dyed and preffed. That in cafe the company difeon-
tinue of itfelf to unload commodities in the road of the
abbey of S. Nicolas, in Ruflia, or fume other port, on
the north coafts of Ruflia, for the fpaee of three years,
the other fubjefts of England {hall be allowed to traf¬
fic to Narva, while the faid company difeontinues
its commerce into Ruflia, only ufing Englifti veffels.
This company fubfifted with reputation almoft a
whole century, till the time of the civil wars. It is
faid, the czar then reigning, hearing of the murder
of king Charles I. ordered all the Englifti in his ftates
to be expelled ; which the Dutch taking the advan¬
tage of, fettled in their room. After the Reftoration,
the remains of the company re-eftabliftied part of their
commerce at Archangel, but never with the fame fuc-
cefs as before ; the Ruffians being now well accuitom-
burdenfome reftraint or regulations, or at leaft have ed to the Dutch merchants and merchandize.
not of late exercifed that power.
2. The P.iffia Company was firft projefted towards
the end of the reign of king Edward VI. executed in
the firft and fecond years of Philip and Mary; but had
not its perfeftion till its charter was confirmed by aft
of parliament, under queen Elizabeth, in 1566. It
had its rife from certain adventurers, who were fent
in three veflels on the difeovery of new countries; and
to find out a north-eaft paflage to China: thefe, fall¬
ing into the White Sea, and making up to the port
of Archangel, were exceedingly well received by the
Mufcovites ; and, at their return, folicited letters pa¬
tent to fecure to themfelves the commerce of Ruflia,
for which they had formed an aflbeiation.
By their charter, the affociation was declared a bo¬
dy politic, under the name of the Company of Merch¬
ant-adventurers of England, for the dfcovery of lands? ter¬
ritories, iflands, &c. unknown, or unfrequented. Their
privileges were, to have a governor, four confuls, and
This company fubfifts ftill, under the direftion of
a governor, four confuls, and affillants. By the 10th
and 11th of William III. c. 6. the fine for admiflion
was reduced to 5I.
3. The Eajlland Company was incorporated by queen
Elizabeth. Its charter is dated in the year 1579. By
the firft article the company is erefted into a body po¬
litic, under the title of the Company of Merchants of the
Eajl; to confift of Englifhmen, all real merchants, who
have exercifed the bufinefs thereof, and trafficked thro’
the Sound, before the year 1568, into-Norway, Swe¬
den, Poland, Livonia, Pruflia, Pomerania, &c. as alfo
Revel, Coningfberg, Dantzick, Copenhagen, &c. ex¬
cepting Narva, Mufcovy, and its dependencies. Moll
of the following articles grant them the ufual prero¬
gatives of fuch companies ; as a feal, governor, courts,
laws, &c.
The privileges peculiar to this company are, that
none {hall be admitted a member who is already <
twenty-four affiftants, for their commerce ; for their member of any other company; nor any retail-dealer
policy, to make laws, inflift penalties, fend out {hips
to make difeoveries, take poffeflion of them in the
king’s name, fet up the banner royal of England,
plant them ; and laftly, the exclufive privilege of tra-
N° 8d. ‘ 5
at all. That no merchant qualified be admitted with¬
out paying fix pounds thirteen {hillings and fix-pence.
That a member of another company, defiring to re¬
nounce the privileges thereof, and to be received into
that
COM [ 225 ] COM
Company, that of the Eaft, {hall he admitted gratis; provided he pofition on veflels for defraying the common expenees Company.
procures the fame favour for a merchant of the Eaft (a thing fatal to the companies of moft other nations);
willing to fill his place. That the merchant-adven- but to allow a penfion to the ambaftador and confuls,
turers who never dealt in the Eaft, in the places ex- and even to the ch«ef officers, as fecretary, chaplain,
preffed in the charter, may be received as members of interpreters, and janizaries, that there may not be any
the company on paying forty marks; that, notwith- pretence for their raifing any film at all on the mer-
ftanding this union of the Adventurers of England chants or merchandizes.
with the Company of the Eaft, each {hall retain its In extraordinary cafes, the confuls, and even the
rights and privileges. That they {hall export no
cloths but what are dyed and prefled, except a hun-
’dred pieces per annum, which are allowed them gratis.
This charter was confirmed by Charles II. in 1629,
with this addition, that no perfon, of what quality
foever, living in London, {hould be admitted a member,
unlefs he were free of the city. This company was
complained of as a monopoly, and firft curtailed by
ambaflador, have recourfe to ttvo deputies of the com¬
pany, refiding in the Levant; or, if the affair be very
important, they affemble the whole body. Here are
regulated the prefents to be given, the voyages to be
made, and every thing to be deliberated; and on the
refolutions here taken, the deputies appoint the trea-
furer to furnifh the moneys, &c. required.
The ordinary commerce of this company employs
legal authority in 1672; and fince the declaration of from 20 to 25 veflels, carrying from 25 to 30 pieces
rights in 1689, exift only in name; but ftill continue of cannon. The merchandizes exported thither are,
to eledt their annual officers, who are a governor, a cloths of all kinds and colours, pewter, lead, pepper,
deputy, and twenty-four afiiftants. cochineal, and a great deal of filver, which they take
4. The Turky or Levant Company, had its rife under up at Cadiz: the returns are in raw filk, galls, camlets,
queen Elizabeth, in 1581. James I. confirmed its wools, cottons, Morocco leather, afties for making
charter in 1605, adding new priviliges. During the glafs and foap, and feveral gums and medicinal drugs,
civil wars, there happened fome innovations in the go- The commerce to Smyrna, Gonftantinople, and Scan-
vernment of the company; many perfons having been deroon, is not efteemed much lefs confiderable than
admitted members, not qualified by the charters of that of the Eaft India company ; but is, doubtlefs,
queen Elizabeth and king James, or that did not con- more advantageous to Britain ; becaufe it takes oft'
form to the regulations prefcribed. Charles II. upon much more of the Britifh manufadtures than the other,
his reftoration, endeavoured to fet it upon its ancient which is chiefly carried on in money. The places re-
bafis; to which end, he gave them a charter, con- ferved for the commerce of this company are, all the
taining not only a confirmation of their old one, but ftates of Venice, in the gulph of Venice ; the ftate of
alfo feveral new articles of reformation. By this, the Ragufa;-all the ftates of the grand feignior, and the
company is erefted into a body politic, capable of ports of the Levant and Mediterranean ; excepting
making laws, &c. under the title of the Company of Carthagena, Alicant, Barcelona, Valencia, Marfeilles,
Merchants of England trading to the feas of the Levant. Toulon, Genoa, Leghorn, Civita Vecchia, Palermo,
The number of members is not limited, but is ordi- Mefixna, Malta, Majorca, Minorca, and Corfica ; and
narily about three hundred. The principal qualifi- other places on the coafts of France, Spain, and
cation required is, that the candidate be a freeman of Italy.
London, and a wholefale merchant, either by family or 5. The Company of Merchants trading to Africa, efta-
by ferving an apprenticeftiip of feven years. Thofe blifhed in 1750. Contrary to the former pradtice with
under twenty-five years of age pay 251 fterling at their regard to regulated companies, who were reckoned
admiflion; thofe above, twice as much. This fine unfit for fuch fort of fervice, this company was fub-
wras reduced by adt of parliament, in 1753, to 20I. jedfed to the obligation of maintaining forts and garri-
and the privilege of admiffion extended to every Bri- fons. It was exprefsly charged at firft with the main-
tifti fubjedt. Each makes oath at his entrance not to tenance of aU the Britifli forts and garrifons that lie
fend any merchandizes to the Levant but on his own • between Cape Blanc and the Cape of Good Hope, and
account; and not to confign them to any but the
company’s agents or fadtors. This reftridtion is like-
wife enlarged by the above mentioned ftatute.
The company has a court or board at London, which
is compofed of a governor, deputy-governor, and fif¬
teen diredtors or afliftants; who are all adtually to live
in London or the fuburbs. They have alfo a deputy-
goverjior in every city and port; where there are any
members of the company. The affembly at London
fends out the veffels, regulates the tariff for the price fons.
afterwards with that of thofe only which lie between
Cape Rouge and the Cape of Good Hope. The adt
which eftabliflres this company (the 23d of George II.
c. 31.) feems to have had twodiftindt objedts in view;
firft, to reftrain effedtually the oppreflive and monopo¬
lizing fpirit which is natural to the diredtors of a regu¬
lated company; and, fecondly, to force them as much
as pofiible to give an attention, which is not natural to
them, towards the maintenance of forts and garri-
at which the European merchaMizes fent to the Le¬
vant are to be fold, and for the quality of thofe return¬
ed. It raifes taxes on merchandizes, to defray impo-
fitions, and the common expences of the company;
prefents the ambaflador which the king is to keep at
the Porte, eledls tw7o confuls for Smyrna and Con-
ftantinople, &c.
One of the beft regulations of the company is, not
to leave the confuls, or even ambaflador, to fix the im-
Vol, V. Part I.
For the firft. of thefe purpofes, the fine for admiflion
is limited to forty {hillings. The company is pro¬
hibited from trading in their corporate capacity, or
upon a joint flock; from borrowing money upon com¬
mon feal, or from laying any reftraints upon the trade
which may be carried on freely from all places, and by
all perfons being Britifti fubjedls, and paying the fine.
The government is in a committee of nine perfons who
meet at London, but who are choien annually by the
F' f freezneR
COM [2
Company, freemen of the company at London, Briftol, and Lx-
verpool; three from each place. No committee-man
can be continued in office for more than three years
together. Any committee-man i.hght be removed by
the board of trade and plantations; now by a com¬
mittee of council, after being heard in his own defence.
The committee are forbid to export negroes from
Africa, or to import any African goods into Great
Britain. But as they are charged with the mainte¬
nance of forts and garrifons, they may for that purpofe
export from Great Britain to Africa goods and ftores
of diff’erent kinds. Out of the money which they
fhall receive from the company, they are allowed a fum
not exceeding eight hundred pounds for the falaries of
their clerks and agents at London, Briftol, and Liver¬
pool; the houfe-rent of their office at London; and
all other expences of management, commiflion, and a-
gency, in England. What remains of this fum, after
defraying thofe different expences, they may divide
among themfelves, as compenfation for their trouble,
in what manner they think proper. “ By this confu¬
tation, it might have been expefted (Dr Smith ob-
fex-ves), that the fpirit of monopoly would have been
effe&ually reftrained, and the full of thefe purpofes
fufficiently anfwered. It would feem, however, that
it had not. Though by the 4th of George III. c. 20.
the fort of Senegal, with ail its dependencies, had been
veiled in the company of merchants trading to Africa,
yet in the year following (by the 5th of George III.
c. 44.), not only Senegal and its dependencies, but the
whole coaft from the port of Sallee, in South Barbary,
to Cape Rouge, was exempted from the jurifdi&ion of
that company, was veiled in the crown, and the trade
to it declared free to all his majefty’s fubjefts. The
company had been fufpe&ed of reftraining the trade,
and of ellablilhing fome fort of improper monopoly.
It is not, however, very eafy to conceive how, under
the regulations of the 23d George II. they could do
fo. From the printed debates of the houfe of com¬
mons (not always the moll authentic records of truth),
it appears, however, that they have been accufed of
this. The members of the committee of nine being
all merchants, and the governors and fa&ors, in their
different forts and fettlements, being all dependent
upon them, it is not unlikely that the latter might have
given peculiar attention to the' conlignments and com-
miffions of the former, which would eftablilh a real
monopoly.”
For the fecond purpofe mentioned, the maintenance
of the forts and garrifons, an annual fum has been al¬
lotted to them by parliament, generally about 13,000!.
For the proper application of this fum, the committee
is obliged to account annually to the curfitor baron of
exchequer ; which account is afterwards to be laid
before parliament. “ But parliament (continues our
author), which gives fo little attention to the applica¬
tion of millions, is not likely to give much to tuat of
13,000!. a-year ; and the curfitor baron of exchequer,
from his profeffion and education, is not likely to be
profoundly fkilled in the proper expence of forts and
garrifons. The captains of his majefty’s navy, indeed,
or any other commiffioned officers, appointed by the
board of admiralty, may enquire into the condition of
the forts and garrifons, and report their obfervations
to that .board. But that board feems to have no di-
2(5 ] COM
reel jurifdiftion over the committee, nor any author!. Company,
ty to correal thofe whofe condutt it may thus enquire
into-; and tlie captains of his majelly’s navy, befides,
are not fuppofed to be always deeply learned in the
fcience of fortification. Removal from an office, which
can be enjoyed only for the terra of three years, and of
which the lawful emoluments, even during that term,
are fo very fmall, feems to be the utmoll punifhment
to which any committee-man is liable ; for any fault,
except direft malverfation, or embezzlement either of
the public money or of that of the company, and the
fear of that puniftxment, can never be a motive of fuffi-
cient weight to force a continual and careful attention
to a bufinefs to which he lias no other interell to at¬
tend. The committee are accufed of having fent out
bricks and Hones from England for the reparation of
Cape Coaft Caftle on the coaft of Guinea, a bufinefs
for which, parliament had feveral times granted an ex¬
traordinary fum of money. Thefe bricks and ftones
too, which had thus been fent upon fo long a voyage,
were faid to have been of fo bad a quality, that it was
neceffary to rebuild from the foundation the walls
which had been repaired with them. The forts and
gan ifons which lie north of Cape Rouge, are not only
maintained at the expence of the Hate, but are under
the immediate government of the executive power; and
why thofe which lie fouth of that Cape, and which too
are, in part at leaft, maintained at the expence of the
ftate, fhould be under a different government, it feems
riot very eafy even to imagine a good reafon.” .
The above company fucceeded that called The
Royal African Company, which traded upon a joint flock
with an exclufive privilege. Though England began
to trade to Africa as early as the year 1536, and feve¬
ral voyages were made to Guinea in 1588, and fome
following years, for the importation of gold and ele¬
phants teeth, nothing like a company was formed till
the year 1588, when queen Elizabeth granted a patent
of exclufive privilege to cei-tain perfons for ten years.
In 1618, king James I. eftablifheda company by char¬
ter, which was foon diffolved. Another company was
erefted by charter of Charles I. in 1631, which met
with little fuccefs ; but the demand for negroes in the
Englilh American plantations increafing, a third com¬
pany was eftablifhed by a charter granted 1662, in
favour of the duke of York ; fecuring to him the com¬
merce of all the country, coafts, iflands, &c. belonging
to the crown of England, or not poffeffed by any other
Chriftian prince 5 from Cape Blanco in 20° N. Lat. to>-
the Cape of Good Hope in 340 34' S. Lat. The char¬
ter was foon after returned into the king’s hands by the
duke, and revoked, by confent of the parties affocia-
ted with him in the enterprize; in confequence oF
which, the fourth and laft exclufive company was efta¬
blifhed and incorporated by letters patent in 1672,
under the title of the Royal African Company. A ca¬
pital was foon raifed of 111,0001. and this new com¬
pany improved their trade, and increafed their forts;
but after the Revolution in 1689, this trade was laid
open. In 1698, all private traders to Africa were
obliged by flat. 9 and IO Will, to pay ten per cent, in
order to affift the company in maintaining their forts
and factories. But notwithftanding this heavy tax,
the company were ftill unable to maintain the com¬
petition j their flock and credit gradually declined.,
C O M [ 2:
t'owjrany. In 1712, their debts had become fo great, that a parti-
 ' cular aft of parliament was thought neceflary, both for
their fecurity and for that of their creditors. It was
enafted, that the refolution of two-thirds of thefe cre¬
ditors in number and value, fhould bind the reft, both
with regard to the time which (hould be allowed to
the company for the payment of their debts, and
with regard to any other agreement which it might be
thought proper to make with them concerning'thofe
debts. In 1730, their affairs were in fo great difor-
der, that they were altogether incapable of maintain¬
ing their forts and garrifons ; the foie purpofe and pre¬
text of their inftitution. From that year till their
final diffolution, the parliament judged it neceffary to
allow the annual fum of ten thoufand pounds for that
purpofe. In 1732, after having been for many years
lofers by the trade of carrying negroes to the Well
Indies, they at laft refolved to give it up altogether ;
to fell to the private traders to America the negroes
which they purchafed upon the coaft ; and to employ
their fervants in a trade to the inland parts of Africa
for gold duft, elephants teeth, dyeing drugs, See. But
their fuccefs in this more confined trade was not great¬
er than in their former extenfive one. Their affairs
continued to go gradually to decline, till at laft being
in every refpeft a bankrupt company, they were dif-
folved by aft of parliament, and their forts and gar¬
rifons vefted in the prefent Regulated Company of Mer¬
chants trading to Africa.
II. Joint-Stock Companies, eftablifhed either by
royal charter or by aft of parliament, differ in feveral
refpefts, not only from regulated companies, but from
private copartneries. 1. In a private copartnery, no
partner, without the confent of the company, can
transfer his (hare to another perfon, or introduce a
new member into the company. Each member, how¬
ever, may, upon proper warning, withdraw from the
copartnery, and demand payment from them of his
{hare of the common flock. In a joint-ftock company,
on the contrary, no member can demand payment of
his fhare from the company ; but each member can,
without their confent, transfer his fhare to another
perfon, and thereby introduce a new member. The
value of a fhare in a joint-ftock is always the price
which it will bring in the market ; and this may be
either greater or lefs, in any proportion, than the fum
which its owner ftands credited for in the flock of the
Company. 2. In a private copartnery, each partner is
bound for the debts contrafted by the company to the
whole extent of his fortune. In a joint-ftock com¬
pany, on the contrary, each partner is bound only to
the extent of his fhare.
The trade of a joint-ftock company is always ma¬
naged by a court of direftors. This court indeed is
frequently fubjeft, in many refpefts, to the controul
of a general court of proprietors. But the greater
part of thofe proprietors feldom pretend to underftand
any thing of the bufinefs of the company ; and when
the fpirit of fadlion happens not to prevail among
them', give themfelves no trouble about it, but receive
contentedly fuch half yearly or yearly dividend as the
direftors think proper to make to them. This total
exemption from trouble and from rifle, beyond a limi¬
ted fum, encourages many people to become adven¬
turers in joint-ftock companies, who would upon no
7 1
COM
account hazard their fortune's in any private Copart- Company.
nery. Such companies, therefore, commonly draw to  v—-*
themfelves much greater flocks than any private co¬
partnery can boaft of. The trading flock of the
South Sea Company, at one time, amounted to upwards
of thirty-three millions eight hundred thoufand pounds.
The direftors of fuch companies, however, being the
managers rather of other peoples money than of their
own, it cannot well be expefted that they fhould watch
over it with the fame anxious vigilance with which the
partners in a private copartnery frequently watch over
their own. Like the ftewards of a rich man, they are
apt to confider attention to fmall matters as not for
their mailer’s honour, and very eafily give themfelves
a difpenfation from having it. Negligence and pro-
fufion, therefore, muft always prevail, more or lefs, in
the management of the affairs of fuch a company. It
is upon this account that joint-ftock companies for fo¬
reign trade have feldom been able to maintain the com¬
petition againft private adventurers. They have, ac¬
cordingly, very feldom fucceeded without an exclufive
privilege ; and frequently have not fucceeded with
one. Without an exclufiee privilege they have com¬
monly mifmanaged the trade. With an exclufive pri¬
vilege they have both mifmanaged and confined it.
The principal joint-ftock companies prefently fub-
fifling in Great Britain are, the South Sea and the Eajl
India companies ; to which may be added, though of
very inferior magnitude, the Hudfon's Bay company.
1. The South-Sea Company. During the long war
with France in the reign of queen Anne, the payment
of the failors of the royal navy being neglefted, they re¬
ceived tickets inftead of money, and were frequently ob¬
liged, by their neceffities, to fell thefe tickets to avarici¬
ous men at a difeount of 40 and fometimes 56 per cent.
By this and other means, the debts of the nation un¬
provided for by parliament, and which amounted to
9,471,32 il. fell into the hands of thefe ufurers. On
which Mr Harley, at that time chancellor of the Ex^
chequer, and afterwards earl of Oxford, propofed a
fcheme to allow the proprietors of thefe debts and de-
ficiences 6per cent, per annum, and to incorporate them
for the purpofe of carrying on a trade to the South
Sea; and they were accordingly incorporated under
the title of “ the Governor and Company of Merch¬
ants of Great Britain trading to the South Seas, and
other parts of America, and for encouraging the Fifh-
ery,” &c.
Though this company feem formed for the fake of
commerce, the miniltry never thought ferioufly, du¬
ring the courfe of the war, about making any fettle-
ment on the coaft of South America, which was what
flattered the expeftations of the people; nor was it
ever carried into execution by this company.
Some other fums were lent to the government in
the reign of queen Anne, at 6 per cent. In the third
of George I. the intereft of the whole was reduced to
5 per cent, and the company advanced two millions
more to the government at the fame intereft. By the
ftatute of the 6th of George I. it was declared, that
they might redeem all or any of the redeemable na¬
tional debts ; in confideration of which, the company
were empowered to augment their capital according
to the fums they fhould difeharge : and for enabling
them to raife fuch fums for purchafing annuities, ex-
F f 2 changing
COM [2
changing for ready money new exchequer bills, car¬
rying on their trade, &c. they might, by fuch means
as they (hould think proper, raife fuch fums of money
as in a general court of the company fliould be judged
neceffary. The company were alfo empowered to
raife money on the contradls, bonds, or obligations
under -their common feal, on the credit of their capi¬
tal flock. But if the fub-governor, deputy-governor,
or other members of the company, fhould purchafe
lands or revenues of the crown upon account of the
corporation, or lend money by loan or anticipation on
any branch of the revenue, other than fuch part only
on which a credit of loan was granted by parliament,
fuch fub-governor, or other member of the company,
fliould forfeit treble the value of the money fo lent.
The fatal South Sea fcheme, tranfa&ed in the year
1720, was executed upon the lall mentioned ilatute.
The company had at firft fet out with good fuccefs,
and the value of their flock, for the firfl five years, had
rifen fafler than that of any other company ; and his
majefly, after purchafing io,oool. flock, had conde-
fcended to be their .governor. Things were in this fi-
tuation, when, taking advantage of the above flatute,
the South Sea bubble was projected. -The pretence
was, to raife a fund for carrying on a trade to the
South Sea, and purchafing annuities, &c. paid to the o-
ther companies: and propofals were printed and diflribu-
ted, fhowing the advantages of thi^ defign. The fum
neceffary for carrying it on, together with the profits
that were to arife from it, were divided into a certain
number of fhares, or fubfcriptions, to be purchafed
by perfons difpofed to adventure therein. And the
better to carry on the deception, the directors enga¬
ged to make very large dividends; and a£tually de¬
clared, that every tool, original flock would yield 50I.
j>er annum : which occafioned fo great a rife of their
flock, that a fhare of 100I. was fold for upwards of
8001. This was in the month of July; but before
the end of September it fell to 1501. by which multi-
- tudes were ruined, and fuch a fcene of diflrefs occa¬
fioned, as is fcarcely to be conceived. But the con-
fequences of this infamous fcheme are too well known;
mofl of the directors were feverely fined, to the lofs
of nearly all their property ; fome of them had no
hand in the deception, nor gained a farthing by it;
but it was agreed, they ought to have oppofed and
prevented it.
The South Sea company never had any forts or
garrifons to maintain, and therefore were entirely ex¬
empted from one great expence, to which other joint-
flock companies for foreign trade are fubjedt. But
they had an immenfe capital divided among an im-
menfe number of proprietors. It was naturally to be
expedled, therefore, that folly, negligence, and pro-
fufion, fhould prevail in the whole management of their
affairs.
Their Hock-jobbing fpeculations were fucceeded by
mercantile projedls, which, Dr Smith ohferves, > were
not much better conduced. The firfl trade which
they engaged in, was that of fupplying the Spanifh
Weft Indies with negroes, of which (in confequence
of what was called the Affiento contracl granted them
by the treaty of Utrecht) they had the exclufive pri¬
vilege. But as it was not expected that much profit
could be made by this trade, both the Portuguefe and
28 ] GO M
French companies, who had enjoyed it upon the fame Cor
terms before them, having been ruined by it, they —
were allowed, as compenfation, to fend annually a
fhip of a certain burden to trade diredtly to the Spa¬
nifh Weft Indies. Of the ten voyages which this an¬
nual fhip was allowed to make, they are faid to have
gained confiderably by one, that of the Royal Caro¬
line in 1731, and to have beenlofers, more or lefs, by
aim oft all the reft. Their ill fuccefs was imputed, by
their fadlors and agents, tp the extortion and oppref-
fion of the Spanifh government; but was, perhaps,
principally owing to the profufion and depredations
of thofe very fa&ors and agents; fome of whom are
faid to have acquired great fortunes even in one year.
In 1734, the company petitioned the king, that they
might be'allowed to difpofe of the trade and tunnage
of their annual fhip, on account of the little profit-
which they made by it, and to accept of fuch equiva¬
lent as they could obtain from the king of Spain.
In 1724, this company had undertaken the whale-
fifhery. Of this, indeed, they had no monopoly ; but
as long as they carried it on, no other Britifh fubje&s
appear to have engaged in it. Of the eight voyages
which their fhips made to Greenland, they were gain¬
ers by one, and lofer® by all the reft. After their
eighth and laft voyage, when they had fold their fhips,
ftores, and utenfils, they found that their whole lofs,
upon this branch, capital and intereft included, a-
mounted to upwards of L. 237,000.
In 1722, this company petitioned the parliament to
be allowed to divide their immenfe capital of more
than L- 33,800,000, the whole of which had been
lent to government, into two equal parts: The one
half, or upwards of L. 16,900,000, to be put upon the
fame footing with other government annuities, and
not to be fubjedl to the debts contracled, or Ioffes in¬
curred, by fire diredlors of the company, in the pro-
fecution of their mercantile projefts; the other half
to remain, as before, a trading flock, and to be fub-
jebl to thofe debts and Ioffes. The petition was too
reafonable not to be granted. In 1733, they again
petitioned the parliament, that three-fourths of their
trading flock might be turned into annuity flock, and
only one-fourth remain as trading flock, or expofed
to the hazards arifing from the bad management of
their directors. Both their annuity and trading flocks
had, by this time,been reduced more thanL. 2,000,000
each, by feveral different payments from government;
fo that this fourth amounted only to L. 3,662,784,
8s. 6 d. In 1748, all the demands of the company
upon the king of Spain, in confequence of the Af¬
fiento contrail, were, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle,
given up for what was fuppafed an equivalent. An
end was put to their trade with the Spanifh Weft In¬
dies, the remainder of their trading flock was rurned
into an annuity flock, and the company ceafed in e-
very refpeil to be a trading company.
This company is under the direitionof a governor, fub-
governor,deputy-governor, and 21 direilors; but noper-
fon is qualified to be governor, his majefty excepted, un-
lefsfuch governor has, in his own name and righr, L. 5000
in the tradingftock; the fub-governor is to haveL.4000,
the deputy-governor L. 3000, and a diredlorL. 2000,.
in the fame flock. In every general court, every
member having in his own name and right L. 500 in
COM [ 229 ] COM
Company, trading /lock, has one vote ; if L. 2000 two votes j if
L. 3000 three votes; and if L. 5000 four votes.
2. The Eajl India Company. The firll, or as it is
called the Old Eaft India Company, was eftabli/hed by
a charter from Queen Elizabeth in 1600; but for
fome time the partners feem to have traded with fe-
parate ftocks, though only in the /hips belonging to
the whole company. In 1612, they joined their ftocks
into one common capital; and though their charter
was not as yet confirmed by^aft of parliament, it was
looked upon in that early period to be fufficiently va¬
lid, and no body ventured to interfere with their
trade. At this time their capital amounted to about
L. 74.0,000, and the (hares were as low as L.50 ; their
trade was in general fuccefsful, notwithftanding fome
heavy Ioffes, chiefly fuftained through the malice of the
Dutch Eaft India company. In procefs of time,
however, it came to be underftood that a royal char¬
ter could not by itfelf convey an exclufive privilege to
traders, and the company was reduced to diftrefs by
reafon of the multitude of interlopers who carried off
the moft of their trade. This continued during the
latter part of the reign of Charles II. the whole of
that of James II. and part of William III. when in
1698 a propofalwas made to parliament for advancing
the fum of L. 2,000.000 to government, on condition
of ere&ing the fubfcribers into a new company with ex¬
clufive privileges. The old company endeavoured to
prevent the appearance of fuch a formidable rival, by
offering ‘government L. 700,000, nearly the amount of
their capital, at that time ; but fuch were the exigen¬
cies of the ftate at that time, that the larger fum, tho’
at eight per cent, intereft, was preferred to the fmaller
at one half thecxpence.
Thus were two Eaft India Companies erefted in
the fame kingdom, which could not but be very pre¬
judicial to each other. Through the negligence of
thofe who prepared the a£t of parliament alfo, the
new company were not obliged to unite in ajoint-ftock.
The confequence of this was, that a few private traders,
whofe fubfcriptions fcarce exceeded L. 7200, infifted on
a right of trading feparately at their own rifle. Thus a
kind of third company w^s eftablifhed ; and by their
mutual contentions with one another, all the three were
brought to the brink of ruin. Upon a fubfequent occa-
fion, in 1730, a propofal was made to parliament for
putting the trade under the management of a regula¬
ted company, and thus laying it in fome meafure open.
This, however, was oppofed by the company, who re-
prefented in ftrong terms the mifehiefs likely to arife
Vmltb’t from luch a proceeding. “ In India (they faid), it
'wealth of raifed the price of goods fo high, that they were not
Nations, worth the buying ; and in England, by overftocking
vol hi. p. the market, it funk the price to fuch a degree, that
no profit could be made of them.’* Here Dr Smith
remarks, that by a more plentiful fupply, to the great
advantage and conveniency of the public, it muft have
reduced very much the price of India goods in the
Engli/h market, cannot well be doubted; but that it
fhould have raifed very much their price in the Indian
market, feems not very probable, as all the extraordi¬
nary demand which that competition could occafion,
muft have been but as a drop of water in the immenfe
ocean of Indian commerce. The increafe of demand,
adds he, though in the beginning it may fo&ietimes
raife the price of goods, never fails to lower it in the Company,
long run. It encourages production, and thereby in- »"" J
creafes the competition of the produders, who, in or¬
der to underfell one another, have recourfe to new di-
vifions of labour and new improvements of art, which
might never otherwife have been thought of. The
miferable effefts of which the company complained,
were the cheapnefs of confumption and the encourage¬
ment given to production, precifely the two effects
which it is the bufinefs of political economy to promote.
The competition, however, of which they gave this
doleful account, had not been allowed to continue
long. In 1702 the two companies were, in fome
meafure, united by an indenture tripartite, to which
the queen was the third party; and, in 1708, they
were, by aft of parliament, perfeftly confolidated into
one company by their prefent name of The United
Company of Merchants trading to the Eaft Indies.
Into this aft it was thought worthy to infert a claufe,
allowing the feparate traders to continue their traffic
till Michaelmas 1711, but at the fame time empower¬
ing the direftors, upon three years notice, to redeem
their capital of L. 7200, and thereby convert the
whole capital of the company into a joint-ftock. By
the fame aft, the capital of the company, in confe
quence of a new loan to government, was augmented
from L. 2,000,000 to L. 3,200,000. In 1743, ano¬
ther million was advanced to government. But this-
being raifed, not by a call upon the proprietors, but
by felling annuities and contracting bond-debts, it did
not augment the ftock upon which the proprietors-
could claim a dividend. Thus, however, their trading
ftock was augmented ; it being equally liable with the
other L. 3,200,000, to the Ioffes fuftained, and debts
contrafted, by the company in the profecution of
their mercantile projects. From 1708, or at leaft
from 1711, this company being freed from all com¬
petitors, and fully eftabli/hed in the monopoly of the
Engli/h commerce to the Eaft Indies, carried on a
fuccefsful trade ; and from their profits made annually
a moderate dividend to their proprietors. Unhappily,
however, in a Zhort time, an inclination for war and
conqudt began to take place among their fervants;
which, though it put them in poffe/fion of extenfive
territories and vaft nominal revenues, yet embarraffed
their affairs in fuch a manner, that they have not to
this day been able to recover themfelves. The parti¬
culars of thefe wars are given under the articles Bri¬
tain, and Indostan. Here it will b§ fufficient to
obferve, that they originated during the war in 1741
through the ambition of M. Dupleix the French go¬
vernor of Pondicherry, who involved the company in
the politics and difputes of the Indian princes. Af¬
ter carrying on hoftilities for fame time with various
fuccefs, they at laft loft Madras, at that time the prin¬
cipal fettlement in the Eaft Indies, but it was re/tored
by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. During the war
of 1755, they acquired the revenues of a rich and ex¬
tenfive territory, amounting, as was then faid, to near
L. 3,000,000per annum.
For feveral years they remained in quiet poffeffion
of the revenue arifing from this territory, though it
certainly never anfwered the expeftatiors that had
been formed concerning it. But in 1767 the Briti/h
miniftry laid claim to the territorial poffeffions of the
companyr.
COM [ 230 ] COM
C rnpany. ccrhpany, and the revenue arifing from them, a* of
v—right belonging to the crown ; and the company, ra¬
ther than yield up their territories in this manner,
agreed to pay government a yearly fum of L.400,000.
They had before this gradually augmented their divi¬
dend from about fix to ten per cent. ; that is, on their
capital of L. 3,200,000, they had raifed it from
L. 192,000 to L. 320,000 a-year. About this time
alfo they were attempting to raife it dill further, viz.
from 10 to 124- per cent. ; but from this they were pre¬
vented by two fucceffive adts of parliament, the defign
of which was to enable them to make a more fpeedy
payment of their debts, at this time eftimated at more
than fix or feven millions Sterling. In 1769 they re¬
newed their agreement with government for five years
more, ftipulating, that during the courfe of that pe¬
riod they fhould be allowed gradually to augment their
dividend to \ per cent. ; never increafing it, however,
more than one per cent, annually. Thus their annual
payments could only be augmented by L. 608,000 be¬
yond what they had been before their late territorial
acquifitions. By accounts from India in tire year
1768, this revenue, clear of all dedu&ions and military
charges, was dated at L. 2,048,747. At the fame
time they were faid to poffefs another revenue, arifing
partly ftom lands, but chiedy from the cudoms eda-
bli/hed at their different fettlements, amounting to
about L. 439,000. The profits of their trade, too,
according to the evidence of their chairman before the
houfe of commons, amounted to at lead L. 400,000
per annum ; their accountant made it L. 500,000; and
the lowed account dated it at lead equal to the high-
ed dividend paid to their proprietors. Notwithdand-
ing this apparent wealth, however, the affairs of the
company from this time fell into diforder ; infomuch
that in 1773. their debts were augmented by an arrear
to the treafury in the payment of the £..400,000 di-
pukted ; by another to the cudomhoufe for duties un¬
paid ; by a large fum borrowed from the bank ; and
by bills drawn upon them from India to the amount
of more than L. 1,200,coo. Thus they were not on¬
ly obliged to reduce their dividend all at once to fix
per cent, but to apply to government for affidance. A
particular account of this tranfadlion is given under the
article Britain. Here it may be mentioned in general,
that the event proved very unfavourable to the com¬
pany, as they were now fubjefted to an interference
of government altogether unknown before. Several
important alterations were made in their conftitution
both at home and abroad. The fettlements of Madras,
Bombay, and Calcutta, which had hitherto been entirely
independent of one another, were fubjefted to a gover¬
nor-genet al, affided by a council of four affeffors. The
nomination of the fird governor and council, who were
to refide at Calcutta, was affumed by parliament ; the
power of the court of Calcutta, which had gradually
extended its jurifdiftion over the red, was now redu¬
ced and confined to the trial of mercantile caufes, the
purpofe for which it was originally indituted. In-
ttead of it a new fupreme court of judicature was eda-
blilhed, confiding of a chief judice and three judges
to be appointed by the crown. Befides thefe altera¬
tions, the dock neceffary to inticle any proprietor to
vote at the general courts was raifed from L. 500 to
L. 1000. To vote on this qualification, too, it was
neceflary that he fhould have pofleffed it, if acquired Company,
by his own purchafe and not by inheritance, for at
lead one year, indead of fix months, the term requi-
fite formerly. The court of 24 direftors had before
been chofen annually ; but it was now enafted, that
each director fhould for the future be chofen for four
years ; fix of them, however, to go out of office by
rotation every year, and not to be capable of being re-
chofen at the eleftion of the fix new direftors for the
enfuing year. It was expefted that, in confequence
of thefe alterations, the courts both of the proprie¬
tors and direftors would be likely to aft with more
dignity and deadinefs than formerly. But this was
far from being the cafe. The company and its fer-
vants fhowed the utmod indifference about the happi-
nefs or mifery of the people who had the misfortune
to be fubjefted to their jurifdiftion. This indifference,
too, was more likely to be increafed than diminifhed
by feme of the new regulations. The houfe of com¬
mons, for indance, had refolved, that when the
L. 1,600,000 lent to the company by government fhould
be paid, and their bond-debts reduced to L. 1,500,000,
they mjght then, and not till then, divide eight per
cent, upon their capital; and that whatever remained
of their revenues and nett profits at home fhould be
divided into four parts ; three of them to be paid into
the exchequer for the ufe of the public, and the fourth
to be referved as a fund, either for the further reduc¬
tion of their bond-debts, or for the difeharge of other
contingent exigencies which the company might la¬
bour under. But it could fcarce be expefted that, if
the company were bad llewards and bad foVereigns
when the whole of their nett revenue and profits be¬
longed to themfelves, they would be better when three-
fourths of thefe belonged to other people. The regu¬
lations of 1773, therefore, did not put an end to the
troubles of the company. Among other inttitutions,
it had been at this time enafted, that the prefidency
of Bengal fhould have a fuperiority over the other pre-
fidencies in the country ; the falary of the chief jultice
was fixed at L. 8000 per annum, and thofe of the other
judges at L. 6000 each. In confequence of this aft,
Sir Elijah Impey, who was created a baronet on the
occafion, fet fail, with three other judges, for India
in the year 1774. The powers wfith which they were
invefted were very extraordinary. They had the title
of His Majefty’s Supreme Court of Judicature in In¬
dia. Civil law, common law, eccleliaftical, criminal,
and admiralty jurifdiftion, belonged of right to them.
They were empowered to try Europeans on perfonal
aftions, and to affefs damages, without a jury. Every
native, either direftlyor indireftly in the fervice of the
company, or in their territories, was made fubjeft to
their jurifdiftion, with a view to prevent the Euro¬
peans from eluding juflice under the pretence of em¬
ploying natives in the cornmiffion of their crimes ; fo
that in faft they were abfolute lords and fovereigns of
the whole country.
Such exceffive and unlimited powers conferred on
any fmall number of men, could not but be extremely
difagreeable to the Europeans, who had been accuftom-
ed to enjoy a liberty almoll equally unbounded before;
nor was it to be fuppofed that the judges, thus fud-
denly raifed from the rank of fubjefts to the height of
defpotiim, would always ufe their power in an unexcep¬
tionable
COM [ 23i ] COM
Cewpai'jr. ticnable manner. The defign of th« eftabllfhment was to ner in which the judges of the fupreme court attempt- Company.
prcferve the commerce and revenuesof the companyfrocn ed to exercife the Engliih laws in that country, at the '-—v——'
depredation, by fubjedting its fervants to the controul fame time tltat they refufed the undoubted right of
of the court ; to relieve the fubjedt from oppreffion by every Britifh fubjeft, viz. that of trial by jury. They
facilitating the means of redrefs; and to fix a regular intreated the houfe “ to refledt on the innumerable
courfe of juftice for the fecurity of liberty and proper- hardfhips which muft enfue, and the univerfal confu-
ty. Inftead of confidering the circumllaaces of the fion which muft be occafioned, by giving to the volu*
country, however, or the manners and cuftoms of the minous laws of England a boundlefs retrofpedfive pow-
natives, the judges now precipitately introduced the er in the midft of Ada, and by an application of thofe
Britilh laws in their full extent, without the lead mo- laws made Tor the freed and moft enlightened people
dification to render them agreeable to the. Afiatics, on earth, the principle of whofe conftitution was found-
who had been aocuftomed to others of a quite difFe- ed on virtue and liberty, to tranfadtions with the na-
rent nature ; nor did they even pay the lead regard to lives of India, who had, from time immemorial, lived
the religious inftitiitions or habits to which the Indians under a defpotic government founded on fear and re-
are fo obftinately attached, that they would fooner ftraint. What muft be the terrors of individuals to
part with life itfelf than break through an article of find their titles to property, and their tranfadtions with
them. the natives previous to the eftablilhment of this court
Befides this it was faid, that, on the find arrival of the of judicature, -tried by the ftandard of the Englilh
judges, they endeavoured to extend their authority be- law, and by men educated under its forms, aid una-
yond even what the Britidi legiflature had allowed them, voidably imbibing its prejudices, when no fuch laws
Hence they were frequentlyat variancewith the council; could be known to or pradtifed by natives or Euro-
and complaints of their condudl were repeatedly fent to peans then refiding in the country, and that at a time
England by the fervants of the company. Thtfe pro- when there were few perfons of legal knowledge in
dueed a letter in 1 yy? from the direftors to Lord Wey- the country to advife or affift them ? No tyranny could
mouth, fecretary of date for the fouthern department, be more fatal in its confequences, than that a court.
In this they dated, that the fiiprepae court of India invefted with all the authority of one of the firft courts
had extended its jurifdidlion to thofe whom it did not in England, Ihould alfo poflefs undefined powers and
appear to have been the Intention of the king or par- jurifdicfion, of which its judges were the foie interpre-
liament to fubje& to its authority. It had alfo taken ters, and at fuch an immenje diftance from the mother
cognizance of matters which, they apprehended, be- country. This was in truth the fituation of the Bri-
longed properly to other courts. That the judges con- tidi fubje&s in India at that time; for the judges of
fidered the criminal law of England as in force, and the fupreme court could at pleafure determine on the
binding on the natives of Bengal, though utterly re- denomination of a civil jury, the degree of guilt in-
pugnant to the laws and cuftoms by which they had curred by any offence, the ftatute by which it Ihould
hitherto been governed ; and that the jurifdiction ex- be tried, what penalties Ihould be inflifted, as well as
ercifed by the fupreme court was incompatible with who were and who were not amenable to the jurifdic-
the powers given by parliament to the governor-gene- tion of the court.
ral and council, obftru£ted the adminiftration of go- “ Belides their other powers alfo, the judges of the fu-
vernment, and tended to alienate the minds of the na- preme court were allowed to fit as a court of chancery,
lives; all which they feared would prevent the eftablifh- and in that capacity to revife, eorredf, refcind, or con-
ment of the government of India upon any fettled or firm the deeifions paffed by themfelves as a court of
permanent foundation. law ; and, by another part of their conftitution, they
This letter not having produced any efTeft, the dif- were allowed to ftop execution in criminal cafes until
contents of India, both in the Europeans and natives, his Majefty’s pleafure was known. The petitioners
continued and increafed. The decifions of the judges conceived, that there muft be fome fundamental error
were fuch as by no means did them honour. A num- in that inftitution, which required a more than ordi-
ber of adventurers had alfo emigrated along with them, nary degree of temper, integrity, and ability, to carry
in hopes of enriching themfelves under the new con- its purpofes into execution ; and they did not hefitate
ftitution. Some of thefe were of the lowed fort of to declare, that to adminifter the powders appertaining
people, who had rendered it in a manner impoffible to the inftitution of the fupreme court, without com-
for them to remain in England on account of their mitting flagrant a6ts of injuftice, and doing great de¬
vices or extravagance. Many fuch perfons had en- triment to the public, required more equity, modera-
rolled themfelves among the domeftics of the judges, tion, difcernme.nt, and enlightened abilities, than they
or had become their immediate dependents; and could hope to find in any fet of men.” They con-
fome of thefe were permitted to aflume the charac- eluded with earneftly foliciting parliament, that a trial
ters of attorneys, court-officers, under-lheriffs, and by jury might be granted to the Britifli fubjefts in
bailiffs. It may eaiily be fuppofed, that people of Bengal, in all cafes where it w’as eftabliflied by law in
fuch chara&ers would find it for their intereft to pro- England; that the retrofpeeftive powders of the fu-
mote fuits in the fupreme court 5 and in this fome of preme court might be limited to the time of its efta-
them employed themfelves with great fuccefs. The bliffiment in Bengal; that it fliould be defined beyond
confequence of all this was, that orrthe 4th of De- the power cf difcretional diftin&ion, who the perfons
cember 1780, a petition was prefented againft the fu- were that properly came under the jurifdiftion of the
preme court by a great number of Britifli inhabitants court, and who did not; that it ihould be exprefsly
in the kingdoms of Bengal, Bahar, and Orixa. In declared what ftatutes fliould, and what Ihould not, be
tint, complaint was made of the indiferiminate man- in force in Bengal; that diftinct and feparate judges
COM [ 232 ] COM
Company, for the law and equity fides of the court fliould be ap-
pointed ; and that a power of delaying executions in
criminal cafes until his Majefty’s pleafure was known,
ihould be lodged in the governor and council.
This petition was foon followed by another figned
by Warren Haftings, Efq; governor-general, Philip
Francis and Edward Wheeler, Efqs; counfellors for the
government and prefidency of Fort-William in Ben¬
gal ; in which they reprefented, “ that, though the ju-
rifdiftion of the fupreme court of judicature at Cal¬
cutta, as well as the powers granted to the governor-
general and council, were clearly limited by parlia¬
ment and the king’s letters patent, yet the chief
juftice and judges of that court had exercifed authori¬
ty over perfons not legally within their jurifdiction,
and had illegally and improperly advifed and admitted
fuits againft the governor-general and council; that
they had attempted to execute their writs upon natives
of high rank in the kingdom of Bengal, who were not
■within their jurifdi£lion: the governor and council
therefore had found themfelves under a neceflity of
oppofing them, and of affording protection to the
country and people, who were placed under their own
immediate infpeftion, and freeing them from the terrors
of a new and ufurped dominion. They had even been
obliged to make ufe of a military force, in order to re-
fift the proceedings of the judges and their officers :
And they declared, that no other conduft could have
favcd thofe provinces and the interefts of the company,
or of the Britifh nation itfelf, from the ruin with which
they were threatened. They alfo declared themfelves
to be of opinion, that the attempt to extend, to the
inhabitants of thefe provinces, the jurifdiftion of the
fupreme court of judicature, and the authority of the
Englifh law, which were ftill more intolerable than
the law itfelf, would be fuch a conftraint on the minds
of the people of thofe provinces, by the difference of
fuch laws and forms from their laws, that they might
at left inflame them, not with Handing their known
mildnefs and patience, into an open rebellion.” The
petition was concluded, by foliciting' an indemnity
from the legal confequenees of the refiftance they had
been obliged to make to that court.
While the Britifh were thus expreffing their dif-
pleafure againft the conduct of thefe judges, the na¬
tives were thrown into the utmoft confternation and
defpair by the a£ts of opprefiion and violence com¬
mitted by them. A profecution for forgery had been
commenced againft Nundcomar, a bramin of the
frrft rank in Bengal. The crime was not capital by
the laws of Indoftan, and had been committed many
years before ; yet with the utmoft cruelty and in-
juftice was this man condemned and executed on the
Bi itifh ftatute, by which forgery is made capital; a fta-
tute which, at the commiffion of the crime, he had
•never heard of, nor could ever dream that he would be
fubjefted to its power. What rendered this execution
the more remarkable was, that, at the very time when
charge of forgery was brought againft him, Nund¬
comar had been employed in exhibiting an accufation
againft Mr Haftings. This, together with the hur¬
ry in which the Court were to have him put to death
(for the court refufed to allow him a refpite till his
Majefty’s pleafure was known), made the natives con¬
clude, that he was executed, not on account of the
N° 86.
forgery, but for having ventured to prefer an accufa- Company,
tion againft an Englifh governor. In other refpe&s
they were terrified to fuch a degree, that many of them
ran into the river on feeing a bramin put to death
with fuch circumftances of ignominy.
The alarm excited by the execution of Nundcomar
was kept up by frefh decifions of the fupreme court.
Among thofe the Patna caufe, as it is commonly
called, was one of the moft remarkable. An adven¬
turer, named Shahaz Beg Cawn, had come from Ca-
bul in Perfia to Bengal, where he entered himfelf in
the fervice of the company, and was preferred to the
command of a body of horfe. Having gained a com¬
petent fortune, and obtained from the Mogul a grant
of lands called an Ulturnghaw in the province of Bahar,
he retired from the army, and fettled in ^atna.
About this time, when advanced in years, he married
a woman of low rank, named Nadara Begum, by whom
he had no children. His brother, Allum Beg, came
likewife to Patna.; and. on his leaving the place fome
time after, committed the care of one of his fons,
named Behader Beg, to his brother Shahaz Beg Cawn.
On the death of the latter in 1776, a difpute enfued
concerning the inheritance betwixt the widow and
Behader Beg. The widow having taken poffeflkm
of the whole property of Shahaz, the nephew, as
adopted fon and heir, gave in a petition to the provincial
council at Patna, on the zd of January 1777, fetting
forth his claim. In this petition he ftated, that the
widow was removing and fecreting the effe&s of the
deceafed; and concluded with a prayer, that orders
fhould be given to prevent their removal; to recover
fuch as had already been carried away and that the
cadi or Indian judge ftionld be dire&ed to afeertain
his right. As the parties were Mahometants, the
council of courfe referred the caufe to the cadi and
two mufties, the proper officers for determining it ac¬
cording to the eftablifhed laws of the country. Thefe
having inquired into the matter, reported, that the
title-deeds, on which the widow pretended to found
her right, appeared to be forged; and that, even if
they had appeared in the life-time of Shahaz, they
were ftill informal, on account of a point of the Ma¬
hometan law, which requires, that to make deeds of
gift valid, poffeffion fhould be entered into at the time
of executing or delivering them over; but that, as no
pofleffion of this kind had been given, the eftate ought
to be divided according to the Mahometan law ; viz.
one-fourth to the wife, and three-fourths to the ne¬
phew, as the reprefentative of his father Allum Beg,
who was confidered as the more immediate heir of the
deceafed. This decifion was confirmed by the coun¬
cil of Patna, with the following exception in favour of
the widow, that the heir at law fhould pay her one-
fourth of the rents of the ultumghaw, or royal grant,
for her fupport during life. The widow, however,
refufed to fubmit to the decifion, or to deliver up the
effects of her hufband ; in confequence of which com-
pulfatory methods were ufed ; when,, by the advice of
fome Englifh lawyers, an action of trefpafs was brought,
according to the law of England, againft the cadi and
two mufties for their proceedings againft her, laying
the damages at about 66,0001. Sterling. This proems
being brought before the fupreme court, was by them
cpndufted in fuch a manner as muft entail everlafting
1 infamy
COM
[ 233 1
COM
Company, infamy on the aftors. They began with obliging the tives, who are fuperftitioufly attached to their Zemin- Company.
' cadi and mufties to find bail in no lefs than 40,000
pounds for their appearance, which was immediately
given by the council at Patna. The fupreme court
then having entered into the merits of the caufe, and
decided the matter in the moft rigorous manner, ac¬
cording to all the forms of Englilh law, aflefled the
dars, rofe in his defence, and infulted the fherlfPs of-1
ficers. The latter having obtained a reinforcement,
the Zemindar’s palace was entered by 86 men armed
with bludgeons, cutlaffes, and mulkets ; the apartment
of his women, always held inviolably facred by the
Afiatics ; was broken open ; his temple profaned; and
cadi and mufties in damages no lefs than 30,000!. the image, which was the objeft of his worfhip, put in-
Sterling. Their houfes and effedts were feized by the
fherifPs officers, and publicly put up to fale : the cadi,
who was upwards of 60 years of age, and had been in
office for many years with great applaufe, died on his
way to the common gaol at Calcutta, to which the
nephew and two mufties were conveyed, being a dif-
tance of no lefs than 400 miles from their former re-
to a balket, and carried off with fome common lum¬
ber. This roufed the attention of the governor and
council; who, from a full couvidlion of the ruinous
tendency of thefe proceedings, determined at laft to
oppofed force by force. They accordingly fent a par¬
ty of military to apprephend the ffierilPs people, and
they were all conduced prifoners to Calcutta The
fidence at Patna. A fuit, however, was commenced judges ordered attachments againit the officer who
againft the widow, on account of having forged the commanded the troops, and againft two other fervants
title-deeds by which fire claimed her huiband’s eftate ;
but it was fuppreffed on account of fome infor¬
mality.
Another decifion, by which the fupreme court like-
wife incurred much cenfure, was that againil Jagger-
naut, the principal public officer of a Mahometan court
of the company ; while the governor and council en¬
deavoured to juftify their proceedings, by writing to
England as already mentioned.
Befides all this, the natives themfelves teftified their
difapprobation of the conduft of the fupreme court in
very ftrong terms. A petition to his Britannic ma-
at Dacca. The aftion was brought at the inftigation jefty was fent by the natives of Patna ; in which are
of an Englilh attorney, in behalf of pne Rhyne, a fer- the following remarkable,paflages; “ When the ordi-
vant or meffenger, who had been fined and imprifoned nances of this court of judicature were iffued, as they
for a mifdemeanor, in which Juggernaut had concur- were all contrary to the cuftoms, modes, ufages, and
red in virtue of his office as judge of the Nizamut inftitutions, of this country, they occafioned terror in
(the name of the Mahometan court juft mentioned), us; and day by day, as the powers of this court have
The (heriff-officers attempted to arreft the judge as become more eftablifhed, our ruin, uneafinefs, difho-
he fat on the tribunal; which could not fail to produce nour, and difcredit, have accumulated ; till at laft we
much difturbance. Juggernaut, with his officers, de- are reduced to fuch a fituation, that we confider death
nied the authority of the fupreme court over the Niza- to us as infinitely preferable to the dread we entertain
mut, and refufed to comply with the writ. The Eng- of the court: for from this court no credit or charac-
lifti flieriff-officers proceeded to force ; and a violent ter is left to us, and we are now driven to the laft ex-
feuffle enfuing, Jaggernaut’s father was wounded in tremity. Several who poflefled means and ability,
the head with a fword. by one of the under-ftieiiff’s at- deeming flight as their only fecurity, have baniftied
tendants, while his brother-in-law was very dange- themfelves from the country; but bound as we are by
roufly wounded with a piftol bullet by the under-ftieriff poverty and inability, and fettered by the deareft ties
himfelf. The immediate confequence of this was an of confanguinity, we do not all of us poflefs the means
abfolute refufal of the judge to take cognizance of any of flight, nor have we power to abide the oppreffion of
criminal matters; and this was intimated in a letter this court.”—“ If, which God forbid! it ftiould fo
from the council at Dacca to the Englifti governor happen, that this our petition fliould not be accepted,
and council of India ; wherein they declared that all and ihould be rejefted at the chamber of audience,
criminal juftice was at a ftand. thofe amongft us who have power and ability, difeard-
The fupreme court, having proceeded in this arbi- ing all affection for our families, will fly to any quar-
traty and oppreffive manner for fome time, at length ter we can ; whilft the remainder, who have no means
attempted to extend their jurifdidtion over the heredi- or ability, giving themfelves up with pious refignation
tary Zemindars of Bengal. Thefe are a kind of tri- to their fate, will fit down in expeftation of death.”
butary lords, or great landholders, who are anfwerable Thefe repeated complaints could not but be taken
to the company for the revenues or rents of the di- notice of in parliament. On the 12th of February
ft rifts; and excepting the circumftance of remitting 1781, General Smith made a motion in the houfe of
their revenues to the company, have not the leaft con- commons, that the petition from the Britifh inhabi-
neftion \yith the Englifti in any refpeft. At the time tants of Bengal, Bahar, and Orifla, ftiould be taken
we fpeak of, however, a writ, upon an aftion of debt, into confideration by a feledft committee, confifting of
was iflued out to arreft one of thefe Zemindars in his 15 perfons, chofeh by ballot. In the introduction to
palace. Timely notice, however, was given, by one his motion, he ftated briefly the bad condufl of the
of the company’s collectors, of this attempt to the fupreme court in the particulars already related ; and
governor and council, and application made to protect concluded, that the affairs of Bengal required the im-
a man of fuch quality from the difgrace of an arrett. mediate attention and confideration of parliament. The
They being unanimoufty of opinion that the Zemin- matter was accordingly debated ; when, after various
dar was not within the jurifdiftion of the court of propofals', a motion was at length made by General
Calcutta, defired him to pay no regard to the writ. Smith, for leave to bring in, a bill “ to explain and
The court, however, detet mined to enforce their pro- amend fo much of an ad paffed in the 13th year of his
cefs by a writ of fequeftration; upon which the na- prefent piajefty, for the better regulation of the Eaft
Von.V. Parti. Gg * India
COM E 234 ] COM
Company. India company, as related to the adminiftration of ju-
v-—_v  ftice in Bengal; and alfo to indemnify the governor
and Council of Bengal for having refilled by force of
arms the execution of an order of the fupreme court
of judicature in that kingdom.” Leave was according¬
ly given to bring in the bill. The houfe having refol-
ved itfelf into a committee, Lord North obferved, “ that
it had been much his wilh that an agreement for the
renewal of the company’s charter had been made in an
amicable manner; and that voluntary propofitions
Ihould have come from themfelves, offering terms for
the benefit of the exclufive trade and the territorial ac-
quifitions. No fuch terms, however, had been pro-
pofed, nor any agreement made. A negociation had
indeed taken place between him and the chairman and
deputy-chairman ; but the propofitions made by them
were neither fuch as the public might expedl, nor had
the company any right to them. With regard to the
territorial pofieffions, he was clearly of opinion, that
they of right belonged to the public ; though how far
it might be proper to allow the revenue of them to re¬
main in the poffeffion of the company was quite ano¬
ther matter. In his opinion, it would be proper to
allow it to remain in their hands as long as they pof-
feffed an exclufive trade, but he never would confent
to forego the claim of the public. He made a mo¬
tion, therefore, that it was the opinion of the com¬
mittee, that three-fourths of the furplus of the net pro¬
fits of the Eaft India company, ever fince the compa¬
ny’s bond-debt was reduced to L. 1,500,000, and the
company’s dividends had been e\$\t per cent, per annum,
belong to the public; and that L. 600,000 in lieu there¬
of, and in difcharge of all claims oh the part of the
public, be paid into his majefty’s exchequer by inftal-
ments, in fuch manner, and at fuch times, as fhall be
agreed oft.” This propofal was vehemently oppofed by
the minority. Mr Burke called it the daring effort of
a minifter determined on rapine and plunder, without
regard to twuth, honour, or juftice. Mr Huffey re¬
probated the idea of taking L.6co,oco from the com¬
pany in their circumftances at that time. He produ¬
ced a paper full of arithmetical calculations, which he
read to the houfe; afferting that they contained an ex-
aft Hate of the amount of the company’s exports and
imports, the expences of their trade at home, and the
balance of profit of each year, for many years pail, di-
ilinguiihing the territorial from the commercial income
and expences. From thefe he fhowed, that the com¬
mercial and territorial revenues of the company had,
upon an average for 16 years, conilituted a fum equi¬
valent to a proportion of 16 per cent.; that 9 per cent.
of this had arifen from the commercial profits accruing
to the company; and therefore, that there had not
been per cent, divided upon that part of the profits to
which the public had any claim or pretenfion. The
acceffion of territorial poffefiions, he obferved, had
brought along with it additional expences; and the
public had already received a very large {hare of the
company’s profits. He declared it to be his opinion,
that the company ihould always make it a rule to give
as ample and full relief to the public burdens as their
fituation would allow ; and if they did this, he faw no
reafon why the minifter fhould expeft any more. Mr
Dempfter reminded the houfe of the confequences of
violating the American, charters; and added, that to
3
tear from the company by force what was not ftipula- Company,
ted in any aft of parliament, would be a breach of—y~—
public faith difgraceful to the nation, and fuch as
would damp the fpirit of enterprize and adventure
which had been produftive of fuch happy effefts.—
Notwithftanding thefe remonftrances, however, the bill
was at laft puffed into a law; only with this mitigation,
that the company fhould pay only L.400,000, mftead
of L. 600,000 demanded originally by thejninifter.—
Another bill was alfo paffed the fame year, pn confe-
quence of the motion made by General Smith. This
aft declared, that the governor-general and council of
Bengal were not fubjeft to the jurifdiftion of the fu¬
preme court, and indemnified the former for the re-
fiftancf they had made to the orders of that court. It
enafted alfo, that no perfon fhould be fubjeft to the
jurifdiftion of that court on account of his being a
landholder or farmer of land in the provinces of Ben¬
gal, Bahar, or Orixa ; that no judicial officers in the
country courts fhould be liable to aftions in the fu¬
preme court for their decifions; and the two mufties,
with Behader Beg, who were then in prifon, in con-
fequence of the decifion of that court in the Patna
caufe, were ordered to be fet at liberty.
The debates on this fubjeft were attended with the
moll violent charges againil the minifter, and affertions
the moil humiliating and difgraceful to the Britiih na¬
tion. Mr Townihend affirmed, that it was from the
minifter’s fereening the delinquents who came from In¬
dia that all the evils in that quarter had originated ;
and if matters were fuffered to go on in that country
as they had done for fome time pail, the conduft of
the Britifii in the Eaft Indies mull be viewed in a light
ftill more deteftable than that of the Spaniards in A-
merica. It whs reported, that the nabob of Arcot had
feveral members in the houfe of commons ! If it were
true, that by fending over a fum of money to Eng¬
land he could feat eight or ten members in that houfe,
then Mr Townfhend declared, that in his opinion they
were the moft abjeft and contemptible beings in the
world.—The bill for regulating the powers of the fu¬
preme court, alfo, though fo evidently founded in rea¬
fon and juftice, did not pafs without oppofition, par¬
ticularly from Mr Dunning ; who was thought on this
occafion to have allowed his regard for his friend Sir
Elijah Impey, the chief juftice, to bias him too
much.
The regulations juft mentioned did not yet put an
end to the troubles of the Eaft India company, nor
allay the ferment which had been fo effeftually excited.
Their affairs Were ftill a fubjeft: of parliamentary dif-
cuffion ; and in the month of April 178Z, a motion was
made by Mr Dundas, then Lord Advocate of Scotland,
for taking into confideration the feveral reports concern¬
ing affairs, which had been made by the fecret commit¬
tee appointed to inquire into them during the laft and
prefent feffion of parliament. I n his fpeech on this oc¬
cafion, he remarked, that the opinion of Lord Clive
had been againft keeping too extenfive a territory in
that country. Inftead of this, he had reftored Sujah
Dowlah to the poffeffion of his country ; confidering
the Britiih territories, in Hindoftan, with thofe on the
coafts of Coromandel and Bombay, as fufficient for all
the purpofes by which this country could be benefited;
but inftead of adhering to the maxims of found policy
C O M L 235 ] COM
Company, laid down by his Lordlhip, they had became fo ambi-
tious of extending their territories, that they had in¬
volved themfelves'in a war with almoft all India. He
then confidered the finances of the company. The re¬
venue of Bombay, he faid, fell (hort of the neceffary civil
and military eftablifhment by L.200,000 a-year, which
was annually drawn from Bengal. With regard to that
of Madras, it appeared, on an average of. 12 years,
from 1767 to 1779, that there had been eight years
of war and only four of peace ; and that, during the
whole time of war, the revenue had not been able to
fupport the civil and military eftablifhments ; though,
in time of peace, it was able to do nearly one-half
more. Bengal, however, was the moll lucrative of all
the Eaft India fettlements ; but fuch had been the ex-
pences of the Mahratta' war, that the governor-general
had been obliged to contract a very large debt, info-
much that it was doubtful whether the inveftments for
England fhould be wholly or partially fufpended. Mr
Haftings, he faid, had in many inftances proved him-
felf a very meritorious fervant : but he wifiied that
every one of their fervants would confider himfelf as
bound in the firft place to prove a faithful fteward to
the company ; not to fancy that he was an Alexander
or Aurengzebe, and prefer frantic military exploits to
the improvement of the trade and commerce of his
country.—General Smith obferved, that by the evi¬
dence produced to the committee, it appeared that
there had been a variety of great abides in India. Sir
Elijah Impey, his majefty’s chief jufiice in that coun¬
try, had fo far derogated from the charafter of a judge,
as to accept of a place from the company ; by which
means he was brought under their controul, and con-
fequerttly allowed himfelf to be deprived of that inde¬
pendence which he ought to poffefs as a judge. Ju-
ftice had been fo partially adminiftered, that feveral
worthy and refpettable perfons had been imprifoned,
fome had been ruined, and others died in jail. From
all which confiderations he moved, that the affairs of
the company ought to be taken into confideration
by a committee of the whole houfe. Some hints
were thrown out by Mr Dundas, that the territorial
poffefiions in the Eaft ought to be taken from the
company entirely, and put under the dire&ion of the
crown ; but this was oppofed by Mr Fox, as furnifh-
ing minifters with fuch ample means of corruption and
undue influence, as might overthrow the conftitution
entirely. For this reafon, he thought it would be
more prudent to leave the appointment of its own fer¬
vants to the company ; but at the fame time to keep
a watchful eye over them, in order to be able to pu-
nifh and remove thofe who fhould be found delin¬
quent.
The houfe having refolved itfelf into a committee,
a motion was made by General Smith, “ That Warren
Haftings, Efq; governor-general of Bengal, and Sir
Elijah Impey, the chief juftice, appear to have been
concerned, the one in giving, the other in receiving,
an office not agreeable to the late act for regulating
the corppany’s affairs; which unjuttifiabie tranfaftion
was attended with circumftances of evil tendency and
example.” Refolutions were alfo paffed for afcertain-
ing more diftinfitly the powers of the governor-general
and council of Bengal; and votes of cenfure againft
Laurence Sullivan, Efq; chairman of the Eaft India
company, for having negle&ed to tranfmit to India an Comprv
aft for explaining and amending the aft for regulating V"
the affairs of the company, and for the relief of certain
perfons imprifoned at Calcutta. Among the number
of this gentleman’s tranfgreffions, alfo, was his impo-
fing an oath of fecrecy on Mr Wilkes, one of the
company’s clerks ; and efpecially his reftrainiug him
from giving information to a feleft committee of the
houfe of commons.
Mr Dundas having made feveral motions tend¬
ing to criminate Sir Thomas Rumbold, formerly
governor of Bengal, a bill was brought in, aud
paffed into a law, for reftraining him and Peter Per-
ring, Efq; from going out of the kingdom for the
fpace of one year, for difeovering their eftates, &c.
An addrefs was alfo prefented to the king, requefting
him to recal Sir Elijah Impey from India, in order to
anfwer for high crimes and mifdemeanors. A num¬
ber of other refolutions were now paffed by the houfe,
in confequence of motions by Mr Dundas, and which
were founded on the reports of the Secret Com¬
mittee. Among thefe it was refolved, “ That the
orders of the Court of Direftors of the Eaft India
Company, which have conveyed to their fervants
abroad a prohibitory condemnation of all fchemes of
conqueft and enlargement of dominion, by preferibing
certain rules and boundaries for the operation of their
military force, were founded no lefs in wifdom and po¬
licy than in juftice and moderation. That every
tranfgreffion of thefe orders, without evident neceffity,
by any of the feveral governments in India, has been
highly reprehenfible, and tended in a great degree to
weaken the force and influence, and to diminifh the
influence of the company in thofe parts. That every
interference of the company as a party in the domeftic
or national quarrels of the country powers, and all
new engagements with them in offenfive alliance, have
been wifely and providentially forbidden by the com¬
pany in their commands to their adminiftrations in In¬
dia. That every unneceffary deviation from thefe
rules fliould be feverely reproved and puniihcd. That
the maintenance of an inviolable charafter for modera¬
tion, good faith, and fcrupulous regard to treaty,
ought to have been the Ample grounds on which the
Britilh government fhould have endeavoured to efta-
blifh an extenfive influence, fuperior to that of other
Europeans ; and that the danger and diferedit arifing
from the forfeiture of this pre-eminence, could not be
compenfated by the temporary fuceefs of any plan of
violence and injuftice. That fhould any relaxation take
place, without fufficient caufe, in thofe principles of
good government on the part of the direftors themfelves,
it would bring upon them, in a heavier degree, the re*
fentment of the legiflative power of their country.
That the conduft of the company, and their fervants
in India, in various inftances fpecified, was contrary
to policy and good faith ; the company’s fervants, in
their prefidency of Bombay, had been guilty of notori¬
ous inftances of difobedience to the -orders of their em¬
ployers, particularly in forming an alliance with Ra-
gobah, or Ragonaut Row : that they had undertaken,
without any adequate military force, or certainty of a
fufficient revenue, and without proper communication
with the fuperior government upon which they were
to depend for fanftion and fupport, to reinftate the
G g 2 ufurper
COM [ 236 ] COM
Company, ufurper above mentioned, and thereby to involve them- India ought to have preferved the ftrifteft obedience to Company.
t~'"v felves in a war with the ruling minifters of the Mahrat- that of Britain ; yet, being at fo great a diftance from y-—
ta ftate, while Ragobah himfelf was not in the mean the feat of fupreme authority, and being pofTeffed of
time able to give the company any fecure poffefiion of endlefs means of abufe, it had become corrupt in an
the grants he had made to them for the purchafe of extreme degree. Inftead of being fubfervient to q-o-
their afliftance. That it was the opinion of the houfe, vernment at home, the adminiilration of India affec-
tkat all the difafters in which the Britilh empire in the ted independence. The maxims of Mr Haftino-s were
JLail were involved, had proceeded from the unjuftifi- arbitrary ; and he feemed to have no inclination to
able manner in which the Mahrattas had beentreated, obey. He treated with fovereign contempt the au-
and the conduft of the Madras prefidency in other re- thority of the Court of Directors; and the confufian
fpefts fpeciiied. That it is the opinion of this houfe, produced by the difputes between them were fofter-
that it muft be reckoned among the additional mif- ed by the body of India proprietors, who were dif-
chiefs arifing chiefly fiom the improvident war with pofed to aft as a check upon the direftors. The
the Mahrattas, that the military force of the Carnatic neceflity of new regulations in the government of In-
had been weakened by reinforcements fent to the Ma- dia was univerfally admitted ; and a bill for this
labar coaft : that the Bengal government had been un- purpofe was accordingly brought in by Mr Dun-
der a neceffity of fupporting, on their confines, the ar- das. His propofitions were, that the governor and
my of a power confederated againfl: them (a) : that council of Bengal fliould have a controuling power
they had been under the neceffity of fuing for the me- and jurifdiftion over the inferior prefidencies of
diation of the fame power ; had fubmitted to a refu- India ; and he was of opinion, that the governor-ge-
fal, and purchafed at laft an uncertain, becaufe appa- neral fhould beinveftedwithapower to aft even againft
rently an unauthorifed, treaty, on moft extravagant and the will and opinion of the council, whenever he
difhonourable conditions, with Chimnagee the rajah fhould imagine that, by fo doing, he could contribute
of Berar’s fon : and, finally, that being burdened with to the public good ; though, in there cafes, he alone
the expences of a variety of diflant expeditions, while fhould be refponfible for the event. With regard to
their allies were in diftrefs, and their tributaries under the inferior governors, though he did not think itpro-
oppreffion, there was alfo an alarming deficiency in the per that they fhould be authorifed to aft contrary to
rtfources of revenue and commerce, by the accumula- the advice of the council, he was of opinion, that they
lion of their debt, and the reduftion of their infeft- ought to have a right of negativing every propofition,
ment. That it was the opinion of the houfe, that an until application was made to the governor-general and
attempt made by the government-general, in the be- council of Bengal. With regard to the Zemindaries,
ginning'of January 1781, to form an engagement of and other tenures of land, he obferved, that when Hin-
alliance, offenfive and defenfive, with the Dutch Eafl doftan had been conquered by the Moguls, a tribute
India company, in the manner ftated by the proceed- was impofed upon the Zemindars; and while they
ings of their council, was unwarranted, impolitic, ex- continued to pay this tribute, they accounted them-
travagant, and unjuft. felves to be the real proprietors and mailers of the
Thefe fevere cenfures extended even to the direftors lands they poffefled. The people called Ryots, to whom
themfelves, whofe conduct on fome occafions was de- thefe Zemindaries were let out, confidered themfelves
dared to be indefenfible, as well as that of their fer- likewife as fecure in their pofteffions, while they per-
vants and agents. It was alfo refolved, “ That War- formed the articles of their refpeftive contrafts. Of
ren Haftings, Efq; governor-general of Bengal, and late, however, thefe rights had been infringed; and
William Hornfby, Efq; prefident of the council of the Mogul came to coniider himfelf as-the abfolute
Bombay, having, in fundry inftances, afted in a man- mailer of all the foil of Indoftan : which maxim he
ner repugnant to the honour and policy of this nation, was inclined to deflroy, and ereft upon it another, that
and thereby brought great calamities on India, and might fecure the land holders in their property,
enormous expences on the India company, it was the He propofed to fecure the nabob of Arcot and rajah
duty of the direftors to purfue all legal and effeftual of Tanjore in their territories, by making an aft of
means for the removal of the faid governor-general parliament in favour of the latter ; but was of opi-
and prefident from their offices, and to recal them to nion, that the debts of thefe princes ought not to be
Britain.” too nicely inquired into, as the greateft part of them
The commons having thus ferioufly entered into a originated in corruption. He was clearly of opinion,
confideration of Eaft India affairs, foon found dill however, that Governor Haftings ought to be recall-
more abundant reafon for cenfure. It was difeover- ed; and that Heps ought to be taken to prevent the
ed, that corruption, fraud,_and injuftice, had pervaded court of proprietors from prefuming to aft in contra-
every department. It had become an objeft with the diftion to parliament. Lord Cornwallis appeared to
fervants of the company to opprefs the natives by every be the moft proper fucceffor to Mr Haftings. His
poffible method. They monopolized every article of perfonal honour, and that of his anceftors, were pled-
trade, and feemed to have no other principle of com- ges for his good behaviour ; and being independent in
merce but lawlefs violence: the Court of Direftors his fortune, he could have no view of repairing his
fent out inftruftions ; but for the moft part without eftate out of the fpoils of India ; and from his profef-
any effeft. Though the delegated adminiftration of fion, he could add to the charafter of governor that of
(a) The power here alluded to was Movdajee Boofla, Rajah of Berar. See. Indostan.
COM [ 237 ] COM
' Company, commander in chief; he would not, however, inliil on
 ^ his name being filled up in the bill, as that would reft
more properly with government.
Mr Haftings was defended by Governor Johnftone,
who endeavoured to ridicule the arguments and pro-
po.fals of Mr Dundas. He obferved, to the ho¬
nour of the former, that he had been able to conclude
a peace with the Mahrattas; and while he enlarged on
his talents for negociation, he admired Jibe refources
with which lie had fupplied the expences of the war.
It ought to be confidered, that Mr Haftings was in a
fituation the moft difficult, and that no man could have
fuftained it with more fortitude and ability.. His ene¬
mies had dealt-in infinuation and inveftive; but when
the hour of trial came, they wouldfind that their charges
Would be refuted with equal eafe. He was defended alfo
by Mr Dempfter, who advifed the houfe ferioufly to
think before they pafled a vote for the removal of Mr
Haftings. His exertions had been extraordinary; and it
would then be as ridiculous to fuperfede him, as it
would have been to recal General Elliot, when the
Spanifti batteries were playing againft Gibraltar. He
was not, however, an advocate for all the meafures of
Mr Haftings; his errors might be numerous : but no
cenfure of him fhould be eftablifhed before they were
pointed out and explained.
Mr Dundas having now obtained leave to bring
in his bill, another w^as moved for by Sir Henry Flet¬
cher, “ That leave be given to bring in a bill to dif-
charge and indemnify the united company of mer¬
chants trading to the Eaft Indies, from all damages,
intereft, and lofies, in refpett to their not making re¬
gular payment of certain fums due to the public, and
to allow farther time for fuch payment; to enable the
company alfo to borrow a certain fum of money, and
to make a dividend to the proprietors of four per cent.
at midfummer 1783.” He endeavoured to fhow,
that the public had derived very confiderable advan¬
tages from the company ; that their dividend had been
L 8, 4s. annually during the time of peace, and
L. 7, 15s. per cent, during war; they were by no
means in a ftate of infolvency, as fome members had
endeavoured to prove., their prefent application pro¬
ceeding only from a temporary embarrafiment. A
new difpute took place concerning Mr Haftings, who
was warmly attacked by Mr Burke, and defended by
Governor Johnftone. The former enlarged on the
bloodihed, ravages, and rapacity, which had taken
place in India. The eftablifhed fyftem of the fervants
- of the company, he faid, was rapine and robbery. The
Mahratta war was oceafioned by their refufal to be
robbed ; the famine at Madras was occafioned by the
mifconduft of the Englifh government in India; and
he fet forth in ftrong colours the manner in which the
Indian princes and princeffes had been plundered. He
inftanced, that Mr Haftings hadraifed L. 800,000 in
Bengal by private loan; and ufed it as an argument,
that the company had ceafed to exift. and that their
commerce was nothing more than an inftrument for
procuring immenfe fortunes to individuals, totally defti-
tute of confcience or principle.
All this was excufed by Governor Johnftone. He
regarded the fum of L. 800,000 as merely trifling,
when the number of civil and military fervants on the
Bengal government was confidered. The famine at
ft
Madras was owing to the modes of war which prevail- Company,
ed in, the Eaft; as the enemy there marked their ——
courfe by defolation. He concluded with cenfuring
the manner in winch Mr Haftings had been fpoken of;
and infifted that his high reputation ought to-have
guarded him from fuch infults. Mr Burke replied by
an intimation of his defign to impeach Mr Haftings on
his return ; whom he called the greateft delinquent
that had ever violated in India the rights of humanity
and juftice.
It was obferved by Lord John Cavendifh, that the
territorial acquifitions of the company .were a fruitful
fource of grievance ; and it would have been more for
their advantage to have confined themfelves to their
original character ,of merchants. However, as the
territorial acquifitions had been obtained^ it was pro¬
per to take means for their prefervation ; as otherwife
they would not revert to the natives, but fall into the
hands of our natural enemies the French.
In the houfe of peers the caufe of the company was
ably defended by Earl Fitzwilliam. He maintained,
that them fituation was defperate, and bankruptcy ine¬
vitable, unlefs relief was inftamly afforded. A report
of their being in an infolvent ftate had gone abroad ;
and nothing was better calculated to preferve and fup-
p irt their credit than a large dividend fandlioned by
aid of parliament. The expenditure on their fettle-
ments had far exceeded their revenue ; of confequence
their fervants had drawn bills, which they were unable
to aafwer without a temporary fupply. Thus the
exiftence of the company might be faid to depend ©n.
the hill; and he hoped no objections could be raifed
ftrong enough to deftroy it.
On the 18th of November 1783, Mr Fox propofed
his celebrated Eaft ludia bill, which for fome time
attracted the attention of the nation at large in a very
confiderable degree. By this it was intended to take
from the India proprietors and directors the entire ad-
miniftration of their territorial and commercial affairs*
It took from them alfo their houfe in Leadenhall-
ftreet, together with all books, papers, and documents,
veiling the entire management, the appointment of all
officers and fervants, the rights of peace and war, and
the difpofal of the whole revenue, in the hands of cer¬
tain commiffioners. Thefe were, in the firft inftance,
to be appointed by the whole legiflature, but after¬
wards by the crown ; and were to hold their offices by
the fame tenure as the judges in England, viz. during
their good behaviour; and could be removed only by
an addrefs from one of the houfes of parliament. They
were required to come to a decifion upon every que-
ftion within a limited time, or to affign a fpecific rea-
fon for their delay. They were never to vote by bal¬
lot ; and, almoft in every cafe, were to enter the rea-
fon of their vote in their journals. They were alfo to
fubmit, once every fix months, an exaCt ftate of their
accounts to the court of proprietors ; and at the be¬
ginning of every feffion, a Hate of their accounts and
eitabliihments to both houfes of parliament. Their
number was limited to feven ; but they were to be af-
fifted by a board of nine perfons, each of them poffef-
fed of L. 2000 company’s flock ; who, as well as the
commiffioners, were to be appointed in the firft in¬
ftance by parliament, and ever afterwards by the court
of proprietors. They were alfb to be rembveable at
the
€ O M [ 238 ] COM
Company, tlie pleafure of any five commifiioners, and were dif-
qualified from fitting in the houfe of commons. The
whole fyftem of government thus propofed, was to con¬
tinue for the fpace of three or five years.
This was accompanied with another bill, the pro-
‘feffed defign of which was to preclude all arbitrary and
defpotic proceedings from the adminillration of the
company’s territorial poffefiions. By this the powers
of the governor-general and fupreme council were af-
certained more exactly than had hitherto been done ;
•it deprived the governor-general of all power of ail¬
ing independent of his council; profcribed the dele¬
gation of any trull; and declared every Britilh power
in the Eaft incompetent to the acquifition or exchange
of any territory in behalf of the company, to the
acceding to any treaty of partition, the hiring out of
the company’s troops, the appointing to office any
perfon removed for mifdemeanour, or to the hiring
out any property to a civil fervant of the company.
By this alfo monopolies were entirely abol’lhed; and
illegal prefents recoverable by any perfon for his foie
benefit. The principal part of the bill, however, re¬
lated to the Zemindars, or native landholders, who
were now to be fecured by every pollible means in the
poffefiion of their refpedlive inheritances, and defend¬
ed in all cafes from oppreffion. Lafily, a mode was
prefented for terminating the difputes between, the
nabob of Arcot and the rajah of Tanjour; difquali-
fying every perfon in the fervice of the company from
fitting in the Houfe of Commons during his continu¬
ance in their fervice, and for a certain fpecified time
after his demiffion.
During the courfe of the debates on this bill, Mr
Fox fet forth the affairs of the company as in the mod
defperate fituation. They had alked leave, he faid,
the year before, to borrow L. 500,000 upon bonds;
had petitioned for L. 300,006 in exchequer bills ; and
for the fufpenfion of a demand of L. 700,000 due to
government for culloms. He took notice alfo, that,
according to an a£l of parliament dill in force, the
direftors could not, by their own authority, accept
bills to the amount of more than L. 300,000 ; under
which circumftances it would no doubt furprife the
houfe to be informed, that bills were now coming o-
ver for acceptance to the amount of L. 2,000,00c.
It was evidently, therefore, and indifpenfably necefTary,
that government fhould interfere in the affairs of the
company to.fave them from certain bankruptcy. He
dated their a&ual debt at no lefs than L. 11,200,000,
while their flock in hand did not exceed L. 3,200,000.
There was therefore a deficiency of L. 8,ooo,ooe ; a
mod alarming fum when compared with the compa¬
ny’s capital. Unlefs fpeedily affifled, therefore, they
mud inevitably be ruined ; and the ruin of a company
of merchants fo extenfive in their concerps, and of
fuch importance in the eyes of all Europe, could-not
but give a very fevere blow to the national credit.
On the other hand, the requiiite affifiance was a matter
of very extenfive confideration. It would be abfolutely
neceffary to permit the acceptance of the bills to the
above mentioned amount; and to do this without re¬
gulating their affairs, and reforming the abufes of their
government, would only be to throw away the public
money.
Tlie conduct of the company’s fervants, and of the
company itfelf, was now arraigned by Mr Fox in the Company.
mod fevere terms ; and their mifconduCls were point- v—
ed out under the following heads :
t. With regard to Mr Hadings.—The chairman
of the committee had moved in the houfe of com¬
mons, that it was the duty of the company to recal
that gentleman ; to which motion the houfe had a-
greed. In obedience to this refolution, the diredlors
had agreed that Mr Hadings fhould be recalled : but
fuppofing this to be a matter rather beyond their ju-
rifdidlion, they had fubmitted their determination to
a court of proprietors, who refcinded the refolution of
the diredlors; and after this the whole affair came to
be laid before the houfe of commons. In the mean
time every thing was anarchy and confufion in the
Ead, owing to this unfettled condudl with regard to
the governor ; as the wdiole continent had been made
acquainted with the refolution of the houfe for recal¬
ling him, while that of the proprietors for continuing
him in his office was kept a fecret. The proprietors
had alfo been guilty of another contradidlion in this
refpedl, as they had voted their thanks to Mr Had¬
ings for his condudl in India. Hence Mr Fox was
led to comment on the nature of the company’s con¬
nexions with their fervants abroad, as well as on the
charaXer of the company themfelves. Among the
former, he faid, there- were a few, who, being pro¬
prietors themfelves, endeavoured to promote the trade
of the company, and increafe its revenues. The views
of the red were otherwife direXed ; and from the dif¬
ference in fpeculation between the two parties, the
former were inclined to fupport that,, governor who
enabled them to make large dividends ; and who, for
that reafon, after having peculated for his own advan¬
tage, was obliged to do the fame for the benefit of
the proprietors. The latter, therefore, could not bet¬
ter gratify their widies, than by fupporthig a governor
who had in his power fo many opportunities of pro¬
viding for his friends.
2. The next charge was againd the fervants of the
company, whom he accufed of a regular and fydema-
tic difobedience to the orders of the proprietors.—
The fupreme council of Bengal, he faid, had refolved,
in oppofition to Mr Hadings, to fend two gentlemen,
Mr Fowke and Mr Bridow, the one to refide with
the Nabob of Oude, the other at Benares. Mr Had¬
ings, however, refufed to fend them : the direXors
tranfmitted the mod pofitive orders to carry the vote
of the fupreme council into execution ; but dill Mr
Hadings difobeyed ; alleging in his defence, that he
could not employ perfons in whom he had no confi¬
dence. Afterwards, however, Mr Hadings feemed
to contradiX himfelf in a very curious manner. He
granted Mr Fowke a contraX, with a commiffion of
15 per cent.; which, he obferved, was a great fum,
and might operate ,as a temptation to prolong the war.
“ But (added he) the entire confidence I have in the
integrity and honour of Mr Fowke, amounts to a full
and perfeX fecurity on that head.”
To this Mr Fox added fame other indances of a
fimilar kind ; but though he fupported thefe and the
projeXed bill with all the argument and eloquence for
which he is fo remarkable, he found it impoffible to
make his fcheme agreeable to the majority of the
houfe. The dronged opponent was Mr William Pitt,
who
COM [ 239 ] COM
Company, who infilled chiefly on the two following topics. 1. Its
‘'■r—v™—' infringement, or rather annihilation of the company’s
charter ; and, 2. The new and unconftitutional in¬
fluence it tended to create.—He owned indeed, that
India ftood in need of a reform, but not fuch a one
as broke through every principle of juftice and reafon.
The charter of the company was a fair purchafe from
the public, and an equal compaft for reciprocal advan¬
tages between the proprietors and the nation at large;
but if it was infringed in the manner propofed by the
bill, what fecurity could other trading companies have
that they fhould not be treated in the fame manner ?
nay, what fecurity could there be for Magna Chaita
itfdf ? The bill, he faid, amounted to a eonfifcation
of property. It had been fuggefted indeed, that it
was not a bill of disfranchifement, becaufe it did not
take from the proprietors their right to an exclufive
trade ; but this was not the only franchife of the pro¬
prietors. A freehold might have a franchife annexed
to it, the larter of which might be taken away, and
yet the property of the former remain ; in which cafe
it could not be denied that the freeholders would have
great caufe to complain. The cafe was exaftly pa¬
rallel with the India flock. Perfons poflefled of this
to a certain amount, were intitled to a vote upon every,
important queftion of the company’s affairs ; and on
this account the purchafe-money was more confide-
rable. But, by the bill in queflion, this privilege was
to be taken away ; which plainly amounted to a dif-
franchifement.
The great objection to this bill, however, feemed to
be a fufpicion that it was a fcheme of Mr Fox to gra¬
tify his own perfonal ambition as a minifler, he being
at that time lecretary of Hate. On this account he
was deferted even by the patriotic members, who, up¬
on former occaflons, had fo flrenuoufly fupported his
caufe.—Mr Dundas accufed him of attempting to
create a fourth eflate in the kingdom, the power and
influence of which might overturn the crown and fub-
vert the conflitution of Britain, A petition was pre-
fented from the proprietors, and another from the di¬
rectors of the company, reprefenting the bill as fub-
verfive of their charter, and confifcating their pro¬
perty, without either charge of delinquency, trial, or
conviction. They prayed, therefore, that the ads of
delinquency prefumed againft them might be ftated in
writing, and a reafonable time allowed them to deliver
in their anfwer ; and that they might be heard by
counfel againfl the bill. About the fame time the
directors gave in a Hate of the company’s affairs, dif¬
fering in the mofl extraordinary manner from that
given by Mr Fox. In this they reprefented the creditor
fide of the account as amounting to L.14,311,173,
and they brought themfelves in debtors to the amount
of L. 10,342,692 ; fo that of confequence there was
a balance in their favour of L.3,968,481. This was
vehemently contefled by the fecretary, who faid he
could bring objections to the flatement of the direc¬
tors to the amount of more than L. 12,000,000 Ster¬
ling. He then entered into a particular difcufiion of
the articles ftated in the directors account, and made
good his affertion. Objections to his method of cal¬
culation, however, were made on the part of the coih-
pany ; fo that nothing could certainly appear to the.
public but that the company were at that time much
diftreffed, and would fail entirely unlefs powerfully Company,
fupported by government. 1—
Mr Fox now proceeded to a particular refutation
of the arguments brought againft the bill ; in which
indeed he difplayed an aftonifhing force of argument
and acutenefs of reafoning. The objeClion drawn
from the validity of the company’s charter, he fet a-
fide, by ftiowing that the company had abufed their
power, and that it was therefore neceflary to take it
from them. This he faid always had been the cafe;,
and muft be the cafe, in a free nation ; ahd he brought
the example of James II. who, on account of the a-
bufe of his power, had been deprived of it by the na¬
tion at large. The cafe was the fame with the com.
pany. They had made a bad ufe of their power, and
therefore the nation at large ought to deprive them
of it. It had been objected by the country gentle¬
men, that the bill augmented the.influence of the crown,
too much ; and by Mr Dundas, that it reduced it to
nothing. Both thefe objections, he faid, were overturn¬
ed by the circumftance of making, the commiffioners
hold their office only during good behaviour. Thus,
wdien confcious that they were liable to puniffiment if
guilty, but fecure in cafe they faithfully difcharged
their trull, they would be liable to no feduction, but
would execute their functions with glory to them-
elves, and for the common good of their country and
of mankind. He then drew a comparifon betwixt
his own bill and that of Mr Dundas’s already men¬
tioned. The bill of the latter, he faid, had created
a delpotic authority in one man over fome millions of
his fellow-creatures ; not indeed in England, where the
remedy againft oppreffion was always at hand ; but in
the Eaft Indies, where violence, fraud, and mifchief
every where prevailed. Thus the bill propofed by Mr
Dundas afforded the moft extenfive latitude for mal-
verfation, while his own guarded againft it with every
poffible care; as was inftanced in its confiding in no
integrity ; trufting in no character; and annexing re-
fpcnlibility not only to every action, but even to the
iiiaBion of the powers it created.
After having expatiated for a confiderable time, the
fecretary was feconded by Mr Burke, whofe force of
oratory was chiefly diredted, as indeed it ufually has
been when fpeaking of India affairs, on the monf-
trous abufe of the company’s power in that quarter.
He affirmed that there was not in India a Angle prince,,
ftate, or potentate, with whom the company had
come into contaB, whom they had not fold ; that there
was not a Angle treaty they had ever made which they
had not broken; and that there was not a fingle prince
or Hate' that had ever put any confidence in the com¬
pany who had not been ruined. With regard to the
firft article, Mr Burke inftanced the fale of the Great
Mogul himfelf; of the Rohillas; the nabob of Bengal;
the polygars of the Mahratta empire ; Ragobah the
pretender to that empire ; and the Subah of Decan.
—The fecond article was proved by a review of the
tranfadlions from the beginning to the end of the Mah¬
ratta war. With regard to the third, vix. the ruin
of fuch princes as put any confidence in the company
or their fervants, he defired them to look into the
hiftory and fituation of the nabob of Oude. In the
year 1779, this country had been vifited by a famine;,
a calamity which had been known to relax the feve-
rity
COM [ 240 1 COM
Company, nty even of the moft rigorous governmentyet in
w.r-y-.w th;s fituation the prefident of Bengal had put an ab-
folute negative upon the reprefentation of the prince ;
adding, that perhaps expedients might be found for
affording him a gradual relief; but their effeft muft
be diftant. This diftant relief, however, never arri¬
ved, and the country was ruined.
Our limits cannot allow a particular detail of the
charges againft the company on the one hand, or the
defentes on the other. In - general, it muft appear,
that fuch fevere and heavy charges could not be ad¬
vanced without fome foundation, though perhaps they
may have been confiderably exaggerated by the ora¬
tors who brought them. The picture drawn by Mr
Burke on this occafion indeed was fhocking. “ The
Arabs, Tartars, and Perfians, had conquered Indoftan
with vaft effufion of blood ; while the conquefts of the
Englifh had been acquired by artifice and fraud, ra¬
ther than by open force. The Afiatic conquerors,
however, had foon abated of their ferocity; and the
fhort life of man had been fuflicient to repair the wafte
they had occafioned. But with the Englifh the cafe
had been entirely different. Their conquefts were
ftill in the fame ftate they had been 20 years ago.
They had no more fociety with the people than if
they ftill refided in England ; but, with the view of
making fortunes, rolled in one after another, wave af¬
ter wave ; fo that there was nothing before the eyes
of the natives but an endlefs profpedt of new flights of
birds of prey and paffage, with appetites continually
renewing for a food that was continually wafting. E-
very rupee gained by an Englifhman in India was for
ever loft to that country. With us there were no re-
tributory fuperflitions, by which a foundation of cha¬
rity compenfated, for ages, to the poor, for the in-
juftice and rapine of a day. With us no pride erec¬
ted ftately monuments, which repaired the mifchiefs
pride had occafioned, and adorned a country out of
its own fpoils. England had eredfed no churches, no
hofpitals, no palaces, no fchools (the trifling founda¬
tion at Calcutta excepted) ; England, had built no
bridges, made no high-roads, cut no navigations, dug
no refervoirs. Every other conqueror of every other
defcription had left fome monument either of ftate
or beneficence behind him ; but were we to be driven
out of India this day, nothing would remain to tell
that it had been pofTefled, during the inglorious pe¬
riod of our dominion, by any thing better than the
ouran outang or the tiger !”
All this eloquence, however, was at prefent entire¬
ly ineffectual, and the bill was finally rejedted ; much
confufion and altercation enfued, which terminated in
a change of miniftry and diffolution of parliament. On
the 26th of May 1784 a petition from the company
was prefen ted to the houfe of commons, praying for
fuch relief as the nature of their affairs might feem to
demand. This was followed on the 24th of June by
a bill for allowing the company to divide four per pint.
for the half year concluding with midfummer 1784.
This having palled, after fome debate, a new bill was
propofed by Mr Pitt for relieving the company in the
mean time, and regulating their affairs in time to
come. A bill to this purpofe had been brought in
during the laft felfion of the former parliament by
the fame gentle man, which he wifhed to bring to a
comparifon with that of Mr Fox, of which an ac-
N 86.
count has already been given. In this bill he began Company,
with laying it down, as a principle, that “ the civil —-w—6-'
and military government of India, or, in other words,
the imperial dominion of our territories in the Eaft,
ought to be placed under other controul than that of
the merchants in Leaden-hall ftreet; and this controul
could be no other than the executive branch of the
conftitutiqn. The commerce of the company, how¬
ever, ought to be left as free from reftrictions as pof-
fible; and, laftly, capricious effe&s from the govern¬
ment of India upon the conftitution of Britain, were
to be carefully avoided. A controul in the executive
branch of the legiflature over the government of India
had indeed been eftablifhed by the regulation bill
of 1773 ; but the former interference of minifters
had not been beneficial, becaufe it had not been
aftive and vigilant. He now propofed, therefore,
that a board ftrould be inftituted exprefsly for the
purpofe. This board was to be appointed by. the
king, and to confift of the fecretary of ftate for the
home department, the chancellof of the exchequer,
and a certain number of the privy council. To this
board the difpatches of the company were to. be fub-
mitted, and were not to be fent to India until they
were counterfigned by them. To prevent queftions
concerning the commercial and political concerns of
the company, it was propofed, that the difpatches up¬
on the former fubjeft Ihouldbe fubmitted to the board;
and that, in cafe of any difference, an appeal fhould
be made to the king in council. Though he (Mr Pitt)
had not thought proper to accept of the propofal of
the company to yield the appointment of foreign
councils to the crown, he was neverthelefs clearly of
opinion, that the commander in chief ought to be ap¬
pointed by the king. He propofed alfo that this
commander fhould have a vote in council next to the
prefident; that the king fhould be empowered to be-
ftow the reverfion of his office ; that the king might
recal the governor-general, the prefidents, and any
members of their councils. He yielded the appoint¬
ment of all officers, with the fingle exceptions he had
Hated, to the court of directors, fubject, however, to
the approbation of the king 5 and that, in cafe of a
negative, the dire&ors fhould proceed to a fecond
choice, and fo on. Pie deprived the court of proprie-
tots of their privilege of refcinding or altering the
proceedings of their court of diredtors ; and with re-
fpedt to the foreign government, he was of opinion, that
their authority fhould compiife in it a conliderable dif-
cretion, accompanied with the reftraint of refponli-
bility. He propofed, that there fhould be a revifion
of the eftablifhments in India with a view to retrench¬
ments ; that appointments fhould take place by gra¬
dation; and that a new and fummary tribunal fhould
be erected for -the trial of offences committed in that
country. With regard to the Zemindaries, though he
could not help paying a Compliment to Mr Fox, on
his intention of feftoring them to their proper own¬
ers, he yet thought that a general and -indiffirimi-
nate reftitution was as bad as an indifcriminate con-
fifcation. Pie therefore propofed, that an inquiry
fhould be inftituted for the purpofe of reftoring fuch
as had been irregularly and uujuftly deprived, and that
they fhould in time to come be fecured againft vio¬
lence.
In the bill of 1784 few alterations were made; arid
thefe
COM [ 241 ] CO M
Company, thefe uniformly, tended to enlarge the powers of the months after his arrival; one copy of which was t<ibe Company,
board of controul. They were permitted, in cafes of kept in the court of exchequer, and the other at the —
emergency, to concert original meafures, as well as to
revife, correA, and alter thofe of the diredtors. In
matters relative to peace or war, where fecfecy was a
principal objeft, they were allowed to fend their orders
dire&ly to India, without any communication with the
diredtors; to the commander in chief, without any
India-houfe. The board of controul, the court of di-
redtors, or any three of the proprietors whofe Hock
Ihould amount together to 10001. were allowed to
move the court of exchequer to examine the validity
of the account. In cafe of an apparently well founded
accufation, the court of exchequer were allowed to ex-
communication with the prefidencies; and the number amine the party upon oath, and even to imprifon him
of perfons conftituting the dilferent councils of Bengal,
Fort St George, and Bombay, was determined.—The
governor-general and council of Bengal were to have
an abfolute power to originate orders to the inferior
prefidencies, in fuch cafes as did not interfere with the
diredtions already received from Britain ; adding a
power of fufpenfion in cafe of difobedience. The fu-
preme council were forbidden, unlefs any of the Indian
princes Ihould have firft commenced or meditated hof-
tilites, to enter upon war, or form an offenfive treaty,
until the interrogatories propofed to him Ihould be an-
fwered. The whole property of a perfon who Ihould
negledl to give in fuch an account within the time li¬
mited, or who Ihould have been guilty of a mifrepre-
fentation in that account to the amount of 20001. Iter-
ling, was ordered to be confifcated ; ten per cent, to be
paid to the accufer, and the remainder to be equally
divided between the public and the company. Every
perfon who had once been employ ed in India, but had
afterwards refided in Europe for five years, unlefs
without orders from home. The inferior councils were fuch refidence had been exprefsly on account of his
forbidden in all cafes to form alliances; and in cafes of health, was declared incapable of ever being fent out to
urgency, were commanded to infert a provifional claufe, India again.
rendering the permanency of the Slliance dependent on As a farther curb on the company’s fervants, the
the confirm^ion of the governor-general. . attorney-general or court of directors was authorifed
Various falutary regulations were propofed concern- to file an information in the court of King’s-bench a-
ing the behaviour of the company’s fervants, againtt gainft any perfon for crimes committed in India. That
whom fo great complaints had been made. Inquiry
was ordered to be made by the different prefidencies
into the expulfions that might have been made of any
of the hereditary farmers, and of the oppreffive rents
and contributions that might have been extorted from
them ; and meafures were diredfed to be taken for their
court was empowered alfo to imprifon or admit the
accufed to bail immediately. It was then ordered,
that within 30 days a certain number of peers fhould
be chofen by the houfe of lords, and of the members
of the houfe of commons by that houfe, to conflitute
a court for the trial of the accufed. The court was
relief and future tranquillity. A fimilar examination finally to confift of three judges appointed by the
- .l- j-rr . ii-Li-n. *»-- crown, four peers, and fix members of the houfe of
commons ; and the accufed had a right to a peremp¬
tory challenge. From this court there was no appeal ;
and it was empowered to adjudge the party incapable
of ever ferving the company ; to punifli by fine or iiq*
prifonment ; and in order to proportion the fine to
the property of the convidt, the court of exchequer
It was likewife provided, that promotions Ihould be might, at the requifition of the attorney-general, or of
made in the order of feniority, unlefs in extraordinary the company,, examine him upon oath concerning the
cafes; for which the preiidencies (hould make them- fum he was"worth. A refufal to anfwer was to be
felves fpecifically refponfible. Crimes committed by punilhed with confifcation of property, and imprifon-
Englifli fubjefts in any part of India, were made amen- ment during pleafur ■
was ordered into the different eftablifhments in the
Indian fettlements ; a report of which was to be laid
annually before parliament. The company were pro¬
hibited from fending out a greater number of cadets or
writers than what were abfolutely neceffary; and it was
likewife provided, that the age of fuch as were fent
out, ihould not be lefs than 15, nor more than 22 years.
able to every Britifh court of juftice, in the fame man¬
ner as if they had been committed in Britain. Pre-
fents, unlefs fuch as were abfolutely ceremonial, or given
to a counfellor at law, a phylician, a furgeon, or a
_ With regard to the treatment of delinquents in In¬
dia, Mr Pitt obferved, that at that time we had it not
in our power to puniih them. Either a new procefs
muff therefore be inftituted, or offences, equally ihock-
chaplain, were abfolutely prohibitedj under the penalty ing to humanity, and contrary to every principle of
— religion and juftice, muft be permitted to-continue up-
checked. Every perfon therefore who went hereafter,
would know the predicament in which he flood ; and
would finderftand, that by fo doing he agreed to give
up fome of the mdft valuable privileges of an Englifh-
man : yet in tins he would do no more than a very
numerous and honourable body of men, the military,
did daily, without the leaft hefitation, or the fmaileft
impeachment of their charafter.
This bill, fo tremendous in its appearance to the
company’s fervants, was vehemently oppofed by the
minority.. Mr Francis obferved, that it went upon
two principles, •viz. the abufe of power abroad, and
the want of it at home. To remedy thefe, Mr Pitt
had propofed to augment the power abroad, and to
H h diminiih
of confifcation of the prefent, and an additional fine at
the difcretion of the court. Difobedience of orders,
unlefs abfolutely neceffary, and .pecuniary tranfaftions
prejudicial to the interefts of the company, were de¬
clared to be high crimes and mifdemeanors. The com¬
pany were forbidden to interfere in favour of any per-
fon legally convifted of any of the above crimes, or to
employ him in their fervice for ever. The governors
-of the different prefidencies were alfo permitted to im¬
prifon any perfon fufpedted of illicit correfpondence,
and were ordered to fend them to England with all
convenient fpeed. Every perfon ferving, or who ihould
liereafter ferve, in India, was alfo required, on his return
to England, to give an exaft account, upon oath, to
the court of exchequer, of his property, within two
Vol. V. Part I.
COM [ 244- ] COM
Company. An objeftion had been ftated, that the declaratory
w—v   tjJH conveyed to the king the power of maintaining
an army without the confent of parliament. No pro-
pofition (Mr Pitt obferved) could be more adverfe to
his intentions than that which was thus imputed to
him. But in reality the troops in queftion had already
been recognifed by parliament when they voted the
eftimate for raifing them ; and the number of king’s
regiments ferving in India would always be to be
afcertained by the company belonging to each, which
remained in England for the purpofe of recruiting,
and the expence of which would be to be provided for
by parliament.
Mr Pitt acknowledged, that it had been the objedl:
of the aft of 1784 to affume the power of fuperin-
tendence and controul, without afluming the power of
patronage. In the prefent bill he declared, that every
thing had been done which his underftanding had fug-
gelled for the diminution of patronage. The regi¬
ments in quellion belonged to the crown ; and of courfe
it could not be fuppofed that the fovereign could en¬
tirely depart from his prerogative of naming his own
officers. But the king had afttd with the moll gra¬
cious attention to the company, and to the merits of
the officers who had grown grey in their fervice •; ha¬
ving relinquilhed nearly half the patronage of the re¬
giments, and leaving the dilpofal of thefe commiffions
to the court of diredlors. The company indeed al¬
leged that they had 600 officers unemployed ; but the
king could not foiget that he had 2800 officers upon
half-pay, hot perhaps more meritorious, but certainly
not lefs fo, than thole in the company’s fervice, and
many of whom had adtually ferved with diftinftion in
India. Such had been the forbearance he had thought
it proper to exercife upon the fubjeft of patronage.
But if, by the objection that had been ftarted, it was
intended to refer to the great political patronage, this
he did not deny that he had at all times intended to
aflume. Men who were refponfible for the govern¬
ment of a country, ought undoubtedly to have the
appointment of thofe whom they were to entrull with
the execution of their orders. But it would be ad¬
mitted that the patronage left to the company was
very confiderable, when the great extent of their mi¬
litary eftablllhment was properly recolle&ed. Mr Pitt
added, that the objediions that were ftarted on this
head would poffibly throw difficulties in the way of the
confolidation of the two armies in India; an objedt
on many accounts definable, and which in fome way
or other muft be attempted. If it Ihould be thought
advifable to make the whole army royal, then undoubt¬
edly the patronage of the crown would be greatly in-
creafed. He believed, however, that the meafure was
neceflary ; and there was fcarcely any thing to which
he would not affent, to remove the apprehenfions of
the nation refpedting the undue ufe of this patronage.
For the bill now before the houfe, Mr Pitt profeffed
himfelf ready to propofe claufes that Ihould annihilate
every fufpicion of danger.
The fpeech of Mr Pitt produced a favourable effedl
upon the country gentlemen ; ahd the claufes which he
had alluded to being moved, were received without any
debate. Thefe provided, That no king’s troops, be¬
yond the number which was now propofed, ftiould be
lent to India under the authority of any exifting law:
That no increafc of falary fhould be given to any of Company,
the fervants of the company, without the diipatches ——y—
for that purpofe being laid before both houles of par¬
liament thirty days previous to their being lent ; and
that no gratuity fhould be given, the propofal for
tvhich did not originate with the court of diredlors.
A fourth claufe was added to theie by the minifter,
which had not preeifely the fame objtdl: it direft-
ed, that an account of the revenues and difbu'rfe-
ments of the company fhould be laid before parlia¬
ment at a certain affigned period in the courfe of every
year.
The bill was carried up to the houfe of lords on
the 14th of March, read a firft time on the following
day, which was Saturday, and propofed for a fecond
reading on the enfuing Monday. This precipitation
was made the fubjeft of a petition, offered by certain
proprietors, and prefented to the houfc by the Duke •
of Norfolk, in which they requtfted a delay of three
days, till a general meeting could be held of the pro¬
prietors of the Eaft India company. To this fugge-
ftion it was obje&ed by Lord Thurlow and Lord
Hawkefbury, that the (hips of the Eaft India com^
pany Were now detained in port at the enormous ex¬
pence of three or four hundred pounds/er diem. By
Lord Stormont and Lord Loughborough it was re¬
plied, that no expence, however great, ought to weigh
in the confideration of the prefent queftion. The bill
decided upon a matter of private right, and parlia¬
ment could not juftly refufe to hear the petitioners.
The houfe divided upon the queftion, contents 32,
not contents 75, A motion of Lord Porchefter was
rejected by a iimilar majority, for referring a queftion
to the twelve judges rdpefting the true meaning and
intent of the aft of 1784.
The Duke of Richmond faid, that he was peculiar¬
ly circumftanced on the prelent occafion, fince he had
never been pleafed with any of the. bills for the go¬
vernment of India that had yet been brought into
parliament. He had ever been of opinion, that the
concerns of the Eaft were trufted in the beft hands
When they were veiled in the company itfelf. He had
oppoled the bill of 1783, becaufe it flagrantly violated
the charter of the company, and placed an immenfe
power in the hands of a commiffion, that was not re¬
fponfible, fo far as he could find, either to the king
or the parliament. He had oppofed the aft of 1784,
becaufe it gave to the crown an enormous addition of
power. But he could not admit that that aft was in
any degree fo violent and defpotical as the bill which
preceded it. The declaratory meafure now under con¬
fideration muft neceffarily have his complete approba¬
tion. It confifted of two diftinft parts; its expofi-
tion of the aft of 1784, and certain enafting claufes
containing checks and reftraints upon the extenfive
patronage that the government of the Eaft naturally
gave. To the former part he muft inevitably agree.
That the aft of 1784 gave to the board of controul
complete authority, had always been his opinion. For
that reafon he had oppofed it: but, entertaining that
opinion, he muft juftify the prefent bill* which in his
mind was a true declaration of the faft. He could
not but equally approve of the reftraints that were
propofed upon the exercife of patronage. Patronage
was infeparable from power. But when he faw the
COM [ 245 ] COM
Company, induftry with which it was limited, and miniflers were
tied down from the abufe of it; when he faw that
it was not to be ufed otherwife than for the good of
the fervice, he could not view the prefent meamre
with the fame jealoufy with which he was accuilomed
to regard propohtions for extending the power of the
crown.
The bill, however, underwent a fevere difcuffion in
this as it had done in the other houfe ; but at length
palled.
In May following a petition was prefented to the
houi'e of commons by the company, dating certain
pecuniary embarraffments which they apprehended to
take place on the firft of March 1790, owing to the
arrears of the war, to the government claim of
L.500,000, to the debt incurred in China, and to
the advances necelfary to be made for the purpoies of
the China trade. In compliance with their peti¬
tion, Mr Pitt moved on the following day that they
Ihould be empowered to borrow a fum not exceeding
L. 1,200,000. He at the fame time obferved, ^hat
in all probability the company in 1791 would have up¬
wards of L. 3,000,000 Sterling more than fufficient to
tlifcharge their debts. The meafure was carried thro’
both houfes without oppofition.
3. Hudfon’s Bay Company. Thevaft countries which
•furround Hudfon’s Bay abound with animals whofe
furs and Ikins are excellent, being far fuperior in quality
to thofe found in lefs northerly regions. In 1670,
-a charter was granted to a company, which does not
conlift of above nine or ten perfons, for the exclufive
trade to this bay ; and they have a&ed under it ever
fince with great benefit to themfelves. The company
employ four Ihips and 130 feamen. They have feve-
ral forts, -wz. Prince of Wales’s fort, Churchill river,
Nelfon, New Severn, and Albany, which Hand on the
weft fide of the bay, and are garrifoned by 186 men.
The French, in May 1782, took and deftroyed thefe
forts, and the fettlements, &c. valued at 500,000!.
They export commodities to the value of 16,000 1.
and bring home returns to the value of 29,340!.
which yield to the revenue 37341. This includes the
fifhery in Hudfon’s Bay. This commerce, fmall as it
•is, affords immenfe profits to the company, and even
fome advantages to Great Britain in general; for the
commodities we exchange with the Indians for their
fltins and furs, are allmanufadlured in Britain; and as
the Indians are not very nice in their choice, fuch
things are fent of which we have the greateft plenty,
and which, in the mercantile phrafe, are drugs with
us. Though the workmanlhip too happens to be in
many refpedis fo deficient that no civilized people
would take it off our hands, it may be admired among
the Indians. On the other hand, the fltins and furs
we bring from Hudfon’s Bay, enter largely into our
manufadtures, and afford us materials for trading with
many nations of Europe to great advantage. Thefe
circumftances tend to prove inconteftably the immenfe
benefit that would redound to Great Britain, by throw¬
ing open the trade to- Hudfon’s Bay, fince even in its
prefent reftrained ftate it is fo advantageous. This
company, it is probable, do not find their trade fo ad-'
vantageous now as it was before we got poffefiion of
Canada. The only attempt made to trade with La¬
brador has been diredled towards the fifhery, the annual Company,
produce of which exceeds 49,000!. v—
The above are the principal trading companies pre-
fently fubfifting in Great Britain; but to the number
might-have been added one, of vaft importance, tire
Scotch Darien Company, had it not been for the crooked
and pufillanimous policy of the Englifh miniftry at the
time. For an account of which, fee the article Da¬
rien.
Greenland Company. See Greenland.
Banking Companies. See Bank.
Of eftablifhments fimilar to the above in other coun¬
tries, the following, belonging to the Dutch and French,
may be mentioned as the molt important.
I. Dutch Companies. 1. Their Eaft India com¬
pany had its rife in the midft of the ftruggle which
that people had for their liberty : for the Spaniards
having forbidden all commerce with them, and fhut up
all their ports, neceffity infpired fome Zealanders to feek
a new north-eaft paffage to China.
This enterprize proving unfuccefsful to three feve-
ral armaments in 1594, IJ95> and 1596, a fecondcom¬
pany was formed, under the name of the Company of
remote Parts : which, in 1595, took the ordinary route
of the Portuguefe to the Indies, and returned in two
years and a half’s time with little gain but good
hopes.
This company, and a new one juft eftablifhed at
Amfterdam,„being united, equipped other fleets ; and
thefe occaftoned other companies at Amfterdam, Rot¬
terdam, in Zealand, &c. infomuch that the ftates fooh
began to apprehend they might be prejudicial to each
other. Under this concern, they called all the direc¬
tors of the feveral companies together, who all confent-
ed to an union, the treaty whereof was confirmed by
the States in 1602; a very remarkable epocha, as being
that of the moft folid and celebrated eftablifhment of
commerce that ever was in the world.
Its firft capital was fix millions fix hundred thoufand
guilders. It had fixty directors, divided into feveral
chambers ; twenty in that of Amfterdam, twelve in
that of Zealand, fourteen in that of Delft and Rot¬
terdam, and a like number in thofe at Sluys and Horn.
As each grant expires, the company is obliged to pro¬
cure a new one, which it has already done five times
fince the firft, paying a conftderable fum each time.
The laft application was in 1773, when the company,
after ftating that its trade had declined,, folicited the
ftates-general to grant a diminution of the fum for¬
merly paid for the renewal of the charter. Upon this
reprefentation, their high mightineffes, in order to
have time to inquire into the matter, prolonged the
charter for three years, upon the old eftabliftunent;
and finding, upon examination, that the company had
really fuftained great Ioffes, and its trade confiderably
declined, they afted with the fpirit of a wife commer¬
cial commonwealth, by complying with the company’s
requeft. They therefore, in 1776, granted them a
new charter for 30 years, on the fame terms as the
former, on the immediate payment of 2,000,000 of
florins, inftead of 3,000,000 which they paid before,
and the fum of 360,000 florins yearly; which annual
pay*
COM L 246 ] COM
Company, payment they were allowed to make either in money
r" > or merchandize. In coflfequence of this indulgence,
the dock of the company rofe in a Ihort time no lefs
than 19 per cent.
Their fa&ories, refidences, &c. in the Eail Indies,
are very numerous ; reaching from the Perfian gulph
to the coaft of China : the principal is that of Batavia,
the centre of their commerce : here refides their gene¬
ral, with the ftate and fplendor of a fovereign prince ;
making war and peace with the eaftern kings and em¬
perors at pleafure.
The other more confiderable fa&ories are, Taiouam
on the coaft of China, Nangifac in Japan, Malacca,
Surat, Ambeyna, Banda, Siam, Moluccas, &c. feveral
on the coaft of Coromandel, and at Ifpahan, Cape of
Good Hope, &c. in all, they number 40 fa&ories and
25 fortreffes. They have the whole trade of the
fpicery in their own hands.
2. Their Wejl India Company was eftabliftiedin 1621,
with an exclulive privilege to trade 24 years along the
ooafts of Africa, between the tropic of Cancer and the
Cape of Good Hope ; and in America from the fouth
point of Newfoundland, through the ftraits of Ma¬
gellan, that of Le Maire, or others, to the ftraits of
Anian, both' in the North and South Sea. The di¬
rectors are divided into five chambers (as in the Eaft
India company), out of which 19 are chofen for the
general direction of affairs. In 1647, the company
renewed its grant for 25 years; but it was fcarce able
to hold out the term, on account of its great Ioffes and
expences in taking the bay of Todos los Santos, Fer-
nambuc, and the greateft part of Brafil, from the Por-
teguefe. The weaknefs of this company, which had
feveral times in vain attempted to be joined to that of
the Eaft Indies, occafioned its diffolution at the ex¬
piration of its grant.
In 1674, a new company, compofed of the ancient
proprietors and their creditors, was fettled in the
fame rights and eftabliihment with the former; and
ft ill fubfifts, though confiderably decayed. Their firft
capital was about fix millions of florins. Its principal
eftablifliments are, one at Cape Verd, another on the
.Gold Coaft of Africa, at Tobago, Curaffao, &c. in
America.
II. French Companies. I. Their-Ea/? India Com¬
pany was eftabliftied in 1664, with an exclufive privi¬
lege to trade for 50 years in all the feas of the Eaft
Indies and South Sea. No adventurer to be ad¬
mitted without 1000 livres in flock; and foreigners
who have 20,000 livres in ftock to be reputed jregni-
.coles.
The patent grants them the ifland of Madagafcar ;
and the king to be at one-fifth of the expence of the
three firft armaments, without intereft: the principal
to be refunded in ten years ; or, if the company find
it lofes oti the whole, the lofs to fall on the king’s
fide.
The capital fund of the company, which was moftly
furriifhed by the king, was feven or eight millions of
livres, but was to have been fifteen millions.
In effeCt, though no means were wanting to fupport
the company, yet it Hill drooped and ftill ftruggled ;
till having fubfifted ten years without any change in
its form, and being no longer able to difcharge its en¬
gagements, there were new regulations concerted, but
to little purpofe. At length, things not being difpo- Company,
fed for a newr Eaft India company, nor much good to
be expected from the old one, - in 1708 the miniftry
allowed the directors to treat with the rich traders of
St Malo, and refign to them their privilege under cer¬
tain conditions. In the hands of thefe laft, the com¬
pany began to flourifh. See India Company, below.
Its chief faCtory is at Pondicherry, on the coaft of
Coromandel. This is the refidence of the direCtor-ge-
heral; the other factories are inconfiderable. The mer¬
chandizes which the company brings into France are,
filks, cottons, fpices, coffee, rice, faltpetre; feveral
kinds of gums and drugs, wood, wax, printed cali¬
coes, muflins, &c.
2. Their IVeJl India Company was eftabliflied in
1664. Their charter gave them the property and
feigniory of Canada, Acadia, the Antilles iflan'ds, Ifle
of Cayenne, and the Terra Firma of America, from the
river of the Amazons to that of Oroonoko ; with an
exclufive privilege for the commerce of thofe places, as
alfo of Senegal and the coafts of Guinea, for 40 years,
only paying half the duties. The ftock of the com¬
pany was fo confiderable, that in lefs than fix months
45 veffels were equipped ; wherewith they took poffef-
fion of all the places in their grant, and fettled a com¬
merce : yet this only fubfifted nine years. In 1674,
the grant, was revoked, and the countries above re¬
united to the king’s dominions as before; the king
reimburfing the aCtions of the adventurers. This re¬
vocation was owing partly to the poverty of the com¬
pany, occafioned by its Ioffes in the wars with Eng¬
land, which had neceflkated it to borrow above a mil¬
lion, and even to alienate its exclufive privilege for
the coafts of Guinea: and partly to its having in good
meafure anfwered its end; which was to recover the
commerce of the Weft Indies from the Dutch', who
had torn it from them : for the French merchants, be¬
ing now accuftomed to traffic to the Antilles, by per-
miffion of the company, were fo attached to it, that
it was not doubted they would fupport the commerce
after the diffolution of the company.
3. Their Mijfijfippi Company was firft eftablifhed in
1684 in favour of the Chevalier de la Salle ; who ha¬
ving projected it in 1660, and being appointed gover¬
nor of the fort of Frontignac at the mouth of that ri¬
ver, travelled over the country in the year 1683, and
returned to France to folicit the eftablifhment. This
obtained, he fet fail for his new colony with four vef- »
fels loaden with inhabitants, &c. but entering the
Gulph of Mexico, he did not, it feems, know the ri¬
ver that had coft him fo much fatigue, but fettled on
another river unknown, where his colony periflred by
degrees; fo that in 1685 there were not 100 perfons
remaining. Making feveral expeditions to find the
Miffiffippi, he was killed in one of them by a party
who mutinied againft him ; whereupon the colony was
difperfed and loft. M. Hiberville afterwards fucceed-
ed better- He found the Miffiffippi, built a fort, and
fettled a French colony there ; but he being poifoned,
it is faid, by tire intrigues of the Spaniards, who fear¬
ed fuch a neighbour, in 1712 M. Crozat had the
whole property of trading to the French territories call¬
ed Louifmna granted him for 15 years.
4. Company of the Weft. In 1717, the Sieur Crozat
furrendered his grant; and in the fame year a new
com-
COM [ H7 ] COM
Company. company was erefted under the title of Company of the at the rate of three millions five hundred thoufand livres Company.
t*-~v  Wrfl: to which, befides every thing granted to the per annum more than had been given before ; and aifo v K
yefty twelve: hundred millions of livres to
' Wejl: to which, befides every thing granted
former company, was added the commerce of beaver,
enjoyed by the Canada company from the year 1706,
but expiring in 1717. In this eftablilhment, an equal
view was had to the finances and the commerce of the
nation ; and, accordingly, part of the conditions of its
eftablifhment regarded the fettling a colony, a trade,
&c. the other the vending part of the bills, called bills
offate, which could no longer fubfilt on their prefent
footing. The former are no more than are ufual in
fuch eftablilhments: for the latter, the adlions are
fixed at 500 livres, each payable in bills of ftate ; the
actions to be efteemed as merchandize, and in that
quality to be bought, fold, and trafficked. The bills of
Hate, which make the fund of the a&ions, to be con¬
verted into yearly revenue. To put the finiffiing hand
to the company, in 1717 its fund was fixed at an hun¬
dred millions of livres; which being filled, the caffi was
Unit up. .
5. India Company. The junction of the former com¬
pany with that of Canada was immediately followed
by its union with that of Senegal, both in the year
1718, by an arret of council; which at the fame time
granted the new company the commerce of beavers, and
made it miilrefs of the negro or Guinea trade to the
French colonies in America.
Nothing was now wanting to its perfeffion but an
union with the Eaft India company, and with thofe
of China and St Domingo ; which was effe&ed, with
the two fir ft in 1719, and with the third in 1720,
This union of the Eaft India and China company with
the company of the Weft, occafioned an alteration of
the name; and it was henceforth called the India Com-
pany.
The reafons of the union were, the inability of the
two former to carry on their commerce ; the immenfe
debts they had contra&ed in the Indies, efpecially the
Fail company, complaints whereof had been fent to
court by the Indians, which difcredited the company
per
to lend his n
pay the debts of the ftate. Thefe offers were accep¬
ted ; and the king, in confideration hereof, granted
them all the privileges of the feveral grants of the com¬
panies united to that company to the year 1770; on
condition, however, of difcharging all the debts of the-
old Eaft India company, without any deduction at all.
The loan of twelve hundred millions not being fuffi-
cient for the occafions of the ftate, was augmented,
three months afterwards, with three-hundred millions
more ; which, with the former loan, and another of
one hundred millions before, made fixteen hundred mil¬
lions, for which the king was to pay intereft at the
rate of three per cent.
The Duke of Orleans, in February 1720, did the
company the honour to prefide in their affembly, where
he made feveral propofals to them on the part of the
king: the principal of thefe was, that they ffiould take
on them the charge and adminiftfation of the royal
bank. This was accepted of; and Mr Law, comptrol¬
ler-general of the finances, was named by the king
infpector-general of the India company and bank
united.
This union, which, it was propofed, fhould have
been a mutual help to both thofe famous eftablifhments,
proved the fatal point from whence the fall of both
commenced^ from this time, both the bank bills and
the aftions of the company began to fall. In effeift,
the firft perilhed ahfolutely, and the other had been-
drawn along with it but for the prudent precautions..
taken for,its fupport.
The firft precaution was the revoking the office of
infpedtor-general, and the obliging Mr Law to quit
the kingdom : the ancient directors were difearded,
and new ones fubftituted ; and, to find the bottom of
the company’s affairs, it was ordered they ftiould give
an account of what they had received and difburfed,
both on the account of the. company and of the bank.
fo that they durft not appear any longer at Surat ; which they had had the management of near a year. A-
the little care they took to difeharge their en¬
gagements ; and their having transferred their privi¬
lege to the private traders of St Malo, in coniidera-
tion of a tenth in the profits of the returns of their
ffiips..
The ancient a&ions of the company of the Weft,,
which were not at par when this engraftment was pro-
jefted, before it was completed, were rifen-to 300 per
cent.; which unexpected fuccefs gave occafion to con¬
clude the new aftions of the united companies would
not bear lefs credit. The concourfe of fubferibers wTas
fo great, that in a month’s time there were above fifty
millions fubferihed for:. the firft twenty-five million
adions which were granted to the India company, be¬
yond the hundred millions of ftock allowed the com-
nother precaution to come at the ftate of the company
was, by endeavouring to diftinguiffi the lawful aCtion-
aries from the Miffiffippi extortioners; whofe immenfe
riches,, as well as their criminal addrefs in realizing
their aCtions either into fpecie or merchandize, were,
become fo fatal to the ftate; in order, if poffible, to
fecure the honeft adventurers in their ftock. To this
end, an inquifition was made into their books, &c. by
perfons appointed by the king ; and the new directors,,
or, as they were called, regijeurs, began ferioufly to look
about for their, commerce abroad. Their-affairs, how¬
ever,, declined, and at length; funk into a ruined and
bankrupt ftate about the year 1769. The king;imme¬
diately fufpended their exclufive privileges, .and laid the
trade to the eaft open to all his fubjeCts; configning, .
pany of the Weft, being filled as foon as the books- at the fame time, the affairs of the company to the
were opened; to fatisfy the earneftnefs of the fubferi¬
bers, the ftock. was increafed by feveral arrets to three
hundred millions.. Credit ftilfincreafing, the new ac¬
tions rofe to x 200 per cent, and thofe of the ancient
company of the Weft to 1900per cent.; an exorbitant
price, to which no other company ever rofie. Its con¬
dition was now fo flouriffiing, that in 1719 it offered
the king, to take a leafe of. all his farms for nine years.
care of the miniftry to adjuft and fettle. But the va¬
rious fchemes which were then formed for thC reftora-
tion of the old company, and the eftablifhment of a new
one, were accompanied with fuch unftirmountable dif¬
ficulties, as to prove wholly ineffeClual. Nor was the
laying open of the trade attended immediately with the
fuccefs that was expeCled ; the merchants being.very
flow In engaging in. it,. though the king, by way of
COM [ 248 ] CO
Company, encouragement, lent them fome of his own (hips to ner the moll wanton and abfurd.
convey their commodities to the Eaft ; and the garri-
fon and civil eftablifhments continued to be fupported
M
in their exifting form by the crown. The meafure,
however, proved in time fuccefsful; fo that for a
courfe of years previous to 1785, the annual importa¬
tion from India was confiderably greater than during
any former period. But whether it were that they re¬
garded this profperity as precarious; or that they
aimed at a more extenfive fuccefs ; or that they wilh-
ed, in imitation of Britain, for territorial acquifitions
in that climate, and believed an incorporated fociety
the beft inftrument of obtaining them; the French
court was induced to liften to propofals for eftablilhing
a new Eaft India company. Their privilege was for
feven years, with the fpecial provifo, that years of war
which might occur in the interim Ihould be excluded
from the computation.
In the preamble of the aft of the 14th April 17852
by which the fcheme was adopted, it was alleged, “ that
the commodities of Europe not having of late years
been regulated by any common ftandard, or propor¬
tioned to the demands of India, had on the one hand
fold at a low price ; while, on the other, the compe-
Inftead of fuffering Cumpany.
it to find its own level by the mutual collifiou of the  «  
wants of one party and the labour of another, it was
arbitrarily to be falhioned by a power whofe extreme
diftance mull neceffarily render its decihons ill-timed
and inapplicable. The very mode in which the mono¬
poly was introduced was a fubjeft of complaint. It
was determined by a refolution of the king in council j
a proceeding totally inadequate to the importance of
the fubjeft, and which' was to be regarded as clandef-
tine and furreptitious. In all former inftances fuch
meafures affumed the form of edifts, and were regifter-
ed in the parliaments. It was the prerogative of thefe
courts to verify them; that is, to inquire into the fafts
which had led to their adoption. The injured parties
had an opportunity of being heard before the'privilege
alTumed the form of a law ; not privately by the mini-
liers of the fovereign, but publicly by the mod confi-
derable bodies in the kingdom, and in the face of the
nation.
The aft of council edablilhing a new Ead India
company, was followed on the tenth of July by ano¬
ther declaration, intended dill farther to promote their
intered ; by which it was exprefsly forbidden to im-
tition of the/ubjefts of France had raifed the price.of port cottons, printed linens, and muflins, except thro’
the objefts of importation: that, upon their return
home, a want of fydem and affortment had been uni-
verfally complained of, the market being glutted with
one fpecies of goods; and totally deditute of another :
that thefe defefts mud neceffarily continue as long as
the trade remained in private hands; and that, on their
account, as well as that of the capital required, the
edablilhment of a new company was abfolutely necef-
fary.”
Thefe reafonings did not appear altogether fatisfac-
tory to the perfons principally intereded. France has
been fo far enlightened by the difeuffions of the excel¬
lent wri iters die has produced upon quedions of poli¬
tics and commerce, as not' to be prepared to behold
the introduftion of monopolies with a very favourable
eye. By many perfons it was remarked, that the ar¬
guments of the preamble did not apply more to the
the medium of the company. The arret proceeds up¬
on the fame principles of monopoly as in the former
indance. It fets out indeed with a declaration, “ that
nothing can appear more defirable to the king, or bet¬
ter accor d with the fentiments of his heart, than a ge¬
neral liberty, that freeing at once the circulation of
commodities from every fpecies of redraint, diould
feem to make of all the people of the world but one
nation with refpeft to commerce.” But it adds, “ that
the period of this liberty is not yet arrived : that it
it fnud either be, with refpeft to the nations of Eu¬
rope, unlimited and reciprocal, or that it cannot be
admitted : that the revocation of the former indul¬
gence refpefting cottons and linens was become necef-
lary on account of the opportunities it created for con¬
traband trade; and becaufe the competition of the Ead
India company and private traders -would occafion a
trade of India than to any other trade ; and that, if Surplus in the market, and the admiffion of foreign
manufactures would decreafe and annihilate the national
induftry.”
The provifions that were made for carrying this law
into effeft were confidered as unjud and fevere. The
merchants poffeffing any of the prohibited commodi¬
ties were allowed twelve months to difpofe of them ;
but upon the exprefs condition, that the commodities
were to bear a damp, importing that they were veil-,
dible only to a certain period, a circumdance that mud
they were admitted in their entire force, they wrere
calculated to give a finifhing blow to the freedom of
commerce. The capital of the new company, which
amounted to L. 830,000, was ridiculed as altogether
inadequate to the magnitude of the undertaking. The
privileges with which it was indulged were treated as
enormous. The monopoly of Ead India goods im¬
ported into France frotp any part of Europe, was
granted to them for two years, as well as the mono¬
poly of Ead India goods imported from the place of neceffarily depreciate their value. It was alfo enaftedj
their growth. It w'as faid, that during that period
they would fit out no adventures for India; that they
hoped to obtain a prolongation of this injurious indul¬
gence ; and that, of confequence, their incorporation
was in reality a confpiracy to prevent all future com¬
munication between France and the fources of com¬
merce in Afia. A provifion in the aft, direfting that
the prices of Ead India goods in the ifiands of Mauri¬
tius and Bourbon fiiould be regulated by a tariff to be
fixed by the court of Verfeilles, excited dill louder ex¬
clamations. In this indance, it was faid, the fird
principles of commerce were trampled upon in a man-
'' N^7. .
that the houfe of any trader might be entered by day
or by night, at the felicitation of the direftors, to
fearch for prohibited goods, which were to be confif-
cated to the ufe of the company. Thefe kinds of vi-
fits of the officers of revenue, hitherto unauthorifed in
France, were reprefented as peculiarly obnoxious, when
they were made for the foie benefit of a privileged mo¬
nopoly.
Company, in military affairs, a fmall body of foot,
commanded by a captain, who has under him a lieute¬
nant and enfign.
The
COM [ 249 ] CO M
Company. The number of rentinels or private foldlers in a com- a charter party among themfelves ; the principal con- Company.
w—v ' panyis fromyo to 100; and a battalion or regiment con- ditions whereof ufually are, that certain veffels fhall be v L'~r
lifts of 9, 10, or 11, fuch companies : one of which is acknowledged admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral;
always grenadiers, and polled on the right; next them that fuch and fuch fignals lhall be obferved; that thofe
Hands the colonel’s company, and on the left the light which bear no guns (hall pay fo much per cent, of their
infantry company. Companies not incorporated into re- cargo; and in cafe they be attacked, that what da-
giments are called Irregulars, or independent companies. mages are fullaincd (hall be reimbuifed by the company
Artillery Company. See Artillery. in general. In the Mediterranean, fuch companies are
Company of Ships, a fleet of merchantmen, who make called conferves.
COMPARATIVE Anatomy,
IS that branch of anatomy which conliders the fecon-
dary objects, or the bodies of • other animals; fer-
ving for the more accurate diftindlions of feveral parts,
and fupplying the defedft of human fubjeCts.
It is otherwife called the anatomy of beajls, and fome-
times aootowy; and (lands in cbntradiftintlion to,human
anatomy, or that branch of the art which confiders the
human body the primary objedt of anatomy. See
Anatomy.
t In tr 0 d u c t i o n.
The ufes of Th E principal advantages of comparative anatomy
Compara- are tjle f0H0Wing: Firft, it furnifties us with a fufficient
tomy.1 ~ knowledge of the different parts of animals, to pre¬
vent our being impofed upon by thofe authors who
have delineated and defcribed feveral parts from bru«es
as belonging to the human body. Secondly, it helps
us to underfland feveral paffages in the ancient writers
in medicine, who have taken many of their defcrip-
tions from brutes and reafoned from them. The third
and great ufe we reap from this fcience, is the light it
cafts on feveral funftions in the human economy,
about which there have been fo many difputes among
j anatomills.
How the In this view it is altogether needlefs to infift on thofe
fed'.on of parts whofe ufe is ufuaily underllood when once their
4etermRed ftnichire is unravelled ; Thus, for inftance, if we be
acquainted with the aftion of the mufcles in general,
it will not be difficult to determine the ufe of any par¬
ticular mufcle whofe origin and infertion is known,
if we at the"fame time conlider the various connec¬
tions of the bones to which it is fixed, and the differ¬
ent degree of mobility they have with refpeft to
each other. In the fame manner, if we know the ufe
•of the nerves in general, we can eafily alfign the ufe
■of thofe nerves which are diftributed to any particular
part. There is then no occafion for a complete ofteo-
logy, ‘myology. See. of the feveral animals we (hall treat
•of, nor need we trouble ourfelves about the ftrudlure of
-any of the parts,'vmlefs when it ferves to illiiftrate fome
. •of the fore-mentioned purpofes.
That the firft ufe we propofed from examining the
ftrudlure of "he parts in brutes is real and of confe-'
"quence, js evident from looking into the works of
fome of the eavlieft and greateft mailers of anatomy,
who for want of human fubjefts have often borrowed
their,deferiptions from other animals. The great Ve-
falrus, although he juftly reproves Galen for this fault,
is guilty of the fame himfelf, 'as is plain from his deli¬
neations of the kidneys, uterus, the mufcles of the eve,
Vol. V. Fart I. ‘
and fome other pails. Nor is antiquity only to be
charged with this, fince in Willis’s Jnatomia Cerebri (the
plates of which were revifed by that accurate anatomift
Dr Lower) there are feveral of the pidlures taken from
different brutes, efpecially the dog, befides thofe he
owns to be fuch. We (hall give feveral examples of the
fecond ufe in the fequel of the work.
The animal kingdom, as well as the vegetable, con- The varic-
tains the mod furpriiing'variety, and the defeent in ty and uni.
each is fo gradual, that the little tranlitions and devia-j™f °h*
tions are almoll imperceptible. The bat and flying-“*
fquirrei, though quadrupeds, have wings to buoy them-
fdves up in the air. Some birds inhabit the waters;
and there are fifties that have wings, and are not
ftrangers to the airy regions : the amphibious animals
blend the terreftrial and aquatic together.
As there is then fuch a valt variety, it is not only
needlefs, but impolfible, to confider all of them particu¬
larly. We (hall take only fome of the moil'remark¬
able genera; and hope, from what' will be faid of
them, any of the intermediate degrees may be under-
Hood.
In treating of quadrupeds, we (hall divide them into Dlvlfion of
the carnivorous, i. e. thofe that feed indifferently on aniinah in¬
animal and vegetable fubitances, and granivorous : as1 ’ q''«dri’-
an inftance of thefe laft we lhall take the ruminant P;dsO’2la*
kind. The fowls we (hall alfo divide into thofe that an^infcdi!
feed on grain, and thofie that feed on fleffi. The
diftindtion we lhall make in treating of fifties, (hall be
of thole that have lungs, and thofe that have them
not. The firft indeed are with difficulty procured,
and at the fame thne differ very little from quadrupeds.
The llrudlure of infedls and worms is fo vciy minute,
that little affillance for the ends propofed by the pre-
ient (object has been expected from their anatomical
invelligation. As they conftitute, however, one of the
great claffes into which animals are divided, and as every
advance in knowledge, with refptcl to the ftru&ure of
any one animal, mutt either directly or indireftly call
fome light on the ftru&ure of fome part of every other,
we have thought proper to add a few particulars con¬
cerning them.
In inquiring into the ftrflaure of different animals,
we ought to be previoufly acquainted with the form
of their body, manner of life, kind of food; or, in
ftiort, with their natural hiftory; which will lead us
to account for the reafon of their different ftru&ure,
and hence explain the actions of the human body.
Of all thofe particulars a detail will be found under the
titles of the different fubjt&s in their alphabetical order.
I i ■■‘G hai’.^h^
250
Of Qua¬
drupeds* Chap. I. Anatomy of Quadrupeds.
Sect. I. General Olfervattons.
Whether A question has been ftarted by fome fanciful phi-
nian is na- l0f0p}iers> « Whether man is naturally a biped or a
biped or a quadruped?” and much ingenuity has been employed
quadruped., to eftablifh the latter opinion. But it is prefumed
that few of their readers have been made converts to
fuch an opinion, and that not many of ours will require
much argument to perfuade them of their ereft defti-
nation. It may therefore fuffice to obferve, that this
ereft pofition is bell adapted to the conformation of
the human head, and the ponderous quantity of hu¬
man brains:—that the articulation of the os occipitis
with the firft vertebra of the neck, is differently con-
ftrufted from that of quadrupeds, with the obvious
defign that man fhould be able to move his head in
every dire£tion with the greateft facility:—that the
human fpecies (and alfo monkies) are deftitute of that
llrong ligament or tendinous aponeurolis, vulgarly
calledwhich quadrupeds poffefs (as a kind of
flay-tape), to prevent the head from linking to the
earth ; to which, from its natural pofition, it mull be
very prone :—and that our eyes and ears are, fortunate¬
ly, not placed as thofe of the quadrupeds. The axis of
the human eye is nearly perpendicular with a vertical
fedlion of the head ; whereas, in the brute creation
(the larger ape excepted), the pofition of the eyes
forms an acute angle : — nature has alfo furnilhed other
animals with afufpenforium oculit a mufcle which the ere£i
attitude renders needlefs, though highly neceffary in
the prone; confequently, whoever tries the experi¬
ment will find that, in the inclined dire&ion, both his
eyes and his ears are in the moll unfavourable fituation
poffible for quick hearing or extenfive vifion. In fine,
the lhape, breadth, ftrength of the vertebra of the
back and loins, are all coincident with the eredl atti¬
tude of the trunk.
All quadrupeds have a covering of hair, wool, &c.
to defend them from the injuries of the weather, which
varies in thicknefs according to the feafon of the year
and difference of the climate : thus in Ruflia and the
northern countries, the furs are very thick and warm,
while the little Spanilh lap-dogs, and Barbary cows,
have little or no hair at all.
Cuticula' The cutis and cuticula in quadrupeds are difpofed
cutis^pan- much in the fame way as the human, only'more elaf-
niculus car-tic ; immediately under this, there is a very thin cu-
nofus. taneous mufcular fubftance called panniculus carnqfus,
which is common to all quadrupeds, the porcine kind
excepted ; this principally covers the trunk, ferving
to Ihrivel the Ikin, in order to drive off infefts, their
tails and- heads not being fuffxcient for this purpofe,
while their extremities are employed in their fupport
. and progreflion.
Whence I*1 has probably been from obferving fome mufcles
jhe notion of the human body, fuch as the platyfma myoides, cre-
of the pan- mafter, and frontales, and the coliapfed tunica cellulofa
nolus115^^" °f emac‘ate^ fubjefts, to refemble this thin mufcle, that
no us, c. Gf the 0lder anatomifts reckoned fuch a pannicu¬
lus among the common teguments of the human body.
8 This Carolus Stephanus has well obferved.
^uadru^d Moft part of quadrupeds want clavicles, whereby
want cla- * their anterior extremities fall upon their theft, fo as
viiles.
Chap. L
to make their thorax proportionally narrower than the Of Qua-
human. This fmall diilance of their anterior extre- druPed3,,
mities is very neceffary for their uniform progreflion : ' " "v J
apes indeed and fquirrels have clavicles to allow them
a more full ufe of their extremities in climbing; but
when they walk on all-fours, they move but indif¬
ferently.
Sect. II. Of the Orang Outang.
While fome philofophers, as above noticed, have
endeavoured to level man to the rank of quadrupeds,
others have attempted to elevate certain of the brute
creation to the fame clafs with their reputed lords.
The orang outang is ranged by Linnaeus as congenerous
with man, (See Homo); and fome theorifts have even
confidered him as the original ftock of the human race,
pretending that he has been the man of the woods for
many ages before gardens were ever thought of. His
claims to humanity are founded on his being able to
walk upright occafionally, being furnifhed with a com¬
petent fliare of mufcles requifite for the purpofe.. The.
form of his heart, lungs, breaft, brains, inteftines* are
fimilar to thofe of men ; the ccecum has alfo,its appendix
vermformis : he can fit upright with great eafe ; .fhows
more defign in his plans than; his aflbciates in the fo-
refts; and can handle a flick on occafion with tolerable-
dexterity. His difqualifications are the following:
The pofition of the foramen magnum occipitis, which is
farther backward than in the human fpecies, and the
fockets of his lower jaw, made to receive the dentes in-
clfores of the upper, indicate his relationflrip to the
monkey breed. He has alfo thirteen ribs on each fide ;
his arms, feet, and toes, are much longer than thofe of
the human fpecies, &c. and although his foot does
not fo clofely refemble a hand as that of the ape, yet
the pollex pedis, or the great toe, is placed at a. greater
diftance from the other toes,, which gives it the ap¬
pearance and ufes of a thumb. Thefe differences indi¬
cate, that, although the ouran can occafionally a£t the
biped, yet he is much better qualified to walk on his-
fore-feet, and to climb trees, than the generality of
the modern race of men. But an objeftion to his
claims, ftill weightier than any of the differences ftated
above, arifes from his want offpeech. For there is no
nation of men, however favage, that is deftitute of
fpeech; though individuals, fecluded from fociety,
may in time lofe the faculty. No inftances are known
in which a company of ten or twelve men have been
without a language; but upwards of thirty of the
orang fpecies have been found in a herd, without
fhowing the fmalleft traces of this faculty. It has
been fuggefted by Rouffeau, that they may have loft
the power from their negledl of ufing it; but it
is very fingular that they alone flrould lofe this power,
and not that race of men to whom they are fnppofed
to be fo nearly related. This point, however, has been
completely decided by the difcoveries of profeffor
Camper; who in a paper in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tionsf has demon ftrated, by an anatomical diffe&ion of^. Vol.lxix*
the organ of the voice, that articulation is rendered Part i.
impofiible in thefe animals in confequence of the ftruc-art' I4»
ture of that organ. From the nature and fituation of
thofe parts in the orang (as well as in the ape and in
the monkey) he has proved, that no modulation of the
voice refembling human fpeech can he produced in
thefe.creaUiresj becaufe the air, palling through the
rum.
COMPARATIVE Anatomy.
Chap. 1. COMPARAT
Of Qua- rima glottidis, is immediately loft in two ventricles or
, drupede. follow bags in the neck (which are fometimes united
‘i,.- y—— 0ne), with which all thefe animals are furniftied,
and which have a communication with the mouth
through the faid rima or flit; fo that the air mull re¬
turn from thence, without any force or melody, with¬
in the throat and mouth of thefe creatures.
Sect. III. The Anatomy of a Dog.
We may firft obferve of this animal, as indeed of moft
quadrupeds, that its legs are much Ihorter in propor¬
tion to its trunk than in man, the length of whofe fteps
depends entirely on the length of his inferior extremi¬
ties ; however, to balance this, the trunk of the animal is
proportionally longer and fmaller, his fpine more flex¬
ible, by which he is able at each Hep to bring his po-
fterior extremities nearer to his anterior. His com¬
mon teguments are much a-kin to thofe of other qua¬
drupeds, only they allow little or no paffage for
fweat; but when he is over-heated, the fuperfluous
matter finds an exit by the falivary glands, for he
lolls out his tongue and flavers plentifully. We are
not, however, to fuppofe, that becaufe a dog does not
fweat, he has no infenfible perfpiration. That a dog
perfpires is evident, becaufe one of thefe animals can
trace ' another by the fcent of his footfteps; which
could not happen if a large quantity of perfpirable
matter was not conftantly going off.
Abdomen, The pyramidal m.ufcles are wanting, to fupply which
wuifculi py- the redtus is inferted flefhy into the os pubis,
ram. rPbe omentum reaches down to the os pubis, which
Omentum con^(^er'rlg the pofture of the animal we will find to
be a wife provifion, fince its ufe is to feparate an oily
liquor for lubricating the guts and facilitating their
periftaltic motion ; fo in our eredl pofture the natural
gravity of the oil will determine it downward, but in
the horizontal pofition of thefe creatures, if all the in-
teftines were not covered, there would be no favour¬
able derivation of the fluid to the guts lying in the po-
fterior part of the abdomen, which is the higheft ; and
befides, had the omentum reached much farther down
in us, it would not only have fupplied too great a quan¬
tity of oil to the lower part of the abdomen, but we
would have been in continual danger of hernise ; and
even at prefent the omentum frequently paffes down
with fome of the other vifcera, and forms part of
thefe tumors. To thefe, however, the dog is not
fubjedt, as his vifcera do not prefs fo much on the rings
of the abdominal mufcles, and befides are prevented
from palling through by a pendulous flap of fat, men¬
tioned n° 35. The inferior and anterior lamella of
the omentum is f/xed to the fpleen, fundus of the fto-
mach, pylorus, liver, &c. in the fame way as the hu¬
man ; but the fuperior having no colon to pafs over,
goes diredlly to the back-bone. This ferves to ex¬
plain the formation of the fmall omentum in the hu¬
man body ; which is nothing but the large omentum,
having loft its fat, palling over the ftomach and colon,
where it reaffumes its pinguedo, fo proceeds, and is
firmly attached to the liver, fpine, &c. The ftrise of
fat are pretty regularly difpofed through it, accompa¬
nying the diftribution of the blood-veffels to guard
them from the preffure of the fuperincumbent vifcera.
This animal’s ftomach, though pretty much refem-
IVE Anatomy. 251
bling the human in its fhape, is fomewhat differently Of Qua-
fituated. It lies more longitudinal, as indeed all the drupeJs. ^
other vifcera do, to accommodate themfelves to the
lhape of the cavity in which they are contained ; that ventr;cl2.
is, its inferior orifice is much farther down with refpe&ius.
to the fuperior than the human : by this means the
grofs food has an eafier paffage into the duodenum.
Again, the fundus of the human ftomach, when dif-
tended, Hands almo.ft dire&ly forwards, which is oc-
cafioned by the little omentum tying it fo clofe down
to the back-bone, &c. at its two orifices; but it not
being fixed in that manner in the dog, the fundus re¬
mains always pofterior : this alfo anfwers very well the
lhape of the different cavities, the diftance betwixt the
cardia and fundus being greater than that betwixt the
two fides. It feems to be much larger in proportion
to the bulk of the animal than the human, that it
might contain a greater quantity of food at once ;
which was very neceffary, fince this animal cannot at
any time get its fuftenance as men do. The turbillion
is not fo large, nor is there any coar&ion forming the
antrum Willejii, as in the ftomach of man. It is conli-
derably thicker and more mufcular than ours, for
breaking the cohefion of their food, which they fwat-
low without fufficient chewing. Hence it is evident
the force of the'ftomach is not fo great as fome would
have it, nor its contradlion fo violent: otherwife that
of dogs would be undoubtedly wounded by the lharp
bones, &c. they always take down ; for the contrac¬
tion here is ftill greater than in the human ftomach,
which is much thinner. The rugas of the tunica vil-
lofa are neither fo large, nor fituated tranfverfely, as
in the human, but go from one orifice to the other:
the reafon of which difference is, perhaps, that they
might be in lefs danger of being hurt by the hard fub-
llances this creature frequently feeds upon ; and for
the fame reafon there is not the like coardlion at their
pyiorus. 12
The inteftinesof this animal are proportionally much Inteftines..
Ihorter than ours 5 for the food which thefe creatures
moftly ufe, foon diffolves, and then putrifies; on
which account there was no occafion for a long tradl of
inteftines, but on the contrary that it Ihould be quick¬
ly thrown out of the body. The fame is to be obfer-
ved of all the carnivorous animals. The mufcular coat
of the inteftines is alfo thicker and ftronger than the
human, to protrude the contents quickly and accu¬
rately.
The valvulae conniventes are Jefs numerous, and in
a longitudinal diredtion ; and the whole tradl of the
alimentary canal is covered with a flime, which lubri¬
cates the inteftines, faves them from the acrimony of
the excrementitious part, and facilitates its paffage.
The duodenum differs confiderably in its fituation Duodenum^
from the human. For in man it firft mounts from the
pylorus upwards, backwards, and to the right-fide ;
then paffes down by the gall-bladder ; and, marching
over the right kidney and fuperior part of the pfoas
mufcles, makes a curvature upwards; and paffes over
the back-bone and vena cava inferior, to the left hypo-
chondrium, where it gets through the omentum, me-
fentery, and mefocolon, to commence the jejunum, being
firmly tied down all the way, the biliary and pancreatic
dudts entering at its moft depending part: Whereas,
in the dog, the duodenum is fixed at the pylorus to the
I i 2 concave
C O M P A R A T
concavs fuiface of the liver, and hangs loofe and pen¬
dulous with the mefentery backwards into the cavity
of the abdomen ; then turning up again, is fixed to the
Jejunum, back bone, where it ends in the jejunum; the bile and
pancreatic juice are poured intro it at’the moft depend¬
ing part. Therefore the fame intention feems to have
been had in view in the formation of this part in both,
viz. the giving the chyle, after the liquors of the liver
and pancreas are poured into it, a dil'advantageous
courfe, that fo it might be the more intimately blended
with the humours before its entry into the jejunum,
where the lafteals are very numerous : And thus, by
reafon cf their different pofture, the fame ddign (tho’
by a very different order of the parts) is. brought about
I? in both.
Inteftina The other fmall guts are much the fame with ours,
temiia. onjy fhorter. The great guts are alfo fhorter and lefs
capacious than in the human body; and we take it for
a general rule, that all animals that live on vegetjible
food, have not only their fmall guts confiderably long¬
er, but alfo their great guts more capacious, than fuch
creatures as feed on other animals. Hence man, from
this form of his inteftines, and that cf the teeth, feems.
to have been originally defigned for feeding on vege¬
tables chiefly ; and ftill the moil: of his food, and ail
his drink, is cf that clafs.
The reafon of this difference feems to be, that as
ainVtl food is not only much more eafily reduced in¬
to cuyle, but alfo more prone to putrefaftion, too long
a remora of the juices ihight occafion the worft conft-
quences. So it jvas neceffary that their receptacles
fliould not be too capacious ; but on the contrary, be¬
ing fhort and narrow, might conduce to the feafonable
difehafge of their contents. Whereas vegetable food-
being more difficultly diffolved and converted intq an
animal nature, there was a neceffity for fuch creatures
as fed on it to be provided with a long ioteftinal canal,
that this food in its paffage might be confiderably re¬
tarded, and have time to chdnge its indoles-into one
more agreeable to our nature. Befides which there is
another advantage which accrues to man in particular,
from having his great guts very capacious: for as he
is a rational being, and moftly employed in the func¬
tions of focial life, it would have been very inconve¬
nient as well as unbecoming for him to be too fre¬
quently employed in fuch ignoble exercifes; fo that,
having this large refervoir for his fasces alvinas, he
can retain them for a confiderable time without any
trouble.
Appendix The appendix vermiformis juftly enough deferves the
vermifor- name of an intejlirmm cacum in this fubjeff, though in
#ii». the human body it docs not; and it has probably been
from the largenefs of this part in this and fome other
animals, that the oldell anatomifts came to reckon that
fmall appendicle in man as one of the great guts. On
its internal furface we obferve a great number of mu¬
cous glands. As all thefe throw out flime, their prin¬
cipal office would feem to be the procuring a fufficient
quantity of that matter for the purpofes above men¬
tioned. Still, however, there feems to be fome un¬
known ufe for this organ in other animals ; for the ap-
pendicula vermiformis in them is either of great fize
or of great length. In a rat, it is rather larger than
the ftomach ; in others,- as fwine, and fomc of the ani-
I V E Anatomy. Chap. I;
male which live on vegetables, it has long convolutions. Of Qua.
fo that the food mull be lodged in it for a long time. dfUMs.
Thus, probably, fome change takes place in the food, }
which requires a confiderable time to efft&uate, and,
though unknown to us, may anfwer very ufeful pur¬
pofes to the animal.
The colon has no longitudinal ligaments ; and confe- Colon*
quently this gut is not purfed up into different bags
or cells as the human : nor does this inteiline make
any circular turn round the abdomen ; but pafies di-
rebtly acrofs it to the top of the os facrum, where it
gets the name of reSvm. 1 s
At the extremity of the mtejlinum reffxm, or verge Redtum^
of the anus, there are found two bags or pouches,
which contain a moll abominable fetid mucus of a yel¬
low colour, for which we know no ufe, unlefs it ferves
to lubricate the ftrained extremity of the redum, and
defend it againft the afperity of the fasces, or to fepa-
rate fome liquor that might otherwife prove hurtful to
their bodies. There is nothing- analogous to thofe
facs in the human fubjerd, unlefs we reckon the muci¬
laginous glands that are found mofl frequent and lar-
geft about the lower part of the redum.
Tine, mfentiry is confiderably longer than in the hu- Mefemery.
man body ; thdt, in his horizontal fituation, the inte-
fiines may reft fecurely on the foft cufhion of the ab¬
dominal mufcles. The fat is here difpofed in the fame
way, and for the fame reafon, as in thi omentum.
The interftices betwixt the fat are filled with a fine
membrane. Inftead of a great number of glandulas 20
vagas to be found in the human mefentery, we findfancrcaia-
the glands few in number, and thofe are clofely con-
neded together ; or there is only one large gland to
be obferved in the middle of the mefentery of a dog,
which, from its imagined refemblance to the pancreas
and the name of its difeoverers, is called pancreas jifel-
lii; but the refemblance, if-there is any, depends
chiefly on the connedion, the ftrudure being entire¬
ly different. The reafon why this in man is as it were
fubdivided into many fmaller ones, may poffibly be,
that as the guts of a human body are proportionally
much longer than thofe’of this creature, it would have ,
been inconvenient to have gathered all the ladea primi
generis into one place; whereas, by colleding a few
of thefe veffeis into a neighbouring gland, the fame
effed is procured much more eafily. Whether the
food in this animal needs lefs preparation in its paf¬
fage through thefe glands, is a matter very much-un¬
known to us ; though it is certain that fome changes
really do take place.
The pancreas in man lies acrofs the abdomen, tied Pancreas,
down by the peritonseum ; but the capacity of this
creature’s abdomen not allowing of that fituation, it is
difpofed more longitudinally^ being tied to the duode¬
num, which it accompanies for fome way. Its dud
enters the duodenum about an inch and a half below
the dudus communis. 21
The fpleen of this animal differs from ours very much, Spleen,
both in figure and fituation. It is much more oblong
and thin, and lies more according to the length of the
•abdomen, like the pancreas. Though the fpleen of
this creature is not firmly tied to the diaphragm (which
was neceffary in our ered pofture to hinder it from
falling downwards), yet by the animal’s prone pofi-
tion.
Chap. I. C O M P A R A T
Of Qua- tion, its poikrior parts being rather higher than the
drujieds. interior, it comes to be always contiguous to this
mufcle, and is as effe&ually fubjedted to an alternate
prepare from its aftion as the Imman fpleen is.»
I-iver. The human Bluer has no fiffures or divifions, unlefs
you pleafe to reckon that fmall one betwixt the two
pyLe, where the large veffels enter: Whereas in a dog,
and all other creatures that have a large’flexion in their
fpine, as lions, leopards, cats, See. the liver and lungs
are divided into a great'many lobes by deep fedtions*
reaching the large bio d-veffels, which in great motions
of the back-bone may eaflly fliuffle over one another;
and'fo are in much lefs danger of being torn or brui-
fed, than if they were formed of one entire piece, as
we really fee'it is in horfes, cows-, and fuch creatures
as have their back-bone ftiff and immoveable. There
is here no Bgamentum latum connefting the liver to the
diaphragm, which in our lituation was neceflary to
keep the vifeus in its place : Whereas in this creature,
it naturally gravitates forwards, and by the horizon¬
tal pofition of the animal is in no danger of prefiing
againfl the vena cava ; the preventing of which is one
ufe generally afflgned to this ligament in man. Had
the liver of the dog been thus connedted to the dia¬
phragm, the refpiration muft nectflarily have fuffer-
ed; for, as 'we {hall fee afterwards, this mufcle is
here moveable at the ’ centre as well as at the fides :
But in man the liver is fixed to the diaphragm, mofi-
ly at its tendinous part ; that is, where the pericar¬
dium is fixed to it on the other fide ; fo that it is in
no danger of impeding the refpiration, being fufpend¬
ed by th£ mediaftinum and bones of the thorax. In
confequence of this vifeus being divided into fo many
lobes, it follows, that the hepatic dudls cannot pof-
fibly join into one common trunk till they are quite
out of the fubilance of the liver ; becaufe a branch
comes out from every lobe of the liver; all of which,
by their union, form the hepatic dudt: whence we
are led to conclude, that the hepato-cyftic dudls, men¬
tioned by former authors, do not exift. The gall¬
bladder itfelf is wanting in feveral animals, fuch as the
deer, the horfe, the afs, &c.; but in place of it, in
fuch animals, the hepatic dudt, at .its beginning, is
widened into a refervoir of confiderable fize, which
may anfwer the fame purpofe in them that the gall¬
bladder does in others.
We come next, after having examined the chylo-
poietic vifeera, to difeourfe of thofe organs that ferve
for the fecretion and excretion of urine. And fir It of
Kidwys t^le kidneys : Which in this animal are fituated much
1 ' in the fame way as.in the human fubjedt; but have no
fat on their inferior furfaee, where they face the abdor
men, and are of a more globular form than the hu¬
man. The reafon of thefe differences will eafily ap¬
pear, if you compare their fituation and pofture in this
animal with thofe in a man who walks eredt. They
are placed in this fubject in the inferior part of the
body, fo are not fubjedt to the preflure of the vifeera,
which feems to be the principal caufe of the fatnefs, of
thofe organs in us, and perhaps may likewife be the,
caufe of our being more fubjedt to the ftone than o-
ther animals. Hence there is no need of any cellular
fubftance to ward off this preffure where there would
neceffarily be fat colledted ; but the fuperior part of
their kindneys is pretty well covered with fat, left they
IVE Anatomy. 253
fhould fuffer any compreflion from the adtion of the Of On*-
ribs and fpine. tlmpeds.^
In the internal ftrudture there is ftill a more confi-
derable difference : For the papilla do not here fend papi;ix.
out Tingle the feveral tululi urinferi; but being all u-
nited, they hang down in form of a loofe pendulous
flap in the middle of the pelvis, and form a kind of
feptum medium ; fo that a dog has a pelvis formed ^
within the fubftance of the kidney. The only thing * Pelvis,
that is properly analogous to a pelvis in man is that
fac or dilatation of the ureters formed at the union of
the duttus uriniferi. The external part of the kidney
of a dog fomewhat refembles one of the lobes of the
kidney of a human foetus: but in a human adult the
appearance is very different; becaufe, in man, from
the continual preflure of the furrounding vifeera, the
lobes, which in the fpetus are quite diftindt and fepa-
rated, concrete, but the original cortical fubftance is
ftill preferved in the internal parts of the kidney. The
reafon of thefe particularities may probably be, that
the liquors of this animal, as of all thofe of the car¬
nivorous kind, being much more acrid than thofe that
live on vegetable fo*d, its urine muft incline much to
an alkalcfcency, as indeed the fmell and tafte of that
liquor in dogs, cats, leopards, &c. evidently ftiow, be¬
ing fetid and pungent, and therefore not convenient
to be long retained in the body. For this end it was
proper that the feceming organs fhould have as lit¬
tle impediment as pofiible by preflure, &c. in the per¬
forming their fundlions.; and for that defign, the me-
chanifm of their kidneys feems to be excellently a-
dapted: We have moft elegant pi&ures in Euftachius
of the kidneys of brutes, delineated as fuch, with a
view to {how Vefalius’s error in-painting and deferibing
them for the human.
The glandule or capfula ctrabilar'us are thicker and Capful* 3*
rounder than the human, for the fame reafon as the trabilarue.
kidneys.
The ureters are more mufcular than the human, be- urgters
caufe of the unfavourable paflage the urine has through
them; they enter the bladder near its fundus.
The bladder of urine differs confiderably from the Vefica uri—
human ; and firft in its form, which is pretty much naria.
pyramidal or pyriform. This fhape of the dog’s blad¬
der is likewife common to all quadrupeds, except the
ape and thofe of an eredf posture. In man it is by no
means pyriform, but has a large fac at its posterior and
inferior part: this form depends entirely on the urine
gravitating in our eredf pofture to its bottom, which
it will endeavour to protrude; but as it cannot yield
before, being contiguous to the os pubis, it will na¬
turally ftretch out where there is the leaft refiftance,
that is, at the pofterior and lateral parts; and were it
not for this fac, we could not fo readily come at the
bladder to extradf the ftone either by the leffer or la¬
teral operation of lithotomy. Moft anatomifts have
delineated this wrong : fo much, that I know of none
who have juftly painted it, excepting Mr Cowper in
his Myotomia, and Mr Butty. It has certainly been,
from obferving it in‘brutes and young children, that
they have been led into this miftake. The fiune cauib,
the gravity of the urine, makes the bladder of
a different form in brutes: In their horizontal poli-
tion the cervix, from which the urethra is continued,
is higher than its fundus; the urine muft therefore.
dif-
4254 C O M P A R A T
diftend and dilate the moil depending part by its
weight.
As to its conncfticn, it is faftened to the abdominal
mufcles by a procefs of the peritoneum, and that mem¬
brane is extended quite over it; whereas in us its fu-
perior and poilerior parts are only covered by it: hence
in man alone the high operation of lithotomy can be
performed without hazard of ^ifening the cavity of the
abdomen. ' Had the peritoneum been fpread over the
bladder in its whole extent, the weight of the vifcera
in our eredt pofture would have fo bore upon it, that
they would not have allowed any confiderable quantity
of urine to be collefted there ; but we mull have been
obliged to difcharge its contents too frequently to be
conliftent with the fundtions of a focial life : Whereas
by means of the peritoneum, the urine is now colledt-
ed in fufficient quantity, the vifcera not gravitating
this way.
It may be taken for a general rule, that tliofe crea¬
tures that feed upon animal-food have their bladder
more mufcular and confiderably ftronger, and lefs ca¬
pacious, than thofe that live on vegetables, fuch as
horfes, cows, fwirie, &c. whofe bladder of urine is per-
fedtly membranous, and very large. This is wifely
adapted to the nature of their food: For in thefe firft,
as all their juices are more acrid, fo in a particular
manner their urine becomes exalted ; which, as its re¬
mora might be of very ill confequenc’e, mtift neceffari-
ly be quickly expelled. This is chiefly effedted by its
ftimulating this vifcus more ftrongly to contradl, and
fo to difcharge its contents, though the irritation does
not altogether depend upon the ftretching, but likewife
arifes from the quality of the liquor. That a ftimulus
is one of the principal caufes of the excretion of urine,
we learn from the common faline diuretic medicines
that are given, which are difiblved into the ferum of
the blood, and carried down by the kidneys to the
the.bladder, bladder: The fame appears likewife from the appli¬
cation of cantharides ; or without any of thefe, when
the parts are made more fenfible, as in an excoriation
of the bladder, there is a frequent defire to'make war
ter. Accordingly we find thefe animals evacuate their
urine much more frequently than man, or any other
•creature that lives on vegetable food. And if thefe
■creatures, whofe fluids have already a tendency to pu-
trefaftion, are expofed to heat or hunger, the liquids
mull for a confiderable time undergo the a&ions of
■Caufes af t^le containing veffels, and frequently perform the
figned* for courfe of the circulation, without any new fupplies
the rabies of food; by which the fluids becoming more and more
■tanina, acrjc}} the creature is apt to fall into feverilh and pu¬
trid difeafes: And in fa£t, we find that fatal and me¬
lancholy diltemper the rabies canina, vulpina, &c. fre¬
quent in thefe animals; whereas thofe that feed on ve¬
getable food feldom or never contradl thofe dileafes
but by infedlion.
That the caufes commonly affigned for the rabies
canina are infufficient to produce it in dogs and other
animals of that kind, is denied in a dilfertation on this
•difeafe by Dr Heyfliam. That heat is infufficient, he
proves from the difeafe being totally unknown in South
America, where the heat is much greater than in this
country. Putrid aliment he alfo fays is taken in great
quantity by dogs without any inconvenience ; and as
dt feems in this Hate to be moft agreeable to them,
I V E Anatomy.' Chap. I.
the rabies canina cannot wkh any probability be afcri- Of Qua-
bed to it. As to want of water, he obferves that the drupeds.
difeafe often originates among dogs that are plenti- ' J
fully fupplied with that element, while others long de¬
prived of it have remained perfedtly free. In Ihort,
Dr Heylham totally denies, not only the efficacy of
the caufes commonly affigned for the rabies canina,
but the nature of the dittemper itfelf; and conjedtures
that the caufe of it is not a putrefccncy but an acidity of
the fluids. ^
Their fpermatic veffels are within the peritoneum, Vafa fper-
which is fpread over them, and from which they have
a membrane like a mefentery, fo hang loofe and pen¬
dulous in the abdomen : whereas, in us, they are con¬
tained in the cellular part of the peritoneum, which is
tenfely ftretched over them. At their paflage out of *
the lower belly, there appears a plain perforation, or t!le jpe
holes; hence the adult quadruped, in this refpedt, re- notion of
fembles the human fcetus. And from obferving this hernia or
in quadrupeds, has arifen the falfe notion of hernia or ruPture‘
rupture among authors. This opening, which leads
down to the tellicle, is of no difadvantage to them,
but evidently would have been to us ; for from the
weight of our vifcera, and our continually gravita¬
ting upon thefe holes, we mull have perpetually labour¬
ed under enteroceles. This they are in no hazard of,
fince in them this paflage is at the highell part of their
belly, and, in their horizontal pofture, the vifcera can¬
not bear upon it: And, to prevent even the fmalleft
hazard, there is a loofe pendulous femilunar flap of fat;
which ferves two ufes, as it both hinders the inteftines
from getting into the paflage, and alfo the courfe of
the fluids from being Hopped in the veflels, which is
fecured in us by the cellular fubllance and tenfe peri¬
toneum : And it may be worth while to obferve, that
this procefs remains almoft unaltered, even after the
animal has been almoft exhaufted of fat.
There is next a paflage quite down into the cavity
where the tefticles lie. Had the fame ftrudlure ob¬
tained in man, by the conftant drilling down of the li¬
quor which is fecerned for the lubricating of the guts,
we Ihould always have laboured under an hydrocele;
but their pofture fecures them from any hazard of this
kind: indeed your very fat lap-dogs, who confequent-
ly have an overgrown omentum, are fometimes trou¬
bled with an epiplocele. jg
The fcrotum is fhorter and not fo pendulous as the Scrotum,
human in all the dog kind that want the veficula femi-
nales, that the feed at each copulation might the foon-
er be brought from the teftes, thus in fome meafure
fupplying the place of the vejiculce feminales ; for the
courfe of the feed through the vafa deferentia is thus cu]x femi-
ftrortened, by placing the fecerning veflels nearer the nates, how J
excretory organs. Perhaps its paflage is likewife fuPPlied'l
quickened by the mufcular power of the vafa deferen¬
tia, which is llronger in this creature than in man.
The want of veficula feminales at the fame time ex¬
plains the reafon why this creature is fo tedious in co¬
pulation. But why thefe bodies are abfent in the dog
kind more than in other animals, is a circumftance we
know nothing of. _ g
The ftrufture of the tejlicles is much the fame with q-efog,
the human ; as are likewife the corpus pyramidale, va-
ricofum, or pampiniforme, and the epididymis or excre¬
tory veffel of the tefticle. The vafa deferentia enter
the
Why. the
human,
bladder but
in part co¬
vered by
the perito-
31
A. ftimulus
proved to
be a prin¬
cipal caufe
of the eva¬
cuation of
Chap. I.
Of Qua- the abdomen where the blood-veffels come out j and,
, drupcds. pafling along the upper part of the bladder, are infert-
r_v" ed a little below the bulbous part of the urethra.
The prasputium has two mufcles fixed to it: one
that arifes from the fphin&er ani, and is inferted all
Penis, along the penis ; and this is called retractor praputii :
But the other, whofe office is dire&ly contrary to this,
is cutaneous; and feems to take its origin from the
mufcles of the abdomen, or rather to be a produ&ion
of their tunica carnofa. The corpora cavernofa rife
much in the fame way as the human : but thefe foon
terminate; and the reitisfupplied by a triangular bone,
in the inferior part of which there is a groove excava¬
ted for lodging the urethra. There are upon the penis
two protuberant bulbous flelhy fubftances, refembling
the glans penis in man, at the back of which are two
veins, which by the ereftores penis and other parts are
compreffed in the time of coition ; and the circulation
being flopped, the blood diftends the large cavernous
C<ntus. bodies. After the penis is thus fwelled, the vagina
by its contraftion and fwelling of its corpus caverno-
fum, which is confiderably greater than in other ani¬
mals, gripes it clofely ; and fo the male is kept in ac¬
tion fome time contrary to his will, till time be given
for bringing a quantity of feed fufficient to impregnate
the female : and thus, by that orgafmus veneris of the
female organs, the want of the veficula feminales are in
fome meafure fupplied. But as it would be a very
uneafy pofture for the dog to fupport himfelf folely up¬
on his hinder feet, and for the bitch to fupport the
weight of the dog for fo long a time; therefore, as foon
as the bulbous bodies are fufficiently filled, he gets off
and turns averfe to her. Had, then, the penis been pli¬
able as in other animals, the urethra mull of neceifity
have been comprefled by this twilling, and aonfequent-
ly the courfe of the feed intercepted; but this is wife¬
ly provided againft by the urethra’s being formed in
the hollow of the bone. After the emilfion of the
feed, the parts turn flaccid, the circulation is reftored,
and the bulbous parts can be eafily extracted.
Froftata. The projlata feems here divided into two, which are
proportionably larger than the human, and afford a
greater quantity of that liquid.
Uterus The uterus of multiparous animals is little elfe but a
continuation of their vagina, only feparated from it by
a fmall ring or valve. From the uterus two long canals
mount upon the loins, in which the foetus are lodged:
thefe are divided into different facs, which are ftrongly
conftridted betwixt each foetus; yet thefecoarclions give
way in the time of birth. From thefe go out the tuba
Faliopiana, fo that the ovaria come to lodge pretty
near the kidneys.
We ought next to examine the ftrudlure of the tho¬
rax and its contents. But firft it may not be amifs to
43 remark of the diaphragm in its natural fituation, that
Diap ra8m it is in general more loofe and free than the' human ;
which is owing to its connexion with the neighbour¬
ing parts in a different manner from ours. The human
diaphragm is conne&ed to the pericardium; which
again, by the intervention of the mediaftinum, is tied
to the fternum, fpine, &c. but here there is fome di-
ftance between the diaphragm and pericardium. We
obferve further, that its middle part is much more
moveable, and the tendinous parts not fo large. And
indeed it was_neceffary their diaphragm fhould be fome-
^ 2S5
what loofe, they making more ufe of it in difficult re- Of Qua-
fpiration than man. This we may obferve by the ftrong arufit:ds- f
heaving of the flanks of an horfe or dog when out of
breath; which correfpohds to the riling of the ribs in us.
The difpofition and fituation of the mamma vary as Thorax,
they bear one or more young. Thofe of the uniparous 45
kind have them placed between the pofterior extremi- Mammae*-
ties, which m them is the higheft part of their bodies,
whereby their young get at them without the inconve¬
nience of kneeling: Neverthelefs, when the creatures are
of no great fi?e, and their breaft large, as in fheep, the
young ones are obliged to take this pofture. In multi¬
parous animals, they mull have a great number of nip¬
ples, that their feveral young ones may have room at
the fame time, and thefe dii'pofed over both thorax
and abdomen; and the creatures generally lie down when
the young are to be fuckled, that they may give them
the moft favourable fituation. From this it does not
appear to be from any particular fitnefs of the veffels
at certain places for giving a proper nourifhment to
the child, that the breafts are fo placed in women as -
we find them, but really from-that fituation being the
moil convenient both for mother and infant. ^
The Jlernum is very narrow, and confifts of a great Sternum.•
number of fmall bones, moveable every way ; which
always happens in creatures that.have a great mobility
in their fpine. The ribs are ftraighter, and by no
means fo convex as the human; whereby in refpira-
tion the motion forward will very little enlarge their
thorax, which is compenfated by the greater mobility
of their diaphragm : fo our thorax is principally enlar¬
ged according to its breadth and depth, and theirs
according to its length. The want of clavicles, and
the confequent falling in of the anterior extremities
upon the cheil, may contribute fomewhat to the ftraight-
nefs of the ribs. 4g
The mediaJUnum in this creature is pretty broad. Mediafli-
The pericardium is not here contiguous to the dia-num?
phragm, but there is an inch of diftance bet wixt them,
in which place the fmall lobe of the lungs lodges; and
by this means the liver, &c. of this animal, though
continually preffing upon the diaphragm, yet cannot
difturb the heart’s motion.
The heart is fituated with its point almoft diredlly
downwards, according to the creature’s poflure, and °r’
is but very little inclined to the left fide. Its point is
much lharper, and its fhape more conoidal, than the
human. Here the names of right and left ventricles
are proper enough, though not fo in the human; which
ought rather to be called anterior and pojlcrior, or fupe’
rior and inferior. The animal has. the vena cava of a Vena cava*
confiderable length within the thorax, having near the
whole length of the heart to run over ere it gets at the
Jinus Loaverianus dexter. In men, as foon as it pierces
the diaphragm, fo foon it enters the pericardium, which
is firmly attached to it, and immediately gets into the
fmus Loveerianus ; which finus, in the human fubject,
by the oblique fituation of the heart is almoft conti¬
guous to the diaphragm : and by this we difeover, that
feveral authors have taken their delineations of the hu¬
man heart from brutes; which is eafily detected by
the lhape and .fituation of the heart, and long vena ca¬
va, within the thorax. This was one of the faults of.
the curious wax-work that were fliown at London and .
Paris, which were plainly taken from a cow.
3. This
COMPARATIVE Anatomy.
256 C O M P A R A T
Of Qiin- This fituation of the heart of the creature agrees beft
^ druptds. wjt]:i t{le ihape 0f jts thorax, which is lower than the
abdomen.
Aorta af- 'I'he egrefs of the large blood-veffels from the heart
•cendens, ;s fomewhat different from the human : For here the
^ fubdavian comes off firll: and as a large trunk
* ’ runs fome way upwards before it gives off the left ca¬
rotid, and fplits into the carotid and fubclavian of the
right fide, then the- left fubclavian is font off. So that
neither here, properly fpeaking, is there an aorta afcen-
dens) more than in the human ; but this name has pro¬
bably been impofed upon it from obferying this in a
cow, where indeed there is an afcending and defcend-
ing aorta.
From this fpecialty of the diftribution of the veffels
of the right fide, which happens, though not in fo great
a degree, in the human fubjedl, we may perhaps in
fome meafure account for the general greater ftrength,
readinefs, or facility’ of motion, which is obfervable in
A mechani- the right arm. Upon meafuring the fides of the vef-
■cal account fels, the furface of the united trunk of the right fub-
of the fu- clav;an and carotid is lefs than that of the left fabcla-
Areiwth of v'an aiu‘ carotid, as they are feparated. If fo, the re-
the right fiflance to the blood muft be lefs in that common trunk
■arm, leg, than in the left fubclavian and carotid : But if the re-
^c' fiftance be fmaller, the abfolute force with which the
blood is fent from the heart being equal, there mull
neceffarily be a greater quantity of blood fent through
them in a given time ; and as the ftrength of the
mufcles is, cateris paribus, as the-quantity of blood fent
into them in a given time, thofe of the right arm will
be ftronger than thofe of the left. Now children, be¬
ing confcious of this fuperior ftrength, ufe the right
upon all occafions; and thus from ufe comes that great
difference which is fo obfervahle. That this is a fuffi-
cieht caufe, feems evident from fail; for what a dif¬
ference is there betwixt the right and the left arm of one
who has played much at tennis? View but the arms of
a blackfmith and legs of a footman, and you will foon
be convinced of this efftCl arifing from ufing them.
But if by any accident the right arm is kept from ac¬
tion for fome time, the other from being lift'd gets
the better; and ihofe people are left-handed: For it
is not to be imagined, that the fmall odds in the origi¬
nal formation of the veffels fhould be fufficient to refift
the effedl cf ufe and habit (inftances of the contrary
occur every day) ; it is enough for our prefent argu¬
ment, that where no means are ufed to oppofe it, the
odds are fufficient to determine the choice in favour of
the right. Now' becaufe it is natural to begin with
the leg correfponding to the hand we have moft
power of, this is this what gives alfo a fuperiority to the
right leg.
This difference is not peculiar to man, but is ftill
more obfervable in thofe creatures in wh # n the fame
mechanifm does obtain in a greater degree. Do but
obferve a dog at a trot, how lie bears forward with his
right fide ; or look at him when a-£craping up any
thing, and you will prefently fee that he ufes his right
much oftener than he does his left foot. Something
analogous to this may be obferved in horfes. It has
been the opinion of fome anatomifts, that left-handed
people, as well as thofe diftinguifhed by the name
of amlidexter (who ufe both hands alike), - have
the two carotid and fubdavian arteries coming off in
N° 87.
1 V E Anatom y. Chap. T.
four diftindl trunks from the arch of the aorta: but Of Qua-
no appearance of this kind has ever been obfcrved in ‘hupeds.
fuch bodies as have been examined for this purpofe ;' v
though indeed thefe have been but few, and more ex¬
perience might throw greater light on the fubjeft. 53
The thymus of this creature'is proportionally much Thymus-
larger than ours : whereas the glandula thyroidea is Gla^jla
much lefs, and is divided into two diftintt parts, or thyroidea.
there are two feparate glands; which is not the cafe in
man. The reafon of this difference is unknown, as is
likevvife the ufe of the gland itfelf. It is generally re¬
marked, that thefe two glands do thus always fupply
the place of each other ; that is, in fuch animals as
have a large thymus, the glandula thyroidea us fmaller,
and vice verfa. Hence we are naturally led to aferibe
the fame ufe to both, viz. the feparation of a thin lymph
for diluting the chyle in the thoracic dud before it be
poured into the blood ; then if we confider the differ¬
ent formation of the thorax in both, we fhall. readily
account for the variety in the bulk of thefe two glands.
Refpiration being chiefly performed in man by the wi¬
dening of the cheft, the lungs at every infpiration muft
prefs upon the thymus, and confequently diminifli it :
but the diaphragm yielding more in the dog’s infph-a-
tion, this gland is not fo much preffed by the lungs,
and fo will be larger; and hence the glandula thyroidea
will be proportionably lefs. Again, from the pofture
of this creature, we ftiall fee that it was much more
convenient for a dog to have the moft part of the di¬
luting lymph fupplied by the thymus, fince the neck
being frequently in a defeending pofture, the lymph
of the thyroid gland would have a very difadvantage-
ous courfe to get to the thoracic duel: whereas in the
human body, the thymus is really below the lacleal ca¬
nal, where it makes its curvature before it opens into
the fubclavian; and confequently there is a neceffity
of a confiderable {hare of the diluting liquor being fur-
nidled by the thyroid gland, which is fituated much
higher; fo that its lymph has the advantage of a per¬
pendicular defeent.
We may here obferve, that the thoracic duB in a dog Dudhfs
has no curvature before it enters <he fubclavian vein, thoracicu*.
the horizontal pofition of this animal allowing a favour¬
able enough courfe to the chyle, fo as not to need -that
turn to force its paflage into the blood. It may like-
wife be obferved, that fuch animals as walk horizon¬
tally have the valves of the thoracic du6l fewer in num¬
ber than others. The horfe has only a fingle pair;
while, on the contrary, the ape refembles man in ha¬
ving fevei’al valves. Thus the lymph is not only for¬
warded in its paflage, but the weight of the column is
diminilhed. The lungs of this creature are divided in¬
to more numerous lobes, and deeper, than they are in
man, for the fame reafon as the liver. The left fide
of the thorax in this animal bears a greater proportion
to the right than in-man; the one being nearly as three
to two, the other as four to three. In quadrupeds, as
well as in man, the lungs are clofely applied to the
containing parts; although this has been deniedbyfome.'
We look on it as a general rule, that all quadrupeds, Necfc.
as having occafion to gather their food from the ground,
are provided with longer necks than man : but as a
long neck not only gives the advantage of too long a
lever to the weight of the head, but alfo, when the ani- ■
ma) is gathering his food, makes the braiu in danger
2 of
Chap. I. C O M P A R A T
■Of C>uad-n-of Being opprefled with too great a quantity of blood,
I^ds- by the liquor in thefe arteries having the advantage of
v a defcent, while that in the veins mult remount a con¬
siderable way contrary to its own gravity ; it was
therefore neceffary that a part of the length of the neck
Jaws. Should be Supplied by the length of the jaws. Thus we
fee horfes, cows, &c. who have no occafion for open¬
ing their mouths very wide, yet have long jaws. ‘Bull¬
dogs, indeed, and fuch animals as have occasion for
■very ftreng jaws, muft of neceflity have them Short ;
■becaufe the longer they are, thereliftanceto be over¬
come afts with a longer lever. Another exception to
this general rule, is fnch animals as are furnifhed with
58 fomething analogous to.hands to convey their food to
Teeth, their mouths, as cats, apes, &c. The teeth of this
creature plainly fhovv it to be of the carnivorous kind ;
for there are none of them made for grinding its
food, but only for tearing and dividing it. It has fix
remarkable fharp teeth before, and two very long tulks
behind; both of which the ruminating animals want.
Thefe are evidently calculated for laying very firm
hold of fubftances, and tearing them to pieces; and
the vaft Strength of the mufcles inferted into the lower
jaw, afiifts greatly in this aftion ; while the molares
have Sharp cutting edges, calculated for cutting fleSh,
and breaking the hardeft bon.es. Even its posterior
teeth are not formed with rough broad furfaces as ours
are ; but are made confiderably Sharper, and prefs over
one another when the mouth is Shut, that fo they may
^ take the firmer hold of whatever comes betwixt them.
Tongue. The tongue, in confequence of the length of the
jaws, is much longer than ours; and as this creature
feeds with his head in a depending pofture, the bolus
■would always be in danger of falling out of the mouth,
were it not for feveral prominences or papilla: placed
moftly at the root of the tongue, and crooked back¬
wards in fuch a manner as to allow any thing to pafs
er.fiiy down to the jaws, but to hinder its return. By
the papilla: alfo the furface of the tongue is increafed,
and a Stronger impreffion is made on the fenfation of
tafte. In fome animals who feed on living creatures,
thefe tenter-hooks are ftill more confpicuous; as in fe¬
deral large SiShes, where they are almoft as large as
their teeth in the forepart of their mouth, and near as
60 firm and Strong.
Amygdala. When we open the month, we fee the amygdala;
very prominent in the posterior part of it; So_that it
would appear at firft view, that thefe were inconve¬
niently placed, as being continually expofed to injuries
from the hard fubftances this creature Swallows: but
upon a more narrow fcrutiny, we find this provided
for by two membranous capfuls, into which the amyg¬
dala:, when preSFed, can efcape, and remove themfelves
gj from fuch injuries.
Velum yen- The velum pendylmn palati is in this creature confi-
dulum pa- xterabty longer than in man, to prevent the food from
atI‘ getting into his nofe ; which would happen more fre-
quenlly in this animal than in man, becaufe of its fitua-
^ tion while feeding.
G otn's. 1n this fubjedf, as well as in other quadrupeds, there
6} is no uvula; hut then the epiglottis, when preSl'ed down,
Epiglottis, covers the whole rima entirely, and naturally continues
.fo \ there is therefore a ligament, or rather mufcle,
that comes from the os'hyoides and root of the tongue,
that is inferted into that part of the epiglottis where it
• Von.V. Parti.
I V E Anatomy. 257
is articulated with the cricoid cartilage, which feryes to Of Qu idru-
raife it from the rima, though not fo Strongly but that .
it may with a fmall force be clapped down again. ~r '
It may be aSked, however, Why the uvula is want- Tjie ^ Gf
ing here, and not in man? This feemstobe, that the uvula m
quadrupeds, who fwallow their food in an horizon- man.
tal fituation, have no occafion for an uv.ula, though
it is neceSTary in man on account of his eredt Situa¬
tion.
In ihe upper part of the pharynx, behind the cricoid
cartilage, there is a pretty large gland to be found,
which ferves not only for the feparation of a mucous
liquor to lubricate the bolus as it paSTes this way, but
alfo fupplies the place of a valve, to hinder the food
from regurgitating into the mouth, which it would be
apt to do by reafon df the defcending Situation of the *
creature’s head. In man, the mufcle of the epiglottis
is wanting, its place being fupplied by the elasticity of
the cartilage.
The afophagus is formed pretty much in the fame way Oefopha-
as the human. Authors indeed generally allege, thatgus>
quadrupeds have their gullet compofed of a double row
of fpiral fibres decuSTating one another; but this is pe¬
culiar to ruminating animals, who have occafion for
fuch a decuSTation of fibres. The adtion of thefe you
may eaSily obferve in a cow chewing her cud. • ■ fa
The nofe is generally longer than in man, and its ex- Organ of
ternal paffage much narrower. The internal ftru£ture^nieI^
is alfo better adapted for aU acute fmelling, having a
larger convoluted furface on which the memlranafchei-
derlana is Spread ; and this is to be obferved in moft
quadrupeds, who have the offa fpongiofa commonly
large, and thefe too divided into a great number of
exceSfively fine thin lamelln:. The fenfibility feems to
be increafed in proportion to the furface; and this will
alfo be found to take place in all the other fenfes. The
elephant, which has a head pretty large in proportion
to its body, has the greateft part of it taken up with
the cavity of the nofe and -frontal finufes ; which laft
extentl almoft over their whole head, and leave but a
fmall cavity for their brains. A very nice feufe of
’fmelling was not fo abfolutdy neceSTaryforman, who has
judgment and experience to direft him in the choice
of his food; whereas brutes, who have only their fenfes,
muft of neceffity have thefe acute, fame having one
fenfe in greater perfection than others, according to
their different way of life. We not only conclude /?
priori from the large expanded membrana fcheideriana,
that their fenfe of fmelling is very acute, but we find
it fo by cows and horfes diftinguiftnng fo readily be¬
twixt noxious and wholefome herbs, which they do
principally by this fenfe.
The external ear in different quadrupeds is differ- Auns.
-entlly framed, but always calculated to the creature’s
manner of life. In Shape it commonly refembles the
oblique fedlion’of a cone from near the apex to the
bafis. Hares, and fuch other animals as are daily ex-
-pofed to infults from hearts of prey, have large ears di-
refted backwards, their eyes warning them of any dan-
-ger before; rapacious animals, on the other hand, have
their ears placed diredtly forwards, as we fee in the
lion, cat, &c. Hie Slow hounds, and other animals
that are defigned to hear moft diftinftly the founds
■coming from below, have their ears hanging down¬
wards ; or their ears are flexible, becaufe they move
K js. their
25S COMP A RAT
Of Qua<lrc-tl:<-Ir head for the rr.oft part with greater difficulty than
, ^ , Tr.an.. Man, again, who muft equally hear founds co¬
ming from all quarters, but efpecially iuch as are fent
from about his own height, has his external ear placed
in a vertical manner, fomewhat turned forward. In
Ihort, wherever we fee a fpecialty in the make of this
organ in any creature, we lhall, with very little reflec¬
tion, difcover this form to be more convenient for that
creature than another. The animal alfo has the power
of directing the cone of the ear to the fonorous body
without moving the head. There are fome differences
to be obferved in the ftru&ure of the internal ear in
different animals ; but we know fo very little of the
ufe of tire particular parts of that organ in the human
fubjeft, that it is altogether impoffible to affign reafons
for thefe variations in other creatures.
Membrana quadrupeds have at the internal canthus of the
linStitans. eye a ftjong firm membrane with a cartilaginous edge,
which may be made to cover fome part of their eye ;
and this is greater or lefs in different animals as their
eyes are more or lefs expofed to dangers in fearching
after their food. This membrana niclitans, as it is
called, is not very large in this animal. Cows and
horfes have it fo large as to cover one half of the eye
like a curtain, and at the fame time is tranfparent
enough to allow abundance of the rays of light to
pafs through it. Fillies have a cuticle always over
their eyes, as they are ever in danger in that incon-
ftant element. In this then we may alfo obferve a fort
q- of gradation,
Mufculus All quadrupeds have a feventh mufcle belonging
fufpenfo- to the eye, called fufpenforius. It furrounds almoll
nus. t}ic whole optic nerve, and is fixed into the fclerotic
coat as the others are. Its ufe is to fuftain the
weight of the globe of the eye, and prevent the optic
nerve from being too much ftretched, without obli¬
ging the four llraight mufcles to he in a continual con¬
traction, which would be inconvenient; at the fame
time this mufcle may be brought to aflift any of the
ether four, by cauiing one particular portion of it to
at a time.
J'lqjilla. The next thing to be remarked is the figure of the
pupil, which is different in different animals, but always
exactly accommodated to the creature’s way of life, as
well as to the different fpeciesof objeCla that are view¬
ed. Man has it circular, for obvious reafons: an ox
has it ova), with the longed diameter placed tranfverfe-
]y, to take in a larger view of his food : cats, again,
have theirs likewife oval, hut the longeft diameter
placed perpendicularly; they can either exclude a
bright light altogether, or admit only as much as is
neceflary. The pupil of different animals varies in
widenefs, according as the internal organs of vifion
are more or lefs acute : Thus cats and owls, who feek
their prey in the night, or in dark places (and confe-
qdently mull have their eyes fo formed as that a few
rays of light may make a lively impreffion on the re¬
tina), have their pupils in the day-time contra&ed in¬
to a very narrow fpace, as a great number of rays
would opprefs their nice organs; while in the night,
or where the light is faint, they open the pupil, and
very fully admit the rays. In the fame way, when the
retina is" inflamed, a great number of rays of light
would occafion a painful fenfation; therefore the pupil
is contracted : on the contrary, in dying people, or in
I V E Anatomy. Chap. Tv
a beginning amaurofis, it is generally dilated, as the Of-Quadra-
eyes on fuch occafions are very difficultly affeCted, and , Petis- .
as it were infenlible. v
The pofterior part of the choroid coat, which is Tapetum.
called tapetum, is of different colours in different crea¬
tures. For oxen, feeding mo lily on grafs, have this
membrane of a green colour, that it may refleCt upon
the retina all the rays of light which come from objeCts
of that colour, while other rays are abforbed : Thus the
animal fees its food better than it does other objeCfs.
Cats and owls have their tapetum of a whitilh colour ;
and for the fame reafons have the pupil very dilatable,
and their organs of vifion acute : And wt lhall find,
that all animals fee more or lefs diltinCtly in the dark,
according as their tapetum approaches nearer to a
white or black colour. Thus dogs, who have it of a
greyifli colour, diitinguilh objefts better in the night
than man, whole tapetum is dark brown; and who, it is
believed, fees worlt in the dark of any creature: 'it being
originally deligned that he Ihould reft from all kinds
of employment in the night-time. The difference
then of the colour of the tapetum, as indeed the fabric
of any other part in different creatures, always de¬
pends on fome particular advantage accruing to the
animal in its peculiar manner of life from this lingu-
lar;tT- . .
We 111 all now proceed to the brain, which we re- Ca.eiHURr,
mark in the firft place is proportionally much fmaller
in all quadrupeds than the human ; but, as in man, it
is divided into cerebrum and cerebellum, and thefe two
parts bear nearly the fame proportion to one another
as in us. There was no fuch occafion for fo great a
quantity of brain in thofe animals as in man; feeing in
them all.its energy is employed in their progreffion,
while man has a great wafte of fpiritsinthe exercife of
his rcafon and intelle&ual faculties. And befides alt
this, a great bulky brain would be inconvenient to
thefe creatures, in fo far as it would add conliderably
to the weight of the head ; which having the advantage
of a long lever to a& with, would require a much
greater force to fupport it than now it does; for the
heads of the greateft part of quadrupeds are not near
fo heavy as they would at fight feem to be, from the
Jinus frontaks being produced a great way upwards to
enlarge the organs of fmelling.
The pits in the anterior part of their Ik nils are much
more confpicuous than in the human cranium; which
may be occafioned by the depending pofture of thefe
creatures heads while they gather their food: the brain
at this time gravitating much on the bones while they
are as yet foft, will gradually make impreffions upon
them at thefe places where it rifes into eminences.
This is prevented in man mcxftly by his erect po-
fture. _ 73,
The falx is not near fo large in quadrupeds as in Falx.,
man, as they have little occafion to lie on either fide,
and the two hemifpheres of the brain are in a great
meafure hindered from jultling againft one another in
violent motions, by the brain’s inlinuating itfelf into
the above mentioned pits.
The fecond procefs of the dura mater, or tentorium
cerelello fuper-expanfum, is confiderably thicker and
ftronger in molt quadrupeds than in man ; efpecially
in fuch of them as are very fwift of foot, as hares and
rabbits, and that moll when they are old. This mem?
braae-
Chap. I. COMPARAT
!0( Quadru- brane it generally oflified, or we find the place of it
fupplied by a bone, that it may the more effedtually
^ v keep off the fuperincumbent brain from the cerebel¬
lum in their rapid motions, which otherwife would
be of bad confequence.
Proceflus The olfadfory nerves are very large, and juftly de-
Surniilari3. ferve the name of procejfus mamillarts. They are hol¬
low, and confift of a medullary and cineritious fub-
ftance, and at firft fight appear to be the anterior ven¬
tricles of the brain produced; but in man they are
fmall, and without any difcernible cavity. The reafon
©f this is pretty evident, if we confider how this ani¬
mal’s head is fituated ; for the lymph continually gra¬
vitating upon the inferior part of the ventricles, may
thus elongate and produce them; but from this very
inferior part the olfactory nerves rife, and are fent im¬
mediately through the os ethmoides into the nofe.
Hence the ancients, thinking they were continued hol¬
low into the nofe, believed they were the emundlories
of the brain: in the brain of fheep, which by its firm
texture is the beft fubject of any for fearching into
the ftrudhue of this part, we evidently fee, that the
name of the Jigmoid cavity was very properly applied
by the ancients to the lateral ventricles of the brain ;
which are really, of a greater extent than they are
ordinarily painted by the anatomiils, reaching far¬
ther backwards, and forwards again under the fab-
ftance of the brain. The cortical and medullary parts,
as well as the corpus callofum, are fimilar to thofe
‘^5 parts in man.
Kates The mites and tejles deferve this name much better
*icites, here than in the human body, with refpecl to each
other. They are larger in the quadruped; and hence
we perceive that there is no great reafon for afcribing
the different operations to any particular fize or fhape
of thefe parts. They are here alfo of different colours;
the nates being of the colour of the cortical, and the
tejles of the medullary fubftance of the brain ; where¬
as in man they are both of one colour. The reafon
of thefe differences, and others of the like nature to be
met with, we fhall not pretend to determine ; for we
have hitherto fuch an imperfett knowledge of the
brain itfelf, that we are entirely ignorant of the va¬
rious ufes of its difi’erent parts. We may in general
conclude, that the varying in one animal from what it
is in another, is fitted to the creature’s particular way
-6 o-f living.
Itete mira- The rete mirabile Galeni, fituated on each fide of the
bi.c cia.cni fella turcica, about which there has been fo much dif-
pute, is very remarkable in moft quadrupeds. This
plexus of veffels is nothing elfe than a continuation of
the internal carotid arteries, which, entering the fkull,
divide into a vafl number of minute branches running
along the fide of the fella turcica ; and, uniting after¬
wards, are fpent on the brain in the common way.
Clalen feems with juftice to fuppofe, that this plexus
of veffvls ferves for checking the impetuofity of the
blood clc Itined for the brain.
The ffrudfure of the brain differing but very little in
all quadrupeds, it will be needlefs to examine it in any
other.
27 Sect. IV. The Anatomy of a Co:v.
The next fpecies of quadrupeds we propofed to
confider was the ruminant kind, of which wc have an
I V E Anatomy. 25)
example in a cow ; and accordingly fhaff take tbe foe- Of QnaJru-
tus of the animal in utero, that we may firft remark , ^
fome things that are peculiar to it in that ftate, and af¬
terwards proceed to examine its vifeera as a ruminant
animal. Firft, then, as a foetus.—However, before we
begin our enquiry, it may be worth our obferv'ation,
that from the ovarium fomething efl’entTally necefl’ary
for the production of the foetus is derived, as well as in
the human fpecies. *?«
The form of a cow’s uterus differs from the human, Uteres,
in having two pretty large cornna. This is common
to it with other brutes ; for a bitch has two long cor- Cornua u-
nua uteri: But thefe again differ (as being multiparous tct‘*
and uuiparous) in this, that in the bitches cornua the
foetus are contained ; whereas here there is only part
of the fecundines, being moftly the allantois with the
included liquor. The mufcular fibres of the uterus are
more eafily difcovered ; its internal furface has a great
number of fpongy, oblong, protuberant, glandular bo¬
dies fixed to it. Thefe are compofed of veffels of the
uterus terminating here. In an impregnated uterus,
we can eafily prefs out of them a chylous mucilaginous
liquor ; they are compofed of a great many pro cell Vs'
or digituli, and deep caverns, aufwering to as many
caverns and procefles of the placenta. Their refern-
blance has occalioned the name ofpap'JU to be given
them ; and hence it was that,Hippocrates was induce 1
to believe that the foetus fucked in utero. The papilla:
are found in all the different llages of life, in the va¬
rious ftages of pregnancy, and likewife in the urrim-
pregnated ttate. It is not eafy to determine whether titer ,* if
the uterus grows thicker or thinner in the time of gtf- fucker in
tation. The membranes, it is plain (by the ftretch-
ing of the parts), mult be made thinner; but then
it is as evident, that the veffels are at that time enlar¬
ged, upon which principally the thicknefs of anv part
depends; fo there feems to be as much gained the one
way as loft the other.
The os uteri is entirely Ihut up by a glutinous muci¬
laginous fubftance, that is common to the females of
all creatures when with young: by this the external
air is excluded, which would foon make the liquors
corrupt: it alfo prevents the inflammation of the rfiem-
branes, and the hazard of abortion. By this means
alfo the lips of the womb are kept from growing to¬
gether, which otherwife they would certainly at this
time do. There are mucous glands placed here to
fecern this gluten, which on the breaking of the mem¬
branes with the contained waters make a fapo that lu¬
bricates and. wafiies the parts, and makes them ealily
yield. The firft of the proper involucra. of the foetus
is the chorion. gr
The chorion is a pretty ftrong firm membrane, on CWioB.
whole external furface are difperfed a great many red
flelhy bodies of the fame number, fize, and llrudfture,
with the papilbe, with which they are mutually indent- 82
ed. They have been called cotyledones, from Koru>.», Cot led*-
“ cavity.” This is greatly difputed by fome as aue:"
name very improper; but we think without reafon, lince
the furface that is connected to the papillae is concave,
though when feparated it appears rather convex. To
Hum all difpute, they may be called properly enough
placentuLe, fince they ferve the fame ufe as the placen¬
ta in women. The feparation of thefe from the pa¬
pillae without any laceration, and our not being al.'le
lx k 2 * to
26o
C O M P A R A T I
84
The argu¬
ments frT
and agalnft
the human
allantois.
to inje£fc coloured liquors from the vefftils of the glands
of the uterus into the placentulce, feem to prove be¬
yond a reply, that there can be here no anaftomofes
betwixt the velfels ; on. their coats run a great number
of vefiels that are lent to the feveral placentulse, on the
external fide next to the uterus;, whereas in creatures
that have but one placenta, as in the human fubjeft,
cats, dogs, 8cc. the adhefiou is fomewhat firmer: The
placentas are likewife joined to the papillae in the cor¬
nua uteri. We fliall next give the hiitory of the al¬
lantois.
This is a fine tranfparent membrane contiguous to
the former. * It is not a general involucrum of the foe¬
tus in the mother, for it covers only a fmall part of the
amnios. It is mollly lodged in the cornua uteri. In
mares, bitches, and cats, it furrounds the amnios, be¬
ing every where interpofed betwixt it and the chorion.
In fhehp and goats it is the fame as in this animal; and
in fwine and rabbits it covers, ftill lefs of the amnios.
This fac is probably formed by the dilatation of the
urachus, which is conne&ed at its other end to the
fundus of the bladder, through which it receives its
contents; and a great quantity of urine is commonly
found in it. The membrane is doubled at the extre¬
mity of the canal, to hinder the return of the urine
back into the bladder. Its veffels are fo excdlivdy
fine and few, that we cannot force an injedted liquor
ferther than the beginning of this coat. This mem¬
brane is fo far analogous to the cuticula, as not to be
liable to corruption, or eafily irritated by acrid liquors.
The exiftence of this membrane in women has been
very warmly difputed on both fides. Thofe who are
againft its exigence deny they could ever find it; and,
allowing it were fo, allege, that fince the urachus is
impervious, as appears by our not being able to throw
liquors from the bladder into it, or vice verfa, it can¬
not ferve the ufe that is agreed by all it does ferve in
beafts; and therefore in the human body there is no
fuch thing. But if we confider, on the other hand,
firft, that there feems to be the fame neceffity for fuch
a refervoir in man as in other animals: fecon41y, that
we a&ually find urine contained in the bladder of the
human foetus : thirdly, that urine has been evacuated
at the navel when the urethra was flopped, which urine
without this conduit would have fallen into the cavity
of the abdomen : fourthly, that midwives have pre¬
tended to remark two different forts of waters come
away at the time of birth : and, laftly, that Dr Littre
and Dr Hale have given in this membrane of an hu¬
man fubjeft, with all the other fecundines curioufly
prepared, the one to the royal academy at Paris, the
other to the royal fociety at London; by which fo-
cieties their refpedtive accounts are attelled ; not to
mention Verheyen, Heifter, Keill, &c. who affirm
their having feen it; and Mr Albinus, that famous
anatomift, profeffpr at Leyden, is faid to have ftiowrt
to his college every year a preparation of it: On all
tliefe accounts it feems moft probable, that there is
fuch a membrane in the human body.
The third proper integument of the foetus is the am¬
nios. It is thinner and firmer than the chorion; it has
numerous ramifications of the umbilical veffels fpread
upon it, the lateral branches of which feparate a liquor
into its cavity. This is the proper liquor of the am-
V E A N A t o M Y. Chap. I.
nios: which at firft is in a fmall quantity, afterwards Of Quadra-'
increafes for fome months, then again decreafes; and Pejii-
in a cow near her time, the quantity of this liquor is v J
not above a pound. This membrane docs not enter
the cornua uteri in this creature, being confined to the:
body of the uterus ; whereas the allantois occupies
chiefly its cornua. But for what further relates to
the ftrudiure of the involucra, with the nature of the
liquors contained in them, we muff refer to the fecond
volume of Medical Effays, from page 121, where you.
have the fum of all we know of this matter.
There are here two- vena umb'dicales, and but one in.
the human fubjedi; becaufie tine extreme branches co¬
ming from the feveral placentulse could not unite (or
foon as they would have done had they come all from
one cake as in the human.
There is a fmall round fleftiy body that fwimsin the
ufine of this creature, mares, &c. which is the hippo-
manes of the ancients. Several idle opinions and whims
have been entertained as to its ufe ; but that feems to-
be ftiill unknown, or how it is generated or nourifhed,
for it has no connedlion with the foetus or placentulan
Having thus confldered the feveral involucra of this
animal in a foetus ftate, let us next obferve the fpecia-
lities in its internal ftrudture peculiar to a foetus. 26
The umbilical vein joins the vena portarum in the Vena umbi-
capfula Gliffoniana, without fending off any branches l;ca:b-
as it does in the human fubjeet. This vein foon after
birth turns to a ligament; yet there are fome in dan¬
ces where it has remained pervious for feveral years
after birth, and occafloned a haemorrhage. We may
next- obferve the duct called canalis venofus, going Canali* ve-
ftraight from the capjnla Gliffoniana to the vena cava ; n ffus.
this turns alfo afterwards to a ligament. The umbili¬
cal arteries rife at acute angles from the internal iliacs,
whatever fome may fay to the contrary; thefe alfo be*-
come impervious.
The pulmonary artery coming from the right ven¬
tricle of the heart divides into two ; the large!!, called
canalis arteriofus, opens into the defeending aorta ; the
other divides into two, to ferve the lungs on each fide. gg-
The foramen ovale is placed in the partition betwixt Foramen-
the right and left auricles. At the eelge of the hole ovale,
is fixed a membrane, which when much ftretcfced will
cover it all over ; but more eafily yields to a force that
adls from the right auricle to the left, than from the
left to the right. After what has been faid, we may
eafily underttand how the circulation is performed in a g^.
foetus. The blood, being brought from the placenta The cirsu-
of the mother, is thrown into the cnpfula Gliffoniana, lation, how
where it is intimately blended with the blood in ihe prformed
vena portarum: then part of this blood goes diredtly m a
into the vena cava by the duchis venofus; the reft paffes
through the liver. Firft, then, the whole is fent from
the vena cava into the right auricle, from whence part
of it is fent by the foramen ovale into the left auricle ;
the reft paffes into the right ventricle, then into the
pulmonary artery; then the greateft ffiare it receives
is fent immediately into the defeending aorta by the
canalis arteriofus, and the remainder circulates through
the lungs, and is fent back by the pulmonary veins
into the left auricle; which, with the blood brought
there by the foramen ovale, is feat into the left ven¬
tricle, from whence it is driven by the aorta through
the
Chap. I.
COMPARATIVE Anatomy.
261
Of Quadru- the body. The great deli-gn of this mechanifm is,
Petip- that the whole mafs of blood might not pafs through
v the collapfed lungs of the foetus; but that part of it
might pafs thhrugh the foramen ovale and canalls arte-
riofus, without circulating at all through the lungs.
Meffieurs This was the opinion that • univerfaily prevailed till
Mery and the end of the laid century, when it was violently op-
Winflow, DOfe<l Monfteur Merv, who is very lingular in feve-
nions oHt opinions. He will not allow that the fora-
examined. men ovale tranfmits blood from the right to the left
auricle, but.cn the contrary from the left to the right ;
afid that for no other rea-fon but becaufe he obferved
- the pulmonary artery in a foetus larger than the aorta.
Mr Window endeavours to reconcile thefe two opi¬
nions, by faying the blood may pafs either way, and
that it is here as it were blended : his reafon is, that on
putting the‘heart in water, the foramen ovale tranfmita
it any way. Mr Rohauit, profeflbr of anatomy at Tu¬
rin, and formerly one of Mery’s fcholars, ftrongiy de¬
fends his mailer, and criticifes Mr Window. What
he principally builds on, is the appearance this fora¬
men has in fome dried preparations: This Mr Window
will not allow as a proof. After all, the common opinion
feems moil probable ; and that for the following rea-
fons : Firft, the pulmonary artery being larger iignides
nothing, fince its coats are not only thinner and will be
more eaitly diilended, but alfo the redilance to the
blood in the pulmonary artery from the collapfed lungs
is greater than the refiftance to the bloodpn the aorta.
Secondly, if we ihould allow any of ihefe two uncom¬
mon opinions, we ihould have the right ventricle vail-
ly more capacious than the left: For if w.e fuppofe the
foramen ovale to be capable of tranfmitting one-third of
the whole mafs of blood in any given time, and the
tanails arterlofus as much in the fame time, then you
will find, that, according to Mr Mery’s opinion, the
whole mafs of blood being driven from the right ven¬
tricle into the pulmonary artery, one-third paffesby the
canalis arieriofus into the defeending aorta, two thirds
paffing through the lungs and returning into the left
auricle ; one-half of which portion, or one-third of the
. whole mafs, paffes by the foramen ovale into the right
auricle; and the other, or the laft third, will be lent
into the left ventricle, and thence expelled into the
aorta ; which third, with that from the pulmonary ar¬
tery by the can alls arit riofus, circulating through the
body, are returned into the right auricle, where meet¬
ing with the other third from t he foramen ovale, with
it they are fent into the right ventricle to undergo the
fame courfe. Thus the whole mafs is expelled by the
right ventricle, and only one-third by the left. If this
was the cafe, why is not the right ventricle three times
as large and (Irong as the left?
Then if, according to Mr Window’s fyftem, the fo¬
ramen ovale tranfmits equal quantities from both auricles,
this comes to the fame as if ther e was no foramen ovale
at all: that is to fay, the whole mafs going from the
right auricle into the right ventricle and pulmonary
artery, one-third df the whole mafs pafles into the aor¬
ta through the canclis arteriofus ; the other two-thirds,
palling through the lungs, return to the left auricle and
ventricle. Thus the right ventricle expels the whole
mafs; the left, only two-thirds.
But if, according to tire common opinion, we fuppofe
the foramen ovale to convey the blood from the right to
the left auricle, then one-third palfes this way into the Of Quadnr-
left ventricle; the other two-thirds are fent by the right ,
ventricle into the pulmonary artery ; from whence one- v
third paffes by the car,alls arteriofus into the aorta de-
feendevs } the other third circulates through the lungs,
and is returned into the left ventricle ; where meeting
with that from the foramen ovale, it is therewith ex¬
pelled into the aorta, and with the one-third tranfmit-
ted by the canalis artcriofus returns into the right auricle
to run the fame race as before. Thus we conclude,
that two-thirds are expelled by each ventricle, and the
whole circulates through the body ; and hence they
come to be of pretty equal dimenfio'ns. In all this calcu¬
lation no regard has been had to the blood difeharged
from the umbilical veffcls ; but the greater quantity re¬
turned by the veins, than fent out by the arteries, dill
argues for the common opinion. .
The kidneys in the fetus are compofed of different The kid-
lobes, which fewe to give us an idea of the kidneys ncys.
being a congeries of different glands; thefe lobes be¬
ing kept contiguous by the external membrane, are
preffed by the other vifeera, till at length they unite. ^
We now come to confider the creature as a rumi-The hiftory
nant animal. There are no dentes ineferes in the up- of h as a
per jaw ; but the gums are pretty hard, and the tongue rL‘fni:’‘int
rough. This roughnefs is occafioned by long fharpanur‘a •
pointed papillae, with which the whole fubftance of it
is covered. Thefe papillae are turned towards the
throat ; fo that by their means the food, having once
got into the mouth, is not eafily pulled back. The
animals therefore fupply the defect of teeth by wrap¬
ping their tongue round a tuft of grafs ; and fo, pref-
fing it againft the upper jaw, keep it flretched, and
cut it with the teeth of the under jaw ; then, without
chewing, throw it down into the oefophagus, which in
thefe creatures confiits of a double row of fpiral fibres
decufiating one another. All animals which ruminate
mult, have more ventricles than one ; fome have two,
fome three ; our prefent fubjecl has no lefs than four. jt has^four
The food is carried direftly down into the firlt, which ilomachs.
lies upon the left fide, and is the largeft of all; it is ^
called ventriculus, and y.otua, by way of eminence. Their
It is what is called by the general name of paunch bynames ai.d
the vulgar. There are no ruga: upon its internal fur- dsfeription.
face ; but inftead of thefe there are a vaft number of.
fmall blunt-pointed procefies, by which the whole has
a general rpughnefs, and the furface is extended to fe-
veral times the lize of the paunch it 1 elf. The food,
by the force of its mufcular coat, and the liquors pour¬
ed in here, is fufficiently macerated ; after which it is
forced up hence by the cefophagus into the mouth,
and there it is made very fmall by mailication ; this
is what is properly called chewing the cud, or rumination-,
for which purpofe the denies molares are exceedingly
well fitted : for inftead of being covered with a thin
cruft, the enamel on them coniifts of perpendicular
plates, between which the bone is bare, and conftantly
wearing fafter than the enamel, fo that the tooth re¬
mains good to extrerpe old age; and by means of
thefe teeth the rumination is carried on for a long
time without any danger of fpoiling them. After ru¬
mination, the food is fent down, by the gullet into
the fecond ftomach; for the oefophagus opens indif¬
ferently ipto both. It ends exadly where the two
ftomachs meet; and there is. a fmooth gutter- with ri-
4 fing.
Of Quadru¬
peds.
PuoUe
UUhi.
COMPARAT
fing edges leads into the fecond ftomach, from
thence to the third, and alfo to the fourth : however,
the creature has a power to direft it into which it will.
Some tell us, that the drink goes into the fecond ; hut
that might be eafily determined by making them drink
before flaughter. The feeond ftomach, which is the
anterior and fmaller, is called reticulum, ho¬
neycomb, the bonnet, or king's-hood. It confifts of a
great number of cells on its internal furface, of a regu¬
lar pentagonal figure, like to a honeycomb. Here the
food is farther macerated ; from which it is protruded
into the third, called or omafum, vulgo the many-
plies, becaufe the internal furface rifes up into a great
many plicas or folds, and Jlhitum fuper Jlratum, accord¬
ing to the length of this itomach. Some of thefe pli¬
cae are farther produced into the ftomach than others;
i. e. firft two long"ones on each fide, and within thefe
two (hotter in the middle, &C. There are numberlefs
glandular grains like millet-feeds difperfed on its plicae,
from which fome authors call this ftomach the millet.
From this it paffes into the fourth, whofe names are
abomajj'um, caille, or the red, which is the name
it commonly has becaufe of its colour. This much
refembles the human ftomach, or that of a dog ; only
the inner folds or plicre are longer and loofer: and it
may alfo be obferved, that in all animals there is only
one digeftive ftomach, and that has the fame coagula¬
ting power in the feetus as the fourth ftomach in this
animal; whence this might not improperly be called
the only true ftomach. CaUle fignifies curdled; and
hence the French have given that as a name to this
fourth ftomach, becaufe any milk that is taken down
by young calves is there curdled. It is this fourth
ftomach, with the milk curdled in it, that is common-
Jv taken for making runnet; but after the bile and
pancreatic juice enter, this coagulation is not to be
found, which (Ikws the ufe of thefe liquors. There
are other creatures which ufe thedame food, that have
not fuch a mechanifm in their digeftive organs. Hor-
fes, afles, &c. have but one ftomach, where grafs is
macerated, and a liquor for their‘nourilliment extract¬
ed, and the remainder fent out by the anus very little
altered. From this different ftrudure of the ftomach
in thefe creatures, .a ruminant animal will be ferved
with one-third lefs food than another of equal bulk:
grafters are fufliciently acquainted with this. The
reafon is, that ruminating animals have many and
ftrong digeftive organs ; all their food is fully prepa¬
red, and ahnoft wholly converted into chyle : But a
horfe’s ftomach is not fitted for this; fo that he re¬
quires a much-greater quantity of food to extract the
fame nourifnment.
The guts of thefe creatures are of a confiderable
length in proportion to the bulk of the body ; and
this confirms what we faid formerly on the fubject of
the inteftines of a dog, viz. that the length and capa¬
city of the guts were different in different animals, ac¬
cording to the nature of their food.
The duodenum is formed here' much the fame way as
in a dog, and the general intention kept in view with
regard to the mixture of the bile and pancreatic lymph.
The great guts here hardly deferve that name, tlieir
diameter differing very little from that of the fmall
cnes; but to compcnfate this, they are much longer pro-
I V E Anatomy. Chap. T.
portionally than a dog’s are, being convoluted as the Of Quadra*
fmall guts are. The caecum is very large and long.,
The digeffion of the cowq as well as fome other ani- ^
mals, is accompanied with a peculiar Lft.d of adtion
called rumination ; the intention of which feems to be,
that the food may be fufficiently comminuted, and
thus more fully acted upon by the ftomach : for it is.
not obferved that a calf ruminates as long as it is fed
only upon milk, though the adtion takes place as foon
as it begins to eatfolid food. But it is to be obferved,
that as long as a calf feeds only upon milk, the food
defeends immediately into the fourth ftomach (which,
as has been already mentioned, feems only capable of
performing the operation of digeftion) without (top¬
ping in any of the firft three. The rumination does
not take place till after the animal has eaten a pretty
large quantity ; after which (lie lies dowif, if (he caa
do it conveniently, and begins to chew ; though the
operation will take place in a (landing pofture, if (he
cannot lie down. In this adtion a ball is obferved to
rife from the ttomach with great velocity, almoit as if
(hot from a mufleet. This ball the animal chews very
accurately, and then fwallows it again, and fo on al¬
ternately, till all the food (lie has eaten has undergone
this operation. This is eafily explained from the
ftrudture of the cefophagus, which has one fet of fibres
calculated for bringing up the grafs, and another for
taking it down.
By means of rumination, the cow extradls a much
larger proportion of nourilhment from her food than
thofe animals which do not ruminate ; and hence (he
is contented with much worfe fare, and fmaller quan¬
tities of it, than a horfe ; hence alfo the dung of
cows, being much more exhaufted of its fine parts
than hoife-dung, prov’es much inferior to it as a
manure.
The fpleen differs not much either in figure or fitua-
tion from that of a dog’s; but it is a little more firm¬
ly fixed to the diaphragm, there not being here fo
much danger of this vifeus’s being hurt in the flexions
of the fpine.
The liver is not fplit into fd many lobes in this
creature as either in a man or dog; which depends
on the /mall motion this creature enjoys in its fpine,
which made fuch a divifion needlefs. This alfo con¬
firms what we formerly advanced on this head.
Their vcfica urinaria is of a pyramidal (hape. It is
very large, and more membranaceous ; for the urine
of fhtfe creatures noticing fo acrid as that of carni¬
vorous animals, there was no fuch occafion for expel¬
ling it fo foon. 1CQ
The male is provided with a loofe pendulous ferotum. Scrotum,
and confequently with vejicula feminales. The female Vcfuulat fe
organs differ from thofe of a bitch, nioflly as to the minales.
form of the cornua uteri, which are here contorted
in form of a fnail. In this, and all uniparous animals,
they contain only part of the fecundines; but in
bitches, and other multiparous animals, they run
ftraight up iu the abdomen, and contain the foetus
themfeives.
The fituation of the heart is pretty much the fame
with that of a dog, only its point is rather (harper:
In us, the heart beating continually againft the ribs,
and both ventricles going equally far down to the con-
ftitutiem
Spleen.
Bladder.
10%
Cer.
5
Chap. IT. C O M P A 11 A T
Of Fowls, ftltution of tUe apex, it is very obtufe : but here the.
apex is made up only of the left ventricle, fo is more
ioi acute.
Aorta af- The aorta in this creature is juftly divided into a-
cendens J'cending and defending, though this divifiori is illfound-
deus.'kk63' e<* e‘t^ier 'n a dog or man ; and it has certainly been
from this fubjeft that the older anatomifts took their
defcriptions when they made this divifion ; for here
the aorta divides into two, the afcending and defcend-
ing.
Chap. II. Of Fowls.
* The next ciafs of animals we come to confider are
of the feathered kind ; which are divided into the
granivorous and carnivorous. But before we go on to
confider the fpecialties in the vifcera of each kind, we
mud obferve what both fpecies agree in.
Sect. I. Of Fowls in general.
Their co- Fowls have a particular covering of feathers diffe-
vering. rent from all other creatures, but exactly well fuited
to their manner of life : for it not only protects them
from the injuries of the weather, but ferves them in
their progreffion through that thin aerial element they
are for the moll part employed in ; and as fume fowls
live much in the water, their feathers being continual¬
ly befmenred with an oily liquor, keeps the water from
foaking into their Ikins, and fo prevents the bad ef-.
J04 ' feeds which it would infallibly otherwife produce.
Their Fowls have the-llrongeft mufcles of their whole bo¬
wings, how dy inferted into their wings ; whence by the way we
F.rnjfhed. may 0bfetve, that it is altogether impoffible for man
to buoy himfelf up into the air like birds, even though
he had proper machines in place of wings, unlefs he
were likewife provided with mufcles llrong enough for
■whynot moving them, which he has not. In the next place,
placed in their wings are not placed in the middle of their bo-
the middle dies, but a good deal further forwards ; whence it
«>f the ho- would at firix view appear, that their heads would be
eredt, and their poflerior parts moll depending when
raifed in the air : but by ftretching out their heads
which adt upon the lever of a long neck, they alter
their centre of gravity pretty much ; and alfo by fil¬
ling the facs or bladders in the infide of their abdomen
with air, and expanding their tail, they come to make
the pofterior part of their bodies confiderably higher.;
and thus they fly with their bodies nearly in an hori¬
zontal fituation. Hence we find, that if their necks
are kept from being ftretched out, or if you cut a-
way their tails, they become incapable of flying any
coniiderable way.
The largenefs of the wings in different fowls varies
according to the occafionsof the creature. Thus birds
c-t prey, who mull fly a coniiderable way to provide
their food, have large flrong wings whereas domeflic
birds, who find their nourifliment almoll every where,
have very fhort and but fmall wings. Their tail is of
life in aflifting to raife them in the air; though the
chief purpofe of it is to ferve as a rudder in. guiding
their flight, whilft they ufe their wings as we do oars-
in putting forward a boat. The bell account of this
manner of progreflion of fowls is given by Alfonfus
Borellus, in his treatife De Motu Animalium ; and in. the
Religious Philofopher we have Borelli’s dodtrine flripped
pretty much of its mathematical form. The pofterior
I V E Anatomy. 263
extremities are fituated fo far back, as to make us at Of Fowls,
firll think they would be in continual hazard of falling ^
down forwards when they walk: but this is prevented
by their holding up their heads and neck, fo as to
make the centre of gravity fall upon the feet ; and
when they have occalion for climbing up a deep place,
they llretch out their heads and necks forward, efpe-
cially if they are fliort-legged, the better to preferve
properly the balance of the body. Thus we may ob¬
ferve a goofe entering a barn-door, where generally
there is an afcending ftep, to flretch out its neck,
which before was raifed, and incline its body forwards.
This is laughed at by the common people, who aferibe
it to a piece of folly in the goofe, as if afraid of
knocking its head againft the top of the door. io5
Carnivorous animals are provided with ftrong crook- A peculiar
ed claws for the catching their prey : water-fowls ufe
them for fwiir.nrng : and, principally for this purpofe, ot-fovvj6.
have a ftrong firm membrane interpofed betwixt the
toes. There is a beautiful mechanifm to be obferved
ia the toes of fowls, which is of coniiderable ufe to
them. For their toes are naturally drawn together,
or bended, when the foot is bended : this is owing to
the fhortnefs of the tendons of the toes, which pals
over them, which is analogous to our heel ; and that
the toes are fet in the circumference of a circle, as our
fingers are : Hence, when the foot is bended, the ten¬
dons mud confequently be much ftretched ; and, fince
they are inferted into the toes, muft of neceflity bend
them when the foot is bended ; and when the foot is
extended, the flexors of the toes are again relaxed,-
and they therefore expanded. This is alfo of great
ufe to different kinds of fowls: thus the hawk de-
feending with his legs and feet extended, fpreads his.
talons over his prey ; and the w eight of his body bend¬
ing his feet, the toes are contradlcd, and the prey is
feized by the talons. This is alfo of great ufe to wa¬
ter-fowls : for had there been no fuck contrivance as
this, they mull have loft as much time when they pull¬
ed their legs in as they had gained by the former
ftroke; but, as the parts are now framed, whenever
the creature draws in its foot, the toes are at the fame
time bended and contrafled into lefs fpace, fo that the
refiftance made againfl the water is not near fo great
as before : on the contrary, when they flreteh their
foot, their toes are extended, the membrane betwixt
them expanded, and confequently a greater refiftance
made to the water. Again, fuch fowls as live mollly
in the air, of have occafion to fuflnin tbemfelves oa
branches of trees in windy wreather, and even in the
night-time when afleep, while all their mufcles are
fuppofed to be in a ftate of relaxation ; fuch have
no mere to do-but lean down the weight of their bo¬
dies, and their toes continue bended without any
mufcles being in adlion ; and whenever they would
difentangle themfclves, they raife up their bodies, by
which their feet, and confeqnently their toes, are ex¬
tended.
The roftrum, bill, or beak of fowls, is compofed ofTh^varifcty
two mandibular; and, as in quadrupeds, the upper one hi the beaks
has no motion but what it poflefles in common with fi,wb-
the head. But parrots are an exception to this rule ;I:8uks’ —
for they can move the upper mandible at pleafure
this is exceeding convenient, as it enables them to lay
hold ef whatever comes in. their way. Carnivorous
fowls.
264 C O M P A R A T
Of Fowls. foM-h liave their heaks fiiarp, and crooked-; the
v - dotnekic fowls, fuch as the hen-kind, &c. have ftronw
fhort beaks, commodioufly fitted to dig up and break
their food ; the water-fowls, again, have long or very
.broad feoop-like beaks, which is mod convenient for
them. The fterniun of fowls is much larger propor¬
tionally than the human, and has a ridge rifing in its
middle for the more commodious origin of the mufcles
that move the wings. It is alfo Ids moveable than
ours; for had it been very moveable, a great deal of
the force employed for moving the wings would at
every contraction of the mufcles have been loft, or
elfe fome other mufcles muft have came in play to keep
firm the fternum ; but this additional weight would
have been inconvenient for their progreluon.
What other things are moft remarkable in the ftruc-
ture of the feveral vifeera, we fhall confider in that
common domeftic animal the cock or hen, and after¬
wards obferve the difference of their vifeera chylopoie-
tica from a-carnivorous fowl.
Sect. II. Anatomy of the Domejlk Cock.
Though this kind of birds live upon food fome-
what fimilar to that of man, yet as they have no teeth
to feparate or break down this food, we would expert
to find fomething to compenfate for the want of teeth,
fomething remarkable in the organs of digeftion : we
108 ftiall therefore begin with thefe parts.
Oefopha- The afophagus of this creature runs down its neck,
fus: • fomewhat inclined to the right fide ; and terminates in
ng uvies. ^ pretty large membranous fac, which is the ingluvies
or crop, where the food is macerated and diffolved by
a liquor feparated by the glands, which are eafily ob-
ferved every where on the internal furface of this bag.
The effeft of this maceration may be very well obfer-
ved in pigeons, who are fometimes in danger of being
fuffocated by the peafe, &c. they feed upon, fwelling
to fuch an immenfe bulk in their ingluvies, that they
can neither get upwards nor downwards. If k be a
favourite fowl, it might be preferved by opening the
109 fac, taking out the peafe, and fewing up the wound.
Ventriculus The food getting out of this fac goes down by the
fuccenturi- remaining part of the nefopbagus into the ‘ventriculus
amsfeu fa^toriatus, or wfuruMuhm Peyeri, which is a con-
lum tinuation of the gullet with more numerous glands,
which feparate a liquor to dilute the food ft ill more,
which at length gets into the true ftoma.ch or gizzard,
‘ventriculus callcfus, which confifts cf two very llrong
mufcles covered externally with a tendinous aponeuro-
fis, and lined on the infide by a very thick firm mem¬
brane, which we evidently difeover to be a produftion
of the cutieula. This might have been proved in fome
raeafure <1 priori, from taking notice, that this mem¬
brane, which in chicks is only a thin flight pellicle, by
degrees turns thicker and ftrongef the more attrition it
fuffers : but there is no other animal-fubftance, fo far
as we know, which grows more hard and thick bybe-
no ing fubje&ed to attrition, excepting the cuticula—
Epldernii-; Hence may be drawn fome kind of proof of what
inverts the been affirmed concerning the tunica vellofa of the
/hrfecfof ttomach and inteftines in the human body, viz. that it
all the ca- was in part a continuation of the epidermis ; nay, an
vithAr.d the hollow parts of the body, even arteries, veins, &c.
veffelsof- feeTri t0 be lJnecl with a produdlion of this membrane,
bodvUma** or one analogous to it. -t he ufe of lbs internal
TCP a-v
I V E Anatomy. Chap. II.
of the ftomach of fowls is to defend the more tender -Of Fowls,
parts of that vifeus from the hard grains and little —>—J
ftenes thofe creatures take down. The ufe O'f the
gizzard is to compenfate for the want of teeth ; and it
is well fitted for this purpofe from the great ftrength
it poffeffes.
The digeftion of thefe animals is performed merely
by attrition, as is evinced by many experiments; and
it is further affifted by the hard bodies they fwallow.
We fee them daily take down confiderable numbers of
the moft fqlid rugged little flints they .find ; and thefe
can ferve for no other purpofe than to help the tritura¬
tion of their aliments. After thefe pebbles, by be¬
coming ftnooth, are unfit for -this office, they are
thrown up by the mouth. Hence fowls that are long
confined, though ever fo well fed, turn lean for want
of thefe Hones to help their digeftion.' This was
put beyond all difpute by Mr Taiwy, who gave a fpe-
cies of metal to an oftrich, convex on one fide and
congave on the other, but carved on both ; and open¬
ing the creature’s body fome time -after, it was found,
that the carving on the convex fide was all obliterated,
while the engraved character remained the fame as be¬
fore on the concave fide, which was not fubjedted to
the flomaeb’s preffure : which could not have happen¬
ed had digeftion been performed by a menftruum, or
any other way whatfoever; but may be eafily folved
by allowing a limple mechanical preffure to take place.
We are, however, by no means to conclude from this,
as fome have too rafhly done, that in the human body
digeftion is performed by fimple attrition ; otherwife
we may, with equal ftrength of reafon, by as good
arguments drawn from what is obferved in fifties, prove
that the aliments are diffolved in our ftemachk by the
aftion of a menftruum. But this method of reafon-
ihg is very faulty ; nor erm it ever-bring us to the true
folution of any philofophical or medical problem. It
is very plain, fmee the ftrufture of the parts of the
human ftomach are fo very different from that of this
creature,'that it is foolifli and unreafanable to imagine
both of them capable of producing the fame effects.
At each end of the ftomach, there are as it were two
particular facs of a different texture from the reft
of the ftomach, not confiding of ftrong mufcular
fibres ; they feem to be receptacles for the ftones
(efpecially at the end which is fartheft from the ori¬
fice), while the digefted aliment is protruded into the
inteftines.
Spallanzani, however, has lately found, that pebbles
are not at all neceffary to the trituration, ot the food
of thefe animals. At the fame time, he does not de¬
ny, that when put in motion by the gaftiic mufoles,
they are capable of producing fome effect on the con¬
tents of the.ftomach ; but is inclined to believe, that
they, are not fought for and fckfted by defign, as ma¬
ny fuppofe, but becaufe they frequently happen to be
mixed with the food. m
The duodenum begins pretty near the fame place at Duodenum*-
which the ccfophagus,enters ; yet notwitliftanding the
vicinity of thtfe two tubes, the aliments are in nr dan¬
ger of getting cut before they a-e perfef ly digefled,
by reafon of a pretubevaTice,t>r feptur: medium, betwixt
the orifices; and in thofe creatures who have fuch a
ftrong mufeifiar ftomach, it is a matter of great indif¬
ference whether the entry of the oefophagu,; or pylorus
be
Dudtus
choledo*
chus.
The fpleen.
Pulmones,
their ftruc-
ture and
nfes.
The ufe of
the veficleg
in the ab¬
domen.
If. COMPARAT
be hJgheft, provided ttat the entry from the cefopha-
gua does not allow the food to regurgitate, fince the
force of the ftomach can eafily protrude it towards the
duodenum. This gut is moflly in the right fide, and
hangs pendulous in their abdomen, having its two ex¬
tremities fixed to the liver. The dubJus choledochus
enters near its termination, where it mounts up again
to be fixed to the liver; and left, ftiy the contraAion
of the inteftines, the bile (hould pafs over without, be¬
ing intimately blended with the chyle, that duA enters
downwards, contrary to the courfe of the food, and
contrary to what is obferved in any of the animals we
have yet mentioned. But ftill the general intention is
kept in view, in allowing thefe juices the faireft chance
of being intimately blended with the food.
The/rca//guts are proportionally longer than thofe
of carnivorous birds, for the general caufe already af-
figned. At the end of the ilium they have two large
intejlina aeca, one on each fide, four or five inches
long, coming off from the fide of the reAum, and a-
fcending ; and we find them containing part of the
food: Thefe ferve a» refervoirs to the feces ; which,
after fome remora, there regurgitate into what foon
becomes the reAum ; which, together with the excre-
tories of urine and organs of generation, empties itfelf
into the common cloaca. The fmall inteftines are
conneAed by a long loofe mefentery, which has little
or no fat accompanying the blood-veffels, there being
no hazard of the blood’s being ftopped.
The pancreas in the creature lies betwixt the two
folds of the duodenum, and fends two or three duAs
into this gut pretty near the biliary.
The fpleen is here of a round globular figure, fitua-
ted between the liver and ftomach ; and betwixt thefe
and the back-bone it enjoys the fame properties as in
other animals, viz. large blood-veffels, &c. All its
blood is fent into the vena portarum, and has a perpe¬
tual conquaffation. It has no excretory, as far as we
know. Their liver is divided into two equal lobes by
a pellucid membrane, running according to the length
of their body : and hence we may obferve, that it is
not proper to that bowel to lie on the right fide ; which
is ftill more confirmed by what we obferve in fifhes,
where the greateft part of it lies in the left fide.
The fliape of their gall-bladder is not much different
from that of quadrupeds ; but is thought to be longer
in proportion to the fize of the animal, and is farther
removed from the liver.
The principal difference to be remarked in their
heart, is the want of the valval* tricufpides, and their
place being fupplied by one flefhy flap.
The lungs are not loofe within the cavity of the tho¬
rax, but fixed to the bone all the way; neither are
they divided into lobes, as in thofe animals that have
a large motion in their fpine. They are two red fpon-
gy bodies, covered with a membrane that is pervious,
and which communicates with the large veficles or air¬
bags that are difperfed over their whole abdomen ;
which veficles, according to Dr Monro, ferve two very
confiderable ufes. The one is to render their bodies
fpecifically light, when they have a mind to afcend and
buoy themfelves up when flying, by diftcnding their
lungs with air, and alfo ftraiten their trachea arteria,
and fo return the air. Secondly, they fupply the place
of a mufcular diaphragm and ftrong abdominal mufcles;
Vol. V. Part I.
IVE Anatomy. 265
producing the fame effeAs on thefeveral contained vif- Of Fowls.
cera, as thefe mufcles would have done, without the v
inconveniency of their additional weight; and condu- xhe^ia-
cing as much to the exclufion of the egg and feces. phragm.
Dr Hunter hath lately made fome curious difcove-how fup-
ries relative to thefe internal receptacles of air in the
bodies of birds. Some of them are lodged in the
fleftiy parts, and fome in the hollow bones ; but all of
them communicate with the lungs. He informs us,
that the air-cells which are found in the foft parts have
no communication with the cellular membrane which
is common to birds as well as other animals. Some of
them communicate immediately with each other; but
all of them by the intervention of the lungs as a com¬
mon centre. Some of them are placed in cavities, as
the abdomen ; others in the interftices of parts, as
about the bread. The bones which receive air are of
two kinds; fome of them divided into innumerable
cells ; others hollowed out into one large canal. _ They
may be diftinguiflied from fuch as do not receive air,
by having lefs fpecific gravity ; by being lefs vafcular ;
by containing little oil; by having no marrow nor
blood in their cells; by having lefs hardnefs and firm-
nefs than others ; and by the paflage for the air being
' perceivable.
The mechanifm by which the lungs are fitted for
conveying air to thefe cavities is, their being attached
to the diaphragm, and connedted alfo to the ribs and
fides of the vertebrse. The diaphragm is perforated
in feveral places by pretty large holes, allowing a free
paffage of air into the abdomen. To each of thefe
holes is attached a diftinA membranous bag, thin and
tranfparent. The lungs open at their anterior part in¬
to membranous cells, which lie upon the fides of the
pericardium, and communicate with the cells of the
fternum. The fuperior parts of the lungs open‘into
cells of a loofe net-work, through which the trachea
and oefophagus pafs. When thefe cells are diftended
with air, it indicates paffion, as in the cafe of the
turky-cock, pouting-pigeon, &c.
Thefe cells communicate with others in the axilla,
and under the large peAoral mufcle; and thofe with
the cavity of the os humeri, by means of fmall open¬
ings in the hollow furface near the head of that bone.
Daftly, The pofterior edges of the lungs have open¬
ings into the cells of the vertebrse, ribs, os facrum,
and other bones of the pelvis, from which the air finds
a paffage to the cavity of the thigh-bone.
Concerning the ufe of thefe cavities the doAor con-
jeAures, that they are a kind of appendage to the
lungs; and that, like the bags continued through the
bellies of amphibious animals, they ferve as a kind of
refervoirs of air. They aflift birds during their flight,
which mutt be apt to render frequent refpiration diffi¬
cult. He farther infinuates, that this conftruAion of
the organs of refpiration may aflift birds in finging j
which, he thinks, may be inferred from the long con¬
tinuance of long between the breathings of a canary-
bird. On tying the trachea of a cock, the animal
breathed through a canula introduced into his belly ;
another through the os humeri, when cut acrofs; and
a hawk through the os femoris. In all thefe cafes the
animals foon died. In the firft, the doAor afcribes
the death to an inflammation of the bowels; but in
the laft, he owns it was owing to difficult breathing.
L l What
266 COMPARATIVE Anatomy. Chap. TT;
Of Fowls. Whst took place, however, was fufficient to fl-icjw that teals from the other fmall inteftines, which veflels ac- Of Fowls.
v  the animals really did breathe through the bone. company the lower mefenteric artery j but, before  y—*
When we examine the upper end of the trachea, we they join thofe from the duodenum, receive from the
obferve a rima glatlidit with mufcular fides, which may redtum a lymphatic, which runs from the blood-veffcls
aft in preventing the food or drink from paffing into of that gut. Into this lymphatic fome fmall veflels
the lungs ; for there is no epiglottis as in man- and qua- from the kidneys feem to enter at the root of the cse-
H4 drupeds. , liac artery. The lymphatics of the lower extremitiea
Trachea ar- The trachea arteria, near where it divides, is very probably join thofe from the intettines. At the root
teria. much contrafted; and their voice is principally owing of the caeliac artery and contiguous part of the aorta, a,
to this coarftation. If you liften attentively to a cock net-work is formed by the vefiels above defcribed.
crowing, you will be fenflble that the noife does not From this net-work arife two thoracic dufta, of which,
proceed from the throat, but deeper ; nay, this very one lies on each fide of the fpiue, and runs obliquely
pipe, when taken out of the body, and cut off a little over the lungs to the jugular vein, into the infide of
after its divifion, and blown into, will make a fqueak- which it terminates, nearly oppofite to the angle form¬
ing noife, fomething like the voice of thefe creatures, ed by the vein and this fubclavian one. The thoracic
On each fide, a little higher than this contraftion, duft of the left fide is joined by a large lymphatic, which
there is a mufcle arifing from their fternum, which runs upon the oefopliagus. The thoracic dudts are joined
dilates the trachea. The cartilages, of which the pipe by the lymphatics of the neck, and probably by thofe
is compofcd in this animal, go quite round it; where- of the wings where they open into the jugular veins. The
as in men and quadrupeds they are discontinued for lymphatics of the neck generally confifi: of two large
about one-fourth on the back-part, and the interme- branches, on each fide of the neck, accompanying the
diate fpace is filled up by a membrane. Neither is the blood-veflels; and thefe two branches join near the lower
tradhea fo firmly attached to their vertebrae as in the part of the neck, and form a trunk which runs clofe
other creatures we have examined. This ftrufture we to the jugular vein, and opens into a lymphatic gland;
fhall find of great fervice to them, if we confider, that from the oppofite fide of this gland a lymphatic comes
had the fame firuftitre obtained in them as in us, their cut, which ends in the jugular vein,
breath would have been in hazard of being flopped at On the left fide, the whole of this lymphatic joins
every flexion or twilling of their neck, which they are the thoracic duft of the fame fide : but, on the right
frequently obliged to. This we may be fenfible of by one, part of it goes into the infide of the jugular vein
bending our necks confiderably on one fide, upon a little above the angle; whilft another Joins the tho-
which we (hall find a great ftraitnefs and difficulty of racic duft, and with that duft forms a common trunk,
breathing ; whereas their trachea is better fitted for which opens into the infide of the jugular vein, a little
following the fleftions of the neck by its loofe connec- below the angle which that vein makes with the fub-
tion to the vertebrae. clavian. Thisfyllem in birds differs moft from that of
In place of a. mufcular diaphragm, this creature has quadrupeds, in the chyle being tranfparent and colour¬
nothing but a thin membrane connefted to the pe- lefs, and in there being no vifibie lymphatic glands,
ricardiam, which, feparates the thorax and abdo- neither in the courfe of the lafteals, nor irTthat of the
men. But befides this, the whole abdomen and tho- lymphatics of the abdomen, nor near the thoracic dufts.
rax are divided by a longitudinal membrane or me- The kidneys lie in the hollow excavated in the fide KiJneys,
diajlinum connefted to the lungs, pericardium, liver, of the back-bone, from which there is fent out a bluifh-
flomach, and to the fat lying over their ftomach and coloured canal running along by the fide of the vas de-
guts, which is analogous to an omentum, and fupplies ferens, and terminating directly in the common cloa-
4 its place. ca. This is the ureter, which opens by a peculiar a-
I.ymphatic The lymphatic JyJlcm in birds confifts, as in man, of perture of its own, and not at the penis. Fowls ha-
fyitem. lafteal and lymphatic veflels, with the thoracic duft. ving no vefua urinaria, it' was thought by fome they
The lafteals indeed, in the ftrifteft fenfe, are the never paffed any urine, but that it went to the^nou-
lymphatics of the inteilines; and, like the other lym- rifliment of the feathers: but this is falfe; for that
phatics, carry only a tranfparent lymph ; and inftead vvhitifli fubftance that you fee their greenifh faeces co-
of one thoracic duft, there are two, which go to the veied writh, and which turns afterwards chalky, is their
jugular veins. In thefe circumftances, it would feem urine. Let us next confider the organs of generation
that birds differ from the human fubjeft, fo far at leaft of both fexes, and firll thofe of the male. l2y
as we mayjudge from the difftftion of a goofe, the com- The tcjlicles are fituated one on each fide of the The organ*
mon fubjeft of this inquiry, and from which.the fol- back-bone; and are proportionally very large to theof cenera-
lowing defeription is taken. creature’s bulk. From thefe run out the vafafemini- 1 e
The lafteals run from the inteftines upon the mefen- fera ; at firft ftraight; but after they recede farther
teric veffels: thofe of the duodenum pafs by the fide from the body of the tefticle, they acquire an undu-
©f the pancreas; afterward they get upon the caeliac lated or convoluted form, as the epididymis in man.
artery, of which the fuperior mefenteric is a branch. Thefe convolutions partly fupply the want of veficuU
Here they are joined by the lymphatics of the liver, feminales, their coition being at the fame time very
and then they form a plexus which furrounds the cae- fhort: Thefe terminate in the penis, of which the cock
liac artery. Here alfo they receive a lymphatic from has two, one on each fide of the common cloaca,
the gizzard, and foon after another from the lower pointing direftly outwards. They open at a diftance
- part of the cefophagus. At the root of the caeliac from each other, and are very fmall and ffiort; whence
artery they are joined by the lymphatics from the they have efcaped the notice of anatomifts, .who have
glaudulse renales, and near the fame part by the lac- often denied their exiftence. In birds there is no pro-
* ftate
Chap. IT. -COMPARAT
Of Fowls, ftate gland. This is what is chiefly remarkable in the
organs of the male.
Vitclkri- The racemus viiellarnm, being analogous to the ova-
uiu. ria in the human fubjeft, are attached by a proper
membrane to the back-bone. This is very fine and
thin, and continued down to the uterus. Its orifice is
averfe with refpeci to- the ovaria ; yet notwithitand-
ing, by the force of the orgafmus venereus, it turns
r. und and grafps the viteiius, which in its paffage
through this duCt, called the infundibulum, receives a
thick gelatinous liquor, fecreted by certain glands.
This, with what it receives in the uterus, compofesthe
white of the egg. By this tube then it is carried into
the uterus. The fltell is lined with a membrane ; and
in the large end there is a bag full of air, from which
11q there is no outlet.
Die: us. The uterus is a large bag, placed at the end of the
infundibulum, full of wrinkles on its infide; here the
egg is completed, receiving its laft invuiucrum, and is
at laft pulhed out at an opening on the fide of the com¬
mon cloaca. From the teftes in the male being fo
Very large in proportion to the body of the creature,
there muft necefiarily be a great quantity of femen fe-
130 cerned ; hence the animal is falacious, and becomes
Tlu. want capable of impregnating many females. The want of
of the vefi- the vejicula ftminales is in fome meafure fupplied by the
na "how conv°lutions of the 'unfa deferentia, and by the fmall
fupplied. diftance betwixt the fecerning and excretory organs.
The two penes contribute alfo very much to their ihort
•coition ; at which time the opening of the uterus into
the cloaca is very mueh dilated, that the effedt of the
femen on the vitelli may be the greater.
A hen will of herfelf indeed lay eggs; but thefe
are not impregnated, and yet appear entirely com¬
plete, except that the fmall black fpot, which comes
afterwards to be the rudiments of the chick, is not
here to be obferved.
After having obferved the contents of the abdomen
and thorax, we next proceed to examine the parts a-
bout the neck and head.
Thefe creatures, as was obferved of fowls in gene¬
ral, have no teeth. Some, indeed, have an appear¬
ance of. teeth ; but thefe are only fmall proceffes or
ferrse riling out from the mandible, without any foc-
131 ket, &c. which would have been needlefs, as they
Tongue, itTwallow their food entire. But their tongue is made
•form. pretty firm, left it (he uld be hurt by the (harp points
■of the grain they feed on. It is of a triangular fi¬
gure, and pointed befoie ; and as by their depending
pofture their meat is in hazard of falling out of their
mouths, to prevent this there are feveral fmall point¬
ed papillse (landing out upon their tongue and pa¬
late, with their points inclined backwards, allowing
an eafy paffage to the food, but hindering it to re¬
turn.
We have here no velum palatinum, uvula, or epiglot¬
tis ; and in place of two large holes opening into the
hofe, there is only a long narrow rima fupplied with
pretty ftrong mufcles, and fuch another fupplies the
place of a glottis. The creature has a power of (hut¬
ting both at pleafure ; and the nature of their food
fcems not only to exempt them from the hazard of its
getting into the nofe or trachea, but its (harp points
would hurt an uvula, or epiglottis, if they had any.
IVE Anatom 2^7
Hence we fee with what difficulty they fwallow Of Fowls.
dough pr other fort of food that can be eafily moulded ' v ' ^
into any form. When we examine the upper end of
the trachea, we obferve a rima glottidis with mufcular
fides, which may a£t in preventing the food or drink
from paffing into the lungs, for there is no epiglottis
as in man and quadrupeds. 131
'Their cranium is more cellular and cavernous than Cranium,
ours. By this means their heads are light, yet ftrong
enough to refill external injuries; for the enlarging
the diameter of bones contributes to their ftrength.
By this cavernous cranium the organ of fmelling is
fuppofed to be confiderably enlarged; and further,
finging birds, as is obferved by Mr Ray and Mr Der-
ham, have this cavernous ftru&ure of the brain ftill
more obfervable: and we are told that the cavity of
the tympanum communicates with the cells; but this
feems rather founded on theory than matter of faft.
Their brain is covered with the common membranes,
but its external furface is not formed into fo many
gyrae or convolutions as ours. Its anterior part is quite
folid, of a cineritious colour, and fo far has a refem-
blance of the corpora Jlriata as to give rife to the ol¬
factory nerves. The whole of it appears to us as im-
perfedl, and we can fcarce determine whether there be
any thing analogous to a third or fourth ventricle: nei¬
ther the corpus cailofum, fornix, nates, or tejles, &c. can
be obferved here ; which parts therefore cannot be
imagined as abfolutely neceflary for the functions of
life, fince we find thefe creatures perform them fuf-
ficiently well. We may perhaps think thefe ferve a
particular ufe in man, who is a rational creature ; but
then quadrupeds enjoy them in common with men.
Thefe protuberances, &c. feem rather to depend on
the different dilpofition of the feveral parts, being va-
rioufly connected and meeting in different directions
in different places, than their being abfolute’y necef-
fary for any particular ufe ; and the ufes that have
been affigned to different parts of the brain by authors,
feem to have no foundation but in the author’s fancy.
Their organ of'fmelling is very large, and well pro- The organ
vided with, nerves; hence they have this fenfation very > f fmell-
acute. Ravehs and other birds of prey give a fure ‘"(T
proof of this, by their being able to find out their prey,
though concealed from their fight and at a confider-
able diftance,
Thofe birds that grope for their food in the waters,
mud, &c. have large nerves, which run quite to the
end of their bills, by which they rind out and diftin-
guith their food.
The anterior part of their eyes (inftead of having the
fclerotic coat continued, fo as to make near a fphere as
in us) turns all of a fudden flat; fo that here the
fclerotic makes but half a fphere ; arid the cornea rifes
up afterwards, being a portion of a very fmall and di-
ftinCt fphere : fo that in thefe creatures there is a much
greater difference betwixt the fclerotic and cornua than
in us. Hence their eyes do not jut out of their heads,
as in man and quadrupeds. As moft of thefe creatures
are continually employed in hedges and thickets, there¬
fore, that their eyes might be fecured from theft in«i-
ries, as well as from too much light when flying in the
face of the fun, there is a very elegant mechanifm in
their eyes. A membrane rifes from the internal can-
L 12 thus*
Eye.
268 COMPARAT
OfFowIs. thus, which at pleafure, like a curtain, can be made to
'■"’'V"--’' cover the whole eye ; and this by means of a proper
mufcle that rifes from the fclerotic coat, and palling
round the optic nerves, runs through the mufculus oculi
attollens (by which however the optic nerves are not
compreffed) and palpebra, to be inferted into the edge
, of this membrane. Whenever this mufcle ceafes to
aft, the membrane by its own elafticity again difcovers
the eye. This covering is neither pellucid nor opaque,
both which would have been equally inconvenient; but,
being fomewhat tranfparent, allows as many rays to en¬
ter as to make any objeft juft vifible, and is fufficient
to direft them in their progreffion. By means of this
membrane it is that the eagle is faid to look at the fun.
Quadrupeds alfo, as we mentioned before, have a fmall
135 membrana niSltans.
Botvrfe Befides, all fowls have another particularity, the ufe
description of which is not fo well underftood; and that is, a
and ufes. pretty .long black triangular purfe, riling from the
bottom of their eye juft at the entry of the optic
nerve, and ftretched out into their vitreous humour,
and one would imagine it gave fome threads to the
cryftalline. To this the French (who probably were
the firft who took notice of it in their diffeftions be¬
fore the Royal Academy) gave the name of bowfe noire.
This may pofiibly ferve to fuffocate fome of the rays
of light, that they may fee objefts more diftinftly with¬
out hurting their eyes. It has a conneftion with the
vitreous, and feems to be joined alfo to the cryftallinc,
humours. If we fuppofe it to have a power of con-
traftion (which may be as well allowed as that of the
iris), it may fo alter the pofition of the vitreous and
cryftalline humours, that the rays from any body may
not fall perpendicularly upon the cryftalline ; and this
feems to be neceffary in them, fince they cannot change
the figure of the anterior part of their eye fo much as
we can do : and as this animal is expofed often to too
great a number of rays of light, fo they have no
tapetum, but have the bottom of their eye wholly black
on the retina; and in confequence of this, fowls fee
136 very ill in the dark.
Organ of They have no external ear ; but in place thereof a
wring" puft 0f very fine feathers covering the meatus audito-
rius, which eafily allows the rays of found to pafs them,
and likewife prevents duft or any infeft from getting
in. An external ear would have been inconvenient in
their palling through thickets, and in flying, &c. A
liquor is feparated in the external part of the ear, or
meatus audit onus, to lubricate the palfage, and further
prevent the entrance of any infefts, &c. The mem¬
brana tympani is convex externally; and no mufcles
are fixed to the bones of their ear, which are rather of
a cartilaginous confiftence: any tremulous motions
impreffed on the air are communicated in thefe crea¬
tures merely by the fpring and elafticity of thefe bones ;
fo, probably, the membrane is not fo ftretched as in the
human ear by mufcles. The femicircular canals are
very diftinft, and eafdy prepared.
Sect. III. Anatomy of a Carnivorous Bird.
•We come next to the birds of prey, and for an ex¬
ample {hall take a flannel or fmall hawk. The princi¬
pal difference to be obferved in them, is in their chy-
lopoietic vifcera, which may be accounted for from
their different way of life.
[VE Anatomy. Chap. II.
Immediately under their clavicles, you will obferve Of Aqueou*
the oefophagus expanded into their ingluvies, which is1 Aninia'i8-1
proportionally lefs than in the granivordus kind, fince ” v '
their food does not fwell fo much by maceration; and iBghjv^e3
for the fame reafon, there is a lefs quantity of a men-
ftruum to be found here. J3g
They have alfo a ventriculus fuccenturiatus, plentiful-Ventrirulu*
ly ftored with glands, fituated immediately above theirfuccenturi-
ftomach, which we fee here is thin and mufculo-mem-aJUi*
branous, otherwife than in the granivorous kind : and
this difference, which is almoft the only one we {hall
find betwixt the two different fpecies of fowls, is eafi¬
ly accounted for from the nature of their food, which
requires lefs attrition, being eafier of digeftion than
that of the other kind ; neverthelefs, it feems requifite
it fliould be ftronger than the human, to compenfate
the want of abdominal mufcles, which are here very
thin. 139
The fame mechamfm obtains in this creature’s </«o-Tnte£hna.
denim that we have hitherto obferved. As being a
carnivorous animal, its guts are proportionally ftiorter
than thofe of the granivorous kind ; for the reafon firft
given, viz. its food being more liable to corrupt, there¬
fore not proper to be long detained in the body 5 and
for that reafon it has no intejlina caca, of which the
other fpecies of fowls have a pair. The difference in
their wings, backs, and claws, are obvious ; and have
been already in fome meafure obferved.
Chap. III. The Anatomy of Aqueous Animals.
Sect. I. Of the Amphibious Tribe.
Aqueous animals are generally divided into fuch Ii}0
as have lungs, and fuch as want them. The firft fpe¬
cies differ fo inconfiderably from an ox or any other
quadruped, that'a few obfervations may be fufficient to
give an idea of their internal ftrufture ; for this pur-
pofe, we {hall firft examine that fpecies of them which
moft rcfembles man in the internal ftrufture, the tor-
toife. ... 141
1. Tortoife. The Covering of this animal is com-Their {hell
pofed of a {hell fo remarkably hard and firm in its tex-'^coverin£>
ture, that a loaded waggon may go over it without6CC*
hurting the ftiell or the animal within it. In the
young animal, this fhell grows harder in proportion
as its contents expand ; and this creature never changes
its flic 11 as fome others do: hence it was neceffary
for it to be made up of different pieces; and thefe are
more or lefs diftinft in different animals. Their feet
are fmall and weak; and they are exceedingly flow in
motion.
It has neither tongue nor teeth; to make up for
which, their lips are fo hard as to be able to break al¬
moft the hardeft bodies.
The alimentary canal very much refembles that of
the former clafs.
The principal difference is in the circulation of the
blood. The heart has two diftinft auricles, without
any communication ; and under thefe, there is the ap¬
pearance of two ventricles fimilar in fliape to thofe of
the former clafs: but they may be confidered as one
cavity ; for the ventricle fends out not only the pul¬
monary artery, but likewife the aorta; for there is a
paffage in the feptum, by which the ventricles com¬
municate freely, and the blood paffes from the left
Chap. lit. COMPARAT
Of Aqueous into the right one. From the aorta the blood re-
, An mals turn3 into the right auricle, while that from the pulmo-
” nary artery returns to the left aui-icle, from which
it is fent to the left ventricle, &c. fo that only a part
of the blood is fent to the lungs, the reft going
immediately into the aorta; hence the animal is not
under the neceffity of breathing fo often as otherwife
141 ^ would be.
B’ood-vef- From the bafe of the right ventricle goes out the
pulmonary artery and aorta. The, pulmonary ar¬
tery is fpent upon the lungs. The aortae may be
faid to be three in number : for the aorta fmiftra af-
cends through the pericardium in company with the
pulmonary artery ; and afterwards turns down, and
fends off a confiderable branch, w'hich fplits into
two; one of which joins the right - aorta, while the
other is diftributed upon the liver, ftomach, inte-
ftines, &c. What remains of this aorta runs to the
kidneys or pofterior extremities of that fide. An aor¬
ta defcendens, &c. after piercing the pericardium, runs
down and communicates with the branch already men¬
tioned, is diftributed upon the right kidney and infe¬
rior extremity, and alfo upon the bladder and parts of
generation. An aorta afcendens, after getting out of
the pericardium, fupplies the fore-legs, neck, and
head. The blood in the fuperior part of the body re¬
turns to the right auricle by two jugular veins, which
unite after perforating the pericardium. From the
inferior part, it refLrns to the fame auricle by two
large veins; one on the right fide receives the blood
in the right lobe of the liver; the other on the left fide
receives the blood in the left lobe, and alfo a trunk
which corrtfponds with the inferior vena cava in other
animals. The pulmonary veffels run in the left auricle
in the common way.
The abforbent fyftem in the turtle, like that
in the former clafs, confifts of ladteals and lym¬
phatics, with their common trunks the thoracic dudts;
but differs from it in having no obvious lymphatic
glands on any part of its body, nor plexus formed at
143 the termination in the red veins,
la&eals. The lafleals accompany the blood-veffels upon the
mefentery', &nd form frequent net-works acrofs thefe
veffels: near the root of the mefentery a plexus is
formed, which communicates with the lymphatics
coming from the kidneys and parts near the anus. At
the root of the mefentery on the left fide of the fpine,
the lymphatics of the fpleen join the lafteals; and im¬
mediately above tin’s a plexus is formed, which lies
upon the right aorta. From this plexus a large branch
arifes. which paffes behind the right aorta to the left
fide, and gets before the left aorta, where it aflifts in
forming a very large receptaculum, which lies upon
that artery.
From this receptaculum arife the thoracic duels.
From its right fide goes one trunk, which is joined by
that large branch that came from the plexus to the left
fide of the right aorta, and then paffes over the fpine.
This trunk is the thoracic dutt of the right fide ; for
having got to the right fide of the fpine, it runs up¬
wards, on the infide of the right aorta, towards the
right fubclavian vein ; and when it has advanced a
little above the lungs, it divides into branches, which
near the fame place are joined by a large branch, that
comes up on the outlide of the aorta. From this part
IVE Anatomy. 269
upwards, thofe veffels divide and fubdivide, and are Of Aqueous
aftewards joined by the lymphatics of the neck, which . Anima s-,
likewife form branches before they join thofe from be- ’
low. So that between the thoracic dudl and the lym¬
phatics of the fame fide of the neck, a very intricate
net-work is formed ; from which a branch goes into
the angle between the jugular vein and- the lower part
or trunk of the fubclavian. This branch lies therefore
on the iniide of the jugular vein, whilft another gets to
the outfide of it, and feems to.terminate in it, a little
above the angle, between that vein and the fubcla¬
vian. I44
Into the above mentioned receptaculum the lym- Lympha-
phatics of the ftomach and duodenum likewife enter.
Thofe of the duodenum run by the fide of the pan¬
creas, and probably receive its lymphatics and a part
cf thofe of the liver. The lymphatics of the ftomach
and duodenum have very numerous anaftomofes, and
form a beautiful net-work on the aVtery which they
accompany. From this receptaculum likewife (befides
the trunk already mentioned, which goes to the right
fide) arife two other trunks pretty equal in fize ; one.
of which runs upon the left fide, and the other upon
the right fide of the left aorta, till they come within
two or three inches of the left fubclavian vein ; where
they join behind the aorta, and form a number of
branches which are afterwards joined by the lympha¬
tics of the left fide of the neck ; fo that here a plexus
is formed as upon the right fide. From this plexus a
branch iffues, which opens into the angle between the
jugular and fubclavian vein. j4g
2. Serpent and Crocodile. The circulation in tbefe is Circulation
fimilar to that of the turtle; but we find only one ven-ferpents*
tricle. The blood goes from the right auricle to the &c‘
ventricle which fends out the pulmonary artery and aor¬
ta ; the blood from the pulmonary artery returns to the
left auricle, that from the aorta going to the right au¬
ricle, and both the auricles opening into the ventricle.
3. Frog and Lizard. Thefe differ from the former
animals, in having only one auricle and a ventricle :
and beiides, the ventricle fends ont a tingle artery,
which afterwards fplits into two parts ; one to fupply
the lungs, the other runs to all the reft of the body :
from the lungs and from the other parts, the blood re¬
turns into the auricle.
Sect. IT. Anatomy of Fi/hes. ^
Of thefe we may firft obferve, that they have a very Cuticula,
ftrong thick cuticle, covered with a great number ofilkt:iiefs t0
feales, laid one on another like the tiles of houfes*tlle^uluaE’
This among other arguments is fuppofed to prove the
human epidermis to be of a fquamous ftrufture : but
the feales refemble the hairs, wool, feathers, &c. of the
creatures that live in air; and below thefe we obferve
their proper cuticula and cutis.
The generality of fifties, particularly thofe ftiaped
like the cod, haddock, &c. have a line running on
each fide. Thefe lines open externally by a number
of du&s, which throw out a mucous or flimy fubftance
that keeps them foft and clammy, and feems to ferve r47
the fame purpofe with the mucous glands or dufts which Swimming-,
are placed within many of our internal organs. how per-
_ In the next place, thefe creatures have neither ante-
rior nor pofterior extremities, as quadrupeds and fowls; 0fYhcir*153
for their progreffion is performed in a different way fins, tail air-
from bags, &c,
27o G O M P A R A T I
'Oi Aqueous from either of thofe fpeeies of animals : for this pur-
, /Xmmals p0fe t}jey. are provided with machines, properly con lilt-
y ing of a great number of elaftic beams, connected to
one another by firm membranes, and with a tail of the
fame texture ; their fpine is very moveable towards the
poiterior part, and the llrongett mufcles of their bodies
are inferted there. Their tails are fo framed as to
contract to a narrow fpace when drawn, together to ei¬
ther fide, and to expand again when drawn to a ftraight
line with their bodies; fo, by the affillance of this
broad tail, and the fins on their fides, they make their
progreffion much in the fame way as a boat with oars
on its fides and rudder at is ftern. The perpendicu¬
lar fins fituated on the fuperior part of their body keep
them in aquililrio, hindering the belly from turning
«ppermoft : which it would readily do, becaufe of the
air bag in the abdomen rendering their belly fpeciiical-
ly lighter than their back ; but by the refiltance thefe
fins meet with when inclined to either fide, they are
kept with their backs always uppermoft.
The heft account of this matter, we have in the trea-
tife before mentioned, vi.z. Borellius de Motu Animalium,
■cap. 23.
It may be next obferved, that thefe creatures have
nothing that can be called a neck) feeing they feck
their food in an horizontal way, and can move their
bodies either upwards or downwards, as they have
occafion, by the contra&ion or dilatation of the air¬
bag; a long neck, as it would hinder their progrefiibn,
would be very difadvantageous in the element they
live in.
The abdomen is covered on the inferior part with a
black-coloured thin membrane refembling our perito¬
neum. It is divided from the thorax by a thin mem¬
branous partition, which has no muscular appearance ;
fo that we have now feen two different forts of animals
that have no mnfcular diaphragm.
Thefe creatures are not provided, with teeth proper
for breaking their aliment into fmall morfels, as the
food they ufe is generally fmall fifhes, or other animals
that need no trituration in the mouth, but fpontaneouf-
ly and gradually difl'olve into a-liquid chyle. Their
teeth ferve to grafp their prey, and hinder the creatures
they have once catched from efcaping again. Fur the
fame purpofe, the internal cartilaginous bafis of the
bronchi, and the two round bodies fituated in the po-
fterior part of the jaws, have a great number of tenter¬
hooks fixed into them, in fuch a manner as that any
thing can eafily get down, but is hindered from getting
back. The water that is neceffarily taken in along
with their food in too great quantities to be received
into their jaws in deglutition, paffes betwixt the inter-
fiices of the bronchi and the flap that covers them.
The comprefiion of the water on the bronchi is of con-
fiderable ufe to the creature, as we fhall explain by
and by.
The cefopj.mgus in thefe creatures is very fhort, and
fcarcely diflinguifhed from their ftomach, feeing their
food lies almoft equally in both. The itomach is of an
oblong figure. There are commonly found fmall fifhes
in the flomach of large ones ftill retaining their na¬
tural form; but when touched, they melt down into a
jelly. From this, and the great quantity of liquors
poured into their ftomachs, we may conclude, that di-
geftion is folely brought about in them by the diflblving
V E Anatomy. Chap, III.
power of amentlruum, and that no trituration happens Of Aqueous
here, An.aial-. ^
The^a/r in thefe animals are very fhort, making only
three turns ; the lall of which ends in the common [n,ef^nat
cloaca for the feces, urine, and femen, fituated about
the middle of the inferior part of their bodies. j. r
To what we call pancreas, fome give the name of in- pancreas.
tejlinula caca ; it confifts of a very great number of
fmall threads, like fo many little worms, which all ter¬
minate at lait in two larger canals that open into the
firft gut, and pour into it a vifeous liquot much about
the place where the biliary du&s enter. That kind of
pancreas formed of inteitinula caeca is peculiar to a cer¬
tain kind of fillies ; for the cartilaginous, broad, and
flat kind, as the fkate, foie,-flounder, &c. have a pan¬
creas refembling that of the former clafs of animals.
Their inteftines are conne&ed to the back-bone by a
membrane analogous to a mefentery.
Their liver is very large, of a wlutifh coloitf, and lies Liver5, gall-
aim oft in the left fide wholly, and contains a great deal bladder,
of fat or oil. a^id their
The gall-bladder is fituated a confiderable way from du'as•
their liver; and fends out a canal, the cyftic duff,
which joins with the hepatic duff juft at the entry into
the gut. Some fibres being obferved ftretched from
the liver to the gall-bladder, but without any apparent
cavity, the bile was fuppofed not to be carried into the
gall-bladder in the uiual way, but that it muft either
be fecerned on the lides of the facf, or regurgitate into
it from the canalis choledochus. It is certain, however,
that hepato-cyftic duffs exift in fifli as well as in fowls.
This, for example, is very obvious in the falmon, where
large and diflinff duffs run from the biliary duffs of
the liver, and open into the gall-bladder. f ^
The Jpleen is placed near the back-bone, and at a Spleen, it*
place w-here it is fubjefted to an alternate preflure from u,e dr wn
the couitriffioH and dilatation of the air-bag, which is j'rom £‘,ia*
fituated in the neighbourhood. Since, in all the dif-10^‘
ferent animals we have difleffed, we find the fpleeu at¬
tached to fomewhat that may give it a conquafl'ation 5
as in the human fubjeff and quadrupeds, it is contigu¬
ous to the diaphragm ; in fowls, it is placed betwixt
the back-bone, the liver, and itomach ; ia fifties, it
lies on the faccus aerius : and fince we find it fo well
ferved with blood-veflels, and all its blood returning
into the livers we muif not conclude the fpleen to be
an inutile pomlns, only to ferve as a balance to the ani¬
mal pro equilibria, but particularly defigned for prepa¬
ring the biood to the liver.
The only organs of generation in this animal are two Organs A
bags fituated in the abdomen uniting near the podex. genefatioa.
Thefe in the male are filled with a whitifh firm fob*
fiance called the milt; and in the female with an infi¬
nite number of little ova cluitered together, of a red-
difh yellow colour, called the roe. Both thefe at
fpawning-time we find very much diftended ; w’hereas
at another time the male organs can fcarce be dillin-
guifiied from the female ; nor is there any proper in*
itrurnent in the male for throwing the feed into the or¬
gans of the female, as in other crea.ures. We (hall not
take upon us to determine the way whereby the female
fperm is impregnated : but we find that the fpavvn of
frogsconfifis in the fmall fpecks wrapped up in a whi¬
tifh glutinous liquor; thefe fpecks are the rudiments
of the young frogs, which are nourifhed in that flquof
till
148
Teeth, for
w hat made
T49
Digettion
pei formed
fokly by a
meuflru-
um.
Chap* III.
Of Aqueous till tKey are able to go in fearch of their food. In the
Animals fame vv-ay> the ova of filbes are thrown out and depoll-
U-~> ted in the fand, the male being for the mod part ready
to impregnate them, and they are incubated by the
heat of the fun. It is curious enough to remark with
what care they feek for a proper place to depolite their
ova, by fwimming to the Ihallow, where they can better
enjoy the fun’s rays, and ihun the large jaws of other
fiihes. The river-fifhes, again, fpawn in fome creek
free from the hazard of the impetuous ftream. But
whether this mixture be brought about in fiftes by a
limple application of the genitals to each other, or if
both of them throw out their liquors at the fame time
in one place, and thus bring about the delired mixture,
it is not eafy to determine. Spallanzani has found,
that the eggs of frogs, toads, and water mewts, are
not fecundated in the body of the female; that the
male emits his femen upon the fpawn while it is flowing
from the female ; and that the foetus pre-exifts in the
body of the female : but whether impregnation takes
place in the fame manner in fiihes, he has net yet been
able to determine, though he feems to think it pro¬
bable. Thtfe creatures are fo fhy, that we cannot
cafily get to obferve their way of copulatlor., and are
coufequently but little acquainted with their natural
hiftory. Frogs, it is very evident, do not copulate ;
at lead no farther than to allow both fexes an oppor¬
tunity of throwing their fperm. Early in the fpring
the male is found for feveral days in dole contact upon
the back of the female, vrith his fore legs round her
body in fuch a manner that makes it very difficult,£o
feparate them, but there is no communication. At
this time the female lays her fpawn in fome place that
is mod fecure, while the male emits his fperm upon the
,. r female fpawn.
After raifing up the black peritoneum in Slhes, there
comes in view an oblong white membranous bag, in
which there is nothing contained but a quantity of
elaftic air. This is the f'wimming-lladder: it lies clofe
to the back bone ; and has a pretty drong mufcular
coat, whereby it can contraft itfelf. By contrafting
this bag, and coudenfing the air within it, they can
make their bodies fpecidcally heavier than water, and
fo- readily fall to the bottom ; whereas the mufcular
fibres ceafing to a&, the air is again dilated, and they
become fpecifically lighter than water, and fo fwim
above. According to the different degrees of contrac¬
tion and dilatation of this bladder, they can keep high¬
er or lower in the water at pleafure. Hence flounders,
foies, raia or fkate, and fuch other fifhes as want this
fac, are found always groveling at the bottom of the
V'ater: it is owing to this that dead fiflies (unlefs this
membrane has been previoufly broke) are found fwim¬
ming a-top, the mufcular fibres then ceafing to ad,
and that with their bellies uppermod ; for the back¬
bone cannot yield, and the didended fac is protruded
into the abdomen, and the back is confequently hea-
vied at its upper part, according to their podure.
There is here placed a glandular fubdance, containing
*56 a good quantity of red blood ; and it is very probable
that the air contained in the fwimming bladder is de-
munication"from this fubdance. From the anterior part of
with the the bag go out two procejfes or appendices, which, ac-
wenu-kulus, cording to the gentlemen of the French academy, ter-
COMPARATIVE Anatomy.
2jt
The air-
b>a<Wer,
and its
life*.
minate in their fauces: In a variety of other fiihes we Of-Aqueous
find communications with fome parts of the alimentary Amma1-S-.
canal, particularly the oefophagus and domach. The ,
falmon has an opening from the fore end of the air-bag
into the oefophagus, which is furrounded by a kind of
mufcular fibres. The herring has a funnel-like paflage
leading from the bottom of the domach into the air¬
bag ; but it is not determined whether the air enters
the aii-bag by this opening, or co nes out by it: the
latter, however, feems to be the more probable opi¬
nion, as the glandular body is found in all fiflies,
whereas there are feveral without this paffage of com¬
munication. ^7
At the fuperior part of this bag there are other red-Ureters v»*
coloured bodies of a glandular nature, which are con- ^ca urina-
ne&ed with the kidneys. From them the ureters g° urethra,
down to their infertion in the ve/tca urinaria, which lies
in the lower part of the abdomen ; and the urethra is
there produced, which terminates in the podex.
Thefe lad-mentioned parts have not hitherto been
obferved in fome fpecies of fifhes; whence authors too
halldy denied them in all. Thefe creatures have a j.g
membranous diaphragm, which forms a fac in which the Diaphragm
heart is contained. It is very tenfe, and aimed per¬
pendicular to the vertebrae. 159
The heart is of a triangular form, with its bafe The heart
downwards, and its apex uppermod ; which fituation has_buc on®
it has becaufe of the %ranchi<e. It has hut one auricle ai:ricle anF
ami one ventricle, becaufe they want lungs; and one^;^
great artery. The fize of the auricle and that of the
ventricle are much the fame ; the artery fends opt
nuiiberlefs branches to the branchiae or gills. And
what is rather curious, this artery, indead of fupport-
ing all parts as in the frog, is didribnted entirely up¬
on the gills ; every branch terminating there, and be¬
coming fo extremely (mail as at lad to efeape the na-
ked eye- ... 160
The branchiae he in two large flits at each fide ofThe bran-
their heads, and feem to be all they have that bears c}liar
any analogy to lungs. Their form is femicircular ;
they have a vad number of red fibrillte danding out onufe.
each fide of them like a fringe, and very much refemble
the vane of a feather. Thefe btanchiae are perpetually
fubje&ed to an alternate motion and preffure from the
water ; and we may here rematk, that we have not
found any red blood but in places fubjedled to this al¬
ternate prtffure. This obfervation will help us in ex¬
plaining the aftion of the lungs upon the blood. Over
thefe gills there is a large flap, allowing a communica¬
tion externally; by which the water they are obliged to
take into their mouths with their food finds an exit
without pafling into their ftomach: it is owing to thefe
flaps corning fo far down that the heart is faid com¬
monly to be fituated in their heads. The blood is col-
le6ied again from the gills by a vad number of fmall
veins, fomewhat in the fame manner as in our pulmo¬
nary vein ; but indead of going back to the heart a
fecond time, they immediately unite, and form an aor¬
ta defeendens, without the intervention of an auricle
and ventricle. Hence a young anatomid may be
puzzled to find out the power by which the blood i».
propelled from the gills to the different parts of the
body; but the difficulty will be confiderably leffenecf
when we confider the manner in which the blood is
2- carried;
272. COMPARAT
Of Aqueous carried through the liver from the inteftines in man
Animals. an(j quadrupeds. The aorta in fifhes fends off branch-
w-y—»< wJuch fupply all the parts of the body excepting the
gills. From the extremity of thofe branches the blood
returns to the heart fomewhat in the fame manner as in
the former clafs of animals; only there are two infe¬
rior venje cavse, whereas the former has but one.
Alforbent Syjlem inFifhes. We (hall take the had¬
dock as a general example: for the other fifties, parti¬
cularly thofe of the fame fliape, will be found in gene¬
ral to agree with it.
mi ^hatic t^e belly of a haddock, immedi-
veffels. atiC ately below the outer Ann, a lymphatic vefiel runs up¬
wards from the anus, and receives branches from the
parietes of the belly, and from the fin below the anus:
near the head this lymphatic paffes between the two
pedloral fins; and having got above them, it receives
their lymphatics. It then goes under the fymphyfis of
the two bones which form the thorax, where it opens
into a net-work of very large lymphatics, which lie
clofe t» the pericardium, and almoit entirely furrounds
the heart. This net-work, befides that part of it be¬
hind the heart, has a large lymphatic on each fide,
which receives lymphatics from the kidney, runs upon
the bone of the thorax backwards; and when it has got
as far as the middle of that bone, it fends off a large
branch from its infide to join the thoracic dudt. After
detaching this branch, it is joined by the lymphatics
of the thoracic fins, and foon after by a lymphatic
which runs upon the fide of the fifti. It is formed of
branches, which give it a beautiful penniform appear¬
ance.
Befides thefe branches, there is another fet deeper
which accompanies the ribs. After the large lympha¬
tic has been joined by the above-mentioned veffels, it
receives lymphatics from the gills, orbit, nole, and
mouth. A little below the orbit, another net-work
appears, confifting in part of the veffels above defcribed,
and of the thoracic duft. This net-work is very com¬
plete, fome of its veffels lie bn each fide of the mufcles
of the gills ; and from its internal part a trunk is fent
out which terminates in the jugular vein.
Thckdtcah ^le ^ai^ea^s run on eac^ t^e mefenteric ar¬
teries, anaftomofing frequently acrofs thofe veffels. The
receptaculum into which they enter is very large, in
proportion to them ; and conlilts at its lower part of
two branches, of which one lies between the duode¬
num and ftomach, and runs a little way upon the pan¬
creas, receiving the lymphatics of the liver, pancreas,
thofe of the lower part of the ftomach, and the lacleals
from the greateft part of the fmall inteftines. The
other branch of the receptaculum receives the lym¬
phatics from the reft of the alimentary canal. The re¬
ceptaculum formed by thefe two branches lies on the
right fide of the upper part of the ftomach, and is join¬
ed by fome lymphatics in that part, and alfo by fome
from the found and gall-bladder, which in this fiftt ad¬
heres to the receptaculttm. This thoracic du& takes
its rife from the receptaculum, and lies on the right
fide of the cefophagus, receiving lymphatics from that
part; and running up about half an inch, it divides
into two dufts, one of which pafles over the ccib-
phagus to the left fide, and the other goes ftraight
upon the right fide, pafles by the upper part of the
kidney, from which it receives fome fmall branches,
N° 87. 1
IV E Anatomy. Chap. III.
and foon afterwards is joined by a branch from the Of Aqueou*
large lymphatic that lies above the bone of the tho- Animals.
rax, as formerly mentioned; near this part it like- v
wife fends off a branch to join the duft of the oppofite
fide ; and then, a little higher, is joined by thofe large
lymphatics from the upper part of the gills, and from
the fauces.
The thoracic duft, after being joined by thefe vef¬
fels, communicates with the net-work near the orbit,
where its lymph is mixed with that of the lymphatics
from the pofterior part of the gills, and from the fupe-
rior fins, belly, &c. and then from this net-work, a vef-
fel goes into the jugular vein juft below the orbit. This
laft veffel, \yhich may be called the termination of the
whole fyftem, is very fmall in proportion to the net¬
work from which it rifes; and indeed the lymphatics
of the part are fo large, as to exceed by far the fize of
the fauguiferous veffels.
The thoracic duel from the left fide, having paffed
under the cefophagus from the right, runs on the in¬
fide of the vena cava of the left fide, receives a branch
from its fellow of the oppofite fide, and joins the large
lymphatics which lie on the left fide of the pericar¬
dium, and apart of thofe which lie-behind the heart;
and afterwards makes, together with the lymphatics
from the gills, upper fins, and fide of the fifti, a net¬
work, from which a veffel paffes into the jugular vein
of this fide. In a word, the lymphatics of the left fide
agree exadlly with thofe of the right fide above defcri¬
bed. Another part of the fyftem is deeper feated, ly¬
ing between the roots of the fpinal proceffes of the
back-bone. This part confifts of a large trunk that
begins from the lowrer part of the filh, and as it afeends
receives branches from the dorfal fins and adjacent
parts of the body. It goes up near the head, and fends
a branch to each thoracic duel near its origin. ^
The brain in fifties is formed pretty much in the Cerebrum,
fame way as that of fowls ; only we may obferve, that
the pofterior lobes bear a greater proportion to the
anterior. 164
Their organ of fmelling is large; and they have a Organ of
power of contradling and dilating the entry into theirfaudh
nofe as they have occaiion. It ieems to be moftly by
their acute fmell that they difeover their food : for
their tongue feems not to hare been defigned for a
very nice fenfation, being of a pretty firm cartilagi¬
nous fubftance; and common experience evinces, that
their fight is not of fo much ufe to them as their fmell
in fearching for their nourifhment. If you throw a
frefti worm into the water, a fifti fhall diftinguifli it at
a confiderable diftanee; and that this is not done by
the eye, is plain from pbferving, that after the fame
worm has been a confiderable time in the water and
loft its fmell, no fifties will come near it: but if you
take out the bait, and make feveral little inciiions into
it, fo as to let out more of the odoriferous effluvia, it
{hall have the fame eft eft as formerly. Now it is cer¬
tain, had the creatures difeovered this bait with their
eyes, they would have come equally to it in both ca¬
fes.. In confequence of their fmell being the principal
means they have of difeovering their food, we may fre¬
quently obferve their allowing themfelves to be carried
down with the ftream, that they may afeend again
leifurely againft the current of the water; thus the o-
doriferous particles fwimming in that medium, being
ap-
compleat
fphere, ah
why.
Chap. III.
Of Aqueous applied more forcibly to their fmelling organs, produce
,A!!imals-, a ftronger fcnfation.
The optic nerves, in thefe animals are not confounded
4*c3 with one another in their middle progrefsbetwixt their
nerves. origin and the orbit, but the one paffes over the other
without any communication; fo that the nerve that
comes from the left fide of the brain goes diftinctly to
the right eye, and vice verfa.
Indeed it would feem not to be neceffary for the
optic nerves of flfhes to have the fame kind of connec¬
tion with each other as thofe of man have: for their
eyes are not placed in the fore-part, but in the fides of
their head; and of confeq.uence, they cannot fo con¬
veniently look at any objeft with both eyes at the fame
• time.
The cry. The tens tryjlallma is here a complete fphere, and
ftalline hu- more denfe than in terreftrial animals, that the rays of
mour a light coming from water might be fufficiently refrafted.
As filhes are continually expofed to injuries in,the
uncertain element they live in, and as they are in
perpetual danger of becoming a prey to .the larger
ones, it was meceffary that their eyes fhould never
be fhut; and as the cornea is fufficiently wafiied by
the element they, live in, they are not provided
with palpebne: but then, as in the current itfelf the
eye muft be expofed to feveral injuries, there was a ne-
ceffity it ffiould be fufficiently defended ; which in ef¬
fect it is by a firm pellucid membrane, that feems to be
a continuation of the cu$icula, being ftretched over
here. The epidermis is very proper for this purpofe,
as being infenfible and deftitute of veffels, and confe-
quently not liable to obfirudtions, or, by that means, of
becoming opaque. In the eye of the Ikate tribe, there
is a dented curtain which hangs over the pupil, and
may fhut out the light when the animal relts, and it is
fimilar to the tunica adnata of other animals.
Although it was formerly much doubted whether
fifhes pofleffed a fenfe of hearing, yet there can be
little doubt of it now; fince it is found that they
have a complete organ of hearing as well as other ani¬
mal^, and likewife as the water in which they live is
proved to be a good medium. Fifhes, particularly
thofe of the fkate kind, have a bag at fome diftance
behind the eyes, y'hich contains a fluid and a foft cre-
taceoixs fubftance, and fupplies the place of veftibule
and cochlea. There is a nerve dillributed upon it,
fimilar to the portxo mollis in man. They have three
femipircular canals, whTcti are filled with a fluid, and
communicate with the bag : they have likewife, as the
prefent profeffor of anatomy at Edinburgh has lately
difcovered, a meatus externiis, which leads to the in¬
ternal ear. The cod fifh, and others of the fame
fhape,’have an .organ of hearing fomewhat fimilar to
the former ; but inftead of a foft fubfiance contained
in the bag, there is a hard cretaceous Hone In this
kind of fifh no meatus externus has been yet obfer-
ved : And Dr Monro is inclined to think that they
really have not one, from the confideration that the
common canal or vefiibule, where the three femicircu-
lar canals communicate, is feparated from the cavity
of the cranium by a thin membrane only; that this ca¬
vity, in the greater number of fifhes, contains a watery
liquor in confiderable quantity; and that, by the
tbinnefs of the cranium, the tremor excited by a fo-
fiorouS body may readily and eafily be tranfmitted
Vol. V. Part I.
COMPARATIVE Anatomy.
2 73
167
Organs of
through the cranium to the W’ater within it, and fo to Of Infeds
the ear. c
Chap. IV. The Anatomy of InfeHs.
As infefts and worms are fo exceedingly nume¬
rous, it woidd be endlefs to examine all the different
kinds, nor would it ferve, any ufeful purpofe to the
anatomift. We fhall therefore be content with making
a few general obfervations, and thefe chiefly on the
ftrudfure of their body ; leaving the variety of their
colour, lhape, &c. to the naturalifls. Infefts differ
from the former claffes, by their bodies being covered
with a hard cruft or fcale, by their having feelers or
antennae arifing from their head, and many of them
breathing the air through lateral pores. As to the
fhape of their bodies, though it fomewhat differs from
that of birds, being in general not fo flxarp before to
cut and make way through the air, yet it is well adap.
ted to their manner of life. The bafe of their bodies
is not formed of bone, as in many other animals, but
the hard external covering ferves them for fkin and
bone at the fame time. Their feelers, befide the ufe
of cleaning their eyes, are a guard to them in their
walk or flight. Their legs and wings are well fitted
for their intended fervice ; but the latter vary fo much
in different infefts,that fi-om them naturalifts have given
names to the feveral orders of the clafs. As, firft, the
Cokoptera, or beetle tribe, which have a cruftaceous
elytra or fhell, that fhuts together, and forms a longi¬
tudinal future down their back.
Hamiptera — as in cimex, cockroach, bug, &c. which
have the upper wings half cruftaceous and half mem¬
branaceous ; not divided by a longitudinal future, but
incumbent on each other.
Lepidoptera—as the butterfly, have four wings, co¬
vered with fine fcales in the form of powder.
Neuroptera—as the dragon-fly, fpring-fly, 3cc. have
four membranaceous tranfpareut naked wings, gene¬
rally reticulated.
Mymenoptera—as wafps, bees, &c. have four mem¬
branaceous wings, and a tail furniflied with a fting.
Diptera—as the common houfe-fly, have only two
wings.
riptera—as the lobfter, crab, fcorpion, fpider, &c.
have no wings.
The ftru&ure of the eye in many infe&s is a moft
curious piece of mechanifm. The outer part is re¬
markably hard, to guard againft injuries; and has
commonly a reticula.* appearance, or the whole may
be looked upon as an affemblage of fmaller eyes ; but
whether they fee obje&s multiplied before them, has
not yet been determined.
Linnaeus, and feveral others following him, deny
the exiftence of a brain in thefe creatures. But it is
certain, that at leaft a number of the larger kinds, as
the lobfter, crab, &c. have a foft fubftance fimilar to
the brain, from which the optic and other nerves take
their rife ; befides, when this fnbftance is irritated, the
animal is thrown into convulfions: hence we would
conclude, that infers have a brain as well as the for¬
mer claffes, although this is fmaller in proportion to
their bodies.
Their ear has been lately difcovered to be placed
at the root of their antennae or feelers, and can be
M m di-
274
Of Infedb.
CdMPARAT
tliftindly feen In feme of the larger kinds, as the lob-
fter.
They have a ftomach, and other organs of digeftion;
and it is curious, that in fome, as the lobfter, the teeth
are found in the ftoihach.
They have a heart and blood-veffels, and circulation
is carried on in them fomewhatas in the former clafs;
but the blood - is without red globules; or, as natu-
ralifts fpeak, is colourlefs. In the lobfter, and others
of the larger kind, when a piece of the ftiell is bro¬
ken, the pulfation of the heart is feen diftinftly, and
that fometimes for feveral hours after it has been laid
bare.
Lungs. The exiftence of thefe by fome has been
denied. But late experiments and obfervations ftiow,
that no fpecies want them, or at leaft fomething fimi-
lar to them; and in many infedis, they are larger in
proportion than in other animals : in moft of them
they lie on or near the furface of their body ; and fend
out lateral pores or tracheae, by which, if the animal
is bifmeared with oil, it is inftantly fuffocated.
Generation. The fame difference in fex exifts in in¬
fers as in other animals, and they even appear more
difpofed to increafe their fpecies; many of them, when
become perfedt, feeming to be created for no other
purpofe but to propagate their like. Thus the filk-
worm, when it arrives at its perfedt or moth-ftate, is
incapable of eating, and can hardly fly; it endeavours
only to propagate its fpecies : after which the male
immediately dies, and fo does the female as foon asfhe
has depofited'her eggs.
Befides thofe of the male and female, a third fex
exifts in fome infedts, which we call neuter. As thefe
have not the diftinguifhing parts of either fex, they
may be confidered as eunuchs or infertile. We know
of no inftance of this kind in any other clafs of ani¬
mals ; and it is only found among 'thofe infedls
which form themfelves into focieties, as bees, wafps,
and aunts: and here thefe eunuchs are real flaves, as
on them lies the whole buftnefs of the economy. No
hermaphrodites have as yet been difeovered among in¬
fedts.
Many have imagined that the generality of infedts
were merely the produdtion of putrefadlion, becaufe
they have been obferved to arife from putrefied fub-
ftances : but a contrary opinion is now more generally
adopted ; and it is pretty certain, that if putrid bo¬
dies be ftiut up in a clofe veflel, no infedts are ever ge¬
nerated unlefs their ova have been originally depofited
there. They are oviparous animals, and lay their eggs
in places merft convenient for the nourifhment of their
young ; fome in water, others in flefh ; fome in fruit
and leaves: while others make nefts in the earth or in
wood, and fometimes even in the hardeft (tone. The
IV E Anatomy. Chap. V.
eggs of all infedts firft become {larva') caterpillar or Of Wormsi
maggot; from which they are changed into [pupa)
chryfalis or aurelia, fo named from their being inclo-
fed in a cafe ; and thefe dying, or feeming to die, the
{imago) fly, or butterfly or perfedt ftate, fucceeds; and
during each of thefe changes their appearance differs
wonderfully.
Chap. V. Of Worms.
With refpedt to this clafs of animals, they have
charadters correfponding with thofe of the former
tribe, but are diftinguifhed from them in having no an¬
tennae, and in being furnifhed with tentacula.
Many of them, particularly thofe without {hells, are
remarkably tenacious of life, fometimes capable of be¬
ing new formed from a part which may have beeii fe-
parated. By much the greater number of them are de-
flitute of head, ears, nofe,-eyes, and feet.
Some of thofe in the firft order, as the common
round worms, have a vafcular and nervous fyftem, with
the parts of generation, which can be diftindlly feen.
Some, as the cuttle fifh, form a kind of connedtion
between fiflies and worms, in poffeffing gills but
wanting fins, &c. while others, as thofe of the loweft
order, or zoophyta, join the properties of the animal
and vegetable kingdom together.
The clafs is divided by.-Linnaeus, &c. into the fol¬
lowing orders, viz.
Intefiina—as the earth worm, leech, &c. which are
the moft Ample animals, being perfectly naked, and*
without limbs of any kind.
Mollufca — as the naked fnail, fea-ftar, cuttle fifti;
which are likewife Ample animals without any {hell,
but they are brachiated or furniflied with a kind of
limbs.
Lefacea—as the fnail, oyfter, &c. which have the
fame charadters as the former order, but are covered
with a {hell, and include the greater part of what we
commonly call jhell-fjh,.
Lithophyta — as corals, madrepors, &c. which are
compound animals fixed upon a calcareous bafe, con-
ftrudted by the creatures themfelves.
Zoophyta—as the fponge, polypus, &c. Thefe are
likewife compound animals, furniftied with a kind of
flowers, and having a vegetating root and ftem.
Some of thefe creatures inhabit the earth, others
live on the reft of the animal of on the vegetable king,
dom, and many are found in the hardeft ftones; while
an innumerable tribe of them live in the waters. In
general, they are faid to be of the hermaphrodite and
oviparous kind ; while the loweft clafs, as the polypi,
in a great meafure refemble the vegetable kingdom, in
their manner of growth.
COM
Com?ar.17ive Degree, among grammarians, that be¬
tween the pofitive and fuperlative degrees, expreffing
any particular quality above or beneath the level of
another.
COMPARISON, in a general fenfe, the confidera-
tioa of the relation between two perfons or things,
C O M
when oppofed and fet againft each other, by which we
judge of their agreement or difference.
Comparison of Ideas, an aft of the mind, whereby
it compares its ideas one with another, in refpeft of
extent, degree, time, place, or any other circumftan-
ces. See Idea.
Brute*
lllDifw
Htude.
COM [ 2
Brutes feem not to have tills faculty In any great
degree: they have, probably, feveral ideas diftindt
enough ; but cannot compare them farther than as to
fome fenfible circumflances annexed to the objedts
themfelves; the power of comparing general ideas,
which we obferve in men, we may probably conjedture
they have not at all.
Comparison, in grammar, the infkdtion of the
comparative degree. See Grammar.
Comparison, in rhetoric, is a figure whereby two
things are confidered with regard to fome third, which
is common to them both.
Inftrudlion is the principal, but not the only end of
comparifon. It may be employed with fuccefs in put¬
ting a-fubjcdt in a llrong point of view. A lively idea
is formed of a man’s courage by likening it to that of
a lion ; and eloquence is exalted in our imagination
comparing it to a river overflowing its bank, and in¬
volving all in its impetuous courfe. The fame effedt
is produced by contrail: a man in profperity becomes
, more fenfible of his happintfs, by comparing his con¬
dition with that of a perfon in want of bread. Thus
comparifon is fubfervient to poetry as well as to phi-
lofophy.
Comparifons ferve two purpofes: when addrefled to
the underftanding, their purpofe is to initrudl; when
to the heart, their purpofe is topleafe. Various means
contribute to the latter : lil, the fuggefting fome un-
ufual refemblance or contrail* ; 2d, the fetting an ob-
jedl in the ilrongeil light; 3d, the aflbeiating an ob-
jedl with others that are agreeable ; 4th, the elevating
an objedl; and 5th, the depreffing it. And that com¬
parifons may give pleafure by thefe various means, will
be made evident by examples which ihall be given, after
premifing fome general obfervations.
Objedls of different fenfes cannot be compared to¬
gether ; for fuch objedls are totally feparated from
each other, and have no circumilance in common to
admit either refemblance or contrail. Objedls of hear¬
ing may be compared together, as alfo of taile, of
fmell, and of touch: but the chief fund of comparifon
are objedls of fight; becaufe, in writing or fpeaking,
things can only be compared in idea, and the ideas of
fight are more diilindt and lively than thofe of any
other fenfe.
When a nation emerging out of barbarity begins to
think of the fine arts, the beauties of language cannot
long lie concealed; and when difeovered, they are
generally, by the force of novelty, carried beyond all
bounds of moderation. Thus, in the earlieil poems
of every nation, we find metaphors and fimilies found¬
ed on the flighted and mod didant refemblances,
which, lofing their grace with their novelty, wear
gradually out of repute; and now, by the improve¬
ment of tade, no metaphor, nor fimile is admitted into
any polite compofition but of the mod driking kind.
To illudrate this obfervation, a fpecimen ihall be given
afterward of fuch metaphors as we have been deferi-
bing: with refpedl to fimiles take the following
fpecimen :
“ Behold, thou art fair, my love: thy hair is as
“ a flock of goats that appear from Mount Gilpad:
“ thy teeth are like a flock of iheep from the wafli-
“ ing, every one bearing twins: thy lips are like
“ a thread of fcarlet: thy neck like the tower of
75-1 COM
“ David built for an armoury, whereon hang a Compari-
“ thoufand fhields of mighty men : thy two breads fon'
“ like two young roes that are twins, which feed <'1
“ among the lilies : thy eyes like the fifli-pools in
“ Hefbon, by the gate of Bath-rabbin : thy nofe
“ like the tower of Lebanon, looking toward Da-
“ mafeus.” Song of Solomon.
“ Thou art like fnow on the heath; thy hair like
“ the mid of Cromla, when it curls on the rocks
“ and Alines to the beam of the wed: thy breads
“ are like two fmooth rocks feen from Branno of
“ the dreams: thy arms like two white pillars in
“ the hall of the mighty Fingal.” Fingal.
It has no good eflehl to compare things by way of
fimile that are of the fame kind; nor to contrad things
of different kinds. The reafon is given in the article
above cited on the margin, and Ihall be here illudra-
ted by examples. The fird is a comparifon built upon
a refemblance fo obvious as to make little or no im-
preflion. Speaking of the fallen angels fearching for
mines of gold:
A numerous brigade haden’d: as when bands
Of pioneers with fpade and pick-ax arm’d.
Forerun the royal camp to trench a field
Or cad a rampart. Milton.
_ The next is of things contraded that are of different
kinds.
S>ueeni What, ns my Richard both- in fliape and
mind
Transform’d and weak? Hath Bolingbroke depos’d
Thine intelledl ? Hath he, been in thy heart ?
The lion, dying, thrudeth forth his paw,
And wounds the earth, if nothing elfe with rage
To be o’erpower’d: and wilt thou, pupil like.
Take thy corredlion mildly, kifs the tod,
And fawn on rage with bafe humility ?
Richardll. a£i. 5. fe. 1.
This comparifon has fcarce any force: a man and
a lion are of different fpecies, and therefore are pro¬
per fubjefts for a fimile ; but there is no fuch refem¬
blance between them in general, as to produce any
drong effedl bycontrading particular attributes or cir-
cumdances.
A third general obfervation is, That abftradl terms
can never be the fubjedl of comparifon, otherwife
than by being perfonified. Shakefpear compares ad-
verfity to a toad, and flander to the bite of a croco¬
dile; but in fuch comparifons thefe abdraft terms mud;
be imagined fenfible beings.
To have a jud notion of comparifons, they mud be
didinguifhed into two kinds ; one common and fami¬
liar, as where a man is compared to a lion in courage,
or to a horfe in fpeed ; the other more didant and re¬
fined,. where two things that have in themfelves no
refemblance or oppofition, are compared with refpeft
to their effefts. There is no refemblance between a
flower-plot and a cheerful fong; and yet they may be
compared with refpeft to their effefts, the emotions
they produce in the mind being extremely fimilar.
There is as little refemblance between fraternal con¬
cord and precious ointment; and yet obferve how fuc-
cefsfully they are compared with refpeft to the impref-
fions they make.
“ Behold, how good and how pleafant it is for
“ brethren to dwell together in unity. It is like
Mm2 «the
COM
[
Compari- “ tlie precious ointment upon the head, that ran
4 ^on‘ “ down upon Aaron’s beard, and defcended to the
v “ Ikirts of his garment.” Pfalmi^T,.
For illutlrating this fort of comparifon, we fliall add
fome more examples:
“ Delightful is thy prefence, O Fingal! it is like
“ the fun on Gromla, when the hunter mourns his
“ abfence for a feafon, and fees him between the
“ clouds.
“ Did not OIlian hear a voice ? or is it the found
“ of clays that are no more? Often, like the evening-
“ fun, comes the memory of former times on my
“ foul.
“ His courttenance is fettled from war; and is
calm as the evening-beam, that from the cloud
“ of the welt looks on Coria’s filent vale.” Fingal.
We now proceed to illuftrate, by particular inftan-
oes, the different m^pns by which Comparifons, whe¬
ther of the one fort or the other, can afford pleafure ;
and, in the order above eftablifhed, we fliall begin with
fuch inftances as are agreeable, by fuggefting fome
unufual refemblance or contrail.
Sweet are the ufes of Adverfity,
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in her head.
Sis you Me it, aft 2.fc. I.
See, how the Morning opes her golden gates,
And takes her farewel of the glorious fun ;
How well refembles it the prime of youth,
Trimm’d like a yonker prancing to his love.
Second Part Henry VI. a El. 2.fc. I.
Thus they their doubtful confultations dark
Ended, rejoicing in their matchlefs chief:
As when from mountain tops, the dufky clouds
Afcending, while the North-wind fleeps, o’erfpread
Heav’ns cheerful face, the lowering element
Scowls^ o’er the darken’d landfcape, fnow, and
fhower;
If chance the radiant fun with farewel fweet
... Extends his ev’ning-beam, the fields revive,
The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds
Attefl their joy, that hill and valley rings.
Paradife Lojl, look. 2.
None of the foregoing fimiles tend to illuftrate the
principal fubjeft: and therefore the chief pleafure they
afford muft arife from fuggefting refemblances that
are not obvious: for undoubtedly a beautiful fubjeCt
introduced to form the fimile affords a feparate plea¬
fure, which is felt in the fimiles mentioned, particular¬
ly in that cited from Milton.
The next effe£t of a comparifon in the order men¬
tioned, is to place an object in a ftrong point of view ;
which effect is remarkable in the following fimiles.
As when two feales are charg’d with doubtful loads,
From fide to fide the trembling balance nods,
(While fome laborious matron, juft and poor.
With nice exa&nefs weighs her woolly ftore).
Till pois’d aloft, the refting beam fufpends
Each equal weight; nor this nor that defeends:
So ftood the war, till Hedtor’s matchlefs might,
With fates prevailing, turn’d the fcale of fight.
Fierce as a whirlwind up the wall he flies,
And fires his hoft with loud repeated cries.
Iliad, b. xii. 521.
•6 ] CO M
 She never told her love ; Co
But let concealment, like a worm i’ th’ bud,
Feed on her damaik cheek : fire pin’d in thought;
And with a green and yellow melancholy,
She fat like patience on a monument,
Smiling at grief. Twelfth Night, act. 2. fc. 6.
“ There is a joy in grief when peace dwells with
“ the forrovvful. But they are wafted with mourn-
“ ing, O daughter of Tofcar, and their days are
“ few. They fall away like the flower on which
“ the fun looks in his ftrength, after the mildew
“ has paffed over it, and its head is heavy with the
“ drops of night.” Fingal.
 Out, out, brief candle !
Life’s but a walking flradow, a poor player.
That ftvuts and frets his hour upon the ftage.
And then is heard no more.
Macbeath, act 5. fc. 5.
O thou goddefs,
Thou divine nature.! how thyfelf thou blazon’ll
In thefe two princely boys ! they are as gentle
As zephyrs blowing below the violet,
Not wagging his fweet head ; and yet as rough
(Their royal blood inchaf’d) as the rud’ft wind.
That by the top doth take the mountain-pine.
And make him ftoop to th’ vale.
Cymbeline, aEl 4. fc. 4.
“ Why did not I pafs away in fecret, like' the
“ flower of the rock that lifts its fair head unfeen,
“ »nd ftrows its withered leaves on the blait ?”
Fingal.
As words convey but a faint and obfeure notion of.
great numbers, a poet, to give a lively notion of the
object he deferibes with regard to number, does well
to compare it to what is familiar and commonly known.
Thus Homer compares the Grecian army in point of
number to a fwarm of bees : in another paffage he
compares it to that profulion of leaves and flowers
which appear in the fpring, or of infects in a fummet’s,
evening : And Milton,
  As when the potent rod.
Of Amram’s fon in Egypt’s evil day
Wav’d round the coaft, up call’d a pitchy cloudy
Of locufts, warping on the eaftern wund,
That o’er the realm of impious. Pharaoh hung
Like night, and darken’d all the land, of Nile
So numherlefs were thofe bad angels feen,.
Hov’ring on wung under the cope of hell,
’Twixt upper, nether, and furrounding fires.
Paradife Lojl,. book 1.
Such comparifons have, by fome writers, been con¬
demned for the lownefs of the images introduced :
but furely without reafon ; for, with regard to num¬
bers, they put the principal fubjeCt in a ftrong light.
The foregoing comparifons operate by refemblance ;
others have the fame effett by contrail.
Fork. I am the laft of noble Edward’s fons.
Of whom thy father, prince of Wales, was firil 4
In war, was never lion rag’d more fierce ;
In peace, was never gentle lamb more mild ;
Than was that young and princely gentleman. ,
His face thou haft, for even fo look’d he,
Accomplifh’d with the number of thy hours.
But
COM [2
But when he frown’d, it was again ft the French,
And not againft his friends. His noble hand
Did win what he did ip end ; and fpent not that
Which his triumphant father’s hand had won.
His hands were guilty of no kindreds blood,
But bloody with the enemies of his kin.
Oh Richard, York is too far gone with grief,
Or elfe lie never would compare between.
Richard II. acl 2.Jc. 3.
Milton has a peculiar talent in embellifiling the prin¬
cipal fubject, by alfociating it with others that are
agreeable ; which is the third end of a comparifon.
Similes of this kind have, beiide, a feparate effedl:
they diverfify the narration by new images that are
not ftrictiy neceffary to the comparifon : they are
fhort epilodes, which, without drawing us from the
principal fubjeft, afford great delight by their beauty
and variety.
He fcarce had ceas’d, when the fuperior fiend
Was moving toward the fiiore ; his ponderous fliieldj
Ethereal temper, maffy, large, and round.
Behind him caff : the broad circumference
Flung on his (boulders like the moon, whofe orb
Through optic glafs the Tufcan artift views
At ev’ning from the top of Fefole,
Or in Valdarno, to defcry new lands,
Rivers, or mountains, in her fpotty globe.
Miltcri, hook, 1.
 Thus far thefe beyond
Compare of mortal prowefs, yet obferv’d
Their dread commander. He, above the reff,
In ihape and ftature proudly eminent,
Stood like a tow’r; his form had not yet loft
All her original brightnels, nor appear’d
. Lefs than archangel ruin’d, and th’ excels
Of glory obfcur’d : as when the fun new-rifen
Looks through the horizontal mifty air
Shorn of his beams ; or, from behind the moon
In dim eclipfe, difaftrous twilight (beds
On half the nations, and with fear of change
Perplexes monarchs. Milton, book \.
As when a vulture on Imaus bred,
Whofe fnowy ridge the roving Tartar bounds,
Diflodging from a region fcarce of prey
To gorge the flefh of lambs, or yeanling kids,
On hills where flocks are fed, flies toward the iprings
Of Ganges or Hydafpes, Indian ftreams,
But in his way lights on the barren plains
Of Sericana, where Chinefes drive
With fails and wind their cany waggons light
So on this windy fta of land, the fiend
Walk’d up and down alone, bent on his prey.
Milton, hook 3.,
Next of comparifons that aggrandife or elevate.
Thefe affedt us more than any other fort: the reafon
of which will be evident from the following inftan*
ces:
As when a flame the winding, valley fills,
And runs on crackling fhrubs between the hills,
Then o’er the ftubble up the mountain flies,
Fires the high woods, and blazes to the ikies.
This way and that, the fpreading torrent roars;.
So fweeps the hero through the .wafted.ihores.
77 ] COM
Around him wide, immenfe deftru&ion pours, (
And earth is delug’d with the fanguine ihow’rs. u
Iliad, xx. 569.
Mcthinks, king Richard and myfelf ihould meet
With no lefs terror than the elements
Of fire and water, when their thund’ring ihock,
At meeting, tears the cloudy cheeks of heaven.
Richard IT act. $.fc. 5.
“ As rtifheth a foamy ftream from the dark ihady
“ fteep of Cromla, when thunder is rolling above,
“ and dark brown night refts oq> the hill: fo fierce,
“ fo vaft, fo terrible, ruih forward the fons of Erin.
“ The chief, like a whale of ocean followed by all
“ its billows, pemrs valour forth as a ftream, rolling
“ its might along the ihore.” Fingal, look i.
“ As roll a thoufand waves to a rock, fo Swa-
“ ran’s holt came on ; as meets a rock a thoufand
“ waves, fo Inisfail met Swaran.” Ibid.
The laft article mentioned, is that of leffening or
deprefling a hated or difagreeable objetft; which is
effedlually done by refembling it to any thing low or
defpicable.
Thus Milton, in his defeription of the rout of the re¬
bel-angels, happily expreffes their terror and difmay
in the following limile
Of goats or timorous flock together throng’d
Drove them before him thunder-ftruck, purfu’d ,
With terrors and with furies to the bounds
And cryftal wall of heav’n,. which op’ning wide,
Roll’d inward, and a fpacious gap difclos’d
Into the walteful deep ; the monlirous fight
Struck them with horror backward, but far worfe
Urg’d them behind ; headlong themfelves they threw
Down from the verge of heav’n.
Milton, look 6.
By this time the different purpofes of comparifon,
and the various imprefiions it makes on the mind, are
fufficiently illuffrated by proper examples. This was
an eafy work. It is more difficult to lay down rules
about the propriety or impropriety of comparifons j
in what circumftances they may be introduced, and iri
what circumftances they are out of place. It is evi¬
dent thatua comparifon is not proper upon every oc-
cafion : a man in his cool and fedate moments, is not
difpofed to poetical flights, nor to facrifice truth and
reality to the delufive operations of the imagination :
far lefs is he fo difpofed, when oppreffed with care,
or interefted in fome important tranfa£tion that occu¬
pies him totally. 'On the other hand, itds obfervable,,
that a man, when elevated or animated by any paf-
fion, is difpofed to elevate or animate all his fubjefts:
he avoids familiar names, exalts objefts by circumlo¬
cution and metaphor, and gives even life and voluntary
a&ion to inanimate beings. In this warmth of mind,
the higheft poetical flights are indulged, and the
boldeft fimiles and metaphors relifhed. But without
foaring fo high, the mind, is frequently in a tone to
relifh chafte and moderate ornament; fuch as com-t
parifons that fet the principal objeft in a ftrong point
of view', or that embellifli and diverfify the narration.
In general, when by any animating paffion, whether
pleafant c* painful, an iaipulfe is given to the imagi¬
nation ;
COM [ 278
nation ; we are in that condition difpofed to every
fort of figurative expreffion, and ,in particular to cora-
parifons. This in a great meafure is evident from
the comparifons already mentioned ; and {hall be fur¬
ther illuiirated by other inftances. Love, for example,
in its infancy, roufing the imagination, prompts the
heart to difplay itfelf in figurative language, and in
fimiles :
Troilus. Tell me, Apollo, for thy Daphne’s love,
What Creffid is, what Pandar, and what we ?
Her bed is India, there (he lies a pearl:
Between our Ilium, and where {he refides.
Let it be call’d the wild and wandering flood ;
Ourfelf the merchant, and this failing Pandat
Our doubtful hope, our convoy, and our bark.
‘Troilus and CreJJida, ad. i.fc. 1.
Again:
Come, gentle night; come, loving black-brow’d
night!
Give me my' Romeo; and, when he {hall die,
Take him, and cut him out in little liars,
And he will make the face of heav’n fo fine,
That all the world {hall be in love with night,
And pay no worftrip to the gariflr fun.
Romeo and ‘Juliet, ad ^.fc. 4.
l3ut it will be a better illuftration of the prefent
head, to give examples where cbmparifons are impro¬
perly introduced. Similes are not the language of a
man in his ordinary ftate of mind, difpatching his
daily and ufual work : for that reafoh, the following
fpeech of a gardener to his fervant is extremely im¬
proper :
Go bind thou up yon dangling apricots,
Which, like unruly children, make their fire
Stoop with oppreffion of their prodigal weight:
Give fome fupportance to the bending twigs.
Go thousand, like an executioner.
Cut off the heads of too-faft growing fprays,
That look too lofty in our commonwealth:
AH mull be even in our government."
Richard II. ad. fc. 7.
The fertility of Shakefpeare’s vein betrays him fre¬
quently into this error.
Rooted grief, deep anguifli, terror, remorfe, de-
fpair, and all the fevere difpiriting paflions, are decla¬
red enemies, perhaps not to figurative language in ge¬
neral, but undoubtedly to the pomp and folemnity of
comparifoh. Upon this account, the fimile pronoun¬
ced by young Rutland, under terror of death from an
inveterate enemy, and praying mercy, is unnatural:
So looks the pent-up lion o’er the wretch
That trembles under his devouring paws ;
And fo he walks infulting o’er his prey,
And fo he comes to rend his limbs afunder.
Ah, gentle Clifford, kill me with thy fword
And not with fuch a cruel threat’ning look.
Third part Henry VI. ad l.fc. 5.
A man fpent and difpirited after lofing a battle, is
not difpofed to heighten or illuftrate his difeourfe by
fimiles.
Tork. With this we charg’d again ; but out! alas,
We bodg’d again ; as I have feen a fwan
With bootlefs labour fwim againft the tide.
And fpend her {Length with over-matching waves.
Ah i hark, the fatal followers do purfue j
] COM
And I am faint and cannot fly their fury. Compari-
The fands are number’d that make up my life; ^0^•
Here mull I flay, and here my life muft end. v
Third part Henry VI. ad l.fc. 6.
Similes thus unfeafonably introduced are finely ri¬
diculed in the Rehearfal.
“ Bayes. Now here {he mull make a fimile.
“ Smith. Where’s the neceflity of that, Mr Bayes?
“ Bayes. Becaufe fire’s furprifed ; that’s a gene*
“ ral rule ; you muft ever make a fimile when you
“ are furprifed ; ’tis a new way of writing.”
A comparifon is not always faultlefs, even where it
is properly introduced. A comparifon, like other hu¬
man produftions, may fall ftrort of its end ; of which
defedl inftances are not rare even among good writers :
and to complete the prefent fubjedt, it will be necef-
fary to make fome obfervations upon fuch faulty com¬
parifons. Nothing can be more erroneous than to in-
ftitute a comparifon too faint: a diftant refemblance
or contrail fatigues the mind with its obfeurity, infteai
of amufing it; and tends not to fulfil any one end of
a comparifon. The following fimiles feem to labour
under this defedl.
K. Rich. Give me the crown.—Here, coufin,
feize the crown,
Here, on this fide, my hand ; on that fide, thine.
Now is this golden crown like a deep well.
That owes two buckets, filling one another;
The emptier ever dancing in the air.
The other down, unfeen, and full of water ;
That bucket down, and full of tears, am 1,
Drinking my griefs, whilft you mount up on high.
Richard II. all. \.fc. 3.
K. John. Oh ! coufin, thou art come to fet mine
eye ;
The tackle of my heart is crack’d and burnt;
And all the fhrouds wherewith my life ftiould fail,
Are turned to one thread, one little hair:
My heart hath one poor firing to Hay it by,
Which holds but till thy news be uttered.
King John, ad $.fc. 1C.
Torh. My uncles both are flain in refeuing me :
And all my followers to the eager foe
Turn back, and fly like fliips before the wind,
Or lambs purfu’d by hunger-ftarved wolves.
Third part Henry VI. ad l.fc. 6.
The latter of the two fimiles is good : the former,
becaufe of the faintnefs of the refemblance, produces
no good effefl, and crouds the narration with an ufe-
lefs image.
In an epic poem, or in any elevated fubjedl, a wri¬
ter ought to avoid railing a fimile upon a low image,
which never fails to bring down the principal fubjeft.
In general, it is a rule, that a grand objedl ought ne¬
ver to be refembled to one that is diminutive, how¬
ever delicate the refemblance may be : for it is the
peculiar chara&er of a grand objedTto fix the atten¬
tion, and fwell the mind; in which ftate, it is difa-
greeable to contradl the mind to a minute objedl, how¬
ever elegant. The refembling an objedl to one that
is greater, has, on the contrary, a good effe£l, by rai¬
ling or fwelling the mind : for one pafles with fatisfac-
tion from a fmall to a great objedl; but cannot be
drawn down, without rejudlance, from great to fmall.
Hence the following fimiles are faulty.
Meanwhile
COM [
Comparl- Meanwhile the troopa beneath Patroclus’ care,
fun. Invade the Trojans, and commence the war.
As wafps, provok’d by children in their play,
Pour from their manfions by the broad highway,
In fwarms the guiltlefs traveller engage,
Whet all their ftings, and call forth all their rage ;
All rife in arms, and with a general cry
Afiert their waxen domes and buzzing progeny :
Thus from the tents the fervent legion fwarms,
So loud their clamours, and fo keen their arms.
Iliad, xvi. 312.
So burns the vengeful hornet (foul all o’er)
Repuls’d in vain, and thirfly ftill of gore ;
(Bold fon of air and heat) on angry wings
Untam’d, untird, he turns, attacks, and flings.
Fir’d with like ardour, fierce Atrides flew.
And fent his foul with ev’ry lance he threw.
Iliad, xvii. 642.
An error oppofite to the former, is the introducing
a refembling image, fo elevated or great as to bear
no proportion to the principal fubjeft. Their re¬
markable difparity, being the moft finking circum-
ftance, feizes the mind, and never fails to €epiefs the
principal fubjeft by contrail, inftead of raifing.it by
refemblance : .and if the difparity be exceeding great,
the fimile takes on an air of burlefque ; nothing being
more ridiculous than to force an obje& out of its pro¬
per rank in nature, by equalling it with one-greatly
fuperior or greatly inferior. This will be evident from
the following comparifon.
JLoud as a bull makes hill and valley ring,
So roar’d the lock when it releas’d the fpring.
Odyjfey, xxi. 51.
Such a fimileL upon the fimpleft of all adions, that of
opening a lock, is pure buriefque.
A writer of delicacy will avoid drawing his compa-
rifons from any image that is naufeous, ugly, or re¬
markably difagreeable; for however ftrong the re¬
femblance may be, more will be loft than gained by
fuch comparifon. Therefore we cannot help con¬
demning, though with fome reluclancy, the following
fimile, or rather metaphor.
O thou fond many! with what loud applaufe
Didft thou beat heav’n with blefling Bolingbroke
.Before he was what thou wquld’ft have him be?
And now being trimm’d up in thine own defires.
Thou, beaftly feeder, are fo full of him,
That thou provok’ft thyfelf to caft him up.
And fo, thou common dog, didft thou difgorge
Thy glutton bofom of the royal Richard,
And now thou would’ft eat thy dead vomit up,
And howl’ll to find it.
Second Part Henry IV. act \ . fc. 6.
The ftrongeft obje&ian that can lie againft a com¬
parifon is, that it confifts in words only, not in fenfe.
Such falfe coin, or baftard-wit, does extremely well
in burlefque ; but it is far below the dignity of the
epic, or of any ferious compofition.
The noble filler of Poplicola,
The moon of Rome ; chafte as the icicle
That’s curdl’d by the froft from pureft fnow,
And hangs on Dian’a temple,
_ Coriolanus, aft 5. fc.
There is evidently no xefemblance between an icicle
and a woman, chafte or unchafte : but chaftity is cold
79 ] CO M
in a metaphorical fenfe, and an icicle is cold in a pro¬
per fenfe ; and this verbal refemblance, in the hurry'
and glow-of compofing, has been thought a fufficient
foundation for the fimile. Such phantom fimiles are
mere witticifms, which ought to have no quarter,
except where purpofely introduced to provoke laugh¬
ter. Lucian, in his diflertation upon hiftqry, talking
of a certain author, makes the following comparifon,
which is verbal merely.
“ This author’s defcriptions are fo cold, that they
“ furpafs the Cafpian fnow, and all the ice of the
“ north.”
 But for their fpirits aqd fouls
This word rebellion had froze them up
As filh are in a pond.
Second Part Henry IV. aft l.fc. 3,
Pope has feveral fimiles of the fame ftamp.
And hence one mailer paffion in the breaft,
Like Aaron’s ferpent, fwallows up the reft.
Eplft' 2. /. J 3 r.
And again, talking of this fame ruling or mailer pafi-
fion;
Nature its mother, Habit is its nurfe ;
Wit, fpirit, faculties, but make it worfe ;
Realon itfelf but gives it edge and pow’r;
As heav’n’s blefs’d beam turns vinegar more four.
Ibid. 1. 145-
Where the fubjedl is burlefque or ludicrous, fuch
fimiles are far from being improper. Horace faya
pleafantly,
Spuanquam tu levior cortice. Lib. 3. od. 9.
And Shakefpeare,
In breaking oaths he’s ftronger than Hercules.
And this leads to obferve, that befides the fore¬
going comparifons, which are all ferious, there is a
fpecies, the end and purpofe of which is to excite
gaiety or mirth. Take the following examples.
Falftaff fpeaking to his page :
“ I do here walk before thee, like a fow that
“ hath overwhelmed all her litter but one.”
Second part Henry IV. aft l.fc. 10.
“ I think he is not a piek-purfe, nor a horfe-
“ Healer; but for his verity in love, I do think him
as concave as a covered goblet, or a worm-eaten
“put.” Hs you like it, aft fc. 10.
, This fword a dagger had his page.
That was but little for his age ;
And therefore waited on him fo.
As dwarfs upon knights-errant do.
Hudibras, canto 1.
“ Books, like men, their authors, have but one
way of coming into the world ; but there are
ten thoufand to go out of it, and return no more.”
Pale of a Pul.
“ The moll accomplilhed way of ufing books at
prefent is, to ferve them as fome do lords, learn
their titles, and then brag of their acquaintance.”
Ibid.
“ lie does not confider, that fincerity in love is
as much out of falhion as fweet fnuff; no body
takes it now.” Carelefs Hu [band.
COMPARTITION, *in archite&ure, denotes the
ufeful and graceful difpofition of the whole ground-
plot of an edifice, into rooms of office, and of recep¬
tion or entertainment.
3
Compari-
Comparti-
COMPARTMENT,
com r 2 &0 i co
Cofrtpan- COMPARTMENT, in general, is a defign compo*
r,merit, Gf feveral different figtires, dilpofed with fymme-
■ ^ ^ . try, to adorn a parterre, a ceiling, &c.
A compartment of tiles or "bricks, is an arrangement
of them, of different colours, and varniflied, for the
decoration of a building. Compartments in garden¬
ing, are an affemblage of beds, plots, borders, walks,
•&c. difpofed in the moft advantageous manner that
the ground will admit of. Compartments in heraldry,
are otherwife called partitions.
COMPASS, or Mariner's Steering Compass, is an
inftrument ufed at fea by pilots to direft and afcertain
the courfe of their ffips. It confifts of a circular brafs
box, which contains a paper card with the 32 points
of the compafs, fixed on a magnetic needle that always
turns to the north, excepting a fmall declination va¬
riable at different places. See Variation.
The needle with the card turns on an upright pin
fixed in the centre of the box. In the centre of the
needle is fixed a brafs conical focket or cap, whereby
the card hanging on the pin turns freely round the
centre.
The top of the box is covered with a glafs, that the
card’s motion may not be difturbed by the wind. The
whole is inclofed in another box of wood, where it is
fufpended by brafs hoops or gimbals, to preferve the
card horizontal. The compafs-box is to be fo placed
in the ffu'p, that the middle fe&ion of the box, parallel
•to its fides, may be parallel to the middle fedtion of
the (hip along its keel.
The compafs being of the utmoft confequence to
navigation, it is reafonabh to expedt that the greateft
attention (hould be ufed in its conffruction, and every
attempt to improve it carefully examined, and, if pro¬
per, adopted. But fo carelefs are the generality of
commanders of this moft ufeful inftmrrtent, that almoft
all the compaffes ufed on board merehant-fliips have
their needles formed of two pieces of fteel-wire, each
of which is bent in the middle, fo as to form an ob-
tufe angle ; and their ends, being applied together,
make an acute one; fo that ,the whole reprefents the
form of a lozenge; in the centre of which, and of
the card, is placed the bfafs-cap. Now, if we exa-.
mine a number of thefe cards, we (hall rarely, if ever,
find them all in the fame direiftion, but they will all
vary more or lefs, not only with regard to the true
direction, but from one another.
Thefe irregularities are owing to the ftructure of
the needle ; for the wires of which it is compofed are
only hardened at the ends; now, if thefe ends are not
equally hard, or -if one end be hardened up higher
than the other, when they come to be put together,
in fixing them to the card, that end which is hardeft
will deftroy much of the virtue of the other; by which
means the" hardeft end will have the moft power in
directing the card, and confequently make it vary to¬
ward its own direction : and, as the wires are difpo¬
fed in the form of a lozenge, thefe cards can have but
little force, fo that they will often, when drawn afide,
(land at the diftance of feveral degrees on either fide
the point from whence they are drawn : for all mag-
netical bodies receive an additional rtrength by being
placed in the direction of the earth’s magnetifm, and
ad proportionably lefs vigoroufly when turned out of
it; wherefore, when thefe kind of needles are drawn
N° 87.
afide from their true point, two of the parallel fides Coma
of the lozenge will confpire, nlore diredtly than be-1 v
fore, with the earth’s magnetifm; and the other two
will be lefs in that diredtion: by which means the
two fides will very much impede its return ; and
the two latter will have that impediment to over¬
come, as well as the friaion, by their own force
alone.
To remove thefe inconveniences,“forne needles are
made of one piece of fteel of a fpring temper, and
broad towards the ends, but tapering towards the
middle, where a hole is made to receive the cap. At
the ends they terminate in an angle, greater or lefs
according to the (kill or fancy of the workman. Thefe
needles, though infinitely preferable Jo the other, are,
however, far from being perfea; for every needle
of this form hath fix poles inftead of two, one at each
end, two where it becomefi tapering, and two at the
hole in tjie middle; this is owing to their (hape ; for
the middle part being very (lender, it has not fub-
ftance enough to conduit the magnetic dream quite
through, from one end to the other: all thefe poles
appear very diftinitly, when examined with a glafs
that is fprinkled over with magnetic fand. This cir-
cumftance, however, does not hinder the needle from
pointing true ; but as it has lefs force to move the card
than when the magnetic ftream moves in large curves
from one end to the other, it is certainly an imper-
feition.
Thefe inconveniences induced the ingenious Dr
Knight to contrive a new fea-compafs, which came in¬
to ufe on board all the (hips of war. The needle in
this inftrument is quite 1 ftraight, and fqnare at the
ends; and confequently has only two poles, though
about the hole in the middle the curves'are a little
confufed. Needles of this conilruftion, after vibra¬
ting a long time, will always point exa&ly in the
fame direftion ; and if drawn ever fo little on one
fide, will return to it again, without any fenfible dif¬
ference. We may therefore conclude, -that a regular
parallelepiped is the beft form for a needle, as well as
the fimpleft, the holes for the caps being as fmall as
poflible.
And as the weight fhould be removed to the great-
eft diftance from the centre of motion, a circle of
brafs, of the fame diameter of the card, may be ad¬
ded, which will ferve alfo to fupport the card, which
may then be made of thin paper, without any thing
to ftiffen it. This ring being fixed b^low the card,
and the needle above it, the centre of gravity is pla¬
ced low enough to admit of the cap being put under
the needle, whereby the hole in the needle becomes
unneceffary.
TKe above obfervations w ill be eafdy underft ;od
fiom viewing the feveral parts of, the inftrument as
reprefented on Plate CXL1V. where fig. 6. is the card,
with the needle KL, and its cap M, fixed upon it,
being one third of the diameter of the real card. Fig. 8.
is a perfpeftive view of the backfide of the card, where
AB repreiehts the turning down of the brafs edge, G
the under part of the cap, D at:d E two Hiding weights
t6 balance the card, and F, G, two ferews that .fix
the brafs edge, &c. to the needle. Fig. 7. is the pa-
deftal that fupports the card, containing a ferewi ig
needle, fixed in two fmall grooves to receive it, by
, means
COM [ 2:
Compafs, means of the collet G, in the manner of a port-crayon.
1 r   D, the item, is filed into an oftagon, that it may be
the more eafily unferewed. For its further illullration
and application to ufe» fee Navigation.
The invention of the compafs is ufually afcribed to
Flavio da Melfi, or Flavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, about
the year 1302 ; and hence it is, that the territory of
Principato, which makes part of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, where he was born, has a compafs for its arms.
» Others fay that Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, making
a journey to China, brought back the invention with
him in 1260. What confirms this conjecture is, that
at firft they ufed the compafs in the fame manner as
the Chinefe Hill do; i. e. they let it float on a little
piece of cork, inftead of fufpending it on a pivot. It
is added, that their emperor Chiningus, a celebrated
tidrcloger, had a knowledge of it 1120 years before
Chrift. The Chinefe only divide their compafs into 24
points. Fauchette relates fome verfes of Guoyot de
Provence, who lived in France about the year 120a,
which feem.to make mention of the compafs under the
name of marinette, or mariner’s Jlone; which fhow it
to have been ufed in France near 100 years before ei¬
ther the Melfite or Venetian. The French even lay
claim to the invention, from the jleur de lys wherewith
all nations lhall diftinguifli the north point of the card.
With as much reafou Dr Wallis afcribesit to the Eng-
lifh, from its name compafs, by which name moft na¬
tions call it, and which he obferves is ufed in many
parts of England to fignify a circle.
Though the mariner’s compafs has been long in ufe,
the heft conftrudtion of it was attended'wiih many in¬
conveniences, till the late improvement which it has
received from the invention and experiments of Dr
Gowin Knight, and the farther emendation of Mr
Smeaton, as has been defcribed under the article Azi¬
muth (Vol.II.)
The compafs hath fometimes been obferved to be
difturbed by the ek&ricity of its glafs cover; and
this from fo flight an application of the finger as was
barely neceflaty to wipe off a little duft. The fame
glafs, rubbed a little more with the finger, a bit of
> muffin, or paper, would attraft either end of the needle,
fo as to hold it to the glafs for feveral minutes, far out
of the due dire&ion, according to that part of the
glafs which was moff excited. And when the needle, af¬
ter adhering to the glafs, has dropped loofe, and made
vibrations, thofe would not be bife&ed as ufual by
that point where the needle fnould reft* but would ei¬
ther be made all on one fide, or be Very unequally di¬
vided, by means of fome remains of eledtrical virtue in
that part of the glafs which had attradled the needle,
until at length, after 15 minutes or more, all the elec¬
tricity being difeharged, the magnetical power took
place. The remedy for this inconvenience is to moi-
ften the furface of the glafs; a wet finger will do it im¬
mediately and effedtually. The mariner’s compafs with
a chart is much lefs dangeroufly moved than the com¬
mon compafs with a bare needle: and the deeper, or
farther diftant, the needle hangs below the glafs, the
lefs diflurbance it is likely to receive.
Notwithftanding the various contrivances that have
been made to prevent the card from being much af-
fedled by the motions of ithe Ihip, they have always
betu found too delicate to encounter the fliocks of a
VQl. V. Part I.
Si ] COM
tempeftuous fea. Improved fea-compaffes have lately Compaft.
been conffrufted by Mr M'CulIoch of London (and —-v—‘
for which he has obtained a patent), that are repoited
to be the heft of any yet ufed. The particulars are
as follow :
Fig. 1. is a feftion of the fleering compafs. Aaaaa,
The common wooden-box, with its fid. W, The brafs CXLV'
compafs-box. cc, The glafs cover to ditto, dd. The
hollow conkal bottom, e, The prop upon which the
compafs is fupported inftead of gimbals ; the fpherical
top of which is finely poliftied, and the apex of the hoi-*
low cone is fitted in a peculiar manner to receive it.
ff, A quantity of lead run round the bottom and cone
of the compafs box, to balance and keep it fteadily
horizontal, gg, The card and the magnetic needle,
bent in fuch a manner that the point of the conical
pivot on which it moves and is fupported, may be
brought very near to the centre of gravity, as well as
to the centre of motion, hh. Two guards, which by
means of two pins ii, affixed to the compafs box, prevents
it from turning round and deceiving the fteerfman.
Fig. 2. a perfpe&ive view of the fleering compafs,
with the lid oft" and the front laid open, hh. The
guards, b. The compafs-box. e. The prop, &c. as
in fig. t.
Fig. 3. a view of the azimuth cotnpafs. b> The
compafs-box. h. One of the guards, e. The prop,
as in fig. 1. and 2. with this difference, that in the azi¬
muth compafs, inftead of being ferewed to the bottom
of the wood-box, Hands in a brafs focket, and may be
turned round at pleafure. 1. A brafs bar, upon which
the light vanes are fixed. 2. A dark glafs, which
moves up or down on 3. the fight .vane. 4. A mag¬
nifying glafs, which is alfo .moveable on the other vane.
5. The nonius or vernier. 6. A Hide for moving the
vernier fo as to flop the card in taking the azv.uth.
7. A double convex glafs, by which the divifions on
the vernier may be read with accuracy.
Fig. 4. is a fe&ion reprefenting another application
of the magnetic needle and card, conftrufted by
Mr McCulloch. Aaaa, The common wood-box. bb.
The brafs compafs box. cc, The brafs fupport for the
circle and pendulum, d. The pendulum, e, The agate,
j^/", The magnetic needle and card. gg,,The brafs cir¬
cle. hh. The glafs cover and brafs ring, i, The lead
weight. N. B, All the centres of motion are in the
fame plane.
“ In one particular this patent compafs is ponfidered
as an improvement on the common compaffes, in as far
as the needle is both longer and broader; hence its
magnetifm.muil be ftronger, and of courfc the fine of
its magnetic dire&ion correfpondent with the card. In
another particular, in order to prevent the motions of
the veffel from affe&ing the needle, which is the moft
defirable obje&, the patent compafs-box, inftead of
Twinging in gimbals at right angles to each other, is
fupported in its very centre upon a prop; and what¬
ever motion the other parts of the box may have, this
centre being in the vertex of the hollow cone, may be
confidered as relatively at reft; and therefore gives
little or no difturbance to the needle. Again, the pi¬
vot or centre upon which the needle turns, is fo con¬
trived as to (land always perpendicular over the centre
of the compafs-box, or apex of the hollow cone, as
upon a fixed point and is therefore Hill lefs affefted
N n by
COM r 282 1 COM
Gompafs. by the motions of the veflel. Thus the centres of
motion, gravity, and of magnetifm, are brought almoft
all to the fame point; the advantages of which will be
readily perceived by any perfon acquainted with me¬
chanical principles. Experience therefore will afcer-
tain the utility of this improvement.” MlCitlloch's
Account.
Of Dr Knight’s Azimuth Compafs, as improved by
Mr Smeaton, a defcription was giverr'under the article
Azimuth, and a figure in Plate LXXVII. The
ufe of the azimuth compafs is for finding the fun’s
magnetical azimuth, or amplitude ; and thence the va¬
riation of the compafs. If the obfervation be for an
amplitude at fun-rifing, or for an azimuth before noon,
apply the centre of the index on the weft point of the
• card, within the box; fo that the four lines on the
edge of the card, and thofe on the infide of the box,
may meet. If the obfervation be for the fun’s am¬
plitude fetting, or an azimuth in the afternoon, turn
the centre of the index right againft the eaft point of
the card, and make the lines within the box concur
with ^thofe on the card: the inftrument thus fitted
for obfervation, turn the index he towards the fun, till
the fhadow of the thread ae fall directly on the flit of
the fight, and on the line that is along the middle of
the index: then will the inner edge of the index cut
the degree and minute of the fun’s magnetical azimuth
from the north or fouth. But note, that if, when the
compafs is thus placed, the azimuth is lefs than 450
from the fouth, and the index turned towards the fun,
it will pafs off the divifions of the limb: the inftrument
therefore in this cafe muft be turned juft a quarter of
the compafs, i. e. the centre of the index muft be
placed on the north or fouth point of the card, accord¬
ing as the fun is from you; and then the edge will
cut the degree of the magnetic azimuth, or the fun’s
azimuth from the north, as before.
The fun’s magnetical amplitude thus found, the va¬
riation of the needle is thus determined. Being out
at fea the 15th of May 1717, in 450 north latitude,
the tables give me the fun’s latitude 190 north, and
his eaft amplitude 27° 25' north: by the azimuth com¬
pafs, I find the fun’s magnetical amplitude at his ri¬
ling and fetting ; and find he rifes, v. gr. between the
6zd -md 63d degree, reckoning from the north towards
the eaft point of the compafs, i e. between the 27th
and 28th degree, reckoning from the eaft. The mag¬
netical amplitude, therefore, being here equal to the
true one, the needle has no variation; but if the fun
at his rifing Ihould have appeared between the 52d and
53d degree from the north towards the eaft ; his mag¬
netical amplitude would then have been between 37
and 38 degrees, i. e. about 10 degrees greater than
the true amplitude : therefore, the needle would vary
about 10 degrees north-eafterly. If the magnetical
eaft amplitude found by the inftrument (hould be lefs
than the true amplitude, their difference would (how
the variation of the needle eafterly. If the true eaft
amplitude be fouthward, as alfo the magnetical ampli¬
tude, and this laft be the greater; the variation of the
seedle will be north-weft ; and vice verfa.
What has been faid of north-eaft amplitudes holds
alfo of fouth- weft ; and what of fouth-eaft amplitudes
holds of north-weft amplitudes. Laftly, if ampli¬
tudes be found of different denominations, v. gr. if
the true amplitude be fix degrees north, and the mag- Compafa
netical amplitude five degrees fouth; the variation,
which in this cafe is north-weft, will be equal to the
fum of the magnetical and true amplitudes : underftand
the fame for weft amplitudes.
The variation may likewife be found from the azi¬
muth : but in that cafe, the fun’s declination, latitude
of the place, and his altitude, muft be given, that his
true azimuth may be found.
This inftrument is alfo ufeful in fettling the ftiip’s
wake, in order to find the lee-way ; and alfo to find
the bearings of head-lands, and other objefts.
Compass is alfo an inftrument of confiderable ufe in
furveying land, dialing, &c.
Its ftru&ure, in the main, is the fame with that of
the mariner’s compafs; confiding, like that, of a box
and needle : the principal difference confifts in this,
that inftead of the needle’s being fitted into the card,
and playing with it on a pivot, it here plays alone ;
the card being drawn on the bottom of the box, and a
circle divided in 360 degrees on the limb. See fig. 5. plate
This inftrument is of obvious ufe to travellers, to di- CXLIV.
reft them in their road; and to miners, to fliow them
what way to dig, with other confiderable ufes.
1. To take the declination of a nvall by the Compafs.
Apply that fide of the compafs whereon the north is
marked along the fide of the wall; the number of de¬
grees over which the north end of the needle fixes
will be the declination of the wall, and on that fide ;
v. gr. if the north point of the needle tends towards
the north, that wall may be flione on by the fun at
noon ; if it fix over fifty degrees, counting from the
north towards the eaft, the declination is fo many de¬
grees from north towards eaft.
But fince the needle itfelf declines from the north
towards the weft, with us, 130 ; it muft be noted,
that to retrieve the irregularity, 13° are always to be
added to the degrees fliown by the needle, when the
declination of the wall is towards^the eaft; on the con¬
trary, when the declination is towards the weft, the de¬
clination of the needle is to be fubtrafted.
2. To take an angle with the Compafs. Suppofe the
angle required be DAE, fig. 4. apply that fide of the
compafs whereon the north is marked to one of th^
lines AD ; when the needle refts, obferve the degrees
at which its north point ftands, which fuppofe 80: fi>
many degrees does the line decline from the meridian.
In the fame manner take the declination of the line-
AE, which fuppofe 2150; fubtraft 8o° from 215,
the remainder is 135 ; which fubtrafted from 180,
there will remain 45° ; the quantity of the angle re¬
quired. But if the difference between the declination
of the two lines exceed 180°; in thatcafe, i8o°muftbe
fubtrafted from that difference : the remainder then ia
the angle required.
In meafuring angles by the compafs, there needs-
not any regard be had to the variation ; that being fup-
pofed the fame in all the lines of the angles.
3. To take a plot of a field by the Compafs. Suppofe*
the field A, B, C, D, E, fig. 10. for the greater
accuracy let there be two fights fitted to the meridian
line of the compafs, place it horizontal, and through
the fights look along the fide AB, or a line parallel to¬
ft ; applying the eye to the fight at the fouth point
of the compafs. Draw a rough Iketch of the field by
COM [ 283 ] COM
Compafs, the eye, and on the correfponding line enter down the pered fteel, as being ufed to draw lines on pafte-board Cotnpaffe*.
•Compaffes.degree to which the needle points, which fuppofe 90 } or copper. '   ’
xneafure the length of the fide, and enter that too. Cylindrical and Spherical Compasses, confift of four
which fuppofe 10 chains. branches, joined in a centre, two of which are circular.
In this manner proceed with all the reft of the fides and two flat, a little bent on the ends: their ufe is to
and angles of the field; the fides, which fuppofe 70, take the diameter, thicknefs, or caliber of round or
65, 70, 44, 50 fathom; and the angles, which fup- cylindric bodies; fuch as cannons, pipes, ftfr.
pofe 30, 100, 130, 240, 300, degrees. To protraft Elliptic Compasses. Their ufe is to draw fcllipfes, Plate
the field, fet down the feveral angles obferved, one or ovals of any kind: they confift of a beam A B jrXI',v«
after another, and fubtraft the leffer from the next about a foot long, bearing three curfors ; to one of hs’ ^
greater: thus will you have the quantity of the feveral which may be fcrewed points of any kind : to the
angles, and the length of the lines that include them, bottom of the other two are rivited two Aiding dove-
For the reft, fee Geometry. tails, adjufted in grooves made in the Grafs branches of
Note, All the angles of the figure taken together, the beam. The dove-tails having a motion every way,
muft make twice as many right angles; abating two by turning about the long branch, go backwards and
if no miftake has been committed. forwards along the crofs; fo that when the beam has
Azimuth Compass. See Azimuth. gone half-way about, one of thefe will have moved the
CoMPASS-JDialst are fmall horizontal dials, fitted in whole length of one of the branches; and when the beam
brafs or filver boxes, for the pocket, to (how the hour has got quite round, the fame dove-tail has got back
of the day, by the direftion of a needle that indicates the whole length of the branch. Undeiftand the fame
how to place them right, by turning the dial about till of the other dove-tail.
the cock or ftyle Hand direftly over the needle; but Note, the diftance between the two Aiding dove-tails
thefe can never be very exaft, becaufe of the variation is the diftance between the two foci of the ellipfis; fo
of the needle itfelf. See Compass, and Dialing. that by changing that diftance, the ellipfis will be round-
COMPASSES, or Pair o/- Compasses, a mathe- er or Aenderer. Under the ends of the branches of the
matical inftrument for defcribing circles, meafuring , crofs are placed four fteel points to keep it faft.
figures, &c. The ufe of this compafs is eafy; by turning round
The common compafles confift of two fliarp-pointed the long branch, the ink, pencil, or other point, will
branches or legs of iron, fteel, brafs, or other metal, draw the ellipfis required. Its figure ftiows both its
joined together at the top by a rivet, whereon they ufe and conftru&ion.
move as on a centre. Thofe compafles are of the German Compasses have their legs a little bent out-
beft fort in which the pin or axle on which the joint wards, towards the top ; fo that when ftiut, the points
turns, and alfo half the joint itfelf, is made of fteel, as only meet.
the oppofite metals wear more equable. The perfec- Hair Compasses are fo contrived within fide by a
tion of them may be known by the eafy and uniform fmall adjufting fcrew to one of the legs, as to take an
opening and Ihutting of their legs; one of which is extent to a hair’s breadth.
fometimes made to take in and out, in order to make Lapidary’s Compasses are a piece of wood, in form
room for two other points to defcribe with ink, black- of the fliaft of a plane, cleft at top, as far as half its
lead, or other materials. length ; with this they meafure the angles, ffsV. of
There are now ufed compafles of various kinds and jewels and precious ftones, as they cut them. There
contrivances, accommodated to the various ufes they is in the cleft a little brafs rule, faftened there at one
are intended for ; as,
Compasses of three Legs, or Triangular Compares,
are, fetting afide the excels of a leg, of the fame ftruc-
ture with the common ones : their ufe being to take
three points at once, and fo to form triangles; to
end by a pin ; but fo that it may be moved in the man¬
ner of a brafs level: with this kind of fquare they take
the angles of the ftones, laying them on the ftiaft as
they cut them.
Proportional Compasses are thofe whofe joint lies be¬
lay down three pofitions of a map, to be copied at tween the points terminating each leg: they are
once, Ztfc.
Beam Compasses confift of a long branch, or beam,
made of brafs or wood, carrying two brafs curfors,
the one fixed at one end, the other Aiding along the
beam, with a fcrew to fallen it on occafion. To the
curfors may be fcrewed points of any kind, whether
either Ample or compound. In the former fort the
centre is fixed, fo that one pair of thefe ferves only for
one proportion.
Compound proportional Compasses confift of two parts
or fides of brafs, which lie upon each other fo nicely
as to appear but one when they are ftiut. Thefe fides
Plate
fteel for peticils, or the like. It is ufed to draw large eafily open, and move about a centre, which is itfelf
circles, to take great extents, fsV. To the fixed curfor moveable in a hollow canal cut through the greateft
is fometimes applied an adjulting or micrometer part of their length. To this centre on each fide is
fcrew, by which an extent is obtained to extreme affixed a Aiding piece A of a fmall length, with a fine
nicety. Mr Jones of Holborn has made beam com- line drawn on it ferving as an index, to be fet againft
pafles to adjuft to the dth of an inch. other lines or divifions placed upon the compafles on
Caliber Compasses. See Caliber. both fides. Thefe lines are, 1. A line of lines. 2. A
Clochmaky’s Compasses are joined like the com- line of fuperficies, areas, or planes. 3. A line of folids.
mon compafles, with a quadrant, or bow, like the fpring 4. A line of circles, or rather of polygons to be in-
compafles; only of different ufe, ferving here to keep fcribed in circles. Thefe lines are all unequally di-
the inftrument firm at any opening. They are made vided ; the three firft from 1 to 20, the lall from 6 to
very ilrong, with the points of their legs of well tem- 20. Their ufes are as follow ;
N n 2 By
COM [ 284 ] COM
Cowpafs. By the line of lines you divide a given line into any For the ufe of thefe compafles : 1. To divide a line Compafs.
l—-v  number of equal parts ; for by placing the index A into any number of equal parts lefs than joo : divide  *-—4
againft 1, and fcrewing it faft, if you open the com- 100 by the number of parts required ; flip the curfcr till
paffes, then the diftance between the points at each end the line on the Aiding dove-tail be againlt the quotient
will be equal. If you place the index againft 2, and on the line of lines : then, the whole line being taken
open the compaffes, the diftance between the points of between the points of the compaffes moft pemote from
the longer leg* B B, will be twice the diftance be- the centre, the aperture of the other will fhow the di¬
tween the fhorter ones CC ; and thus a line is bife&ed, viiion required. 2. A right line given, fuppofed to be
or divided into two equal parts. If the index be placed divided into too parts, to take any number of thofe
againft 3, and the compaffes opened, the diftances be- parts ; flip the line on the Aiding dove-tail to the num-
tween the points will be as 3 to 1, and lb a line is di- ber of parts required: the whole line being taken be-
three equal parts ; and fo you proceed for tween the points fartheft from the centre, the aperture
of. the other two will include the number of divifion*
required. 3. The radius being given, to find the
chord of any aich under 6o° ; flip the line on the Aid¬
ing dove-tail to the degrees required on the line of
chords : the radius being taken between tire points far¬
theft from the centre of the curfor ; the aperture of
the other line will be the chord required, provided the
number of degrees be greater than 29: if it be lefs,
the aperture taken from the radius will leave the chord
required. 4. If the chopd of an arch under 6o° be
vided
any other number of parts under to.
• The numbers of the line of planes anfwer to the
fquares of thofe in the line of lines ; for becaufe luper-
ficies or planes are to e-ch other as the fquares of their
like fides ; therefore, if the index be placed againft
2 in the line of planes, then the diftance between the-
fmall points will be the fide of a plane whofe atea is
one; but the diftance of the larger points will be the
like fide of a plane whofe area is two; or twice as
large. If the index be placed at 3, and the compaffes
opened, the diftanees between the points at each end given, and the radius required ; flip the line on the
....•11 :M-„ •>'--= no r tsi . dove-tail to the degrees given on the line of chords:
the given chord being taken between the two points
next the curfor, the aperture of the other will be the
radius required. 5. The radius being given, to find
the fine of any number of degrees; flip the line on
the dove-tail to the degree on the line of fines whofe
-fine is required : the radius taken between the points
furtheft from the curfor, the aperture of the other will
give the fine of the angle required. But if the fine
will be the like fide of planes whofe^area are as 1 to 3 ;
and fo of others.
The numbers of the line or folids anfwer to the
cubes of thofe in the line of lines ; becaufe all folids
are to each other as the cubes of their fides or diame¬
ters : therefore, if the index be placed to number 2,3,4,
&c. in the line of folids, the diftance between the lefler
and larger points will be the like fides of folids, which
are to each other as 1 to 2, x to 3, 1 to 4, &c. For
example : If the index be placed at 10, and the com- fought be lefs than 30°, the difference of the aperture*
paffes be opened fo that the fmall points may take the of the oppofite points will be the fine required. 6. The
diameter of a bullet whofe weight is one ounce, the radius being given, to find the tangent of any number
diftance between the large points will be the diameter of degrees under 71 : if the tangent required be under
of a bullet or globe of 10 ounces, or which is 10 times 26’ 30', then flip the line on the dove tail to the de-
as large. gree propofed on the tangent line; the radius taken
Laftly, The numbers in the line or circles are the between the points fartheft from the curfor, the aper-
fides of polygons to be infcribed in a given circle, or ture of the others will be the tangent of the degrees
by which a circle may be divided into the equal parts, required : if the tangent required be above 26° 30',.
from 6 to 20. Thus, if the index be placed at 6, but under 450, the line on the curfor muft be flipped
the points of the compaffes at either end, when opened to the degrees given on the tangent line : then the ra¬
te the radius of a given circle, will contain the fide dins being taken between the points furtheft from the
of a hexagon, or divide the circle into fix equal curfor, the aperture of the others will be the tangent,
parts. If the index be placed againft 7, and the com- If the tangent required be greater than 450, but lefs
paffes opened fo that the larger points may take in the than 56° 20', flip the notch on the tangent fide of the
radius of the circle, then the fliorter points will divide turned cheek to the degree o in the tangent line on
the circle into feven equal parts for inferibing a hep- the fide of the compafs; the radius taken between the
tagon. Again, placing the index to 8, arid opening points fartheft from the curfor; the difference between
the compaffes, the larger points will contain the radius, the aperture of the other and thefe, added together,
and the leffer points divide the circle into eight equal will be the tangent required. Thus, for the tangents
parts for inferibing an oftagon or fquare. And thus of other degrees under 71. After the like manner
you may proceed for others. may the fecant of any number of degrees under 71 be
Proportional Compasses with the feElor lines. The found,
ftrufture of thefe is fo like that of the common propor- Mr Heath, a mathematical inftrument-maker in
tional compaffes, only a little nicer, that it needs no London? conftru&ed a pair of proportional compaffes,
particular deferiptton. The lines on the firft face are in 1746, with a curious and ufeful contrivance for pre--
the line of lines, marked lines ; it is divided into 100 venting the fliorter legs from changing their pofition,
equal parts, every tenth numbered : and the line of when thefe compaffes were ufed. It confifted of a
chords, which goes to 6o°, is marked chords. On the fmall beam foldered to a fcrew,and running parallel to
other face are a line of fines to 90°, and a line of the leg of the compaffes, nearly of the length of the
tangents to 450. On one fide are the tangents from groove ; in this beam a flit was made, which admitted
45° to 710 34'5 on the other, fecants from o0 to of a fliding-nut, the other end of which fell into a hole
70° 30'. in the bottom of the ferew, belonging to the great nut
- of
c orsrrNT
Plate CXLIV.
C O M P A S S .
Plate CXUV.
cv
tJtz#. /.
C>. ^
COM L 285 ] COM
Compafs of the compaffes. The fcrew-pin of the beam pafied
II through an adjufter, by means of which the mark on the
Compe- fl;der mi-ght be brought exa&ly to any divifion. But
1 te”c':• phg proportional compaiTes have been much out of ufe
fince the invention of the fedtor.
Spring Compasses, or dividers; thofe with an
arched head, w hich by its fpring opens the legs; the
opening being direfted by a circular fcrew faftened to
one of the legs, and let through the other, worked
with a nut. Thefe compaffcs are made of hardened
fteel.
Trife Bins Compasses confift of two central rules,
and an arch of a circle of 1-20 degrees, immoveable,
with its radius; which is faftened with one of the
central rules like the two legs of a fedlor, that the cen¬
tral rule may be carried through all the points of the
circumference of the arch. The radius and rule fhould
be as thin as poffible ; and the rule faftened to the ra¬
dius Ihould be hammered cold, to attain the greater
elafticity ; and the breadth of the central rule fhould
be triple that ©f the radins: there mull alfo be a groove
in this rule, with a dove-tail fattened on it for its mo¬
tion, and a hole in the centre of each rule. The ufe of
this inftrument is to facilitate the trife&ion of angles
geometrically ; and it is faid to have been invented by
M. Tarragen for that purpofe.
Turn-up Compasses. The body of this inftrument
is like the common compafles: but towards the bot¬
tom of the legs, without-fide, are added two other
points befides the ufual ones; the one whereof carries
a drawing pen point, and the other a port-crayon,
both adjufted fo as to turn round, and be in the way of
ufe, or out of it, as occafion requires. Thefe eom-
pafies have been contrived to fare the trouble of chan¬
ging the points.
COMPASSION, or Commiseration, in ethic, a
mixed paffion, compounded of love and forrow, and
excited by the fight or recital of diftrefs. Hobbs
makes this a merely felfifh paflion, and defines it, as
being fear for ourfelves; Hutchefon refolves it into
iriftindb; but Dr Butler much more properly confiders
compaflion as an original, diftinft, particular affeftion-
in human nature.
COMPATIBLE, fomething that may fuit or con-
fill with another. See Incompatible.
COMPEIGNE, a handfome town of the ille of
France, in the county of Senlis, with a palace, or
caftle, where the king often refides. The maid of Or¬
leans was taken prifoner here in 1430. It is feated
on the river Oife, near a large forefl. E. Long. 3. 12.
N. Lat. 49. 25.
COMPENDIUM, in matters of literature, denotes
much the fame as epitome or abridgement. See
Abridgement.
COMPENSATION, in a general fenfe, an adlion
whereby any thing is admitted as an equivalent to
another.
Compensation, in law. Where the fame perfon is
debtor and creditor to another, the mutual obligations,
if they are for equal fums, are extinguifhed by com-
penfation ; if for unequal, the leffer obligation is ex¬
tinguifhed, and the greater diminifhed, as far as the
concourfe of debt and credit goes.
COMPETENCE, or Competency, in a general
fenfe,- fuch a quantity of any thing as is fufficient.
s
Competence, in law, the right or authority of a Ccmpe-
judge, whereby he takes cognizance of any thing. tei ce
COMPETENTES, an order of catechumens, in the Complex.
primitive Chrittian church, being the immediate can- ■ y——>
didates for baptifm. See Catechumen.
COMPETITION, in a general fenfe, is the fame
with rivalfhip, or when two or more perfons contend
for the fame thing.
Competition, in Scots law. In efcheats, fee Law,
Part III. N° clxvi. 17, &c. In confirmations by the
fuperior, in refignations, and in perfonal rights of
lands. Hid. clxviii. 5—9. In inhibitions, in adjudica¬
tions, among ft affignees, arrefters, and poinders, ibid.
clxxi. 6. clxxii. 3. elxxvii. 2. clxxviii. S, 9, IO. A*
mongll creditors of a defundl, clxxxi. 19.
COMPITALIA, or Compitalita, feafts held a-
mong the ancients in honour of the lares. The word
comes from the Latin compitum, a crofs-way ; by rea-
fon the feaft was held in the meeting of feveral roads.
The compitaUa are more ancient than the building of
Rome. Dionyfius HalicarnafTeus, and Pliny, indeed,
fay, they were inftituted by Servius Tullus ; but this
only fignifies that they were then introduced into
Rome. The feaft being moveable, the day whereon
it was to be obferved was proclaimed every year. It
was ordinarily held on the 4th of the nones of Fe¬
bruary, L e. on the 2d of that month. Macrobius
obferves, that they were held not only in honour
of the lares, but alfo of mania, madnefs. The priefts
who officiated at them were Haves and liberti, and
the facrifice a fow. They were re-eftabliffied, after
a long negleft, by Tarquin the Proud, on occafion
of an anfwer of the oracle, that they fhould facrifice
heads for heads ; i. e. that for the health and profpe-
rity of each family, children were to be facrificed:
but Brutus, after expelling the kings, in lieu of thofe
barbarous vidlims fubftituted the heads of garlic and
poppy ; thus fatisfying the oracle which had enjoined
capita, heads. During the celebration of this feaft,
each family placed at the door of their houfe the
llatue of the goddefs Mania: they alfo hung up at
their doors figures of wool, reprefenting men and
women; accompanying them with fupplications,that
the lares and mania would be contented with thofe fi¬
gures, and fpare “the people of the boufe.
COMPLEMENT, in geoinetry, is what remains of
the quadrant of a circle, or 90°, after any certain arch
has been taken away from it. Thus, if the arch ta¬
ken away be 40°, its complement is 50; becaufe
504-40=90. The fine of the complement of an
arch is called the co-fine, and that of the tangent the
co-tangent, &c.
COMPLETES Flos, in botany. A flower is faid
to be complete, which is provided with both the co¬
vers, viz. the calyx or flower-cup, and the petals. The
term was invented by Vaillant, and is fynonymous to
calyculatus jlos in Linnaeus, Berkenhout erroneoufly
confounds it with the auBus and calyculatus calyx of the
fame author.
COMPLEX, in a more general fenfe, a term fy¬
nonymous with compound; though in Itrrdlnefs of
fpeech there is fome difl'erence.
Complex is properly applied where a thing contains
divers others, or confilts of divers parts not really dr-
fliiidl from each other, but only. imaginarily, or in
cue.
COM [ 286
-Complex, our conceptions. In this fenfe the foul may be faid
Complex- to complex, in refpeft of the underftanding and
. I<'"~ will, which are two things that our reafon alone diftin-
guifhes in it.
Complex Term or Idea, is a term compounded of fe-
veral Ample or incomplex ones. Thus in the propofi-
tion, jujl God cannot leave crimes unpunijhed; the fub-
jeft of this propofition, viz. a jujl God, is a complex
term, or (lands for a complex idea compofed of two
Ample or incomplex ones, viz. God and jujl.
COMPLEXION, among phyficians, the tempera¬
ment, habitude, and natural difpoAtion, of the body ;
but more often the colour of the face and Ikin.
Few queftions in philofophy have engaged the at¬
tention of naturalifts more than the diverAties among
the human fpecies, among which that of colour is the
moft remarkable. The great differences in this refpeft
have given occafion to feveral authors to affert, that
the whole human race have not fprung from one origi¬
nal ; but that as many different fpecies of men were at
Aril created, as there are now different colours to be
found among them. Under the article America, n° 81
■—100. we have Arown that all the arguments which
can be brought for fpeciAc differences among man¬
kind, whether drawn from a difference of colour, ita-
ture, or difpoAtion, muff neceffarily be inconclufive.
It remains, however, a matter of no fnrall difficulty to
account for the remarkable variations of colour that
are to be found among different nations. On this fub-
jeft Dr Hunter hath publiihed a theAs, in which he
conAders the matter more accurately than hath com¬
monly been done, and determines abfolutely againilany
fpeciAc difference among mankind. He introduces his
fubjedl by obferving, that when the queftion has been
agitated, whether all the human race conftitute only
one fpecies or not, much confufion has arifen from the
fenfe in which the term fpecies has been adopted. He
therefore thinks it neceffary to fet out with a deAni-
tion of the term. He includes under the fame fpecies
all thofe animals which produce iffue capable of pro¬
pagating others refembling the original flock from
whence they fprung. This definition he illuftrates by
having recourffi to the human fpecies as an example.
And in this fenfe of the term he concludes, that all of
them are to be conAdered as belonging to the fame
fpecies. And as, in the cafe of plants, one fpecies
comprehends feveral varieties depending upon climate,
foil, culture, and Amilar accidents ; fo he conAders the
diverAties of the human race to be merely varieties
of the fame fpecies, produced by natural caufes. Of
the different colours obfervable among mankind, he
gives the following view:
Black. Africans under the line.
Inhabitants of New Ouinea.
Inhabitants of New Holland.
Swarthy. The Moors in the northern parts of
Africa.
The Hottentots in the fouthern parts
of it.
Copper-coloured. The Fail Indians.
Red-coloured. The Americans.
Brown-coloured. Tartars.
Perflans.
Arabs.
] COM
Brown-COLOUREDj Africans on the coaft of the Complex.
Mediterranean. I01'-
Chinefe.
Brownish. The inhabitants of the fouthern parts
of Europe; as
Sicilians,
Abyffinians,
Spaniards,
Turks, and likewife the Samoiedes
and Laplanders.
White. Moft of the European nations ; as
Swedes,
Danes,
Englilh,
Germans,
Poles, &c.
Kabardiniki,
Georgians,
Inhabitants of the iflands in the Pacific
Ocean.
In attempting to inveftigate the caufes of thefe dif¬
ferences, our author obferves, that there can be no
difpute of the feat of colour being placed in the ikin ;
that it is not even extended over the whole of this,
but conflned to that part named the cuticle, confiding
of the epidermis and reticulum; and that it chiefly
occupies the.latter of thefe. The cuticle is much
thicker and harder in black people than in white ones;
the reticulum in the latter being a thin mucus, in the
former a thick membrane. He concludes that this
feat of colour in whites is tranfparent, and either to¬
tally deprived of veffels, or only furnifhed with very
few; as the yellow colour appearing in jaundice va-
niihes on the caufe of the difeafe being removed;
which is not the cafe with ftains in the cuticle from
gunpowder, or Amilar caufes. He next points out
three caufes deftroying the pellucidity of the cuticle,
giving it a brown colour, and rendering it thicker.
Thefe are, accefs of air, naftinefs, and the heat of the
fun. The influence of each of thefe he proves by
many examples; and from thefe he is inclined to con-
fider the laft as by much the moft powerful. If, how¬
ever, it be admitted that thefe caufes have this effeft,
he thinks that all the diverAty of colour which is to
be obferved among mankind, may be thus accounted
for. He remarks, that all the inhabitants of the tor¬
rid zone incline more or lefs to a black colour. When
we obferve the differences which occur amongft them,
we muft at the fame time remember, that a black co¬
lour is not referred to heat alone, but to the other
caufes alfo: and when we attend to the diverAty of
temperature that occurs even irt the torrid zone, the
exiftence of a white nation there would by no means
deftroy the argument. , He is farther of opinion, that
the exiftence of a brown colour, and of confiderable
varieties from white, in the northern and coldeft parts
of Europe, may very eaflly be explained. This he
accounts for from the manner of life of the inhabi¬
tants, by which they are either expofed to the incle¬
mency of the air, or to conftant naftinefs from fmoky
houfes.
Having thus attempted to account, from natural
caufes, for the varieties which occur among mankind
with
COM [2
Complex- with refpe&xto colour, our author obferves, that, to all
ion- this reafoning, an obje&ion will naturally be made,
from confidering that infants bring thefe marks into
the world along with them, before they can be expo-
fed to any fuch caufes. Dr Hunter imagines, how¬
ever, that this may readily be explained upon the
fuppofition that many peculiarities acquired by parents
are tranfmitted to their poilerity; and of this, he
thinks, no one can entertain the leaft doubt who at¬
tends to hereditary difeafes. Thus, gout, fcrophula,
mania, and many other affe&ions, although at firft. in¬
duced by particular accidents, will continue to affeft
families for many generations. In the fame manner,
a parent expofed to caufes deftroying the natural
whitenefs of his complexion, will beget fwarthy chil¬
dren ; and the fame caufes continuing to operate upon
the fon, the blacknefs will be increafed. Thus all the
different fhades may have been at firft induced, and af¬
terwards continued.
The obje&ion here obviated, however, might have
been fhortly anfwered by denying the faff; for it is
now generally known, that the children of the black-
eft negroes are abfolutely lorn ■white, as will be after¬
wards noticed.
This fubjefk of complexion has been very well illuf-
trated by Mr Clarkfon, in a differtation introduced in
his Effay on the commerce and flavery of the human
fpecies. The firft point that occurs to be afeertained,
is, ‘What part of the fkin is the feat of colour?’ The
old anatomills ufually divided the fkin into two parts
or laminae; the exterior and thinneft, called by the Greeks
epidermis, by the Romans cuticula, and hence by us
cuticle; and the interior, called by the former derma,
and by the latter cutis, or trueJkin. Hence they muft
neceffarily have fuppofed, that, as the true fkin was
in every refpeft the fame in all human fubje&s, how¬
ever various their external hue, fo the feat of colour
muft have exifted in the cuticle or upper furface.
Malpighi, an eminent Italian phyfician of the laft
century, was the firft perfon who difeovered that the
fkin was divided into three laminse or parts; the cu¬
ticle, the true fkin, and a certain coagulated fubftance
fituated between both, which he diftinguifhed by the
title of refe mucoftm: which coagulated fubftance ad¬
hered fo firmly to the cuticle, as, in all former anato¬
mical preparations, to have come off with it; and,
from this circumftance, to have led the ancient ana-
tomifts to believe, that there were but two laminae, or
divifible portions in the human fkin. See Anatomy,
n°74—76.
This difeovery was fufficient to afeertain the point
in queftion: for it appealed afterwards that the cu¬
ticle, when divided according to this difeovery from
the other lamina, was femitrapfparent; that the cu¬
ticle of the blackeft negroe was of the fame tranfpa-
rency and colour as that of the pureft white; and
hence the true fkins of both being invariably the fame,
that the rete mucofum was the feat of colour.
This has been farther confirmed by all fubfequent
anatomical experiments; by which it appears, that,
whatever is the colour of this intermediate coagulated
fubftance, nearly the fame is the apparent colour of
the upper furface of the fkin. Neither can it be o-
therwife ; for the cuticle, from its tranfparency, muft
necefiarily tianfmit the colour of. the fubftance be-
87 ] co M
neath it, in the fame manner, though not in the fame Complex-
degree, as the cornea tranfmits the colour of the iris lon' ,
of the eye. This tranfparency is a matter of ocular
demonftration in white people. It is confpicuous in
every blufh ; for no one can imagine that the cuticle
becomes red as often as this happens: nor is it lefs dif-
coverable in the veins, which are fo eafy to be dif-
cerned ; for no one can fuppofe that the blue ftreaks,
w'hich he conftantly fees in the faireft complexions, are
painted, as it were, on the furface of the upper fkin.
From thefe, and a variety of other obfervations, no
maxim is more true in phyfiology, than that on the
rete mucofum depends the colour of the human bo¬
dy ; or, in other words, that the rete mucofum being
of a different colour in different inhabitants of the
globe, and appearing through the cuticle or upper
furface of the fkin, gives them that various appearance
which ftrikes us fo forcibly in contemplating the hu¬
man race.
As this can be incontrovertibly afeertained, it is e-
vident, that whatever caufes co-operate in producing
this different appearance, they produce it by afting
upon the rete mucofum; which, from the almoft in¬
credible manner in which the cuticle is perforated, is
as acceffible as the cuticle itfelf. Thefe caufes are pro¬
bably tbofe various qualities of things, which, com¬
bined with the influence of the fun, contribute to form
what we call climate. For when any perfon confiders,
that the mucous fubftance before mentioned is found to
vary in its colour, as the climates vary from the equa¬
tor to the poles, his mind muft be inftantly ftruck with
the hypothefis, and he muft adopt it, without any he-
fitation, as the genuine caufe of the phenomenon.
This fail, of the variation of the mucous fubftance,
according to the fituation of the place, has been clear¬
ly afeertained in the numerous anatomical experiments
that have been made; in which fubjefts of all nations
have come under confrderation. The natives of many
of the kingdoms and ifles of Afia are found to have
their rete mucofum black; thofe of Africa, fituated
near the line, of the fame colour; thofe of the mari¬
time parts of the fame continent, of a dulky brown,
nearly approaching to it; and the colour becomes
lighter or darker in proportion as the diftance from
the equator is either greater :or lefs. The Europeans
are the faireft inhabitants of the world. Thofe litua-
ted in the moft fouthern regions of Europe, havei in
their rete mucofum a tinge of the dark hue of their
African neighbours: hence the epidemic complexion,
prevalent among them, is nearly of the colour of the
pickled Spanifh olive; while in this country, and thofe
fituated nearer the north pole, it appears to be nearly,
if not abfolutely, white.
Thefe are fafts which anatomy has eftablifhed ; and
we acknowledge them to be fuch, that we cannot di-
veft outfclves of the idea, that climate has a confide-
rahle fhare ia producing a difference of colour.
The only objeftion of any confequence that has eve-
been made to the hypothelis of climate, is this, that
people under the fame parallels are not exa&ly of the-
fame colour. But this is no obje&ion in fa<St; for it
does not follow that thofe countries which are at an
equal diftance from tl s equator, fhould have their
climates the fame. Indeed nothing is more contrary
to experience than this. Climate, depends upon a va¬
riety-
COM
riety of accidents. High mountains in the neighbour¬
hood of a place make it cooler, by chilling the air that
is carried over them by the winds. Large fpreading
fucculent plants, if among the produ&ions of the foil,
have the fame effeft; they afford agreeable coaling
fhades, and a moift atmofphere from their continual
exhalations, by which the ardour of the fun is confi-
derably abated. While the foil, on the other hand,
if of a fandy nature, retains the heat in an uncommon
degree, and makes the fummers coniiderably hotter
than thofe which are found to exift in the fame lati¬
tude where the foil is different. To this proximity of
what may be termed burning famis, and to the iulphu-
reous and metallic particles which are continually ex¬
haling from the~bowels of the earth, is aferibed the
different degree of blacknefs by which , fome African
nations are diflinguifhable from each other, though
under the fame parallels. To thefe obfervations we
may add, that though the inhabitants of the fame pa¬
rallel are not exa&ly of the fame hue, yet they differ
only by fhades of the fame colour; or, to fpeak with
more p’recifion, that there are no two people, in fuch
a fituation, one of whom is white and the other black.
To fum up the whole Suppofe we were to take a
common globe ; tolregin at the equator; to paint e-
very country along the meridian line in fucceffion from
thence to the poles ; and to paint them with the fame
colour which prevails in the refpe&ive inhabitants of
each, we fhould fee the black, with which we had
been obliged to begin, infenfibly changing to an olive,
and the olive, through as many intermediate colours,
to a white: and if, on the other hand, we fhould
complete any one of the parallels according to the
fame plan, we fhould fee a difference perhaps in the
appearance of fome of the countries through which it
ran, though the difference would confift wholly in
, fhades of the fame colour.
The argument, therefore, which 'is brought againft
the hypothelis, is fo far from being an objection, that
it may be confidered as one of the firft arguments in its
favour: for if climate has really an influence on the
mucous fubflance of the body, it is evident, that we
mult not only expedt to fee a gradation of colour in
the inhabitants from the equator to the poles, but al-
fo different fhades of the fame colour in the inhabi¬
tants of the fame parallel.
To this argument may be added one that is uncon¬
trovertible, which is, that when the black inhabitants
of Africa are tranfplanted to colder, or the white in¬
habitants of Europe to hotter climates, their children,
born there, are of a different colour from themfelves ;
that is, lighter in the firft, and darker in the fecond
inftance.
As a proof of the firft, we fhall give the words of
the Abbe Raynal, in his admired publication. “ The
children,” fays he, “ which they (the Africans) pro¬
create in America, are not fo black as their parents
were. After each generation the difference becomes
more palpable. It is poffible, that after a numerous
fucceflion of generations, the men come from Africa
would not be diftinguifhed from thofe of the country
into which they may have been tranfplanted.”
This circumftance we have had the pleafure of hear¬
ing confirmed by a variety of perfons who have been
witneffes of the fadl; but particularly by many intel-
N* 88.
COM
ligent Africans, who have been parents themfelves in Com..
America, and who have deefared, that the difference pbxion.
is fo palpable in the northern provinces, that not only “ * ’
they themfelves have conftantly obferved it, but that
they have heard it obferved by others.
Neither is this variation in the children from the
colour of their parents improbable. The children of
the blacked Africans are born white. In this ftate
they continue for about a month, when they change
to a pale yellow. In procefs of time they become
brown. Their fkin ftill continues to increafe in dark-
nefs with their age, till it becomes of a dirty fallow
black ; and at length, after a certain period of years,
gloffy and fhining. Now, if climate has any influence
on the mucous fubftance of the body, this variation in
the children from the colour of their parents is an e-
vent which muft be reafonably expended: for being
born white, and not having equally powerful caufes to act
upon them in colder, as their parents had in the hotter
climates which they left, it muft necelfarily follow,
that the fame effedt cannot poffibly be produced.
Hence alfo, if the hypotheiis be admitted, may be
deduced the reafon why even thofe children who have
been brought from their country at an early age into
colder regions, have been obferved to be of a lighter
colour than thofe who have remained at home till they
arrived at a ftate of manhood. For having undergone
fome of the changes which we mentioned to have at¬
tended their countrymen from infancy to a certain
age, and having been taken away before the reft could
be completed, thefe farther changes, which would
have taken place had they remained at home, feem
either to have been checked in their progrefs, or
weakened in their degree, by a colder climate.
We come now to the fecond and oppofite cafe; for
a proof of which we lhall appeal to the words of Dr
Mitchell in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, n°476.
fed!:. 4. “ The Spaniards who have inhabited Ameri¬
ca under the torrid zone for any time, are become as
dark coloured as our native Indians of Virginia, of
which I myfelf have been a witnefs; and* were they
not to intermarry with the Europeans, but lead the
fame rude and barbarous lives with the Indians, it is
very probable, that, in a fucceflion of many genera¬
tions, they would become as dark in complexion.”
To this inftance we (hall add one, which is men¬
tioned by a late writer, who, deferibing the African
coaft and the European fettlementsr there, has the fol¬
lowing pafiage. “ There are feveral other fmall Por-
tuguefe fettlements, and one of fome note at Mitom-
ba, a river in Sierra Leon. The people here called
Portuguefe, are principally perfons bred from a mixture
of the firft Portuguefe difeoverers with the natives, and
now become, in their complexion and woolly quality
of their hair, perfedt negroes, retaining, "however, a
fmattering of the Portugfiefe language.”
Thefe fadts with refpedt to the colonifts of the Eu¬
ropeans are of the higheit importance in the prefent
cafe, and deferve a ferious attention. For when we
know to a certainty from whom they are defeended ;
when we know that they were, at the time of their
tranfplantatien, of the fame colour as thofe from whom
they feverally fprung; and when, on the other hand,
we are credibly informed that they have changed it for
the native Colour of the place which they now inhabit;
[ 288 ]
COM r 289 ] COM
Com- the evidence in fupport of thefe fafts is as great as if a
Jdcxipn. perfon> on the removal of two or three families into
another climate, had determined to afcertain the cir
cumftance ; as if he had gone with them and watched
their children ; as if he had communicated his obferva
tions at his death to a fucceflbr; as if his fucceflbr had
profecuted the plan : and thus an uninterrupted chain
■of evidence had been kept up from their firil removal to
any determined period of fucceeding time.
But though thefe fa&s feem fufficient of themfelves
to confirm our opinion, they are not the only fafts
which can be adduced in its fupport. It can be fhown,
that the members of the very fame family, when divid¬
ed from each other, and removed into different coun¬
tries, have not only changed their family complexion,
but that they have changed it to as many different co¬
lours as they have gone into different regions of the
world. We cannot have, perhaps, a more itriking in-
ftance of this than in the Jews. Thefe people are Mat¬
tered over the face of the whole earth. They have
preferred themfelves diftindl from the veil of the world
by their religion 5 and as they never intermarry with
.any but thofe of their own feft, fo they have no mix¬
ture of blood in their veins that they fhould differ from
each other: and yet nothing is more true, than that
the Englifh Jew is white, the Portuguefe fwarthy, the
Armenian olive, and the Arabian copper ; in fhort,.
that there appear to be as many different fpecies of
Jews as there are countries in which they refide.
To thefe fa&s we fhall add the following obfenra-
tion, that if we can give credit to the ancient hiftori-
ans in general, a change from the darkeft black to the
pureft while mull have adlually been accomplifhed. One
inftance, perhaps, may be thought fufficient. Herodo¬
tus relates, that the Colchi were black, and that they
had crifped hair. Thefe people were a detachment of
the ^Ethiopian army under Sefoflris, who followed him
in his expedition, and fettled in that part of the world
where Colchis is ufually reprefented to have been fitua-
ted. Had not the fame author informed us of this
circumflance, we fhould have thought it ftrange that
a people of this defeription fhould have been found in
fuch a latitude. Now as they were undoubtedly fettled
there, and as they were neither fo totally deftroyed,
nor made any fuch rapid conquefls, as that hifiory
ffiould notice the event, there is great r'eafon to pre¬
fume that their defeerdants continued in the fame, or
fettled in the adjacent, country ; from whence it will
follow, that they mull have changed their complexion
to that which is obfemd in the inhabitants of this par¬
ticular region at the preftnt day ; or, in other words,
that the black inhabitants of Colchis muft have been
■changed itito the fair Circaffian. Suppofe, without
■the knowledge of any hiftorian, they had made filch
confiderable conquefts as to have fettled themfelves at
the difiance of 10^ o miles in any one diredlion from
‘Colchis, ft ill they muft have changed their colour: For
had they gone in an eallern or weftern diredlion, they
mufl have been of the fame colour as the Circaffians;
if to the north, whiter ; if to the fouth, of a copper.
There are no people within that diftance of Colchis who
•are black.
From the whole of the preceding obfervations
on the fubjedl, we may conclude, that as all the
inhabitants of the earth cannot be otherwife than
Vol. V. Parti.
the children of the fame parents, and as the difference Cop-
of their appearance mull have of courfe proceeded from P^xion.
incidental caufes, thefe caufes are a combination of v
thofe qualities which we call climate: that the black-
nefs of the Africans is fo far engrafted in their confti-
tution, in a courfe of many generations, that their
children wholly inherit it if brought up in the fame
fpot j but that it is not fo wholly interwoven in their
nature, that it cannot be removed if they are born and
fettled in another.
The fame principles with the above we find adopted
and further illuilrated by Profeffor Zimmerman of
Brunfwick, in his celebrated work The Geographical
Hi/lory of Man, &c. He there proves in the moll fa-
tisfadlory manner, That the complexion of the human
fpecies is uniformly correfpondent with the degree of
heat or cold to which they are habitually expofed. In
maintaining this pofition, he makes a very proper di-
ftindlion with regard to climate. By climates we are
to underftand, not fimply or folely thofe diilinguilhed
by the geograghical divifionS" of the globe, to the ex-
clufion of what he terms phyfical climate, or that which
depends on the changes produced in. any given lati¬
tude by fuch adventitious circumftances as the lower
or more elevated fituations of a country, its being en-
compaffed by water or large trails of land, overfpread
or furrounded with forefts, placed in an exteniive plain,
or environed by lofty mountains. Peculiarities of the
like kind, as has been already noticed, frequently pre¬
vent the phyfical climate from correlponding entirely
with the geographical, as a country influenced by them
is often much warmer or colder thau other regions pla¬
ced under the fame degree of latitude. The influence
of thefe fecondary or modifying circumftances has been
already adverted to, and need not be further enlarged
upon; we ffiall here only obferve, that the erroneous
reafoning of Lord Kames on this fubjeil feems to have
been owing to his inattention to the difference above
mentioned! At Senegal, and in the adjacent lands,
the thermometer is often at 112 or 117 degrees in the
ffiade; and here we find the inhabitants jet Lack, with
woolly hair. The heat is equally great in Congo and
Loango, and thefe countries are inhabited by negroes
only; whereas in Morocco, to the north of thele re¬
gions, and at the Cape of Good Hope, to the fouth,
the heat is not fo intenfe, nor are the inhabitants of fo
deep a hue. Lord Kames afles, Wheref re are not the
Abyffinians and the inhabitants of Zaara of as dark a
complexion as the Moors on the coaft of Guinea l
M. Zimmerman anfwers, that thefe countries are
much cooler. The defert is not only farther from the
equator, but the winds blowing over the Atlas moun¬
tains, which like the Alps are covered with fnow, and
the wefterly wind coming from the fea, muft confider-
ably mitigate the heat. Nor is Abyffinia fo warm as
either Monomotopa or Guinea. The north-eaft winds
from the ftde of Perfia and Arabia are cooled by their
paffage over the Red Sea: the northern winds from
Egypt loft much of their heat on the chain of moun¬
tains that is extended between the countries: the
winds from the fouth and the weft are fea-winds. Thus
the only quarter from which they can derive exceffive
heat is horn the weft, as the air on this fide muft pahs
over trails of heated lands.” For a fimilar reafon it is
that negroes .are not found either in Afia.or South A-
O o merica
COM [ 290 ] COM
Com- merlca under the equator. The fituations of thefe
plexion countries, our author obferves, exppfe them to fea-
Complica- freezes and cooling winds from the continent. He
tion. confirms this hypothefis by obfervlng, that the moun-
4——v—— taineers of warm climates, as in Barbary and Ceylon,
are much fairer than the inhabitants of the valleys:
that the Saracens and Moors, who conquered the
1 north-eaft part of Africa in 1700, from being brown,
are become like the negroes near the equator : that
the Portuguefe, who fettled at Senegal in 1400, be¬
came blacks; and Tudela the Jew a Herts, that his
countrymen in Abyffinia acquired the dark complexion
of the original natives.
Upon the whole : Colour and figure may be ftyled
habits of the body. Like other habits, they are cre¬
ated, not by great and fudden impreffions, but by con¬
tinual and almoft imperceptible touches. Of habits
both of mind and body, nations are fufceptible as well
as individuals. They are tranfmitted to offspring, and
augmented by inheritance. Long in growing to ma¬
turity, national features, like national manners, become
fixed only after a fuccefiion of ages. They become,
however, fixed at laft ; and if we can afcertain any ef-
feft produced by a given ftate of weather or of cli¬
mate, it requires only repetition during a fufficient
length of time to augment and imprefs it with a per¬
manent character. The fanguine countenance will,
for this reafon, be perpetual in the higheft latitudes of
the temperate zone; and we fliall for ever find the
fvvarthy, the olive, the tawny, and the black, as we
defcend to the fouth.
The uniformity of the effeft in the fame climate,
and on men in a fimilar flate of fociety, proves the
power and certainty of the caufe. If the advocates of
different human fpecies fuppofe that the beneficent
Deity hath created the inhabitants of the earth of dif¬
ferent colours, becaufe thefe colours are beft adapted
to their refpefkive zones ; it furely places his benevo¬
lence in a more advantageous light to fay, he has given
to human nature the power of accommodating itfelf to
every zone. This pliancy of nature is favourable to
the unions of the mofl diffant nations, and facilitates
the acquifition and the extenfion of fcience, which
xyould otherwife be confined to few objefts and to a
very limited range. It opens the way particularly to
, the knowledge of the globe which we inhabit ; a fub-
ieft fo important and interefting to man. It is veri¬
fied by experience. Mankind are for ever changing
their habitations by conquefts or by commerce; and
' we find them in all climates, not only able to endure
the change, but fo affimilated by time, that we cannot
fay with certainty whofe anceftor was the native of the
clime, and whofe the intruding foreigner.
All the foregoing obfervations have been well reca¬
pitulated, illuftrated by new fafts, and enforced by
additional reafoning founded on experience, by the
Reverend Dr S. S. Smith, profeffor of moral philofo-
phy in the college of New Jerfey, in his EJfay on tlx
Caufes of the Variety of Complexion and Figure in the 'Hu¬
man Species; to which tlie reader who wifhes for fur¬
ther fatisfaftion on the fubjeft is referred.
COMPLEXUS; and Complexvs Minor, or Tra-
helo-mafoidaus: two mufcles in the pofterior part of
the trunk. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
COMPLICATION, in general, denotes the blend¬
ing, or rather interweaving, of feveral different things
together : thus, a perfon afflidted with feveral diforders
at the fame time, is faid to labour under a complica¬
tion of diforders.
COMPLINE, the laft divifion of the Romilh bre¬
viary. It was inftituted to implore God’s protedtion
during the night, as the prime is for the day. It is
recited after fun-fet; and is fo called, becaufe it com¬
pletes the office for the 24 hours.
COMPLUTENSIAN bible. See Bible (Greek).
COMPONE, or Componed, or Colony, in-heral¬
dry. A bordure cpmpone is that formed or compofed.
of a row of angular parts, or chequers of two colours.
COMPONED, or Composed, isalfo ufed in gene-
neral for a bordure, a pale, or a fefs, compofed of two
different colours or metals difpofed alternately, fepa-
rated and divided by fillets, excepting at the corners ;;
where the jundtures are made in form of a goat’s
foot.
COMPOSITE, in general, denotes fomething com¬
pounded, or made up of feveral others united together:,
thus,
Composite Numbers, are fuch as can be meafured*
exadtly by a number exceeding unity; as 6 by 2 or
3, or 10 by 5, &c. fo that 4 is the loweft compofite
number. Compofite numbers, between themfelves,.
are thofe which have fome common meafure befides
unity ; as 12 and zy, as being both meafured by 3.
Composite Order, in archite&ure, the lalt of the
five orders of columns; fo called becaufe its capital is
compofed out of thofe of the other columns, borrow¬
ing a quarter-round from the Tufcan and'Doric, a row
of leaves from the Corinthian, and volutes from the
Ionic. Its corniche has Ample modillions or dentils.
It is alfo called the Roman or Italic order, as having
been invented by the Romans. By moft authors it i&
ranked after the Corinthian, either as being the next
richeft, or the laft invented. See Architecture,.
n° 48.
COMPOSITION, in a general fenfe, the uniting
or putting together feveral things, fo as to form one
whole, called a compound.
Composition of Ideas, an "aft of the mind, whereby
it unites feveral fimple ideas into one conception or
complex idea.
When we are provided with a fufficient ftock of
Ample -ideas, and have by habit and ufe rendered them
familiar to our minds, they become the component parts
of other ideas ftill more complicated, and form what
we may call a fecond order of compound notions. This
procefs may be continued to any degree of compofition
we pleafe, mounting from one ftage to another, and.
enlarging the number of combinations.
Composition, in grammar, the joining of two words
together; or prefixing a particle to another word, to
augment, diminifh, or change its fignification.
Composition, in logic, a method of reafoning,
whereby we proceed from fome general felf-evident
truth to other particular and Angular ones.
In difpefing and putting together our thoughts, there
are two ways of proceeding equally within our choice:
for we may fo fuppofe the truths, relating to any part
of knowledge, as tl\ey prefented themfelves to the
mind in the manner of inveftigation ; carrying on the
feries of proofs in a reverfe order, till they at laft ter¬
minate
Complino
II-
Cofnpoit-
COM [ 291 ] COM
ttompofi- miaatc m firft principles : or beginning with thefe prin-
, tlon* ciples, we may take the contrary way; and from them
v deduce, by a diredt train of reafoning, all the feveral
propofitions we Watlt to eftablifh.
This diverfity in the manner of arranging our
thoughts gives rife to -the twofold divifion of method
eftabliflied among logicians ; the one called analytic
method, or the method of refolution, inafmuch as it
traces things back to their fource, and refolves know¬
ledge into its firft and original principles. This me¬
thod ftands in contradiftindlion to the method of com-
pofition ; or, as it is otherwife called, the fynthetic
method: for here we proceed by gathering together
the feveral fcattered parts of knowledge, and combi¬
ning them into one fyftem, in fuch a manner as that
the underftanding is enabled diiiinCtly to follow truth
through all the different ftages of gradation.
Composition, in mufic, is the art of inventing and
writing airs 5 of accompanying them with a fuitable
harmony; in (hort, of forming a complete piece of mu¬
fic in all its parts.
The knowlege of melody, harmony, and its rules,
is the foundation of compofition. Without doubt,
it is neceffary to know in what manner chords ftiould
be filled, how to prepare and refolve diffonances,
how to find the fundamental bafs, and how to put in
ipra&ice all the other minutiae of elementary know¬
ledge ; but with the mechanical rules of harmony alone,
one is by no means better qualified to underftand the
art, and operate in the practice of compofition,- than
to form himfelf for eloquence upon ail the rhetorical
precepts exhibited in grammar. We need not fay, that
befide's this, it is neceffary to underftand the genius
and compafs of voices and inftruments; to judge what
airs may be of eafy, and what of difficult, execution ;
to obferve what will, and what will not, be produc¬
tive of any effedl; to feel the chara&er of different
movements, as well as that of different modulations,
that both may be always fuitably applied ; to know
the different rules eftabliffied by convention, by tafte,
by capriee, or by pedantry, as fugues, imitations, or
in pieces where the fubjedl is confined to uniform
laws in its harmony, melody, rhithmus, &c. All thefe
acquifitions are ftill no more than preparatives for
cdmpofition : but the compofer muft find in his own
genius the fources of beautiful melody, of fublime har¬
mony, the pi&urefque, and the expreffive in mufic;
he muft, in (hort, be capable of perceiving, and of
forming, the order of the whole piece; to follow the
relations and aptitudes of which it is fufceptible in
every kind ; to inflame his foul with the fpirit and en-
thufiafm of the poet, rather than childiftily amufe him-
felf with punning in harmony, or adapting the mufic
to each particular word. It is with reafon that our
muficians have given the name of words to the poems
which they fet to mufic. It appears evident from
their manner of expreffing them, that, in their appre-
henfion, they feemed words, and words alone. One
would be tempted to imagine, particularly during fome
of thefe laft years, that the rules for the formation
and fucceffion of chords have caufed all the reft to be
*eglected or forgot; and that harmony has made no
acquifitions but at the expence of what is general and
effential in the mufical art. All our artifts know how
to fid a chord with its conftituent founds, or a piece of
harmony with its conftituent parts; but not a foul Compofi-
amongft them feels a ray of compofition. As to what tlon' ,
remains, though the fundamental rules of counter* v
point, or mufic in parts, continue ftill the fame, they
are more or lefs rigorous and inflexible in proportion
as the parts increafe in number.; for‘according as the
parts are multiplied, the difficulty of compofition is
heightened, and the rules are lefs fevere.—Compofi-
tions in two parts are called duettos when the two per¬
formers fing equally ; that is to fay, when the fubjedt.
is no further extended, but divided between them : but
if the fubjedt is in one part alone, and the fubordinate
harmony no more than an accompanyment, the firft part
is then either called a recital I've or ufolo; and the other
an accompanyment, or continued bafs, if it is a bafs. * It
is the fame cafe with the trio, with compofitions in three,
in four, or in five parts.
The name of compofition is likewife given to fuch
pieces of mufic themfelves as are formedt according to
the rules of the art. For this reafon the duetts, trios,
quartettos, which have juft been mentioned, are called
compojitions.
Compofitions are either formed for the voice alone,
or for inftruments, or for voices and inftruments join¬
ed. Full chorufes and fongsare the only compofitions
principally intended for the voice, though fometimes
inftruments are joined with it to fupport it. Compo¬
fitions for inftruments are intended to be executed by
a band in the orcheftra, and then they are called
fymphonies, concertos; or for fome particular fpecies
of inftruments, and then they are called pieces or fo~
natas.
Such compofitions as are deftined both for Voices
and inftruments, have been generally divided into
two capital fpecies, •viz. the facred and the fecular.
The compofitions deftined for the church, whether
pfalms; hymns, anthems, or refponfives, are in gene¬
ral diftinguifhed by the name of cbufch-mujic, and
characterized by their intention to be fung with words.
Secular mufic in general may likewife be divided into
two kinds ; theatrical and chamber mufic. Of the fir ft
kind is that ufed in the operas ; the fubdivifions of the
fecond are endlefs. Solos, concertos, cantatas, fongs,
and airs, almoft of every kind, which are not adapted
to the church or the flage, may be included in the idea
of chamber-mufic.,
In general, it is thought, that facred mufic requires
deeper fcience, and a more accurate obfervation of
rules; the fecular fpecies gives more indulgence to ge¬
nius, and fubfifts in greater variety.
But we muft here obferve, that the eccjefiaftical
mufic now ufed, or rather profar*d and murdered,
amcngft us, though regular in its harmony, is limple
in its compofition, and demands not that profound
knowledge in the art, either to form or comprehend
it, which Rouffeau, whom till now we have followed
in this article, feems to imagine. His affertion can
only be applicable to the church-mufic of Italy. That
which is now eftabliflred amongft us feems not to be
indigenous, but transferred with the Calviniftical li¬
turgy from Geneva; and as it is intended for popular
ufe, it can by no means be efteemed an high exertion
of the mufical art: yet, however limple, it is pleafing;
and, when properly performed, might elevate the foul
to a degree of devotion, and qven of rapture, which
Oo 2 at
COM [ 202 ] CO M
Cotnpofi- at prefent we are fo far from feeling, that we rather
n '"• feem to fleep or to howl, than to fing the praife of
' God. Perhaps our clergy may find more advantage in
cultivating their farms; but they would furely feel a
higher and diviner pleafure in cultivating the tallies and
voices of their people. The one, however, is not in¬
compatible with the other. An hour of relaxation in
a winter evening might ferve for the accomplifhment
of this pious purpofe ; and one fhould imagine, that,
independent of religious confiderations, the fpirifc of
the craft might dictate fuch a meafure as calculated to
produce popular entertainment and gain popular af¬
fection.
In compofition, the author either confines himfelf,
as a fubjeft, to the mere mechanical modulations and
arrangements of found; and, as his end, to the pleafure
of the ear alone; or otherwife he foars a nobler height;
he afpires to imitative mufic ; he endeavours to ren¬
der the hearts and fouls of his auditors duftile by his
art, and thus to produce the nobleft emotions and
moft falutary effefts. In the firft view', it is only
neceflary that he fhould look for beautiful founds and
agreeable chords ; but in the fecond, he ought to con-
fider mufic in its conformity with the accents of the.
human voice, and in the expreffive powers of notes
harmonically combined to fignify or paint fuch objects
as are fufceptible of imitation. In Rouffeau’s article
Opera, fome ideas may be found by which the art may
be ennobled and elevated, by forming mufic into a
language more powerful and pathetic than eloquence
itfelf. See Opera.
Composition,- in literature, the art of forming
and arranging fentiments, and cloathing them wfith
language fuitable to the nature of the fubjedt r dif-
courfe. See the articles Language,. Oratory, Po-
itry, Dialogue, Epistle, and History.
Composition, in chemiftry, is the union and com¬
bination of feveral fubftances of different natures, from
which a compound body refults. From this union of
bodies of different natures, a body is formed, of a mix¬
ed nature, which. Becker and Stahl have called a mix¬
ture, and which may be called a combination, ox chemical
sompojition, to avoid the equivocal fenfe of the word
mixture. By this laft, we underhand only a mere ap-
pofition of parts; and which would therefore give a
very falfe idea of chemical compofition, in which a
mutual adhefion takes place between the combined
fubftances.
Composition, in paintings includes the invention
as well as difpofition of the figures, the choice of at¬
titudes, &c.
Compofition, therefore, confifts of two parts ; one
of which finds out, by means of hifiory, proper ob-
jefts for a picture; and the other difpofes them to ad¬
vantage. See Painting.
Composition, in pharmacy, the art or a& of mix¬
ing divers ingredients together into a medicine fo as
they may afiift each other’s virtues, fupply each other’s
delefts, or correft any ill qualities thereof. See Phar¬
macy.
Composition, in commerce, a contraft between
an infolvent debtor and his creditors, whereby the
latter accept of a part of the debt in compofition for
the whole, and give a general acquittance accord¬
ingly.
Composition, in printing, commonly termed com- Compoft-
pojing, the arranging of feveral types or letters in the tl°n
compofing-ftick, in order to form a line; and of fe- nonLnft
veral lines ranged in order, in the galley, to make a ■ ° |
page; and of feveral pages to make a form. See
Printing
COMPOS ITvE, in botany. The name of a clafs
in Hermannus and Royen ; as likewife of an order in
Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method, confiding
in general of the plants which have the charafters
enumerated in the following article.- A particular
defcription of this .order is given under the article
Syngenesia, which includes all the compound
flow'ers.
COMPOSITUS flos, in botany, an aggregate
flower compofed of many fiofculi fejiles, on a common
entire receptacuhim, with a common perianthium, and
whofe antherae being five in number unite in the form
of a cylinder; the flofculi are monopetalous, and under
each of them is a monofpermous germen. Compound
flow'ers are either ligulati, tubulufi, or radiati.
COMPOST, in agriculture, denotes a certain kind
of mixture defigned to alfift the foil in t ?e way of ve¬
getation, inftead of dung. The requifites for a com-
poft are, r. That it ought to be cheaper than the
quantity of dung required for an equal extent of foil.
2. It ought to be lefs bulky ; and, 3. It ought to pro¬
duce equal effefts.
Under the article Agriculture, we have endea¬
voured to fhow, that the true vegetable food confifts
in reality of the putrid effluvia proceeding from de¬
cayed animal and vegetable fubftances. If this theory
is admitted, the hope of making compofts as a fucce-
daneum for dung is but very fmall, unlefs they are
made of putrefied animal and vegetable fubftances ; in
which cafe, unlefs in very fingular circumftances, they
will prove much dearer than dung itfelf. Several at¬
tempts, however, have been made by thofe who had
other views concerning the nature of the true vege¬
table food. An oil-compoft is recommended in the
Georgical Eflays, upon a fuppofition that the food of
vegetables is of an oily nature. It is made as follows :
“ Take of North American potafh 12 lb. Break the fait
into fmall pieces, and put it into a convenient vefiel
with four gallons of water. Let the mixture Hand 48
hours; then add coarfe train oil 14 gallons. In a few
d.ays the fait will be difiblved, and the mixture, upon
ftirring, will become nearly uniform. Take I4bufliels
of fand, or 20 of dry mold; upon thefe pour the above
liquid ingredients. Turn this compofition frequently
over, and in fix months it will be fit for ufe. When
the liquid ingredients are put to one or two hoglheads
water, a liquid compoft will be formed, which muft be
ufed with a water cart.”
This compoft, however, the inventor himfelf owns
to be inferior to rotten dung, as indeed may very na¬
turally be fuppofed; yet in fome cafes it feems ca¬
pable of doing fCrvice, as will appear from fome of
the following experiments which we extraft from the
eflays above mentioned.
Exp. I. By the author of the eflays. “ I took four
pots, n° 1, 2, 3,4. N 1. contained I2lb. of barren
fand, with 1 oz. of the fand oil compoft. N" 2. con¬
tained izlb. of fand without any mixture. N" 3. had
lalb. of fand with half an ounce of flaked lime. NJ 4.
had
COM
Compoft. had I zlb. of fand with 40Z. of the fund oil-compoft.
  In the month of March, 1 put fix grains of wheat in¬
to each pot, and during the fummer, I occafionally
watered the plants with filtrated water. All the time
the plants were corifuming the farina, I could obferve
very little difference in their appearance. But after
one month’s growth, I remarked that n° 1. was the
beft; n° 2. the next; n° 3. the next; and n° 4. much
the worft.” The fame differences were obferved in
Auguft, when n° r. the beit, had five fmall ears, which
contained a few poor grains of wheat.
Exp. II. By the fame. “ In the month of June, I
felected four lands of equal goodnefs in a field in¬
tended for turnips. The foil was a light fand, with a
tolerable quantity of vegetable earth amongff it. It
was ploughed out of fward in November, and had not
borne, a crop for many years. I fhall diffinguifti my
experimental lands by n° 1, 2, 3, 4. N 1. was ma¬
nured with rotten dung; n° 2. with oil-compoft ; n° 3.
wnth lime; n° 4. was left without any dreffing. On
the 20th of June they were all fown with turnip-feed
broad-caff, and during the courfe of the feafon were
twice hoed. In November I viewed the field, and made
the following remarks. N' I. the beft; n° 2. the next;
n° 3. the worft; nJ 4. better than n°3.” Here the
oil-compoft appears in a favourable light ; but other
trials, made with equal accuracy, f err. rather to prove,
that it is not proper for turnips, barley, or quick
growing vegetables. It requires being meliorated by
the atmofphere, and therefore is better adapted for
winter crops.
Exp'. III. by the fame. “ In the month of May,
I planted 12 alleys that lay between my afparagus beds
with cauliflower plants. Each alley took up about 30
plants. One of the alleys I fet apart for an experi¬
ment with the oil-compoft, prepared according to the
dire&ions already given. About an handful of the
[ 293 ]
COM
were in a common field that had been long under the Compofl.
plough.” " v—*
Exp. V. by Richard Townly, Efq. of Belfield.
“ In the fpring 1770, I prepared a piece of ground
for onions. It was laid out into fix beds of the fame
fize, and which were all fown at the fame time. Over
twm of them, the oil compoft was fcattered in a very
moderate quantity. Over other two, pigeon’s dung ;
and over the remaining two, fame of my <weed-compoJl
(formed of putrefied vegetables), which I efteem one.
of the beft manures, for moft vegetables, that cjn be
made. The onions came up very well in all the beds;
but, in about fix weeks,- thofe that were fed with the
oil-compoft;, plainly difcovered the advantage they had
over the reft, by their luxuriancy and colour, and at
the end of the fummer perfected the fineft crop I had
ever feen, being greatly fuperior to the others both in
quantity and fize. The fame fpring I made an expe¬
riment upon four row's of cabbages, fet at the diftanee
of four feet every way. Two were manured with oil-
compoft, and two with my own. All the plants were
unluckily damaged, juft before they began to form, by
fome turkies getting into the field and (plucking off
the greateft part of the leaves. However, they fo far
recovered, in the September following, from 22 to
281b. a-piece. The rows proved fo equal in goodnefs,.
that I could not determine which had the advantage.
The fame year, one part of a field of wheat expofed to
the north-eaft winds, which, that fpring, continued to-
blow for a month or five weeks, appeared very poor
and languid at the time ofttillering. Over it I order¬
ed fome of the oil-compoft; to be fown w-ith the hand ;
which not only-recovered, but alfp puftied forwards
the wheat plants in that part of the field, fo as to-
make them little inferior, if any, to the reft. The fame
fpring, I made a comparative experiment, upon four
contiguous lands of oats, between.the oil-compoll
compofl; was put to the root of each cauliflow'er plant, and my own weed-compoft. The latter had manifeft-
In all other refpedts the alley was managed like the
reft. The plants in general flowered very well; but
thofe to which I applied the compoft; fprung up hafti-
ly with fmall ftalks, and produced very poor flowers.
1 imputed this unfavourable appearance to the frelh-
nefs of the compoft, which was only a few weeks old.
In the September following this unfuccefsful expe¬
riment, I planted the fame alleys with early cab-
ly the advantage, though the other produced a very
large and fine crop. I alfo tried the oil-compoft up¬
on carrots, and it anfwered exceedingly well. I
did the fame this year (‘771) both upon them and
my onions, and have the fineft crops of thefe vege¬
tables I ever faw any where upon the fame compafs
of ground.1’
Exp. VI. by Mr J. Broadbent of Berwick, in El¬
bages. The neceffity of meliorating the compoft was met near Leeds. “ On the firft of October 1771,.
in this trial fully confirmed. For the cabbages that I fowed two acres of a light channelly foil with wheat.
grew upon the alley, which in May had received the
compoft, were larger and in all refpe&s finer than the
Others.”
Exp. IV. by James Stovin, Efq; of Doncafter.
“ In the year 1769, I made the following trial with
the oil-compoft, prepared as above directed. One acre
fown with barley, and manured with oil-compoft at
18 s. produced five quarters five bulhels. An acre
adjoining, fown with barley, and manured with 12
loads of rotten dung at 3I. produced four quarters
three bufhels and two pecks. The compoft-barley
was bolder and better corn than the bther. In the
year 1770, the dunged acre produced of rye, three
quarters. The compoft acre of ditto, two quarters
fix buftiels. In the year 1771, the fame lands were
fown with oats, and the produce was greatly in fa¬
vour of the dunged acre. Thefe experimental lands
and harrowed in the compoft with the grain. Being
at a confiderable diftance from a large town, we find
it very difficult and expenfiye to procure rotten dung
in fufficient quantity for our tillage lands, for which
reafon we have recourfe to land-dreffings both for our
winter and fpring-corn. Rape-duft and foot are prin¬
cipally ufed ; but the prefent price of both thefe ar¬
ticles is a heavy tax upon the farmer. To obviate that
inconvenience, I. refolved to make trial of the oil-
compoft ; and from what I have obferved in this one
experiment, I am encouraged to make a more exten-
five ufe of it the next year. Being well acquainted
with the nature and efficacy of foot, I am Satisfied,
that the above two acres produced as good a crop o£
wheat as if they had been dreffed with that excellent
manure.”
,On the fuppofition that vegetables are fupported by
matteri
COM [ 294 ] COM
’Gotnpciit. matters of a faline nature, compofts formed of diffe-
L^~'J rent forts of falts have been contrived, but with lefs
fuccefs than the one above treated of. A famous com-
pofition of this kind was lately fold by patent, under
the name of Baron Van Haak's compojl. The follow¬
ing experiment is mentioned in the Georgical Elfays,
as made with a view to determine the virtues of it
compared with the oil-compoft and foot mixed with
alhes.—“ In the beginning of April 1773, an acre of
land was fown with forward oats. I pitched upon one
land in the middle of the piece, which I efteemed bet¬
ter than any of the reft, and upon this I fcattered Ba¬
ron Van Haak’s compoft, in the quantity directed in
his inftruftions. On one fide I manured a land with
the oil-compoft, but rather with a lefs quantity than
directed; and, on the other fide, I manured two lands
with dry coal-aflies fifted fine, and an equal quantity
of foot. The lands upon which this experiment was
made, were much worn out. with a long fucceffion of
crops. The lands which had the benefit of the aihes
and foot, produced an exceeding fine crop ; the oil-
compoft produced a tolerable good one ; but that
which had only the afliftance of the baron’s com¬
poft, produced a very poor one. It could not have
Been worfe had it been left deftitute of every ailift-
ance.”
Compofts, made with putrefied animal fubftances,
will no doubt anfwer much better, in moft cafes, than
any other kind of manure, but they are difficult to be
procured. The following is recommended by Dr Hun¬
ter of York.—“ Take a fufficient quantity of faw-
duft, incorporate it with the blood and offal of a
flaughter-houfe, putting a layer of one and a layer of
the other till the whole becomes a moift and fetid com-
pofition. Two loads of this compoft, mixed with
three loads of earth, will be fufficient for an acre of
wheat or fpring-corn. Being a kind of top-dreffing,
it ffiould be put on at the time of fowing, and har¬
rowed in with the grain. The prefent year I have a
field of wheat manured in this manner, and have the
pleafure to fay, that it is extremely clean, and has all
the appearance of turning out an excellent crop. As
this kind of compoft lies in a fmall compafs, it feems
well adapted for the ufe of fuch farmers as are obliged
to bring their manures from a dillance. It is befides
extremely rich, and will probably continue in the land -
much longer than fold-yard or ftable-dung. I appre¬
hend that it is capable of reftoring worn out land to
5 its original freftmefs; and I am induced to be of that
opinion, from the appearance of the above crop, which
is now growing upon land much impoverifhed by bad
management.”
Another compoft, prepared from whales flefti, is
recommended by Mr Charles Chaloner.—“ I have a
particular pleafurc (fays he) in defcribing and ma¬
king public the beft method of forming a compoft
from whales fleffi, as recommended to me by Dr Hun¬
ter. Having marked out the length and breadth of
your intended dung-hill, make the firft layer of earth
about a foot in thicknefs. Moor-earth, or fuch as is
taken from ant-hills, is the beft for this purpofe. O-
ver the earth lay one layer of long litter, from the
fold-yard or liable, about 12 inchnefs in thicknefs,
then a layer ofwhale-flelh, and over that another layer
of dung. Repeat the operations till the heap be rai-
fed about fix feet, then give it a thick cohering of Compoft,
earth, and coat the heap with fods. In this manner
each layer of fie fir will be placed between two layers of, e a ,
duqg. In about a month turn the whole in the ufual ' " ^
manner, which will occafion a ftrong degree of heat
and fermentation. When turned, coat with earth as •
before, with a view tp confine the putrid fteam which
would othervvife efcape. In a month or two the.heap
will be found to be confiderably fallen, wdren it ftrould
have a fecond turning as before. The operation of
turning mull be repeated at proper intervals, till the
whole becomes an uniformly putrid mafs. The whale-
flefh is of different degrees of firmnefs, feme of it be¬
ing almqft liquid ; and, in proportion to its firmnqfs,
the heap will become fooner or later fit for ufe. In
general, the cpmpoft fhould not be ufed till 12 months
old; but that depends upon circumftances. Guard the
heap from dogs, pigs, badgers, and vermin, as thefe
animals are remarkably fond of whale-flelh. This ani¬
mal compoft may with great advantage 'be applied to
all purpofes where good rotten dung is required. I
have ufed it with great fuccefs for cabbages, and find
it an excellent dreffing for meadow-ground. Accord¬
ing to the beft compytation, one hogfhead of whale
refufe, will make eight loads of dung, which, when w'e
confider the great facility with which this bafis of our
dung-hill may be carried, is a momentous concern to
fuch farmers as lie remote from a large town.” See
Manure.
Compost, in gardening, is a mixture of feveral
earths, earthy fubftances, and dungs, either for the
improvement of the general foil of a garden, or for
that of fome particular plants. Almoft every plant de¬
lights in fome peculiar mixture of foils or compoft,
in which it will thrive better than in others. The
moft remarkable and generally ufeful of thefe, are
taken notice of under the defeription of the feveral
botanical articles, as they occur in the order of the
alphabet.
COMPOSTELLA, a celebrated town of Spain,
and capital of Galicia, with an archbiftiop’s fee, and
an univerfity. The public fquares, and the churches,
particularly the Metropolitan church, are very magni¬
ficent. It has a great number of monafteries, for
both fexes, and about 2000 houfes. It is pretended
that the body of St James was buried here, which
draws a great number of pilgrims from moft parts of
Chriftendom. They walk in proceffion to the church,
and vifit his wooden image, which Hands on the great
altar, and is illuminated with 40 or 50 wax-candles.
They kifs it three times with a very refpeCtful devo¬
tion, and then put their hats on its head. In the
church there are 30 filver lamps, always lighted, and
fix chandeliers of filver, five feet high. The poor pil¬
grims are received into an hofpital, built for that pur¬
pofe, which Hands near the church; and round it are
galleries of free Hone, fupported by large pillars. The
archbifhop is one of the richeft prelates in Spain, ha¬
ving 70,000 crowns a year. From this town the mi¬
litary order off St Jago, or St James, had its original.
It is feated in a peninfula, formed by the rivers Tam-
bra and Ulla, in a pleafant plain. W. Long. 7. 17.
N. Eat. 42. 54.
New Comfostella, a town of North America* in
New Spain, and province of Xalifco, built in 1531.
It
COM
[ 295 ]
COM
It is feated near the South Sea. W. Long. no. 12. ter is performed by the aftion of cold, the former by Compro-
N. Lat. 21. o. fome external violence. mi^e
COMPOUND, in a general fenfe, an appellation COMPROMISE, a treaty or contract, whereby two con3pUr_
given to whatever is compofed or made up of diffe- contending parties eftablifh one or more arbitrators to gator,
rent things ; thus we fay, a compound word, com- judge of and terminate their difference in an amicable e-—-y—
pound found, compound tafte, &c.—Compound differs manner.
COMPTON (Henry), bifhop of London, was the
youngeft fon of Spencer Earl of Northampton, and
born in 1632. After the refloration of Charles II. ha-
became cornet of a regiment of horfe : but foon after
quitting the army for the church, he was made bifhop
of Oxford in 1674; anc^ about a year after tranflated
to the fee of London. He was entrufted with thq
education of the two princeffes Mary and Anne, whom
he alfo afterwards married to the princes of Orange:
and Denmark : and their firmnefs in the Proteftant
from complex, and hands oppofed toJimpk. See Com-
flex and Simple.
Compound Flower. See Compositus Flos.
Compound Interejl, called alfo biterejl upon interejl,
is that which is reckoned not 'only upon the principal,
but upon the intereft itfelf forborn ; which hereby be¬
comes a fort of fecondary principal. See Interest.
Compound Motion, that motion which is effected by
feveral confpiring powers. Powers are faid to confpire
if the direftion of the ©ne be not quite oppofite to
that of the other; as when the radius- of a circle is religion was in a great meafure owing to their tutor,
conceived to revolve about a centre, and at the fame time to whom, when popery began to prevail at court, it
a point to move ftraight along it. was imputed as an unpardonable crime. He was fuf-
Compound Numbers, thofe which'may be divided pended from- his ecclefiaftical fundiion by James II.
by fome other number befides unity, without leaving but was reftored by him again on the prince of Orange’s
any remainder ; fuch are 18, 20, &c. the firll being invafion. He and the bifhop of Briflol made the ma-
meafured by the numbers 2, 6, or 9 ; and the fecond jority for filling the vacant throne with a king : he
by themumbers 2, 4, 5, 10. performed the ceremony of the coronation; was ap-
Compound Quantities. See Algebra. pointed one of the commifSoners for railing the litur-
Compound Ratio, is that which the produft of the gy ; and laboured with much zeal to reconcile diffen-
antecedents of two or more ratios has to the produdl ters to the church. His fpirit of moderation made
of their confequents. Thus, 6 to 72 is in a ratio c
pounded of 2 to 6, and of 3 to 12.
him unpopular with the clergy, and in all probability
checked his further promotion. Pie died in 1713 »
Compound (fubftantive), the refult or effedt of a but, living in bufy times, did not leave many writings
compofition of different things ; or a mafs formed by behind him.
the union of many ingredients.
COMPREHENSION, in Englifh church-hiftory,
denotes a fcheme propofed by Sir Orlando Bridgman
in 1667-8, for relaxing the terms of conformity in
Comptroller. See Controller.
COMPULSOR, an officer under the Roman em*
perors, difpatched from court into the provinces, to
compel the payment of taxes, &c. not paid within the
behalf of proteftant diffenters, and admitting them time preferibed. The word is formed of the verb
into the communion of the church. A bill for this compellere, “ to oblige, conftrain.” Thefe were char-
purpofe was drawn up by Lord Chief-Baron Hale, but ged with fo many exadlions, under colour of their
difallowed. The attempt was renewed by Tillotfon office, that Honorius cafhiered them by a law in 412.
and Stillingfleet in 1674, and the terms were fettled rr“ 1 r 1 ’
to the fatisfadfion of the nonconformifts ; but the bi-
fhops refufed their affent. This fcheme was likewife
revived again immediately after the Revolution ; the
king and queen expreffed their defire of an union :
however the defig n failed after two attempts; and the
aft of toleration was obtained.
Comprehension, in metaphyfics, is that aft of thofe hours.
The laws of the Vifigoths mention military com-
pulfors ; which were officers among the Goths, whofe
bufinefs was to oblige the tardy foldiers to go into the
fight, or to run to an attack, &c.
Caffian mentions a kind of monaftic compulfors;.
whofe bufinefs was to declare the hours of canonicaL
office, and to take care the monks went to church at
the mind whereby it apprehends or knows any objeft
that is prefented to it, on all the fides whereon it is
capable of being apprehended 04 known. To com¬
prehend a thing is defined by the fchoolmen, rem ali-
quam totam et totaliier cognofcere.
Comprehension, in rhetoric, a trope or figure
whereby the name of a whole is put for a part;
COMPUNCTION, in theology, an inward grief’
in the mind for having offended God. The word comes
from compungere, of pungere, “ to prick.”—The Ro¬
man ills own their confeffion infignificant unlefs attend¬
ed with compunftion or pricking of heart.
Among fpiritualifts, compunftion bears a more ex-
tenfive fignification ; and implies not only a grief for
that of a part for a whole; or a definite number of having offended God, but alfo a pious- fenfation of
any thing for an indefinite. grief, forrow, and difpleafure, on other motives.
COMPRESS, in furgery, a bolfter of foft linen Thus, the miferies of life, the danger of being loft,
cloth, folded in feveral doubles, frequently applied to in the world, the blindnefs of the wicked, &c. are to
cover a plafter, in order not only to preferve the part pious people motives of compunftion.
from the external air, but alfo the better to retain the COMPURGATOR, one that, by oath, juftifies an-
dreffings or medicines. other perfon’s innocence. Compurgators were intro-
COMPRESSION, the aft of preffing or Iqueezing duced as evidences in the jurifprudence of the middle
fome matter together, fo as to fet its parts nearer to ages. Their number varied according to the import-
each other, and make it poffefs lefs fpace. Compref- ance of the fubjeft in difpute, or the nature of the.
Jam properly differs from condenfatm} in that the lat- crime with which a perfon was charged.
3
COM,.
Computa¬
tion
CoL
COM [ 296 ] COM
COMPUTATION, in a'general fenfe, the manner
of ellimating time, weights, meafure, moneys, or quan¬
tities of any kind.—The word is fometimes alfo ufed
among mathematicians in the like fenfe as calculation.
COMUM (anc. geog.}, a town of the Orobii, of
an ancient Handing, and formerly powerful, daring to
difpute with the Romans: Comenfes, the people ; Co-
menfis Ager, the epithet. It became afterwards no in-
confiderable muticipium, to which Julius Ctefar added
5000 new colonifts (Strabo) ; whence it was general¬
ly called Novocomum, and the people Novocomenjes. But
in time it recovered its ancient name. Comum} Pliny
the Younger, a native of that place, calling it by no
other name. Now Como, in the duchy of Milan, at
the fouth end of the lake of that name. E. Long.
9. 35..N. Lat. 46.
COMUS, in mythology, the god of jollity or fefti-
vity. There is great reafon to believe he was the Cha-
mos of the Moabites ; Beel-Phegor, Baal-Peor, Pria-
pus, and Bacchus. He is reprefented under the ap¬
pearance of a young man, with an inflamed red coun¬
tenance, his head inclined, and crowned with flowers;
his air drowfy; leaning on a huntfman’s fpear in his
left hand, and holding an inverted torch in his right.
His ftatue w'as placed at the chamber doors of new
married perfons; his pedeftal crowped with flowers.
CON, or Cond. See Cond.
CONANT (Dr John), a learned Englifli divine,
born in 1608. He took his degrees at Exeter'College
Oxford ; was, by the parliament, conliituted one of
the afiembly of divines, though he feldom, if ever, fat
with them; and in 1657 was admitted vice-chancellor
of the univerlity. On the reftoration he was one of
the commiflioners, and affifted at the conferences in
the Savoy ; but was deprived by the aft of uniformi¬
ty : after eight years he was confirmed, and was made
arch-deacon of Norwich, and prebendary of Worcef-
ter. In 1686 he loft his fight; and died in 1693 ;
leaving a number of admired fermons, afterwards pu-
bliftred in fix volumes.
CONARION, or CoNOtDEs, a name for the pineal
gland. See Anatomy, n° 132.
CONATUS, a term frequently ufed in philofophy
and mathematics, defined by fome to be a quantity of
motion, not capable of being expreffed by any time
or length; as the conatus recedendi ah axe motus, is
the endeavour which a body, moved circularly, makes
to recede, or fly off from the centre or axis of its mo¬
tion.
CONCA (Sebaftian), called Cavalier, a celebrated
hiftory and portrait painter, was born at Gaeta in
1679, and placed as a difciple with Francefco Solime-
na, an incomparable mailer. Under his direftion
Conca exerted his utmoft induftry to obtain a proper
knowledge of the true principles of the art of paint¬
ing ; nor did he permit any kind of amufement to
withdraw his attention from his ftudies. Solimena
foon perceived in his difciple fuch talents, and fuch a
difpofition, as would qualify him to make a very great
progrefs ; and on that account he conceived fo ftrong
an affeftion for him, that he not only afforded him the
belt inftruftions, but often employed him to fketch af¬
ter his own defigns; took him along with him to
Monte Caflino, where he was to paint a chapel in fref-
co ; and there made Conca acquainted with every thing
N° 88.
relative to that manner of painting. At his return to
Naples with Solimena, he was, if poffible, ftill more
afiiduous to improve himfelf to the utmoft; and en¬
tered on a projeft that might at once advance his in¬
come, and add to his expertnefs in his profeffion. That
projeft was, to paint portraits in a fmall fize and at a
low rate ; by.which fcheme all ranks of perfons crowd¬
ed to him ; and belide the pecuniary advantages refult-
ing from it, he acquired an extraordinary freedom of
hanff in penciling and colouring ; a good habit of imi¬
tating nature with an elegant choice ; and likewife
great diverfity of airs of heads, which were of extra¬
ordinary ufe to him in his future beautiful compofitions.
As he had a great defire to fee Rome, he obtained
permilfion from Solimena to indulge his inclination ;
and although' he was near thirty years of age when he
vifited that city, yet he fpent eight years in conftant
ftudy after the antiques, after Buonaroti, Raphael,
and the Caracci, and perfected himfelf in every part
of his profeflion. The fame of his works foon fpread
throughout Rome, and procured him the patronage of
Cardinal Ottobuoni, who was a princely encourager
of artifts; and Conca having fhown an elegant proof
of his abilities in a compofition^ reprefenting Herod
inquiring of the wife men the place of the birth of
the Mefiiah, the figures being as large as life, the Car¬
dinal thought it fo excellent a performance that he
rewarded him in a munificent manner, entertained him
in his own palace, and introduced him to Pope Cle¬
ment XI. who appointed Conca to paint the pifture of
the prophet Jeremiah in the church of S. John Late-
ran ; which he executed with univerfal applaufe. On
that ocCafion the pope was defirous to give him fome
particular mark of his efteem; and therefore, in a ge¬
neral affembly of the academicians of St Luke, he
conferred on him the order of knighthood, and the
cardinal prefented him with a rich diamond crofs,
which Conca, out of refpeft to his patron, always
wore at his bofbm. From that time he was inceffant-
ly employed, and his works were folicited by moft of
the princes of Europe. The churches and chapels of
every part of Italy are enriched with fome of his com¬
pofitions ; of which he painted an incredible number,
as he lived to a very advanced age, and never difeon-
tinued his labours. He was earneftly invited by Phi¬
lip V. of Spain to vifit his court, but he could not be
prevailed on to leave Rome. He painted two admi¬
rable piftures for the king of Poland, with figures as
large as life ; in one was reprefented Alexander pre-
fenting Bucephalus to Philip, after he had managed
him ; a grand compofition, with a multitude of fi¬
gures, correftly defigned, and charmingly grouped
and difpofed ; the whole being adorned with moft ele¬
gant architecture, in true and beautiful perfpeftive-
The other was the marriage of Alexander with Roxa¬
na, the daughter of Darius, which was in every re¬
fpeft equal to the former. He was a£'laft fo ftrong-
ly prtffed to go to Naples, that he undertook the
journey ; and was received in that kingdom with all
the refpeft and honour due to his merit; and there he
finilhed feveral noble defigns, as alfo at Gaeta his na¬
tive city. While he continued at Naples, he received
in the royal prefence a fnuff-box of very great value,
prefented to him in the king’s name by the marquis of
Tanucci, at that time prime minifter; and in the year
1757>
Conca.
CON [ 297 ] CON
Corcale 17J7, the king was pleafed to ennoble him and all his
II defcendants. At that time he was 78, and it is con-
• fidently faid that he died in 1761 aged 82, which is
  very probable, though not pofitively certain. He un-
derftood perfpedtive and architefture thoroughly, and
added to it a fine underftanding of the chiaro-fcuro.
His ftyle of compofition is grand and elegant; his de¬
sign very corredl; his difpofition ingenious; his atti¬
tudes and exprefixon full of truth, nature, and variety ;
and his colouring is excellent. The hiftory of Diana
and Aftseon, by Conca, is in the poffeffion of the earl
of Pembroke at Wilton.
CONCALE bay, is on the coaft of France in Brit¬
tany, where the Englifh forces landed in June 1758,
in order to go to St Maloes; which they did, and
burnt all the fhips in that harbour, which wena*above
too, of all forts. Concale is the town which gives
'name to the bay, and is famous for oyfters. It is 18
miles eaft of St Maloes, and 197 weft of Paris. W.
Long. 1. 47. N. Lat. 48. 41.
' CONCARNEAU, a town of France, in Bretagne,
with a harbour and a caftle. E. Long. 3. 45. N.Lat.
47-'55-
CONCATENATION, a term chiefly ufed in fpeak-
ing of the mutual dependence of fecond caufes upon
each other.
CONCAVE, an appellation ufed in fpeaking of the
inner furface of hollow bodies, but more efpecially of
fpherical ones.
Concave Glajfes, fuch as are ground hollow, and
are umally of a fpherical figure, ^though they may be
of any other, as parabolical, &c. All objeds feen
through concave glafles appear ereft and diminifhed.
CONCENTRATION, in general, 'fignifies the
bringing things nearer a centre. Hence the particles of
fait, in fea-water, are faid to be concentrated ; that
.is, brought nearer each other, by evaporating the wa¬
tery part.
CONCENTRIC, in mathematics, fomething that
' has the fame common centre with another: it ftands
in oppofition to excentric.
CONCEP1TON, in logic, the fimple apprehenfion
or perception which we have of any thing, without
proceeding to affirm or deny.any thing about it. Some
writers, as Lord Karnes, diftinguifh between concep¬
tion and perception ; making the latter to denote the
confciolifnefs of an oBje£t when prefent, or to include
the reality of its objedt; whereas conception expreffes
the forming an idea of an objedt whether prefent or
abfent, or without any convi&ion of its reality.
Conception, in medicine, denotes, the firft for¬
mation of the embryo, or foetus, in the womb.
Conception is no other than fuch a concburfe and
commixture of the prolific feed of the male with that
of the female, in the cavity of the uterus, as imme¬
diately produces an embryo.
The fymptoms of conception or pregnancy are,
when, in a few days after the conjugal aft, a fmall
pain is perceived about the navel, and is attended with
fome gentle commotions in the bottom of the abdo¬
men ; and within one, two, three, or even four,
months, the menfes ceafe to flow, or prove in lefs
quantity than ufual. Upon the firft failure of this
kind, the woman begins to count the feries of her
weeks, without taking any notice of the time before
Vol.V. Part L
elapfed; after this, or between the fecond or third Concept
months, but generally about the third, the motions of, tlon‘ .
the embryo become perceivable to the mother ; who v
hereupon becomes troubled with a naufea, vomiting,
loathing, longing, &c. About this time the breafts
begin to fwell, grow hard and painful, and contain a
little milk ; the nipples alfo become larger, firmer, and
darker coloured, a livid circle appearing round them :
the eyes feem funk and hollow. During the two firft
months of pregnancy, the woman grows thinner and
flenderer; the abdomen being alfo depreffed ; though
it afterwards diftends, and grows gradually larger.
The manner wherein conception is effefted is thus
laid down by the modern writers : In the fuperficies of
the ovaries of women, there are found little pellucid
fpherules, confiding of two concentric membranes fill¬
ed • itb a lymphatic humour, and connefted to the
furface ofthe ovaria, underneath the tegument, by a
thick calyx, contiguous to the extremities of the mi¬
nute ramifications of the Fallopian tubes.
Thefe fpherules, by the ufe of venery, grow, fwell,
raife and dilate the membrane of the ovary into the
form of papillae; till, the head propending from the
ftalk, it is at length feparated from it ; leaving be¬
hind it a hollow cicatrix in the broken membrane of
the ovary; which, however, foon groves up again
Now, in thefe fpherules, while ftill adhering to the
ovary, feetufes have been frequently found ; whence it
appears, that thefe are a kind of ova, or eggs, deriving
their ftrufture from the vefiels of the ovary, and their
liquor from the humours prepared therein.
Hence alfo it appears, that the Fallopian tubes be¬
ing fwelled and ftiffened by the aft of venery, with
their mufcular fimbriae, like fingers, may embrace the
ovaries, comprefs them, and by that compreffion ex¬
pand their own mouths : and thus the eggs, now ma¬
ture, and detached as before, may be forced into their
cavities, and thence conveyed into the cavity of the
uterus; where they may either be cheriflied and re¬
tained, as when they meet with the male feed ; or, if
they want that, again expelled.
Hence the phenomena of falfe conceptions, abor¬
tions, foetufes found in the cavity of the abdomen, the
Fallopian tubes, &c. For in coition, the male feed,
abounding with living animalcules, agitated with a
great force, a brifk heat, and probably with a great
quantity of animal fpirits, is violently impelled through
the mouth of the uterus, which on this occafion is
opener, and through the valves of the neck of the ute¬
rus, which on this ocCafion are laxer than ordinary,
into the uterus itfelf; which now, in like manner, be¬
comes more aftive, turgid, hot, inflamed, and moift-
ened with the flux of its lymph and fpirits, by meaiis
of the titillation excited in the nervous papillae by the
attrition againft the rugae of the vagina.
The femen thus difpofed in the uterus, is retained,
heated, and agitated, by the convulfive conftriftion of
the uterus itfelf; till meeting with the ova, the fineft
and moft animated part enters through the dilated
pores of the membrannla of the ovum, now become
glandulous; is there retained, nburiftied, dilated; grows
to its umbilicus, or navel; ftiflts the other lefs lively
animalcules; and thus is conception effefted.
Hence it appears, that conception may happen in
any part where the fetrun*meets with an ovum : ihus
P p whether
CON [ 298 ] CON
Oon:tp- whether it be carried through the Fallopian tube to
t‘°”' the ovary, and there caft upon the ovum ; or whether
v it meet with it in fome recefs of the tube itfelf; or,
.hilly, whether it join it in the cavity of the uterus, it
may ftill have the fame effeft, as it appears from obfer-
vation aftually to have done. But it is probable, that
conception is then moil perfeft when the two, viz. the
femen and ovum, are carried at the fame time into the
uterus, and there mixed, &c.
Other anatomifts choofe to fuppofe the male feed
taken up, before it arrives in the uterus, by the veins
which open into the vagina, &c. and thus mixed with
the blood ; by which, in the courfe of circulation, it is
carried, duly prepared, into the ovary, to impregnate
the eggs.
It has been advanced by feveral writers, that women
may poflibly conceive in their deep, and be with child
without any knowledge of the occalion of it. As ri¬
diculous and abfurd as this doftrine may appear to the
generality of the world, no lefs an author than Gen-
fili has thought it worthy a particular dilfcrtation.
Conception Immaculate of the Holy Virgin, is a
feaft eftablifhed in honour of the holy virgin, particu¬
larly with regard to her having been conceived and
born immaculate, i. e. without original fin, held in
the Romifh church on the 8th of December. The
immaculate conception is the great head of controver-
fy between the Scotifts and Thomills ; the former
maintaining, and the latter impugning it. In the three
Spaniih military orders, of St James of the fword, Cala-
trava, and Alcantara, the knights take a vow at their
admiffion to defend the immaculate conception. This
refolution was firft taken, in 1652. Peter d’Alva has
jmblifhed 48 huge volumes in folio on the myfteries of
the conception.
Conception, an epifcopal town of Chili in South
America. It is fituated in W. Long. 79. 12. S. Lat.
36. 43; and is the oldeft: European fettlement in Chili,
and the fecond in point of dignity. On their tirii
fettlement here, the Spaniards were repeatedly driven
off by the Indians, fo that they were obliged to take
up their refidence at St Jago. Since that time both
the cities of Conception and St Jagb have been fre¬
quently deftroyed by earthquakes. In the year 1730
both of them were laid in ruins by a dreadful (hock,
the firft concuflions of which were attended with an un-
ufual fwelling of the fea, that overturned the few houfes
which had efcaped the ravages of the earthquake.
The harbour is good, and pretty much frequented; on
which account the city is regarded as a place of con-
iequence. The king allows annually 350,000 pieces
®f eight for the fupport of a garrifon of 3 500 men ; a
corps that is feldom complete. None of the fortifica¬
tions are confiderable ; but thofe towards the land are
wretched. The Spaniards now live in tolerable fecu-
irity with refpeft to the Indians, and have no notion
ef any attack from the land fide. It is faid indeed,
that not only this but all the fettlements in Chili and
Peru would fall an eafy prey to the attacks of a foreign
tnemy; the fortifications being in ruins, and the gar-
rifons fcarce half the number required by the king:
owing to the avarice, ignorance, and fupine negligence
of the governors, who ftudy nothing but to enrich
themfelves.
Conception, a. town of North America,, in New
Spain, and in the Audience of Guatimali. It is feated Concert
near the fea-coaft, 100 miles weft of Porto-bello, and _
a fmall river that runs into the fea. W. Long. 83. 5. ContcArna*
N. Lat. 10. o. ■ . ^ ‘ .
CONCERT, or Concerto, in mafic, a number
or company of muficians, playing or finging the fame
piece of mufic or fong at the fame time.
CONCERTATO intimates the piece of mufic to be
compofed in fuch a manner, as that all the parts may
have their recitatives, be it for two, three, four, or
more voices or inftruments.
CONCERTO gross 1, the grand chorus of a con¬
cert, or thofe places where all the feveral parts per¬
form or play together.
CONCESSION, in general, fignifies either the act
of gr|piing or yielding any thing, or the thing itfelf
which is fo granted or yielded.
Concession, in rhetoric, a figure, whereby fome-
thing.is freely allowed, that yet might bear difpute,
to obtain fomething that one would have granted to
him, and which he thinks cannot fairly be denied, as
in the following conceffion of Dido, in Virgil:
“ The nuptials he difeiaims, I urge no more;
“ Let him purfue the promis’d Latian Shore.
“ A lliort delay is all 1 a Ik him now;
“ A paufe of grief, an interval from wo.”
CONCHA, in zoology, a fynoniiqe of the Myti-
lus, Solen, and other (hell-filh.
CONCHES, a town of Normandy, with a Bene-
didtine abbey, which carries on a confiderable trade.
It is feated on the top of a mountain, in the territory
of Ouche, 45 miles north-weft of Paris. E. Long,
o. 5 1. N. Lat. 48. 58.
CONCHITES MARMOR, a name given by the an¬
cients to a fpecies of marble dug near Megara, and
remarkable for containing a great number of fea-lhells,
and other marine bodies immerfed in it.
CONCHOID, in geometry, the name of a curve,
given to it by its inventor Nicomedes. See Fluxions.
CONCHYLIA, a general name for all petrified
(hells, as limpets, cochleae, nautili, conchae, lepades, &e.
CONCIATOR, in the glafs art, is, for the cryftal-
glafs, what the founder is at the green-glafs houfes.
He is the perfon that weighs and proportions the fait
on afhes and fand, and works them with a ftrong fire
till they run into lumps and become white; and if the
metal be too hard, and confequently brittle, he adde
fait or afhes, and if too foft, fand ; ftill mixing them
to a fit temper, which is only known by the* working.
CONCINNOUS intervals, in mufic, are fuch as
are fit for mufic, next to, and in combination with
concords ; being neither very agreeable nor difagree-
able in themfelves; but having a good effeft, as by
their oppofition they heighten, the more effential prin¬
ciples of pleafure : or as, by their mixture and combi¬
nation with them, they produce a variety neeeffary
to our being better pleafed.
Concinnous Syjlem, in mufic. A fyftem is faid
to be eoncinnous, or divided concinnouflyq when its
parts, confidered as Ample intervals, are concinnous p
and are befides placed in fuch an order between the
extremes, as that the fucceffion p£ founds, from one
extreme to the other, may have an agreeable effedl.
CONCLAMATIO, in antiquity, a (bout raifeA
by thofe prefent at burning the dead,, before they fet
fire
CON [ 299 ] CON
Conclave lire to the funeral pile. See Shout. The word was
li alfo applied to the fignal given to the Roman foldiers
lon<-or . decamp, whence the' exprefiion conclamarc vafa; and
' conclamari arma, was a (ignal for battle. It was like-
wife ufed for a practice of calling to a perfon deceafed
three times by his name; and when no reply was re¬
turned, they thus exprefTed his deceafe, conclamatum ejl.
Whence the fame term was afterwards applied to the
ceffation of the Roman empire.
CONCLAVE, the place in,which the cardinals of
the Romiflr church meet, and are ftiut up, in order to
the election of a pope.
The conclave is a range of fmall cells, 10 feet fquare,
made of wainfeot: thefe are numbered, and drawn
for by lot. They ftand in a line along the galleries
and hall of the Vatican, with a fmall (pace between
each. Every cell has the arms of the cardinal over it.
The conclave is not fixed to any one determinate place,
for the conftitutions of the church allow the cardinals
to make choice of fuch a place for the conclave as they
think moil convenient ; yet it is generally held in the
Vatican.
The conclave is very ftriftly guarded by troops:
neither the cardinals, nor any perfdh ihut up in the
conclave, are fpoke to, but at the hours allowed of,
and then in Italian or Latin ; even the provifions for
the conclave are examined, that no letters be convey¬
ed by that means from the minillers of foreign powers,
or other perfons who may have an intereft in the elec¬
tion of the pontiff.
Conclave is alfo ufed for the aflembly, or meet¬
ing, of the cardinals (hut up for the ele&wm of a pope.
CONCLUSION, inlogic, the confequence or judge¬
ment drawn from what was aflerted in the premifes;
or the previous judgments in reafoning, gained from
combining the extreme ideas between themfelves.
CONCOCTION, in medicine, the change which
the food undergoes in the ftomach, i5c. to become
chyle. See Chyle.
CONCOMITANT, fomething that accompanies or
goes along with another.
CONCORD, in grammar, that part of conftru&ion
called fyntax, in which the words of a fentence agree;
that is, in which nouns are put in the fame gender,
number, and cafe; and verbs in the fame number and
perfon wdth nouns and pronouns. See Grammar.
Concord, in mufic, the relation of two founds that
are always agreeable to the ear, whether applied in
fuccefiion or confonance.
Form of Concord^ in ecclefiaftical hi (lor)", a ftandard-
book among the Lutherans, compofed at Torgaw, in
1576, and thence called the Book of Torgaw, and re¬
viewed at Befg by fix Lutheran doctors of Germany,
the principal of whom was James. Andreae. This
book contains in two parts, a fyileifi of dodtrihe, the
fubfeription of which was a condition of communion,
and a formal atid very fevere condemnation of all who
differed from the compilers of it, particularly with re-
fpedl to the majefty and omniprefence of Chrifi’s body,
and the real manducation of his fiefh and blood in the
cucharift. It was firft impofed on the Saxons by Au-
^uftus, and occaiioned great oppofition and difturbance.
The difpute about it wasrevived in Switzerland in 1718,
when the magiHrates of Bern publifhed aa order for
adopting it as the rule of faith; the confequence of Concord-
which was a conteft, that reduced its credit and autho- _ ^ce
CONCORDANCE, a didlionary or index to the Con-\. _ .,lf
Bible, wherein all the leading words, ufed in the courfe
of the infpired writings, are ranged alphabetically;
and the various places where they occur referred to;
to affift in finding out paffages, and comparing the fe¬
deral fignifications of the fame word.
Cardinal Hugo de St Charo, is faid to have employ¬
ed 500 monks at the fame time in compiling a Latiu
concordance : befides which, we have feveral other
concordances in the fame language ; one, in particu¬
lar, called the concordance of England, compiled by J.
Darlington, of the order of Predicants ; another more
accurate one, by the Jefuit de Zamora.
R. Mordecai Nathan has furnifhed us with a He¬
brew concordance, firft printed at Venice in 1523,
containing all the Hebrew roots branched into their
various fignifications, and under each fignification all
the places in feripture wherein it occurs: but the beft
and moft ufeful Hebrew concordance is that of Bux-
torf, printed at Bafil in 1632.
Dr Taylor publifhed, in 1754, a Hebrew concord¬
ance in two volumes folio, adapted to the Englilh
Bible, and difpofed after the manner of Buxtorf.
The Greek concordances are only for the New
Teftament: indeed we have one of Conr. Kircher’s on
the Old ; but this is rather a concordantial diftionary
than a concordance ; containing all the Hebrew W'ords
in an alphabetical order ; and underneath all the in¬
terpretations or fenfes the LXX. give them ; and in
each interpretation, all the places where they occur in
that verfion.
In 1718, Trommius publifhed his Greek concord¬
ance for the Septuagint at Amfterdam, in two volume*
folio ; and Schmidius improving on a iimilar work of
H. Stephen, has given an excellent Greek concordance
for the New Teftament, the beft edition of which is
that of Leipfic, an. 1717.
Calafiua, an Italian Cordelier, has given us concord¬
ances of the Hebrew, Latin, and Greek, in two co¬
lumns : the firft, which is Hebrew, is that of R. Mor¬
decai Nathan, word for w'ord, and according to the
order of the books and chapters : in the other column
is a Latin interpretation of each paftage of feripture
quoted by R. Mordecai; this interpretation is Cala-
fius’s owm ; but in the margin he adds that of the
LXX. and the Vulgate, when different from his. The
work is in 4 vols folio, printed at Rome in 1621.
We have feveral very copious concordances ’ in
Englifh, as Newmann’s, &c. but the laft and bell
efteemed, is that in 410. by Alex. Cruden.
CONCORDANT verses, fuch as have feveral
words in common; but which, by the addition of
other words, convey an oppofite, at leaft a different
meaning. Such are thofe,
CONCORDAT, in the Canon law', denotes a cove¬
nant or agreement concerning fame beneficiary mat¬
ter, as a refigimtion, permutation,promotion, or thelike.
The council of Trent, feff. vi. de reform, cap. 4.
fpeaking of concordats made without the authority
P p 2 and
CON
€ on c«r- and approbation of the pope, calls them Concordias qua
‘k* tantum fuos obligant audores, non fucceffbres. And the
Concretion congregation of cardinals, who have explained this de-
- t— , cree, declares alfo that a concordat cannot be valid fo
as to bind fucceflbrs, unlefs confirmed by the pope.
Concordat is alfo ufed,. abfolutely, among the
French, for an agreement concluded at Bologna in
1516, between pope Leo X. and Francis I. of France,
for regulating the manner of nominating to bfenefices.
The concordat ferves in lieu of the Pragmatic fanc-
tion, which has been abrogated; or, rather, it is the
pragmatic fandfion foftened and reformed. The con¬
cordat between the pope and the republic of Venice
refembles the former.
There is alfo a German concordat, made between
the emperor Frederic III. and the princes of Germa¬
ny, in 1448, relating to beneficiary matters, confirmed
by pope Nicholas V.
CONCORDIA* a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Mirandola; feated on the river Sechia, 5 miles weft
of Mirandpla, and 15 miles fouth-eaft of Mantua-;
fubjedl -to the hpufe of Auftria. E. Long. 11. 22.
N. Lat. 44. 52.
Concordia (anc. geog,), a town of theVeneti, fitu-
ated at the confluence of the rivers Romatinus Major and
Minor, 31 miles to the weft of Aquileia, (Pliny, Ptole¬
my, Ahtqnine); a colony furnam^d Julia. Its ruins ftill
go by the name of Concordia.—Another Concordia
(Ptolemy), of Lufitania, to the north-weft of Trajan’s
bridge, on the Tagus.—A third of the Nemetes in
Belgica, on the weft fide of the Rhine ; a Roman
fortrefs, fituated between Brocomagus and Novioma-
gus. Now Drufenheim, in Alface. E. Long. 8°, Lat.
48° 40'.
Concordia, a Pagan divinity of the Romans. She
had a temple on the declivity of the capitol; another
in the portico of Livia ; and a third on Mount Pala¬
tine, built of brafs by Cn. Flavius, on account of a
vow made for reconciling the fenate and people. She
was pictured with a cup in her right hand; in her
left was fometimes a fceptrc, and fometimes a cornu¬
copia. Her fymbols were two hands joined, as is feen
in a coin of Aurelius Venus, and another of Nero ; alfo
two ferpents twilling about a caduceus. She was ad-
drefled to promote the peace and union of families and
citizens.
CONCOU, in botany, a name given by the people
of Guinea to an herb, which is in great efteem among
them for killing that troublefome fort of worm called
the Guinea-worm, that breeds in their fielh. They
bruife the leaves, and mixing them with oil, apply
them in. form of a cataplafm.
CONCRETE, in the fchodl-philofophy, an affem-
blage or compound.
Concrete, in natural philofophy and chemiftry,
fignifies a b°dy made up of different principles, or any
mixed body : thus, foap is a factitious concrete, mix¬
ed together by art; and antimony is a natural con¬
crete^ or a mixed body compounded in the bowels of
the earth.
CONCRETION, the uniting feveral fmall particle^
of a natural body into fenfible maffes or concretes,
whereby it becomes fo and fo figured and determined,
and is endued with fuch and inch properties, 
Concretion is alfo the aft whereby foft bodies are
CON
rendered hard ; or an infenfible motion of the particles Concnbj-
of a fluid or foft body, whereb/'they come to a con- nage>
fiftence. It is indifferenty ufed for induration, conden- ”—v—^
fation, congelation, and coagulation.
CONCUBINAGE fometimes expreffes a criminal
or prohibited commerce between the two fexes; in
which fenfe it comprehends adultery, inCeft, and Jimple
fornication.
In its more reftrained fenfe, concubinage is ufed for
a man’s and a woman’s cohabiting together in the way
of marriage, without having paffcd the ceremony
thereof.
Concubinage was anciently tolerated: the Roman
law calls it. an allowed cuftom, licit a confuehulo. When
this expreffion occurs in the conftitutions of the
Chriftian emperors, it fignifies what we now call a
marriage in confcience.
The concubinage tolerated among the Romans in
the time of the republic, and of the heathen emperors,
w'as that between perfons not cai able of contrafling
marriage together: nor did they even refufe to let in¬
heritances defcend to children which fprung from fuch
a tolerated cohabitance. Concubinage between fuch
perfons they looked on as a kind of marriage, and even
allowed it feveral privileges; but then this concubinage
was confined to a fingle perfon, and was of perpetual
obligation as much as marriage itfelf. Hottoman ob-
ferves, that the Roman laws had allowed of concubi¬
nage long before Julius Caefar made that law whereby
every one, was allowed to marry as many wives as he
pleafed. The emperor Valentinian, Socrates tells us,
allowed every man two.
Concubinage is alfo ufed for a marriage performed
with lefs folemnity than the formal marriage; or a
marriage with a woman of inferior condition, and to
„whom the hulband does not convey his rank or qua¬
lity. Cujas obferves, that the ancient laws allowed a
man to efpoufe, under the title of concubine, certain
perfons, fuch as were eftemed unequal to him, on ac¬
count of the want offfome qualities requifite to fuftain
the full honour of marriage. He adds, that though
concubinage was beneath marriage, both as to dignity
and civil effefls; yet was concubine a reputable title,
very different from that of miilrefs among us. The
commerce was eileemed fo lawful, that the concubine
might be accufed of adultery in the lame manner as a
wife.
This kind of concubinage is ftill in ufe in fome
countries, particularly in Germany, under the title of
a half-marriage, morgengabic marriage, or marriage with the
left-hand; alluding to the manner of its being contracted,
viz. by the man’s giving the woman his left hand in-
ftead of the right. This is a real marriage, though
without folemnity,; the parties are both bound for
ever; though the jaroman be thus excluded from the
common rights of a wife for want of quality or for¬
tune.
The children of concubines were not reputed either,
legitimate or baftards, but natural children, and were
capable only of donations. They were deemed to
retain the low rank of the mother;. and were on this
ground unqualified for inheriting the effedts of the
father.
Concubinage, in a legal fenfe, is ufed as an excep¬
tion againft her that fueth for dower, alleging there-
4. by„
[ 3=° 1
CON [ 301 ] CON
Concubine
11
Cond.
by, that {he was not a wife lawfully married to the par¬
ty, in whofe lands (he feeks to be endowed, but his
concubine.
CONCUBINE, a woman whom a perfon takes to
cohabite with him, in the manner, and under the cha-
rafter, of a \yife, without being authorized thereto by
a legal marrage.
Concubine is alfo ufed for a real, legitimate, and
only wife, diftinguiflied by no other circumltance but
a difparity of birth or condition between her and the
hufband. Du Cange obferves, that one may gather
from feveral- paffages in the epiftles of the popes, that
they anciently allowed of fuch concubines. The fe-
Venteenth canon of the firfLcouneil of Toledo declares,
that he who, with a faithful wife, keeps a concubine,
is excommunicated ; but that if the concubine fervcd
him as a wife, fo that he had only one woman, under the
title of concubine, ne ftiould not be rejected from com¬
munion : which {hows that there were legitimate wives
under the title of concubines.
In effedl, the Roman laws did not allow a man to
efpoufe whom he pleafed; there was required a kind
of parity, or proportion, between the conditions of the
contrafting parties: but a woman of inferior condi¬
tion, who could not be efpoufed as a wife, might be
kept as a concubine ; and the laws allowed of it, pro¬
vided the man had no other wife.
It is certain the patriarchs had a great number of
wives, and that thefe did not all hold the fame rank ;
feme being fubaltern to the principal wife ; which
were what we call concubines or half-wives. The Ro¬
mans prohibited a plurality of concubineSj and only
had regard to the children iffuing from a Angle concu¬
bine, becaufe {he might become a legitimate wife.
Solpmon had 700 wives and 300 concubines: the
emperor of China has fometimes two or three thoufand
concubines in hia palace. Q^Curtius obferves, that
Darius was followed in his army by 365 concubines,
all in the equipage of queens.
CONCUPISCENCE, according to divines, an ir¬
regular appetite, or lull after carnal things, inherent
in the nature of man ever fince the fall.,
COND, Con, or Conn, in fea language, fignifies
to guide or condudf a flrip in her right courfe. He
that cons her, Hands aloft with a compafs before him,
and gives the word of diredlion to the man at the. helm
how he is to Iteer. If the {hip go before the wind,
or, as they call it, betwixt the {beets, the word is either
{larboard, or port the helmaccording as the conder
would have the helm put to the right or left fide of
the fhip, upon which the {hip always goes the contrary
way,. If he fays, helm a mid-fhip, he would have the
fiiip to go right before the wind, or directly between
her two Iheets. If the {hip fail by a wind, or on a
quarter wind, the word is, aloof, keep your luff, fall
not off, veer no more, keep her to, touch the wind,
have a care of the lee-latch : all which expreffions are
of the fame import, and imply that the fteerfman
fliould keep the {hip near the wind. On the contrary,
if he. would have her fail more large, or more before
the wind, the word is, eafe the helm, no near, bear
up. If he cries fteady, it means, keep her from go¬
ing in and out, or making yaws (as they call it), how-
fiaever flie fails, whether large or before a wind : and
when he would have her go juft as {he does, he cries,
keep her thus, thus, &c.
COND ATE (anc. geog.), a town of Armorica in
Gaul: called Civitas Rhedonum, in the Notitia ; after¬
wards Redotiae; Redonica Regio, the diftrift. Hence
the modern name Rennes, in Brittany. W. Long. 1.45.
Lat. 48. 5. Another Condate of Britain (Antonine) ;
now thought to be Congleton, in Yorklhire ; others
fay in Lancafhire.
CONDE (Lewis de Bourbon prince of), was born
at Paris Sept. 7.1621. He was ftyled Duke d’Enguien,
till he fucceeded to the title of Prince of Conde by his
father’s death in 1646 Ashe was of a tender and
delicate conftitution, the princeLent him to the caftle
of Montrond in Berry, that he might breathe a more
pure and falutary air. Here he was educated in his
infancy by fome experienced and prudent citizens
wives. When he was of a proper age,, the prince
took upon himfelf the talk of governor, and appointed
Lor his afiiftant M. de la Bouffieres, a private gentle¬
man, a man of honour, fidelity, and good nature,
and who made it a rule to obferve inviolably the or¬
ders that were given him. Two Jefuits diftinguifhed
for their genius and knowledge were alfo given him.
for preceptors. Lie formed him a houfehold of 15 or
20 officers, all men of the greateft virtue' and difere-
tion.
With thefe attendants the duke d’Enguien went to
fettle at Bourges, where he frequented the college o£
Jeluits. Here, befides the-ordinary ftudies, he was
taught ancient and modern hiftoty, mathematics, geo¬
graphy, declamation; alfo riding and dancing, in
which la ft he foon excelled. He made fuch a furpri-
fing progrefs, that before the age of 13 he defended
in public fome queftions in philofophy with incredible
applaufe. At his return from Montrond, he had for
his tutor M. de Merille ; a man deeply verfed in the
knowledge of common law, of ancient and modern
laws, of the holy feriptures, and of the mathematics.
Under his dire&ion the duke Went through that new
courfe with prodigious fuccefs. He acquired a criti¬
cal tafte in the arts and fciences, which he retained all
his life ; he never fuffered a day to pafs without de¬
dicating two or three hours at leaft to reading; his
thirft for knowledge was univerfal, and he endea¬
voured to fearch every thing to the bottom. His
ehiet inclination, however, lay towards the military
art; and at the age of 18 he obtained permiffion to
make his firft campaign as a volunteer in the army
commanded by M. de la Meilleraye. This campaign
was unfortunate ; and the duke d’Enguien was only a
witnefs of the marflial’s imprudence and difgrace. Ne~
verthelefs, in this campaign he laid the foundation of:
that renown which made him afterwards confidered as.
the greateft general of his age.
On his return to Paris, the duke waited upon car¬
dinal Richelieu at Ruel. That minifter was fo pleafedi
with his converfation, that he foon after made pro-
pofals of an alliance with the prince of Conde, by
marrying the duke d’Enguien to Claire Clemence
de Maille Breza, the cardinal’s niece. The duke
confented to this match out of obedience to his fa¬
ther ; but the force he put upon himfel/ by yield¬
ing to it rvas fo great, that he fell dangeroufly ill. Itr.
was.
CON [ 302 ] CON
was long Sefore he got the better of his diftemper;
but at length he not only recovered, but became fo
ftrong as afterwards to bear the greateft fatigues with
eafe. *'
The duke made two more campaigns as a volun¬
teer ; the one under the marfhal de la Meilleraye, the
other in the army of Louis XIII. which conquered
RoufTillon. In 1643, at the age of 22, he obtained
from the king, at the perfuafion of cardinal Mazarine,
the command of the army deftined to cover Cham-
paigne and Picardy; which command was confirmed
to him after the king’s death by the queen regent,
Anne of Auftria, to whofe intereft he was ftrongly
devoted. In this ftatlon, though he never had been
prefent at any battle, he foon gave fuch a fpecimen of
his abilities as crowned him with glory. The Spa¬
niards, who threatened France with an invafion, were
defeated by kirn at Rocroi; and this fignal vi&ory
made him from that time confidered as the guardian
genius of his country. He next formed the projeft
of befieging Theonville, and propofed it to the coun¬
cil of regency. They confented with fear and dif-
truft; but the duke carried it into execution with
fuch flcill, activity, and courage, that he became juftly
the fubjedt of general admiration. In two months
time Theonville furrendered. At length, having co¬
vered Alface and Lorrain from the enterprizes of the
Imperialifts, the duke returned to Paris, where he ob¬
tained the government of Champaigne, and of the
city of Stenai.
The three following years were little more than a
feries of military operations. The three battles of
Fribourg, in which the duke d’Enguien triumphed
over Veit Marlhal count de Mercy, the greatell ge¬
neral in all Germany; the taking of Philiplbourg, and
a great number of other places, which rendered him
mailer of the palitinate, and of the whole courfe of
the Rhine ; the victory of Nortlingue, by which he
revenged the vifeount du Turenne’s defeat at Mari-
endal ; the liege and conqueft of Dunkirk ; the good
and bad fuccefs of his arms in Catalonia, where, though
he was forced to raife the liege of Lorida, he kept
the Spaniards in awe, and cut to pieces their rear
guard ; thefe are the principal events which diltin-
guilh the campaigns of 1644, 1645, and 1646.
The victories of the duke d’Enguien, his great re¬
putation and elleem with the people, began now to
give umbrage to Mazarin. The cardinal’s dillike to
him appeared on the death of the duke de Breze, ad¬
miral of France. The prince of Conde earneltly de¬
manded for his fon the duke de Breze’s places. But
Mazarin, afraid of increafing the wealth and power
of a prince whom his victories and the love and con¬
fidence of the people and the army had already ren¬
dered too formidable to him, evaded his requelt, by
perfuading the queen to take the admiralty to herfelf.
On the death of his father, the miniiler’s dillike to the
young prince of Conde became Hill more apparent.
By the minifter’s perfuafion he had accepted of the
command of the army in Catalonia ; but, on his arri¬
val at Barcelona, he found neither troops, money, ar¬
tillery, provilions, nor ammunition. Enraged at this
deception, he vented his refentment in bitter com¬
plaints and fevere threats ; but by the refources that
he found in this dilemma, the prince added now ludre
to his glory.
The campaign of 1648 was as glorious to Conde as
thofe which preceded it had been.- To difconcert at
bnce the proje&s of the arch-duke Leopold, the prince
refolved to attack him even in the heart of the Low
Countries ; and notwithllanding the conliderable dif¬
ficulties which he had to furmount, he befieged the
important city of Ypres, and took it in fight of all the
enemies forces.
Notwithllanding this fuccefs, Conde faw himfelf at
the point of experiencing the greateft reverfe of for¬
tune. His army was a prey to fcarcity, to naked-
nefs, contagious diftempers, and defertion. For eight
months it received no fupply from the minifter, but half
a mufter. Every thing was fupplied by the prince
himfelf; he lavilhed his money, and borrowed more
to fupply his troops. When it was reprefented to
him that he was in danger of ruining himfelf by fuch
an enormous expence, he replied, that “ fince he every
day ventured his life for the fervice of his country, he
could very well facrifice his fortune to it. Let but the
government exift (added he), and I lhall want for no¬
thing.”
The French army having been reinforced by 4000
of the troops of Weimar, Conde attacked the Spa¬
niards advantageoufly encamped near Lens, and gained
a complete victory over them, which difabled them
from attempting any thing more, and even from fup-
porting themfelves. Afterwards he befieged Furnes,
the garrifon of which, 500 men, furrendered them¬
felves prifoners of war. But the prince was wound¬
ed there in the trenches by a mulket-lhot above the
right hip ; and the contufion was fo great, that he
was forced to fubmit to feveral incifions.
The French court, animated with the victory at
Lens, thought this a proper time to take vengeance
on the factions which for fome time had violently
agitated the kingdom ; and accordingly imprifoned
Brouffel and Blancmenil, two of the principal leaders
fef the country party. This vigorous proceeding, how¬
ever, occafioned a general revolt. Two hundred thou-
fand men look arms in Paris, barricaded the ftreets,
invefted the palais-royal, and demanded the prifoners.
It was neceffary to releafe them ; but from that time
the regal authority was annihilated ; the queen was
expofed to a thoufand infults, and Mazarin dared no
longer venture out of the palais-royal. In this em-
barraffment the queen recalled the prinev of Conde,
as the cnly one from whom Ihe could hope for fup-
port. He retired to Ruel, whither the regent had
gone with the young king and Mazarin. Anne of
Auftria propofed to him the reducing of Paris by force
of arms : but he calmed the refentments of that prin-
cyfs; and inftead of being acceffary to her vengeance,
he directed all his views to pacify the kingdom, and
at length brought about an accommodation between
the parties, who defired it with equal ardour. But
new incidents foon rekindled the combuftion. The
treachery of Mazarin, and the artifices of the leaders
of the country party, occafioned new cabals and frelh
troubles. Conde was carelfed by the leadeVs of both
parties ; but at laft, enraged at the arrogance of the
malcontents, who every day formed new pretenfions,
he
CON [ 303 1 CON
Conde. he took part openly with the court, though he thought
— ' it ungrateful, and protected the minifter, though he
did not efteem him.
The royal family, the duke of Orleans, Conde, and
Mazarin, left Paris privately in the night between the
5th and 6th of January 1649, and went to St Ger¬
mains. The parliament fent deputies to learn from
the queen herfelf the rfafons of her departure, and
to beg her to name the citizens whom Ihe fufpefted,
that they might be tried. Mazarin had the impru¬
dence to difmifs them without any anfw^r. Exafpe-
rated at this, the people again took up arms in -order
to defend themfelves againft the. enterprizes of the
court, who had determined to block up and to ftarve
the capital, in order to fupprefs the party of malcon¬
tents. With 7 or 8000 men, the broken relics of the
lad campaign, the prince of Conde formed a dcfign of
reducing above 500,000 intrenched behind walls. He
had neither money nor magazines ; he faw himfelf in
the depth of a molt fevere winter; neverthelefs he
tiiumphed over Paris, and this great fuccefs completed
his glory. It did him fo much the more honour,
as during the iiege he conftantly defeated the troops
of the malcontents; he prevailed on the army that
inarched to their affiilance under Turenne, to aban¬
don that general; he flopped the progrefs of the duke
de Lono-ueville, who had caufed an infurre&ion in
Normandy; and got the ftart of the Spaniards, who
Were advancing to give him battle.
Condi de Retz, co-adjutor of Paris, and afterwards
cardinal, was the life and foul of the revolters, and
directed all their motions. He had taken Catiline
for his model; and was equally intrepid and capable
of the greateil adtions ; of an exalted genius,_ but go¬
verned by his ambition. He diftinguilhcd his hatred
to Mazarin by arming the malcontents : and he him¬
felf railed at his own expence a regiment which he
called the regiment of Corinth : as foon as this corps
took the field during the blockade of Paris, it was de¬
feated and difperfed. This check was called thejirjl
to the Corinthians. The peace was figned at St Ger¬
mains ; but neither party carried its point, and fcarce
any one but Conde acquired glory by this war. After
•the conclufion of the treaty, the prince repaired to the
capital, and traverfed all the ftreets in his coach alone.
All perfons of any confequence paid their compli¬
ments to him, and the parliament lent a folemn depu¬
tation to thank him for the peace to which he had fo
powerfully contributed. The people, however, made
loud complaints on account of the king’s abfence (for
the court was not yet returned to Paris), and the
malcontents gave reafon to apprehend a new infurrec-
tion. Conde encouraged the king and queen to re¬
turn ; and at length brought them to Paris, amidft the
acclamations and bleffings of the public.
The important fervice which Conde had juft done
the court intitled him to the acknowledgements of the
qtieen, and efpecially of Mazarin ; but the dark foul
of that cardinal only remembered it to punifh a too
fortunate and too powerful protector. He privately
fwore the prince’s deftruftion ; at leaft that he fhould
give the whole kingdom a pattern of fubmifilon and
dependence on his will. However, not to excite the
public indignation, he Hill kept up appearances with
the prince, while he fecretly fpread about him difgufts,
fufpicions, fnares of every kind, and the mdft heinous Conde.
calumnies. The ungrateful minifter deceived the ——y—•
prince by making him the moft flattering propofals ;
and with the moft alluring promifes which he always
found means to avoid fulfilling. The enraged prince
defpifed the minifter, and treated him with difdain.
After this they were reconciled again only to be again
variance. Each of them in their turn courted the
country party, in order to make it fubfervient to their
defigns. At laft Mazarin thought of an expedient,
which but too effectually anfwered his purpofe, of ma¬
king an irreconcileable quarrel between that party
and the prince. There was among the malcontents
one marquis de la Bqulaie/a man of an infamous cha-
radter, who had obtained the confidence of the party
by falfe appearances of hatred to the cardinal, but who
fecretly kept up a eorrefpondence with him. It is
pretended that he made him an offer of privately kill¬
ing Conde. Mazarin was charmed with the propofal;
yet he only required Boulaie to exhibit all tire proofs
of an aflaffination, and to adf in fuch a manner that
every thing might concur to render the country party
fufpedled of that crime. He was punctually obeyed ;
the coach was flopped; fome piftols were fired at it;
by which two of the footmen were dangeroufly wound¬
ed ; and, after that fhameful exploit, la Boulaie took-
refuge in the hotel of the duke of Beaufort, who was
the hero of the party, in order no doubt to counte¬
nance the prince’s fufpicion of the malcontents. Lucki¬
ly Conde was not in his coach when it was flopped f
the cardinal had fpread the report of his intended af-
faffmation ; and in concert with the queen and the
prince he had prevailed to have the coach fent away
empty, to prove the reality of the attempt. Mazarin
counterfeited a zeal for the prince’s hfe ; he furioufly
declaimed againft the malcontents, who, he pretended,
had made an attempt on a life fo precious to the Hate;
and he inflamed Conde’s refentment againft the duke
of Beaufort and the coadjutor, whom he fuppofed to
be the authors of this heinous outrage. The prince
was fo ftrongly prejudiced, that he refufed to hear
them when they appeared before him to juflify them¬
felves. He demanded juftice againft them of the king;
he formally accufed them before the parliament, and:
remained inflexible in fpite of the pains which the
leaders of the party took to demonstrate to him that
he had been impofed upon. However, the affair was
brought before the parliament; the accufed defended
themfelves, and the coadjutor, who had difcoveied
the cardinal’s fecret, unmafked him fo well, that the „
prince agreed to a private negociation with the mal-
contents; he required nothing more than tire coad¬
jutor’s leaving Paris,, but with the rank of cimbaffador
to Rome or Vienna. That prelate would have con-
fented to it, to fatisfy Conde, if Mazarin, fome days
after, Itad not given him the choice of any recom-
pence, in order to engage his concurrence in the
prince’s deftrudtion. Affairs were now in fuch a dan¬
gerous fituation, that the cardinal faw clearly it was
neceffary to haften to the v/inding up of the plot.,
Mafter of the queen’s mind, which he guided as hd
pleafed; and fure of having inflamed againft Conde
all the refentment of the malcontents ; he fought and
obtained, by means of the duchefs Chevreufe, the fup-
port of that powerful faction, which connected it felt
5 the
CON [ 304 j CON
the more readily with him, in hopes that the prince’s
fall would foon enable it to crufh without difficulty the
cardinal himfelf. The coadjutor had private confe¬
rences with the queen and the minifter. Conde had
notice of it; and in order to difcover if it were true, -
he endeavoured to furprife it from Mazarin’s own
mouth. “ Cardinal (faid he, one day), it is publicly
reported that you have nightly meetings with the co¬
adjutor, difguifed like a trooper.” He accompanied
this, fptech with a quick and penetrating look: but
the cardinal, who'was a perfedt mailer of diffimulation,
anfwered him in fuch a free, artlefs like manner, that
he entirely removed Conde’s apprehenfions; and he
flighted the information he had received, of the plot
forming againft him.
Mazarin wanted nothing but the fupport of the duke
of Orleans; and at laft found means, by the duchefs of
Chcvrepfe, to inflame the jealoufy of that fickle and
inconftant prince, and to engage him to confent to the
imprifonment of Conde. Having thus united all par¬
ties, and fearing no other obftacle, this ungrateful and
perfidious minifter made preparations for privately ar-
reftihg the prince; the order for it was figned January
18th 1650. Conde having that day repaired as ufual
to the palais-royal, to affift at council with the prince
of Conti and the duke of Longueville, the queen gave
orders to arreft them all three, and convey them with¬
out any noife to the caftle of Vincennes. She was in-
ftantly obeyed, and the princes were ftriftly guarded
in that prifon.
In this unexpefted reverfe of fortune, the fortitude
and greatnefs of Conde’s mind appeared only the more
remarkable. Confined with the other two princes in
the tower of Vincennes, where neither fupper, furni¬
ture, nor beds, were provided, he contented himfelf
with two new laid eggs, and threw himfelf in his
deaths, on a trufs of ftraw, where he flept 12 hours
without waking. He ftill retained his cheerfulnefs,
and dedicated the greateft part of his time to reading,
the reft to converfation, playing at battle-door and
fhuttie-cock, to bodily exercifes, and the cultivation of
flowers.
Mazarin triumphed at the difgrace of the princes,
proferibed all thofe who were attached to Conde, and
behaved in the moft infolent and arbitrary manner.
The prince’s friends, however, notwithftanding their
being ftriftly watched, found means to keep up a punc¬
tual cOrrefpondence with him. They made various at¬
tempts to releafe him: they raifed troops; in particu¬
lar, the dukes of Bouillon and Rochefocault, and the
vifeount de Turenne. The princefs of Conde engaged
the province of GuieUhe to declare in his favour ; fire
made war, in order to force the court to releafe him ;
at length the partizans of the prince figned a treaty
with the Spaniards, to labour in concert for his en¬
largement. But all thefe efforts would, perhaps, have
been ineffe&ual, if other more powerful refources had
not been employed.
In that gallant and warlike age, every thing was
managed by the paffions and intrigues of five or fix
women, who pofleffed the confidence of the leaders of
the ftate, and of the various parties. The princefs of
Mantua, wife to one of the fons of the elector Pala¬
tine, king of Bohemia, principally directed the coun-
fels in the party of the princes. She found -means to
N°88.
reconcile the duke of Orleans, the coadjutor, and the Condj,
malcontents, with the friends of the prince, and united Cor‘demna-\
their efforts againfi^the cardinal. The parliament, on tlor^ (
the other fide, loudly demanded the releafe of the pri-
foners. All the orders of the ftate united in foliciting
it, infomuch that the queen vyas at laft prevailed on to
give her confent. At this news, Mazarin was fo con¬
founded, that he fled in the difguife of a trooper, and
arrived at the gates of Richlieu, where a body of horfe
waited for him. The parliament, informed by the
queen of his flight, thundered forth an arret, by which
he was obliged to leave the kingdom, with his family
and foreign fervants, in the fpace of 15 days, under
the penalty of being expofed to a criminal profecu-
tion. The queen defired to follow him with the king ;
but the nobles and burghers invefted the palais-royal,
and prevented the execution of this projeft, which
would have kindled a civil war. Mazarin, therefore,
perceiving that it was impoffible for the queen to join
him, determined to go himfelf to reftore the princes
to their liberty, and to get the fta. t of the deputies
who were coming to acquaint them with it. On his
arrival at Havre, he informed the princes that they
were free; he entreated Conde’s friendftxip ; and was
fo abjecl as to proftrate himfelf at the feet of him
whom he had fo bafely oppreffed. Cqnde gave him
a polite reception, and fpoke to him in a free and
cheerful tone ; but tired with the mean fubmiffions
which the cardinal laviftied upon him, he left him
without making any promife, and fet out on his
return to Paris, which he entered as it were in tri¬
umph, amidft the acclamations of all orders of men,
and the demonftratioqs of a moft fincere and general
joy* . . .
After this a civil war enfued, in which the prince
of Conde lided wuth the malcontents. Being preffed
by the king’s army, he retired into the fuburbs of
St Anthony, where he behaved with the utmoft bra¬
very ; wdien the citizens opened their gates and re¬
ceived him in ; and a peace enfued foon after. His
hatred of the cardinal, however, made him quit Pa¬
ris, and take refuge among the Spaniards, who made
him generaliffimo of their forces ; and he took Ro*-
croi. The peace of the Pyrenees reftored him to
his country ; and. he again fignalized himfelf at the
head of the king’s armies. Being affii&ed with the
gout, he refufed the command of the army in 1676, •
and retired to Chartilley,. where he was as much e-
fteemed for the virtues of peace, as He had been be¬
fore for his military ones.' He died in 1686, at Fon-
tainbleau.
Co^ide, a town of the French Netherlands, ■ in
the province of Hainhault, with the title of a prin¬
cipality, and a caftle. it 1' one of the ftrongeft
towns in this country, and feated near the confluence
of the rivers Haifne and Scheld. E. Long. 3. 29.
N.Lat. 50.27. , .
Comde, a town of France, in Normandy, and in
the Beffin, which carries on a copiiderahle trade;
feated on the river Nereau. W. Long. o. 37. N. i.at.
48. 50.
CONDEMNATION, the aft of giving judgment,
palling or pronouncing fentence againft a perfon fub-
jefted thereby to fome penalty or puniftimCnt, either
in refneft of life, reputation, or fortune.
* CON-
CON [ 305 ] CON
C-ondenf-j- CONDENSATION, the a€t whereby a body is
tl°n rendered more denfe, compaft, and heavy. The word
Condor. *s commonly applied to the converfion of vapour into
water, by diftillation, or naturally in the clouds. The
way in which vapour commonly condenfes, is by the
application of • fome cold fubftance. On touching it,
the vapour parts with its heat which it had before ab-
forbed; and on doing fo, it immediately lofes the pro¬
per charafteriftics of vapour, and becomes water. But
though this is the moft common and ufual way in
which we obferve vapour to be condenfed, nature
certainly proceeds after another method : fince we
often obferve the vapours moft plentifully condenfed
when the weather is really warmer than at other
times. See the articles Cloud, Evaporation,
CONDENSER, a pneumatic engine, or fyringe,
whereby an uncommon quantity of air may be crowd¬
ed into a given fpace ; fo that fometimes . ten atmo-
fpheres, or ten times as much air as there is at the fame
time in the fame fpace, without the engine, may be
thrown in by means of it, and its egrefs prevented by
valves properly difpofed. See Plate CXLVI.
It confifts of a brafs cylinder, wherein is a moveable
pifton ; which being drawn out, the air rulhes into the
cylinder through a hole provided on purpofe ; and
when the pifton is again forced into the cylinder, the
air is driven into the receiver through an orifice, fur
nilhed with a valve to hinder its getting out.
The receiver or veffel containing the condenfed air,
Ihould be made very ftrong, to bear the force of the
air’s fpring thus increafed; for which reafon they are
generally made of brafs: its orifice is fitted with a fe¬
male fcrew to receive the male fcrew at the end of the
condenfer.
If glafs be ufed for a condenfer, it will not fuffer fo
great a degree of condenfation; but the experiment
will be more entertaining, fince the fubjedt may be
viewed in the condenfed air.
CONDITION, in the civil law, a claufe of obliga¬
tion ftipulated as an article of a treaty or a contrad ;
or in a donation of a teftament, legacy, fffr. in which
laft cafe a donee does not lofe his donative if it be
charged with any dilhoneft or impoffible conditions.
CONDITIONAL, fomething not abfolute, but
fubjedl to conditions.
Conditional Conjunflions, in grammar, are thofe
which ferve to make propofitions conditional; as if, un-
Ujs, provided, &c.
Conditional Propqfitwns, in logic, fuch as confift
of two parts connedltd together by a conditional par¬
ticle. ’
Conditional SyHogifm, a fyllogifm where the major
' is a conditional propofition. Thus,
If there is a God, he ought to be worfhipped.
But there is a God ;
Therefore he ought to be worihipped.
COND1VICNUM, (anc. geog.), the capital of the
Namnetes, in Armorica. Now Nants in Brittany, on
the Loire”, from its name Civitas Nanmetum. W. Long.
I. 30. Lat.47. 15.
CONDOM, a town of Gafcony in France, capital
of the Condomois, with a bilhop’s fee. It is but a
poor place, and the trade is very fmall. It is feated
on the river Gelifie, in E. Long. o. 22. N. Lat. 44.
CONDOR,- orCoNTOR, inornithslogv. SeeVuLTua.
Vol. V. Part L
CONDORMIENTES, in church-hiftory, religious Conctar-
fedlaries, who take their name from lying all together, mte£tes
men and women, young and old. ' They arofe in the Coneffi.
13th century, near Cologne; where they are faid to —
have worihipped an image of Lucifer, and to have
received anfwers and oracles from him.
CONDRIEU, a town of Lyonnois in France, re¬
markable for its excellent wines. It is feated at the
foot of a hill near the river Rhone, E. Long. 4. 32,
N. Lat. 45. 28.
CONDRUSII, (anc. geog.), a people of Belgica,
originally Germans, dwelling about the Maefe. Their
country is now called Condrote, in the bilhopric of
Liege, between Luxemburg and the Maefe.
CONDUCTOR, in furgery, an inftrument which
ferves to conduit the knife in the operation of cutting
for the ftone, and in laying up finufes and fiftulas.
Conductors, in,eledtrical experiments, are thofe
bodies that receive and communicate eleifricity ; and
thofe that repel it are called non-conduftors. See Elec¬
tricity.
CONDUIT, a canal or pipe for the conveyance of
Water, or other fluid.
There are feveral fubterraneous conduits through
which the waters pafs that form fprings. Artificial
conduits for water are made of lead, ftone, call-iron,
potter’s earth, timber, tsV.
CONDYLOID and Coronoid proceffes. See A-
NATOMY, n° 26.
CONDYLOMA, in medicine, a tubercle, or cal¬
lous eminence, which arifes in the folds of the anus, or
rather a fwelling or hardening of the wrinkles of that
part.
CONDYLUS, a name given by anatomifts to a
knot in any of the joints, formed by the epiphyfis of
a bone.
CONE, in geometry, a folid figure, having a circle
for its bafe, and its top terminated in a point or ver¬
tex. See Con.ic Sections.
Melting Cone, in chemiftry, is a hollow cone form¬
ed of copper or brafs, with a handle, and with a flat
bottom adjoining to the apex of the cone, upon which
it is intended to reft. Its ufe is to receive a mafs of
one or more metals melted together, and call into it.
This mafs, when cold, may be eafily flrook out of the
veffel, from its figure. Alfo, if a melted mafs con-
fiftjng of two or more metals, or other fubftances not
combined together, be poured into this veffel, the co¬
nical figure facilitates the feparation of thefe fubftances
according to their refpe&ive denfities. The cone
ought to be well heated before the melted mafs is
thrown into it; that it may not contain any moifture,
w'hich would occafion a dangerous explofion. It ought
alfo to be greafed internally with tallow, to prevent
the adhefion of the fluid matteri
Cone of Rays, in optics, includes all the feveral
rays which fall from any radiant"point upon the fur-
face of a glafs.
Cone, in botany. See Conus.
CONESSI, a lort of bark of a tree, which grows
on the Coromandel'coaft in the Eaft Indies. It is re¬
commended in a letter to Dr Monro, in the Medical
Effays, as a fpecific in diarrhoeas. It is to be finely
pulverized, and made into an eledluary with fyrup of
oranges. The bark ftiould be frefti, and the ele&ua-
Qji ry
CON [ 3o(J 1 CON
Confarre- ry new made every day, or fecond day, otherwife it
at*on lofes its auftere but grateful bitternefs on the palate,
Confefiion. anc^ its Proper effe&s on the inteftines.
-v  CONFARREATION, a ceremony among the an¬
cient Romans, ufed in the marriage of perfons whofe
children were deftined for the honour of the prieft-hood.
Confarreation was the moil facred of the three
modes of contra&ing marriage among that people;
and confifted, according to Serving, in this, that the
pontifex maximus and jlamen dialis joined and contrafted
the man and woman, by making them eat of the fame
cake of failed bread : whence the term, far fignifying
vital or Jlour.
Ulpian fays, it confifted in the offering up of fome
pure wheaten bread ; rehearfing, withal, a certain for¬
mula, in prefence of ten witneffes. Dionyfius Hali-
carnaffeus adds, that the hufband and wife did eat of
the fame wheaten bread, and threw part on the victims.
CONFECTION, in pharmacy, fignifies, in general,
' any thing prepared with fugar: in particular it im¬
ports fomething preferved, efpecially dry fubftances.
It alfo fignifies a liquid or foft eleftuary, of which
there are various forts direfted in difpenfatories. See
Pharmacy.
CONFECTOR, among the ancient Romans, a
fort of gladiator, hired to fight in the amphitheatre
againft beafts ; thence alfo denominated bejliarius.
The cnnfeBores were thus called a confidences befiiis,
from their difpatching and killing beafts.
The Greeks called them ■&«paSo\in q. d. daring, rajh,
defperate { vditnct the Latins borrowed the appella¬
tions paralolani and parabolarii. The Chriftians were
fometimes condemned to this fort of combat.
CONFECTS, a denomination given to fruits, flow¬
ers, herbs, roots, &c. when boiled or prepared with
fugar or honey, to difpofe them to keep, and render
them more agreeable to the tafte.
CONFEDERACY, in law, is when two or more
perfons combine to do any damage to another, or to
commit any unlawful aft. Confederacy is puniftiable,
though nothing be put in execution ; but then it mull
have thefe four incidents : i. That it be declared by
fome matter of profecution, as by making of bonds or
promifes to one another ; 2. That it be malicious, as
for unjuft revenge ; 3. That it be falfe, i. e. againft
the innocent; and, laftly, That it be out of court,
voluntary.
CONFERVA,in botany : A genus belonging to the
cryptogamia clafs of plants ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 57th order, sllga. The tu¬
bercles are of different fizes, on capillary, very long
fibres. There are 21 fpecies, moft of them growing
on ftones in flow ftreams, on the fides of citterns, or
in ponds.
CONFESSION, in a civil fenfe, a declaration or
acknowledgement qf fome truth, though againft the
intereft of the party who makes it; whether it be in
a court of juftice or out of it. It is a maxim, that
in civil matters, the confeffion is never to be divided,
but always taken entire. A criminal is never con¬
demned on his fimple confeffion, without other colla¬
teral proofs; nor is a voluntary extrajudicial confef-
fion admitted as any proof. A perfon is not admit¬
ted to accufe hixnfelf, according to that rule in law,
Non auditurperire volens. See Arraignment.
Confession, among divines, the verbal acknow*Confefliom
ledgement which a Chriftian makes of his fins. jj
Among the Jews it was the cuftom, on the annual
feaft of expiation, for the high-prieft to make confei- ' ■
fion of fins to God in the name of the whole people :
befides this general confeffion, the Jews were enjoin¬
ed, if their fins were a breach of the firft table of the
law, to make confeffion of them to God ; but viola¬
tions of the fecond table were to be acknowledged to
their brethren. The confeffion of the primitive, Chri¬
ftians were all voluntary, and not impofed on them by
any laws of the church ; yet private confeffion was
not only allowed, but encouraged.
The Romifh church requires confeffion not only as
a duty, but has advanced it to the dignity of a facra-
ment : this confeffion is made to the prieft, and is
private and auricular; and the prieft is not to reveal
them under pain of the higheft punifliment.
Confession of Faith, ah ft of the feveral articles of
belief in any church..
CONFESSlTONAL, or Confessionary, a place
in churches under the great altar, where the bodies of
deeeafed faints, martyrs, and confeffors, were depofited.
This word is alfo ufed by the Romanifts for a defk
in the church where the confeffor takes the confeffions
of the penitents.
CONFESSOR, a Chriftian who has made a folemn
and refolute profeffion of the faith, and has endured
torments in its defence. A mere faint is callecfa confef¬
for, to diftinguifh him from the roll of dignified faints;
fuch as apoftles, martyrs, See. In ecclefiaftical hiftory, we
frequently find the word confeffors ufed for martyrs:
in after-times, it was confined to thofe who, after ha¬
ving been tormented by the tyrants, were permitted
to live and die in peace. And at laft it was alfo ufed
for thofe who, after having lived a good life, died
under an opinion of fanftity. According to St Cy¬
prian, he who prefented himfelf to torture, or even ta
martyrdom, without being called to it, was not called
a confeffor but a profeffor : and if any out of a want o£
courage abandoned his country, and became a volun¬
tary exile for the fake of the faith, he was called ex- '
terris.
Confessor is alfo a prieft, in the^Romifh church,
who has a power to hear finners in the facrament of
penance, and to give them abfolution. The church-
calls him in Latin confeffarius, to diftinguifh him from
confeffor, which is a name confecrated to faints. The
confeffors of the kings of France, from the time of
Henry IV. have been conftantly Jefuits: before him
the Dominicans and Cordeliers fhared the office be¬
tween them The confeffors of the houfe of Auftria
have alfo, ordinarily, been Dominicans and Cordeliers ;
but the latter emperors have all taken Jefuits.
CONFIGURATION, the outward figure which
bounds bodies, and gives them their external appear¬
ance ; being that which, in a great mealure, confti-
tutes the fpecific difference between bodies.
CONFIRMATION, in a general fenfe, the aft of
ratifying or rendering a title, claim, report, or the
like, more fure and indifputable.
Confirmation, in law, a conveyance of an eftate,
or right in from one man to another, whereby a
voidable eftate is made fure and unavoidable, or a par¬
ticular eftate is increafed, or a poffeffion made perfeft..
Con-
CON C 307 1 CON
■Confifce. Confirmation, in theology,the ceremony oflaying
t'on. on of hands, for the conveyance of the Holy Ghoft.
The antiquity of this ceremony is, by all ancient
t , writers, carried as high as the apoftles, and founded
upon their example and pradtice. In the primitive
church, it ufed to be given to Chriftians immediately
after baptifm, if the bilhop happened to be prefent at
the folemnity. Among the Greeks, and throughout
the Eaft, it ftill accompanies baptifm : but the Roma-
nifts make it a diftinft independent facrament. Seven
years is the Hated time for confirmation : however,
they are fometimes confirmed before, and fometimes
after, that age. The perfon to be confirmed has a
god-father and god-mother appointed him, as }n bap¬
tifm. The order of confirmation in the church of
England, does not determine the precife age of the
perfons to be confirmed.
CONFISCATION, in law, the adjudication of
goods or effedts to the public treafury ; as the bodies
and effedts of criminals, traitors, &c..
CONFLAGRATION, the general burning of a
city, or other confiderable place.
This word is commonly applied to that grand pe¬
riod or cataftrophe of our world, when the face of na¬
ture is to be changed by fire, as formerly it was by
water. The ancient Pythagoreans, Platonifts, Epi¬
cureans, and Stoics, appear to have had a notion of
the conflagration: though whence they fliould derive
it, unlefs from the facred books, is difficult to con¬
ceive ; except, perhaps, from the Phoenicians, who
themfelves had it from the Jews. Seneca fays ex-
prefsly, Temp us advenerit quo Jtdera JideribUs incur rent,
r<Sj omni jlagrante materia uno igne, quicquid nunc ex
depojito facet, ardelit. This general diffolution the
Stoics call Ex*up«o-if, ecpyrofts. Mention of the con¬
flagration is alfo made in the books of the Sybils, So¬
phocles, Hyftafpes, Ovid, Lucan, SsV. Dr Burnet,
after F. Tachard and others, relates that the Siamefe
believe that the earth will at laft be parched up with
heat; the mountains melted down ; the earth’s whole,
furface reduced to a level, and then confumed with
fire. And the Bramins of Siam do not only hold that
the world fhall be deftroyed by fire ; but alfo that a
new earth fhall be made out of the cinders of the old.
Various are the fentiments of authors on the fubjeft
of the conflagration ; the caufe whence it is to arife,
and the effedts it is to produce. Divines ordinarily
account for it metaphyfically; and will have it take
its rife from a miracle, as a fire from heaven. Phi-
lofophers contend for its being produced from natural
caufes; and will have it effected according to the laws
of mechanics. Some think an eruption of the central
fire fufficient for the purpofe ; and add, that this may
be occafioned feveral ways, viz., either by having its
intenfion incfeafed; which again, may be effected
either by being driven into lefs {pace by the encroach¬
ments of the fuperficial cold, or by an increafe of the
inflammability of the fuel whereon it is fed; or by
having the refiftance of the imprifoning earth weak¬
ened ; which may happen, either from the diminu¬
tion of its matter, by the confumption of its central
parts, or by weakening the cohefion of the conftitu-
ent parts of the mafs by the excels of the defeft of
moifture. Others look'for the caufe of the conflagra¬
tion in the atmofphere; and fuppofe,-that fome of the
meteors there engendered in unufual quantities, and Coailuen;
exploded with unufual vehemence, from the concur- roni^c;„f
rence of various circumstances, may effeft it, with- ° tucl”J*f
out feeking any further. The aftrologers account fipr
it from a conjun&ion of all the planets in the fign
Cancer; as the deluge, fay they, was occafioned by
their conjunftion in Capricorn. Laftly, others have
recourfe to a ftill more effeftual and flaming machine,
and conclude the world is to undergo its conflagration
from the near approach of a comet in its return from
the fun.
CONFLUENT, among phyficians, &c. an appel¬
lation given to that kind of Small-pox wherein the
puftules run into each other.
CONFLUENTES (anc. geog),a place at the con¬
fluence of the Rhine and Mofelle, fuppofed to be one
of the 50 forts erefted by Drufus on the Rhine, in
Gallia Belgica : Now Coblentz, a town of Triers. E.
Long. 7. 15. Lat. 50. 30.
CONFORMATION, the particular confiftence and
texture of the parts of any body, and their difpofition
to compofe a whole.
Conformation, in medicine, that make and con-
ftrudtion of the human body which is peculiar to every
individual. Hence, a mala conformatio fignifies feme
fault in the firft rudiments; whereby a perfon comes
into the world crooked, or with fome of the vifeera or
cavities unduly framed or proportioned. Many are
fubjeCt to incurable afthmas, from a too fmall capacity
of the thorax, and the like vitious conformations.
CONFORMITY, in the fchools, is the congruency,
or relation of agreement between one thing and ano¬
ther; as between the meafure and the thing meafured,
the objeft and the underftanding, the thing and the
divifion thereof, &c.
CONFRONTATION, the aft of bringing two
perfons in prefence of each other, to difeover the truth
of fome faft which they relate differently.
The word is chiefly ufed in criminal matters ; where
the witneffes are confronted with the Jaccufed, the
accufed with one another, or the witneffes with one
another.
CONFUCIUS, a Chinefe philofopher, who lived
about 500 years before our Saviour’s birth, in the
kingdom of Lu, now called the province of Xantung,
His wit and judgment got him a reputation from his
very youth ; and being a mandarin, and employed in
the government of the kingdom of Lu, his profound
knowledge of morals and politics made him be greatly
admired. Notwithftanding his care, his prince’s court
was much difordered ; and Confucius finding the king
would not liften to his advice, quitted the court, and
taught moral philofophy with fuch applaufe that he
foon had above 3000 fcholars, whereof 72 furpaffed
the reft in learning and virtue, for whom the Chinefe
have ftill a particular veneration. He divided his
doftrine into four parts, and his fcholars into four
clafles : the firft order was of thofe who ftudied to ac-
quire .virtue ; the 2d, thofe who learned the art of
reafoning well; the 3d ftudied the government of the
ftate and the duty of magillrates; the 4th were
wholly taken up in noble difeourfes of all that concern¬
ed morals. In fpite of all his pains to eftablifli pure
morality and religion, he was neverthelefs the inno¬
cent caufe of their corruption. It is. faid, that when
C^q 2 he
CON [ 308 ] CON
CcufufiMv te was complimented upon the excellency of his phi-
^ v lofophy, he replied, that he fell greatly fhort of the
perfeft degree of virtue ; but that in the weft the
moft holy was to be found. This made a ftrong im-
preffion on the learned; and in the 66th yfear after
Chrift’s birth, the emperor Mon-ti fent ambafladors
toward the weft to feek this holy man. They flop¬
ped at an ifland near the Red Sea, and found a famous
idol named Fohi, reprefenting a philefopher that lived
500 years before Confucius. They carried this idol
back with them, with inftru&ions concerning the
worihip rendered to it; and fo introduced a fuperfti-
tion that aboliftied in feveral places the maxims of
Confucius. His tomb is in the academy where he
taught, near the town Xio-fu, upon the banks of the
river Xu. This philofopher has been in great venera¬
tion in China above 2000 years; and is ftill fo efteemed,
that each town has a palace confecrated.to his memory.
There was one of his defcendants who was very conii-
derable in the kingdom in 1646, whom Xanchi king
of Tartary, who then conquered China, received with
a great deal of honour. All thofe of his family are
mandarins by birth; and have a privilege common with
the princes of the blood, not to pay any tribute.
CONFUSION, in a general i'enfe, is oppofed to
order, in a perturbation whereof confufion confifts;
e. gr. when things prior in nature do not precede, or
pofterior do not follow, &c.
. In a logical fenfe, confufion is oppofed to diftimflnefs
or perfpicuity 5 and may happen either in words, as
when mifcontrived or mifapplied; or in ideas, as when
the idea of any thing prefents fomething along with it,
which does not properly belong to that thing. See
Idea and Notion.
In a phyfical fenfe, confufion is a fort of union or
mixture by mere contiguity. Such is that between
fluids of contrary nature, as oil and vinegar, &c.
Confusion, in Scots law, is a method of fufpend-
ing and extinguilhing obligations. See Law, Part III.
N9 clxxvi. 8.
Confusion of Tongues, in the hiftory of mankind, is
a memorable event, which happened in the one hundred
and firft year according to the Hebrew chronology,
and the four hundred and firft year by the Samaritan,
after the flood, at the overthrow of Babel; and which
was providentially brought about in order to facilitate
the difperfion of mankind and the population of the
earth. Until this period there had been one common
language, which formed a bond of union that prevent¬
ed the feparation of mankind into diftinft nations; and
fome have fuppofed, that the tower of Babel was erec¬
ted as a kind of fortrefs, by which the people intended
to defend themfelves againft that feparation which Noah
had projected.
There has been a confiderable difference of opinion
as to the nature of this confufion, and the manner in
which it was effected. Some learned men, prepoffeffed
with the notion that all the different idioms now in the
world did at firft arife from one original language to
which they may be reduced, and that the variety
among them is no more than muft naturally have hap¬
pened in a long courfe of time by the mere feparation
of the builders of Babel, have maintained, that there
were no new languages formed at the confufion ; but
that this event was accomplilhed by creating a mifun-
derftanding and variance among the builders without C«r.fufiofl»
any immediate influence on their language. But this r—'
opinion, advanced by Le Clerc, &c. feems to be di-
redfly contrary to the obvious meaning of the word
f’t'.i', Jhapha, “ lip,” ufed by the facred hiftorian.
Others have imagined, that this was brought about by
a temporary confufion of their fpeech, or rather of their
apprehenfiona, caufing them, whilft they continued to¬
gether and fpoke the fame language, to underftand the
words differently. Scaliger is of this opinion. Others,
again, account for this event by the privation of all
language, and by fuppofing that mankind were under
a neceffity of affociating together,, and of impofing new
names on things by common confent. Another opi¬
nion afcribes the confufion to fuch an iudiftinft remem¬
brance of the original language which they fpoke be¬
fore, as made them fpeak it very differently 5 fo that
by the various inflexions, terminations, and pronun¬
ciations of divers dialefts, they could no more under¬
ftand one another, than they who underftand Latin>.
can underftand thofe who fpeak French, Italian, or
Spanilh, though all thefe languages arife out of it-
This opinion is adopted by Caufabon, and by Bilhop
Patrick in his Commentary in he. and is certainly much
more probable than either of the former. And Mr
Shuckford maintains, that the confufion arofe from
fmall beginnings, by the invention of new words in ei¬
ther of the three families of Shem, Ham, and Japhet,,
which might contribute to feparate them from one ano¬
ther ; and that in each family new differences of fpeech
might gradually arife, fo that each of thefe families
went on to divide and fubdivide among themfelves.
Others, again, as Mr Jof. Mede and Dr Wotton, &c-
not fatisfied with either of the foregoing methods of
accounting for the diverfity of languages among man¬
kind, have recourfe to an extraordinary interpofition
of divine power, by which new languages were framed-
and communicated to different families by a fuperna-
tural infufion or infpiration ; which languages have been
the roots and originals from which the feveral dialeXs
that are, or have been, or will be fpoken, as long as
this earth (hall laft, have aiifen, and to which they
may with cafe be reduced. As to the number of lan¬
guages thus introduced, many opinions have been
adopted. * If there were no more than there were na¬
tions or heads of nations, then the number would be
feven for Japhet, four for Ham, and five for Shem;
but if there were as many as there were families, which
is the more probable opinion, their number cannot be
certainly affigned. However, the Hebrews fancy they
were 70, becaufe the defeendents from the fons of:
Noah, enumerated Genefis x. were juft fo many. Al¬
lowing, then, the languages of the chieftfamilies to
have been fundamentally different from each other, the
fub-languages and dialeXs within each branch would
probably have had a mutual affinity, greater or lefs as
they fettled nearer or farther from each other. But
whichfoever of thefe hypothefes is adopted, the primary
objeX of the confufion at Babel was the feparation and
difperfion of mankind.
Dr Bryant, in the third volume of his Analyfis of
Ancient Mythology, has advanced a fingular hypothe-
fis, both with rcfpeX to the confufion of tongues and ‘
the difperfion. He fuppofes that the confufion of lan¬
guage was local aud partial, and limited to Babel only.
By
CON
Confuta. By Gen. xi. i. and B, which our tranflators
tion render the whole earthy he underftands every region: and
_ ^ . by the fame words in ver. 9. the whole region or pro-
°tion.a' v>nce. This confufion was occaiioned, as he iuppofes,
1—Y-— by a labial failure ; fo that the people could not arti¬
culate. Thus their fpeech was confounded, but not
altered ; for, as foon as they feparated, they recovered
their true tenor of pronunciation, and the language of
the earth continued for fome ages nearly the fame.
The interviews between the Hebiews and other na¬
tions, recorded in Scripture, were conduced without
an interpreter; and he farther obferves, that the vari¬
ous languages which fubiitl at this day retain fufficient
relation to ihow, that they were once dialetls from the
fame matrix, and that their variety was the effe& of
time. See Dispersion.
CONFUTATION, in rhetoric, &c. a part of an
oration, wherein the orator feconds his own arguments
and ftrengthens his* caufe, by refelling and deftroy-
ing the oppofite arguments of the antagonill. This is
done by denying what is apparently falfe, by dete&ing
fome flaw in the reafoning of the adverfe party, by
granting their argument, and Showing its invalidity, or
retorting it upon the advetfary.
CONG-E, in the French law, a licence, or permif-
fion, granted by a fuperior to an inferior, which gives
him a difpenfation from fome duty to- which he was
. before obliged. A woman cannot obligate herfelf
without the conge or licence of her hufband ; a monk
cannot go out of his convent, without the conge of his
fuperiors.
Conge' Je lire, in eccleflaflical policy, the king’s
permifiion royal to a dean and chapter in the time of a
vacancy,.to choofe a bifhop ; or to an abbey, or priory,
of his own foundation, to choofe their abbot or prior.
The king of England, as fovereign patron of all
archbilhoprics, bifhoprics, and other ecclefiaftical be¬
nefices, had of ancient time free appointment of all
ecclefiaftical dignities, whenfoever they chanced to be
void; invefting them firft /^r bncculum 13 annulum,
and afterwards by his letters-patent; and in courfe of
time he made the ele&ion over to others, under cer¬
tain forms and limitations,' as that they ihould at eve¬
ry vacation, before they choofe, demand the king’s
conge de lire, and after the eledlion crave his royal af-
fent, tfe.
Conge', in architefture, a mould in form of a
quarter round, or a cavetto, which ferves to feparate
two members from one another; fuch as that which
joins the fhaft of the column to the cin&ure, called al-
fo apophyge.
Conges are alfo rings orferrels formerly ufed in the
extremities of wooden pillars, to keep them fromfplit-
ting, afterwards imitated in ftone-work.
CONGELATION, fignifies the palling of any
body from a fluid to a folid ftate : fo that the term is
thus applicable to metals when they refume their folid
form after being heated, to water when it freezes,
t to wax, fpermaccti, &c. when they become folid after
Differs having been rendered fluid by heat ; and in general to
from cry- all procefles, where the whole fubftance of the fluid is
ftalllzauon-converted into a folid j but it differs from cryftalliza-
tion ; becaufe in the latter procefs, though the fait
paffes from a fluid to a folid ftate., a coniiderable
CON
quantity of liquid is always left, fo that the term cow- Congela-
gelation is never applied in this cafe. . ll°n .
Th« procefs of congelation in all cafes depends upon,
or at leaft is accompanied with, the emiflion of heat, as
has been evinced by experiments made not only in wa¬
ter, but on fpermaceti, wax, &e. for in all of thefe, tho’
the thermometer immerfed in them wdiile fluid conti- »
nued to defcend gradually till a certain period, yet it Is always
was as conftantly obferved to remain ftatioaary, or even
to dfcend while the congelation went on. The princi- !r ;fflon 0f*
pie on which the phenomenon depends is thus afcertain- heat,
ed; but why this heat (hould be emitted, is a queftion
which has not yet been thoroughly inveftigated. Some
conjeftures relative to this are indeed mentioned in
the article Chemistry, when treating of elementary-
fire, though experiments are ftill to be wilhed for on
the fubjeft.
It is not known whether all kinds of fluids are na¬
turally capable of congelation or not; though we are
certain that there are very great differences among ^
them in this refpeft. The moft difficult ofallthofe ofCongela-
which the congelation has been aftually afcertained istio.n of
quickfilver. This was long thought capable of refift-^u‘c's^ver“
ing any degree of cold whatever; and it is only within
a few years that its congelation by artificial means was
known, and-ftill more lately that ‘fome climates were
found to be fo fevere as to congeal this fluid by the cold
of the atmofphtre. ^
The congelation of quickfil ver was firft afcertained by Experi-
M. Jofeph Adam Braun profeffor of philofophy at Pe-
terfbu g. He had been employed in making thermome- r raun*-
trical experiments, not with a view to make the difcovery
he actually did, but to fee how many degrees of cold he
could produce. An excellent opportunity for this oc¬
curred on the 14th of December 1759, when the mer¬
cury flood naturally at —34, which is now known to
be only five or fix degrees above its point of congela¬
tion. Mr Braun, having determined to avail himfelf
of this great degree of natural cold, prepared a free¬
zing mixture of aquafortis and pounded ice, by means,
of which his thermometer was reduced to —69. Part
of the qnickfilver had now really congealed; yet fo far
was M. Braun from entertaining any fufpicion of the-
truth, that he had almoft defifted from further at¬
tempts, being fatisfied with having fo far exceeded all
the philofophers who went before him. Animated,,
however, by the hopes of producing a Hill greater de¬
gree of cold, he renewed the experiment; but having
expended all his pounded ice, he was obliged to fub-
ftitute fnow in its place. With this frefh mixture the-
mercury funk to—100, 240, and 352°. He then;
fuppofed that the thermometer was broken ; but on.
taking it out to obferve whether it was fo or not, he
found the quickfilver fixed, and continuing fo for 12
minutes. On repeating the fame experiment with an¬
other thermometer which had been graduated no lower
than —220, all the mercury funk into the ball, and-
became folid as before, not beginning to reafeend till
after a ftill longer interval of time. Hence the profef¬
for concluded that the quickfilver was really frozen,
and prepared for making a decifive experiment. This-
was accompliftied on the 25th of the fame month, and
the bulb of the thermometer broken as foon as the
metal was congealed. The mercury was now convert¬
ed!
[ 3°9 1
CON
[ 310 1
■ ed into a folid and fliining metallic mafs, which extend¬
ed under the ftrokes of a pellle, in hardnefs rather in¬
ferior to lead, and yielding a dull found like that me¬
tal. Profeflbr iEpinus made fimilar experiments at
the fame time, employing both thermometers and
tubes of a larger bore ; in which laft he remarked, that
the quickfilver fell fenfibly on being frozen, aifuming
a concave furface, and likewife that the congealed
pieces funk in fluid mercpry.
The fa& being thus eftabliflied, and fluidity’no
CON
where immediately touched by the mixture } their cd» Conge’*,
lour was a dull pale white with a oluilh call, like zinc, ^on-
very different from the. natural appearance of quickfil-
ver. Next morning about feven o’clock I found that
the larger hemifphere began to melt, perhaps becaufe
it was moft expofed to the air, and not fo near as the
others to the fal-ammoniac mixture which lay be¬
neath. In this ft ate it refembled an amalgam, finking
to that fide on which the glafs was inclined; but with¬
out quitting the furface of the glafs, to which it was
longer to be confidered as an effential property of yet firmly congealed: the five other pieces had not
quickfilver, Mr Braun communicated an account of yet undergone any alteration, but remained frozen hard.
his experiments to the Peterfburg Academy, on the
■6th of September 1760 ; of which a large extract was
inferted in the Philofophical Tran factions, vol. lii.
p. 156. Five years afterwards he publifhed another
treatife on the fame fubject, under the title of Supple¬
ments to his former differtation. In thefe he declared,
that, fince his former publication, he had never fuffer-
ed any winter to elapfe without repeating the experi¬
ment of congealing quickfilver, and never failed of
fuccefs when the natural cold was of a fufficient
ftrength for the purpofe. This degree of natural cold
he fuppofes to be —to of Fahrenheit, though fome
Toward eight o’clock the cylindrical piece began to
foften in the fame manner, and the other four foon
followed. About eight they fell from the furface of
the glafs, and divided into many fluid fliining globules,
which were foon loft in the interftices of the frozen
mixture, and reunited in part at the bottom, being now
exadlly like common quickfilver.” At the time this
experiment was made, the thermometer flood at — 1 o°
in the open air. ^
The circumftances attending this experiment are ftill Remark*
unaccountable for, in the firft place, the natural cold on this es-
fcarcely fufficient, along with that of the artificial periment.
commencement of the congelation might be percei- mixture, which produces 320 more, to have congealed
ved when the temperature of the air was as high ‘•l-“ -—f-i-ni  —t--'-1-—“• 1 1 
as +2. The refults of all his experiments were, that
with the abovemeritioned frigorific mixtures, and once
the quickfilver ; which yet appears to have been very
effectually done by the length of time it continued
folid. 2. It is not eafy to account for the length of
with rectified fpirits and fnow, when the natural cold time required for congealing the quickfilver in this ex-
was at —28°,' he congealed the quickfilver, and dif-
covered that it is a real metal which melts with a very
fmall degree of heat. Not perceiving, however, the
neceffary confequence of its great contraction in free¬
zing, he, in this work, as well as in the former, con¬
founded its point of congelation with that of its
periment, fince other frigorific mixtures begin to aCt
almoft immediately; and, 3. There was not at laft
even the appearance of aCtion, which confifts in a fo-
ludon of the fiiow, and not in its freezing into a mafs.
“ The whole experiment (fays Dr Blagden*) remains*
involved in fuch obfcurity, that fome perfons have fup-
 urn    „... r.  u... vo1, lu*
greateft contraction in freezing, and thus marked the pofed the quickfilver itfelf was not frozen, but only
former a great deal too low ; though the point of
gelation was very uncertain according to him, various
difficulties having occurred to his attempts of finding
the'greateft point pf contraction while freezing.
Of Mr Blu- The "experiments of M. Braun were not repeated
nienbach. by any perfon till the year 1774, when Mr John Fre¬
deric Blumenbach, then a ftudent of phyfic at Got¬
tingen, performedthem to more advantage than it ap¬
pears M. Braun had ever done. He was encouraged
to make the attempt by the exceffive cold of the win¬
ter that year. “ I put (fays he), at five in the even¬
ing of January 1 ith, three drachms of quickfilver into
covered over with ice; to which opinion, however,
there are great objections. It is worthy of remark,
that Gottingen, though iituated in the fame latitude as
London, and enjoying a, temperate climate in general,
becomes fubjeCt at times to a great feverity of cold.
This of 1 itji of January 1774 is one inftance : I find
others there where the thermometer funkto-—120,— 16°,
or —19?and at Cattlenburg, a fmall town about two
German m.iles diftant, to -7-30°. By watching fuch ex¬
traordinary occafions, experiments on the freezing of
quickfilver might eafily he performed in many places,
where the poffibilit.y of, them is at prefent little fuf-
a fmall fugar-glafs, and covered it with a mixture of peCled.. The coldobferyed at Glafgow in 1780 would
have been fully fufficient for that purpofe.”
In confequence of the publication of Mr Braun’s
Experiments, the Royal Society defired their late fe-
cretary Dr Maty to make the neceflary application to
the Hudfon’s Bay company, in order to repeat the
experiment in that country. Mr Hutchins, who wasEXper|.
then at London, and going out with a commiffion asmemsof
governor of Albany Fort, offered to undertake the ex-Mr Hut-
° ■ , J , , . ■ rh.'n.
fnow and Egyptian fal-ammoniac. This mixture was
put loofe into the glafs, fo that the quickfilver lay per¬
fectly free, being only covered with it as by pie¬
ces of ice: the whole, together with the gjafs,
weighed fomewhat above an ounce. It was hung-out
at a window in fuch a pofition as to expofe it freely to,
the northweft ; and two drachms more of fal-ammo¬
niac mixed with the fnow on which it ftoodl The &   
fnow and fal-ammoniac, in the open air, foon froze periments, and executed them very completely,, freezing
into a mafs like ice : no fenfible change, however, ap-
peared in the quickfilver that evening ; but at one in'
the morning it was found frozen folid. It had divided
into two large and four fmaller pieces : one of the
former was hemifph&rical, the other cylindrical, each
feemingly rather above a drachm in weight; the, four
fmall bits might amount to half a fcruple. They, were
all with their flat fide Bozen hard to the glafs, aud no
quickfilver. twice in the months of January and Fe
bruary 1775. The account of his fuccefs was read
before the Royal Society at the. commencement of the
fevereft winter that had been known for many years in
Europe ; and at this time the experiment was repeated
by two gentlemen of different countries, j One was
Dr Lambert Bicker, fecretary to the Batavian fociety
at Rotterdam; who on the 28 th of January 1776, at
1 eight
CON [ 311 1 CON
Congela- eight in the merning, made an experiment to try how
, tl0B' low he couM bring the thermometer by artificial cold,
'f the temperature of the atmofphere being then +2°.
He could not, however, bring it lower than —94 , at
which point it Hood immoveable ; and on breaking
the thermometer, part of the quickfilver was found to
have loft its fluidity, and was thickened to the con-
fiftence of an amalgam. It fell out of the tube in
little bits, which bore to be flattened by preffiire, with¬
out running into globules like the inner fluid part.
The experiment was repeated next day, when the
thermometer flood at -f-8°, but the mercury would not
then defeend below—8o°; and as the thermometer
was not broken, it could not be known whether the
mercury had congealed or not. All that could be in¬
ferred from thefe experiments therefore was, that the
congealing point of mercury was not below --94 of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer. The other who attempt¬
ed the congelation of this fluid was the late Dr An¬
thony Fothergill; but. it could' not be determined
whether he fucceeded or not. An account of his
experiment is inferted in the Philofophical Tranfac-
g tions, Vol. Ixvi.
Point of No other attempts were made to congeal quickfilver
conaela- until the year 1781, when Mr Hutchins refumed the
tion deter- fubjeit with great fuccefs, infomuch that from his ex-
Mr Hutch- periments the freezing point of mercury is now almoft
ins, as well fettled as that of water. Preceding philofo-
phers, indeed, had not been altogether inattentive to
this fubjeft. Profefibr Braun himfelf had taken great
pains to inveftigate it; but for want of paying the re-
quifite attention to the difference betwixt the contrac¬
tion of the fluid mercury by cold and that of the
congealing metal by freezing, he could determine no¬
thing certain concerning it. Others declared it as
their opinion, that nothing certain could be determi¬
ned by merely freezing mercury, in a thermometer
filled with that fluid. Mr Cavendifti and Dr Black
9 firft fuggefted the proper method of obviating the dif-
Dr Black’s ficulties on this fubjeft. Dr Black, in a letter to Mr
directions Hutchins, dated October 5, 1779, gave the following
the d*re<^ons ^or making the experiment with accuracy :
aient**56™* “ f>rov^e a few w'de and fhort tubes of thin glafs,
fealed at one end and open at the other ; the widenefs
of thefe tubes may be from half to three quarters of
an inch, and the length of them about three inches.-
Put an inch or an inch and a half depth of mercury
into one of thefe tubes,, and plunging the bulb of the
thermometer into the mercury, fet the tube with the
mercury and the thermometer in it into a freezing mix¬
ture, which fhould be made for this purpofe in a com¬
mon tumbler or water-glafs : and, N. B. in making a
freezing mixture with fnow and fpirit of nitre, the
quantity of the acid ftiould never be fo great as to dif-
folve the whole of the fnow, but only enough to re¬
duce it to the confiftence of panada. When the
mercury in the wide tube is thus fet in the free¬
zing mixture, it muff be ftirred gently and frequent¬
ly with the bulb of the thermometer; and if the
cold be fufficiently ftrong, it will congeal by becoming
thick and broafy like an amalgam. As foon as this is
obferved, the thermometer fhould be examined with¬
out lifting it out of the cbngealing mercury; and I
have no doubt that in every experiment thus made,
with the fame mercury, the inllrumejit will always
point to the fame degree, provided it has been made Congela-
and graduated with accuracy.” tl0n~ .
The apparatus recommended by Mr Cavendifli, and l0
which Mr Hutchins made ufe of, confifted of a fmall Apparatus
mercurial thermometer, the bulb of which reached rec>m-
about 2| inches below the fcale, and was inclofed
a glafs cylinder fwelled at the bottom into a ball, which ^ aven-
when ufed was filled with quickfilver, fo that the bulb
of the thermometer was entirely covered with it. If
this cylinder be immerfed in a freezing mixture till
great part of the quickfilver in it is frozen, it is evi¬
dent that the degree fhown at that time by the inclo¬
fed thermometer is the precife point at which mercury
freezes ; for as in this cafe the ball of the thermome¬
ter muft be furrounded for fome time with quickfilver,
part of which is aftually frozen, it feems impoflible
that the thermometer fhould be fenfibly above that
point ; and while any of the quickfilver in the cylin¬
der remains fluid, it is impoffible that it fhould fink
fenfibly below it. The diameter of the bulb of the
thermometer was rather lefs than a quarter of an inch,
that of the fwelled part of the cylinder two-thirds;
and as it was eafy to keep the thermometer conftantly
in the middle of the cylinder, the thicknefs of quick¬
filver betwixt it and the glafs could never be much lefs
than the fixth part of an inch. The bulb of the ther¬
mometer was purpofely made as fmall as it convenient¬
ly could, in order to leave a fufficient fpace between
it and the cylinder, without making the fwelled part
larger than neceffary, which would have caufcd more
difficulty in freezing the mercury in it.- jr
The firft experiment with this apparatus was made accounts
on the 15th of December 1781; the theiunometer had of the ex.
flood the evening before at —18°. A bottle of fpiri-Perimeots*
tus nitri fortis was put on the houfe-top, in order to
cool it to the fame temperature. The thermome¬
ters made ufe of had been hung up in the open air for
three weeks, to compare their feales. On the morn¬
ing of the experiment they were about 230 below
o.—In making it, the thermometer of the appa¬
ratus was fufpended in the bulb of the cylinder by
means of fome red worfted wound about the upper
part of its ftem, to a fufficient thicknefs, to fill the up¬
per part of its orifice; and a fpace of near half an
inch was left empty between the quickfilver and-
worfted;.
The apparatus was placed in the open air, on the
top of the fort, with only a few deer fkins fewed to¬
gether for a fhelter; the-fnow lay 18 inches deep on
the works, and the apparatus was ftuck into the fnow, -
in order to bring it the fooner to the temperature of
the aif. The inflruments were afterwards placed in
three freffi freezing mixtures, in -hopes of being able
by their means to produce a greater degree of cold,-
but without effedt; nor was any greater cold produ¬
ced by adding more fpirit of nitre. The mercury,
however, was very completely frozen, that in the ther¬
mometer defeending to 448°. On plunging the mer- •
cury into the freezing mixture, itdefeended in- lefs than ’
one minute to 40 below o.
The fecond experiment was made the day follow¬
ing ; and the fame quantity of quickfilver employed •
that had been- ufed in the former. As too finall a
quantity of the freezing mixture, however, had been i
originally made, it was neceffary to add more during;
. the -
Ct>rgela-
CON [3'2] CON
the operation of congelation ; by which means the a great degree of cold might be communicated to the CongeTa-
fpirit of nitre, in pouring it upon the fnow, fometimes bulb of a thermometer, and yet the quickfilver in the tlu11-
touched the bulb of the thermometer, and inftantly tube remain fluid), he might make the experiment of r~*»*
raifed it much higher ; nor did the mercury ever de- afeertaining the greafeft contraction of mercury to
feend below 206°, which was not half as far as it had more advantage/ With this view, he made another ex-
done the day before, though the temperature of the periment, when the temperature of fome of his ther-
•atmofphere had been this day at— 340 before the mometers flood as low as — 370; and after an hour’s
commencement of the operation. That in the appa- attendance he perceived the mercury had fallen to Ti
ratus, however, funk to—95°. The apparatus was 1367; but the thermometer unluckily was broken, The ther-
taken out of the mixture for half a minute, in order and its bulb thrown away with the mixture. Profef- mometer*
to examine whether the mercury was perfeftly congeal- for Braun had likewife obferved, that his thermometers ^treme'*
ed or not, and during that time it fhowed no fign of were always broken when the mercury defeended be- eoyt
liquefa&ion. low 600.
The third experiment was made the fame day, and The eighth experiment was made with a view to
with the freezing irtixture ufed in the laft. By it try whether quickfilver would congeal when in con-
the point of congelation was detemined to be not be- ta£t with the freezing mixture. For this purpofe, he
low 40°. did not ufe the apparatus provided for other experi-
The fourth experiment was made January 7th ments, but filled a gallipot made of flint ftone (as be-
1782 ; and in it he obferved, that the mercury in the ing thinner than the common fort), containing about
apparatus thermometer, after ftandiug at 42 and 414- an ounce, half full of quickfilver, into which 1.' in-
for a confiderable time, fell to 77, not gradually, but ferted a mercurial thermometer, employing another
at once as a weight falls. as an index. Thus he hoped to determine exadlly
In the fifth experiment the weather was excefiively when the quickfrlver was congealed, as he had free
fevere, fo that it ought to have frozen the metal in the accefs to it at all times, which was not the cafe when
open air; but this did not then happen. it was inclofed in the cylindrical glafs, the wortted
At the time of making the fixth experiment, the wound round the tube of the thermometer to exclude
quickfilver in the open air flood at 44 below o; and the air being equally effeftual in excluding any in-
Mr Hutchins refolvedto make ufe of this opportunity ftrument from being introduced to touch the.quickfil-
to obferve how far it was poflible to make it defeend ver. He then made a kind of lit ewer, with a flat
by means of cold, obferving the degrees at the fame blunt point, of dried cedar wood, on account of its
time with a fpirit thermometer made by Nairne and lightnefs, which he found would remain in the gela-
Blount, with which he had been furnilhed by the tinous freezing mixture at any depth he chofe ; but,
royal fociety in 1774. In this, however, he did not when inferted into the quickfrlver, the great difference
fucceed; for the mercury never fell below 438, nor betwixt the fpecific gravity of it and that ponderous
the ftandard 48. It flood at 27-r at the begin- fluid, made it always rebound upward; and by the
ning of the experiment. The reafon of this was fup- degree of refiftancc, he could always know whether
pofed to be, that the atmofphere was too cold for it proceeded from fluid or folid metal. At this time,
making this kind of experiments, by reafon of its however, the experiment did not fucceed ; but, at
freezing the thread of quiekfilver in the Item of the another trial, having employed about Jths of a pound of
thermometer, fo that it became incapable of contrac- metal, and let it remain a confiderable time immerfed
tion along with that in the bulb. In other experi- in the fame mixture which had juft now been fuppofed
ments, though the metal in the bulb became folid, yet to fail, he found that part of it was congealed ; and,
xhat in the ftem always remained fluid ; and thus was on pouring off the fluid part, no lefs than two-thirds
enabled to fubfrde to a great degree by the diminu- remained fixed at the bottom. I3
tion of bulk in the folid mercury. That this was real- The laft experiment which has been publilhed con- Mr Caven-
ly the cafe, appeared from the quickfilver falling at cerning the congelation of quickfilver by means ofdilh’sex-
once from — 86 to — 434, when the cold of the freez- fnow is that of Mr Cavendifh, and of which he gives penment*.
ing mixture diminifhed, and the temperature of the air an account in the Phil. Tran fad. Vol. Ixxiii. p. 325.
becoming about the fame time fomewhat milder, melt- Here, fpeaking of the cold of freezing mixtures, he
ed the congealed part in the ftem, which thus had li- fay.s, “ There is the utmoft reafon to think that Mr
berty to defeend to that point. Hutchins would have obtained a greater degree of cold
In this experiment, alfo, the mixtures were made in by ufing a weaker nitrous acid than he did. I found *4
double quantity to thofe of the former ; thefe being (fays he) by adding fnow gradually to fome of this
only in common tumblers, but the mixtures for this acid, that the addition of a fmall quantity produced ducejby
experiment in pint-bafons. It was obferved that they heat inftead of cold ; and it was not until fo much was adding
liquefied fafter than in other experiments. He had added as to increafe the heat from 28 to 5 r °, that t(>
ufually made them of the confiftence of pap ; but the addition of more How began to produce cold; the
though he added fnow at different times, it had very quantity of fnow required for this purpofe being pret-
little effect in augmenting the cold, but rather de- ty exactly one quarter of the weight of the fpirit of
creafed it. The congealed pieces ofi metal fell to the nitre, and the heat of the fnow, and air of the room,
bottom, as might naturally have been expected from as well as of the acid, being 28°. The reafon of this
its great conti-adion in becoming folid. is, that a great deal of heat is produced by mixing wa-
From this experiment Mr Hutchins concluded, that ter with fpirit of nitre ; and the ftronger the fpirit is,
the nearer the temperature of the atmofphere ap- the greater is the heat produced. Now it appear*
proached to the congealing point of mercury (fo that from this experiment, that before the acid was dr-
N° 88. 2 luted»
CON L 3i3 1 CON
Congda- luted, the heat produced by its union with the wa-
, tlon- ter formed from the melting fnow, was greater than
'■ v the cold produced by the fame; and it was not un¬
til it was diluted by the addition of one quarter of
its weight of that fiibftance, that the cold, generated
by the latter caufe, began to exceed the heat generated
by the former. From what has been faid, it is evi¬
dent, that a freezing mixture made with undiluted
acid will not begin to generate cold until fo much
fnow is difiblved as to increafe its heat from 28 to 510;
fo that no greater cold will be produced than would
be obtained by mixing the diluted acid heated to 510
with fnow of the heat of 28°. This method of ad¬
ding fnow gradually is much the bell way I know of
finding what ftrength it ought to be of, in order to
produce the greateil effedl poffible. By means of this
acid diluted in the above mentioned proportion, I froze
quickfdver in the thermometer called G(a) by Mr
Hutchins, on the 26th of February [782. Ijdid not
indeed break the thermometer to examine the ftate of
the quickfilver therein ; for, as it funk to —110, it
certainly muft have been in part frozen ; but immedi¬
ately took it out, and put the fpirit thermometer in
its room, in order to find the cold of the mixture. It
- funk only to — 30°; but by making allowance of the
fpirit in the tube being not fo cold as that in the
ball, it appears, that if it had not been for this
caufe, it would have funk to — 35° (b); which is 6°
below the point of freezing, and is within one degree
of as great a cold as that produced by Mr Hutchins.
“ In this experiment the thermometer G funk very
rapidly ; and, as far as I could perceive, without flop¬
ping at any intermediate point till it came to the above
mentioned degree of — iio°, where it fluck. The
materials ufed in making the mixture were previoufly
cooled, by means of fait and fnow, to near nothing;
the temperature of the air was between 20° and 250 ;
the quantity of acid ufed was 4^ oz ; and the glafs in
which the mixture was made, was furrounded with wool,
"and placed in a wooden box, to prevent its lofing its cold
fo faft as it would otherwife have done. Some weeks
before this I made a freezing mixture with fome fpirit
of nitre much flronger than that ufed in the foregoing
experiment, though not quite fo ftrong as the undi¬
luted acid, in w'hich the cold was lefs intenfe by 4-r0.
It is true the temper of the air was much lefs cold,
namely 350, but the fpirit of nitre was at leaft as cold,
jj and the fnow not much lefs fo.
Of the cold “ The cold produced by mixing gil of vitriol, pro-
roduced perly diluted with fnow, is not f@ great as that produ-
triofand^ ced by fphit of nitre, though it does not differ from
Ihow. • by fo much as 8:; for a freezing rhixture, prepared
with diluted oil of vitriol, whofe fpecific gravity, at
6o°ofheat, was 1,5642, funk in the thermometer G to
•—370, the experiment being tried at the fame time, and
with the fame precautions, as the foregoing. It was
previoufly found, by adding fnow gradually to fome
of this acid, as was done by the nitrous acid, that it
was a little, but not much ilronger, than it ought to
be, in order to produce the greatefl effedt.”
Vol.V. Parti.
The" experiment made by Mr Walker, in-which he Congela-
congealed quickiilver by means of fpirit of nitre and, t“)n' .
Glauber’s fait, without any fnow, concludes the hiflo- ' v
ry of the artificial congelation of mercury. See the
article Cold. It now remains that we fay fomething-
of the congelation of it by the natural cold of the at-
mofphere. ig
Dr Blagden, from whofe paper in the Philofophical Congela-
Tranfadlipns, vol. Ixxiii. this account is taken, obferves, j^|[ver
that it was not till near the year 1730 that thermo-
meters were made with any degree of accuracy; and in cold,
four or five years after this, the firlt obfervations were
made which prove the freezing of quickfilver. On
the acceffion of the Emprefs, Anne Ivanouna to the
throne of Ruffia, three profeflbrs of the Imperial
academy were chofen to explore and deferibe the dif¬
ferent parts of her Afiatic dominions, and to inquire
into the communication betwixt Afia and America.
Thefe were Dr John George Gmelin, in the depart¬
ment of natural hiflory and chemiflry ; M. Gerard
Frederic Muller, as general hifloriographer; and M.
Louis de ITfle de la Croyere, for the department of
aflronomy; draughtfmen and other proper alllflants
being appointed to attend them. They departed from
Peterfburgh in 1733 ; and fuch as furvived did not re¬
turn till ten years after. The thermometrical obferva¬
tions were communicated by ProfefTor Gmelin, who
firft publifhed them in his Flora Sibirica, and after-
wards more fully in the Journal of his Travels. - An ab-
ftradt of them was likewife inferted in the Peterfburg
Commentaries for the years 1756 and 1765, taken,
after the profeffor’s death, from his original difpatches
in poffefiion of the imperial academy.
In the winter of 1734 and 1735, Mr Gmelin being
at Yenefeifk in 584-0 N. Lat. and 920 E. Long, from
Greenwich; firft. obferved fuch a defeent of the mercu¬
ry, as we know muft have been attended with conge- 'jj
lation. “ Here (fays he) we firft experienced theExc’eflive
truth of what various travellers have related with re-coi(* si*
fpedt to the extreme cold of Siberia ; for, about the bciia*
middle of December, fuch fevere weather fet in, as we
were fure had never been known in our time at Pe-
terlburg. The air feemed as if it were frozen, with
the appearance of a fog, which did not fuffer the
fmoke to afeend as it iflued from the chimnies. Birds
fell down out of the air as dead, and froze immediately,
unlefs they were brought into a warm room. Whenever
the door was opened, a fog fuddenly formed round it.
During, the day, ftiort as it was, parhelia and haloes
round the fun were frequently feen ; and in the night
mock moons, and haloes about the moon. Finally,
our thermometer, not fubjedt to the fame deception
as the fenfes, left us no doubt of the exceffive cold;
for the quickfilver in it was reduced, on the 5th of
January O. S. to—120° of Fahrenheit’s fcale, low¬
er than it had ever hitherto been obferved in na-
tute.”
The next inftance of congelation happened at Ya-
kutfk, in N. Lat. 62. and E. Long. 130. The wea¬
ther here was unufually mild for the climate, yet the
R r ther-
( a) This was a fmall mercurial thermometer, made by Nairne and Blount, on an ivory fcale, divided at
every five degrees, and reaching from 2150 above to 250° below the cypher.
Jb) This is to be undetftood of a fpirit thermometer, whofe —■ 290 = 40® of Fahrenheit’s mercurial.
CON [ 314 1 C O N
Connela- thermometer fell to 72 ; and one perfon informed
t:on' the profeffor by a note, that the mercury in his baro-
* meter was frozen. He haftened immediately' to his
houfe to behold fuch a furprifing phenomenon ; but
though he was witnefs to the fa61, the prejudice he en¬
tertained againft the poffibility of the congelation,
would not allow him to believe it. “ Not feeling,
(fays he), by the way, the fame effefts of cold as I
had experienced at other times in lefs diitances, I be¬
gan, before my arrival, to entertain fufpicions about
the congelation of his quickfilver. In fa£t, I faw that
it did not continue in one column, but was divided in
different places as into little cylinders, which appear¬
ed frozen ; and, in fome of thefe divilions between the
quickfilver, I perceivedliketheappearanceoffrozenmoi-
fture. It immediately occurred to me, that the mercury
might havebeen cleaned with vinegar and fait, and not
fufficiently dried. The perfon acknowledged it had been
purified in that manner. This fame quickfilver, taken
out of the barometer, and well dried, would not freeze
again, though expofed to a much greater degree of
cold, as fhown by the thermometer.”
Another fet of obfervations, in the courfe of which
the mercury frequently congealed, were made by Pro-
feffor Gmelin at Kirenga fort, in 57-I- N. Lat. 108.
E. Long.; his thermometer, at different times. Handing
at — 108°, — 86°, — I oo°, — 113°, and many other in¬
termediate degrees. This happened in the winter of
1737 and 1738. On the 27th of November, after the
thermometer had been Handing for two days at —46°,
he found it funk at noon to 108°. Sufpe&ing fome
miHake, after he had noted down the obfervation, he
inHantly ran back, and found it at 102° ; but amend¬
ing with fueh rapidity, that in the fpace of half an
hour it had rifen to —190. This phenomenon, which
appeared fo furprifing, undoubtedly depended on the
expanfion of the mercury frozen in the bulb of the
thermometer, and which now melting, forced up¬
wards the fmall thread in the Hem.
A fimilar appearance was obferved at the fame fort
a few days after ; and on the 29th of December, O. S.
he found the mercury, which had been Handing at
40° in the morning, funk to —ioo° at four in the
afternoon. At this time, he fays, he “ faw fome air
in,the thermometer feparating the quickfilver for the
fpace of about fix degrees.” He had taken notice of
a fimilar appearance the preceding evening, excepting
that the air, as he fuppofed it to be, was not then col-
le&ed into one place, but lay fcattered in feveral.
Thefe appearances undoubtedly proceeded from a
congelation of the mercury, though the prejudice en¬
tertained againH the pofiibility of this phenomenon
would not allow the profeffor even to inquire into it at
all. Several other obfervations were made ; fome of
which were loll, and the reff contain no farther in¬
formation.
T^he fecond inffance where a natural congelation of
mercury has certainly been obferved, is recorded in the
tranfaftions of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Stockholm. The weather, in January 1760, was re¬
markably cold in Lapland ; fo that, on the 5th of that
month, the thermometers fell to —76°, —128°, or
lower; on the 23d and following days they fell to
■—580,,—790»—92°> and below—238° entirely into
the ball. This was obferved at Tornea, Sombio, Ja-
kafierf, and Utfioki, four places in Lapland, fixated Congela-
between the 65th and 78th degrees of N. Lat. and the tIO“^
2 iff and 28th of E. Long. The perfon who obfer- '
ved them was M. Andrew Hellant, who makes the
following remarks, of themfelves fufficient to ffiow
that the quickfilver was frozen. “ During the cold
weather at Sombio (fays he), as it was clear fun-fiiine,
though fcarcely the whole body of the fun appeared
above the low woods that covered our horizon, I took
a thermometer which was hanging before in the fhade,
and expofed it to the rifing fun about eleven in the
forenoon, to fee whether, when that luminary was fo
low, it would have any effedt upon the inffrument.
But to my great furprife, upon looking at it about
noon, I found that the mercury had entirely fubfided
into the ball, though it was Handing as high as — 6i°
at 11 o’clock, and thefcale reached down to 2383 below
o.” On bringing the inffrument near a fire, it prefently
rofe to its ufual height ; and the reafon of its fubfiding
before was its being fomewhat warmed by the rays of
the fun ; which, feeble as they were, had yet fufficient
power to melt the fmall thread of congealed mercury
in the Hem of the thermometer, and allow it to fubfide
along with the reff. Mr Hellant, however, fo little
underffood the reafon of this phenomenon, that~herfre-
quently attempted to repeat it by bringing the ther¬
mometer near a fire, when the cold was only a few de¬
grees below the freezing point of water, but could ne¬
ver fucceed until it fell to —58°, or lower, that is,
until the cold was fufficiently intenfe to congeal the
metal. The only feeming difficulty in his whole account,
is, that when the mercury had fubfided entirely into
the ball of the thermometer, a vacuum or empty fpot
appeared, which run round the cavity like an air
bubble, on turning the inffrument; but this proceed¬
ed from a partial liquefaftion of the mercury, which
muff neceffarily melt firff on the outfide, and thus ex¬
hibit the appearance juff mentioned. xg
The molt remarkable congelation of mercury, which Remark-
has ever yet been obferved, was that related by Dr ?-Me experi*
Peter Simon Pallas, who had been fent by the Emprefs ^ Pallas
of Ruffia, with fome other gentlemen, on an expedition
fimilar to that of Dr Gmelin. He did not, however,
fpend the winters in which he was in Siberia in the
coldeff parts of that country; that is about the middle
of the northern part. Twice indeed he refided at 1
Krafnoyarfk, in N. Lat. 56J0, E, Long. 930; where,
in the year 1772, he had an opportunity of obferving
the phenomenon we fpeak of. “ The winter (fays,
he) fet in early this year, and was felt with uncommon
feverity in December. On the 6th anchyth of that
month happened the greateff cold I ha.ve ever experien¬
ced in Siberia; the air was calm at the time, and
feemingly thickened,;, fo that, though the iky was in
other refpedts clear, the fun appeared as through a
fog. I had only one fmall thermometer left, in which
the fcale went no lower than—70; and on the 6th in
the morning, I remarked that the quickfilver in it
funk into the ball,, except fome fmall columns which
ffuck faff in the tube.-—When the ball of the thermo¬
meter, as it hung in the open air, was warmed, by
being touched with the finger, the quickfilver rofe
and it could plainly be feen, that the folid column*
ffuck and refifled a good while, and were at length,
puihed upward with a fort of violence. In the me am
time
CON [ 3
Ceneela- time I placed upon the gallery, on the north fide of
tinn my houfe, about a quarter of a pound of clean and dry
——y ' quickfilver in an open bowl. Within an hour I found
the edges and furface of it frozen folid, and fome mi¬
nutes afterwards the whole was condenfed by the natural
cold into a foft mafs very much like tin. While the
inner part was ftill fluid, the frozen furface exhibited
a great variety of branched wrinkles ; but in general it
remained pretty fmooth in freezing, as did alfo a lar¬
ger quantity which I afterwards expofed to the cold.
The congealed mercury was more flexible than lead;
but on being bent (hort, it was found more brittle than
tin ; and when hammered out thin, it feemed fomewhat
granulated. If the hammer had not been perfectly
cooled, the quickfilver melted away under it in drops;
and the fame thing happened when the metal was
touched with the finger, by which alfo the finger was
immediately benumbed. In our warm room it thawed
on its furface gradually, by drops, like wax on the
fire, and did not melt all at once. When the fro¬
zen mafs was broken to pieces in the cold, the frag¬
ments adhered to each other and to the bowl on which
they lay. Although the froft. feemed to abate a little
towards night, yet the congealed quickfilver remained
unaltered, and the experiment with the thermometer
could Hill be repeated. On the 7th of December, I
had an opportunity of making the fame obfervations
all day ; but fome hours after funfet, a northweft wind
fprung up, which raifed the thermometer to—46°,
19 when the mafs of quickfilver began to melt.
Von Elter- In the beginning of the year 1780 M. Von Elterlein,
kin’s expe- ofVytegra, a town of Ruffia, in Lat. 6i°. E. Long. 36.
perimeut. froze quickfilver by natural cold; of which he gives
the following account. “ On the 4th of January
I780, the cold having increafed to —340 that evening
at Vytegra, I expofed to the open air three ounces of
very pure quickfilver in a china tea-cup, covered with
paper, pierced full of holes. Next day, at eight in
the morning, I found it lolid, and looking like a piece
of call lead, with a confiderable deprefiion in the middle.
On attemjfting to loofen it in the cup, my knife raifed
fhavings from it as if it had been lead, which remained
flicking up; and at length the metalfeparated from the
bottom of the cup in one mafs. I then took it in my
hand to try if it would bend : it was' ftiff like glue,
and broke into two pieces ; but my fingers immediate¬
ly loft all feeling, and could fcarcely be reftored in an
hour and an half by rubbing with fnow. At eight
o’clock a thermometer, made by Mr Lexmann of the
Academy, flood at—57°; by half after nine it was
rifen to—40'; and then the two pieces of mercury
which lay in the cup had loft fo much of their hard
nefs, that they could no longer be broken, or cut into
fhavings, but refembled a thick amalgam, which,
though it became fluid when prefled by the fingers,
immediately afterwards refumed the confiftence pf pap.
With the thermometer at—390, the quickfilver be¬
came fluid. The cold was never lefs on the 5th than
—28°, and by nine in the evening it had increafed
again to—33°.
An inflance of the natural congelation of quickfilver
alfo occurred in Jemtland, one of the provinces of
Sweden, on the ill of January 1782 ; andlaftly, on
the 26th of the fame month, Mr Hutchins obferved
the fame effect of the cold at Hudfon’s bay'. “ The
15 ] CON
fubjeft of this curious phenomenon (fays he), was Congela.
quickiilver put into a common two-ounce vial, and, 2°"’
corked. The vial was about a third part full, and had v
conftantly been Handing by the thermometer for aExpgr°.
month paft. At eight o’clock this morning I ob-went of Mr
ferved it was frozen father more than a quarter of an Hutchins,
inch thick round the fides and bottom of the vial, the
middle part continuing fluid. As this was a certain
method of finding the point of congelation, I intro¬
duced a mercurial and a fpirit thermometer into the
fluid part, after breaking off the top of the via], and
they rofe direftly and became ftationary ; the former at
40° or 4O0-J, the latter at 29^, both below the cypher.
Having taken thefe out, I put in two others, G a
mercurial one formerly defcribed, and a fpirit thermo,
meter ; the former of which became ftationary at 40°
and the latter at 30°. I then decanted the fluid quick¬
filver, to examine the internal furface of the frozen,
metal, which proved very uneven, with many radii
going acrofs; fome of which refembled pin-heads.
Urgent bufinefs called me away an hour. On my re¬
turn I found a fmall portion only had liquefied in my
abfence. I then broke the vial entirely,, and with a
hammer repeatedly ftruck the quickfilver. It beat out
flat, yielded a deadifh found, and became fluid in lefs
than a minute afterwards.—It may be worth remark¬
ing, that the quickfilver in one of the thermometers,
which had funk to very near 500, and was then at
444, very readily run up and down the tube by eleva¬
ting either end of the inftrument.”
Thefe are all the well authenticated accounts of the
congelation of mercury by the natural cold of the at-
mofphere. Some others have been publifhed; but being
either lefs important, or not fo well authenticated, we
forbear to mention them. A very confiderable con¬
firmation is obtained from the above hiftory, of the
theory of congelation delivered by Dr Black, and
which is fully explained under the article Chemistry.
On Mr Hutchins’s experiments, and on congelation
in general, Mr Cavendifh makes many valuable re¬
marks ; the fubftance of which is as follows. t)t
“ If a veffel of water, with a thermometer in it, be Mr Caven-
expofed to the cold, the thermometer will fink feveraldilh’s re-
degrees below the freezing point, efpecially if the wa-marks,0i*
ter be covered up fo as to be defended from the wind, tbm1
and care taken not to agitate it; and then on drop¬
ping in a bit of ice, or on mere agitation, fpicuke of
ice (hoot ftiddenly through the water, and the inclo-
fed thermometer rifes quickly to the freezing point,
where it remains ftationary.” In a note he fays, that
though in conformity to the common opinion he has
allowed that “ mere agitation may fet the water a
freezing, yet fome experiments lately made bv Dr
•Blagden feem to fliow, that it has not much, if any,
effedl of that kind, otherwife than by bringing the
water in contaft with fome fubftance colder than it-
felf. Though in general alfo the ice flioots rapidly,
and the inclofed thermometer rifes very quick; yet
he once obferved it to rife very flowly, taking up not
lefs than half a minute, before it afeend^d to the
freezing point; but in this experiment the water was
cooled not more than one or two degrees below free¬
zing ; and it fhould feem, that the more the water is
cooled below the freezing point, the more rapidly the
ice flioots and the inclofed thermometer rifes.”
R r 2
Mr
Congela-
sa
On metals
when be¬
ginning to
turn folid.
CON [ 316 ] . CON
Mr Cavendilh then obferves, “ that from the fore¬
going experiments we learn that water is capable of be¬
ing cooled confiderably below the freezing point, with¬
out any congelation taking place; and that, as foon
as by any means a fmall part of it is made to freeze,
the ice fpreads rapidly through the whole of the wa¬
ter. The caufe of this rife of the thermometer is,
that all, or almoil all bodies, by changing from a fluid
to a folid ftate, or from the ftate of an elallic to that
of an unelaftic fluid, generate heat; and that cold is
produced by the contrary procefs. Thus all the cir-
ciimflances of the phenomenon may be perfectly well
explained ; for, as foon as any part of the water free¬
zes, heat will be generated thereby in confequence of
the above-mentioned law, fo that the new formed ice
and remaining water will be warmed, and mult con¬
tinue to receive heat by the freezing of frefh portion^
of water, till it is heated exaftly to the freezing point,
unlefs the water could become quite folid before a fuf-
ficient quantity of heat was generated to raife it to
that point, which is not the cafe: and it is evident,
that it cannot be heated above the freezing point; for
as foon as it comes thereto, no more water will freeze,
and confcquently no more heat will be generated.—
The reafon why the ice fpreads all over the water, in-
ftead of forming a folid lump in one part, is, that, as
foon as any fmall portion of ice is formed, the \Vater
in contact with it will be fo much warmed as to’ be
prevented from freezing, but the water at a little dif-
tance from it will ftill be below the freezing point,
and will confequently begin to freeze.
“ Were it not for this generation of heat, the whole
of any quantity of water would freeze as foon as the
procefs of congelation began ; and in like manner the
cold is generated by the, melting of ice ; which is the
caufe of the long time required to thaw ice and fnow.
It was formerly found that, by adding fnow to warm
water, and ftirring it about until all was melted, the
water was as much cooled as it would have been by
the addition of the fame quantity of water rather more
than 150° degrees colder than the fnow; or, in other
words, fomewhat more than 150'5 of cold are genera¬
ted by the thawing of the fnow; and there is great
reafon to believe that juft as much heat is produced
by the freezing of water. The cold generated in the
experiment juft mentioned was the fame whether ice or
fnow was ufed.
** A thermometer kept in melted tin or lead till
they become folid, remains perfe&ly ftationary from
the time the metal begins to harden round the fides of
the pot till it is entirely folid ; but it cannot be per¬
ceived at all to link below that point, and rife up to
it when the metal begins to harden. It is not unlike¬
ly, however, that the great difference of heat between
the air and melted metal might prevent this effe& from
taking place ; fo that though it was (not perceived in
thefe experiments, it is not unlikely that thofe metak,
as well as water and quickfilver, may bear being cool¬
ed a little below the freezing or hardening point (for Congel;#
the hardening of melted metals, and freezing of water, tion'
feems exaftly the fame procefs), without beginning to
lofe their fluidity.”
“ The experiments of Mr Hutchins prove, that
quickfilver contra&s or diminifhes in bulk by freezing;
and that the very low degrees to which the thermo¬
meters have been made to fink, is owing to this con¬
traction, and not to the cold having been in any de¬
gree equal to that fhown by the thermometer. In the
fourth experiment, one of the thermometers funk to
450% though it appeared, by the fpirit thermome¬
ters that the cold pf the mixture was not more than
five or fix degrees below the point of freezing quick¬
filver. In the firft experiment alfo, it funk'to 448,
at a time when the cold of the mixture was only 24-° be¬
low that point; fo that it appears, that the contrac¬
tion of quickfilver by freezing, muft be at leaft equal
to its expanfion by 404 degrees of heat, (a) This,
however, is not the whole contraction that it fuffers ;
for it appears by an extraft from a meteorological
journal kept by Mr Hutchins at Albany fort, that
his thermometer once funk to 490° below o ; though
it was known by a fpirit thermometer, that the cold
fcarcely exceeded the point of freezing quickfilver.
There are two experiments alfo of Profeffor Braun,
in which the thermometer funk to 544 and 556° be¬
low nothing-; which is the greateft defeent he ever
obferved without the ball being cracked. It is not
indeed known how cold his mixtures were; but from
Mr Hutchins’s experiments, there is great reafon to
think they could not be many degrees below 40°. If
fo, the contraction which quickiilver fuffers in free¬
zing, is not much lefs than its expanfion by 500°
or 510° of heat, that is, almoft of its whole bulk ;
and in all probability is never much more than that,
though it is probable that this contraction js not al¬
ways determinate: for a confiderable variation may
frequently be obferved in the fpecific gravity of the
fame piece of metal caft different times over; and al¬
moft all caft metals become heavier by hammering.
Mr Cavendifh obferved, that on cafting the fame Variation
piece of tin three times over, its denfity varied from of the den-
7.252 to 7.294, though there was great reafon to r,tV mc-
think that no hallows were left in it, and that only luen/eaft*
a fmall part of this difference could proceed from the ing.
error of the experiment. This variation of denfity is
as much as is produced in quicklilver by an alteration,
of 66° of heat; and it is not unlikely, that the de-
feent of a thermometer, on account of the contraction;
of the qurckfilver in its ball by freezing, may vary as
much in different trials, though the whole mafs of
quickfilver is fiozen without any vacuities.
“ The cold produced by mixing fpirit of nitre of freezing
with fnow is entirely owing to the melting of the mixtures,
fnow. Now, in all probability, there is a certain de¬
gree of cold in which the fpirit of nitre, fo far from
diffolving fnow, will yield part of its own water, and
fuf-
(a) “The numbers here given are thofe fhown by the thermometer without any correction!; but if a proper
allowance is made for the error of that inftrument, it will appear, that the true contraction was 250 lefs than;
here fet down ; and from the manner in which thermometers have been ufually adjufted, it is likely that in the
5th experiment of Mr Hutchins, as well as in thofe of Profeffor Braun, the tr ue contraction fnight. equally fall1
flrort of that by obfervation.”
CON [31
Cengela- fufPer that to freeze, as is the cafe with folutions of
t'011- common fait ; fo that if the cold of the materials be-
fore mixing is equal to this, no additional cold can be
produced. If the cold of the materials is lefs, fome
increafe of cold will be produced; but the total cold
will be lefs than jn the former cafe, fince the addition¬
al cold cannot be generated without fome of the fnow
being diffolved, and thereby weakening the acid, and
making it lefs able to diffolve more fnow ; but yet the
lefs the cold of the materials is, the greater will be
the additional cold produced. This is conformable to
Mr Hutchins’s experiments; for, in the fifth experi¬
ment, in which the cold of the materials was —40°,
the additional cold produced was only 5®, In the firft
experiment, in which the cold of the materials was
only —23°, an addition of at leaft 190 of cold was
obtained; and by mixing fome of the fame fpirit of
nitre with fnow in this climate, when the heat of the
materials was +26°, Mr Cavendilh was able to fink
the thermometer to —2g°, fo that an addition of 55
degrees of cold was produced.
“ It is remarkable, that in none of Mr Hutchins’s
experiments the cold of the mixture was more than 6°
of the fpirit thermometer below the freezing point'of
quickfilver, which is fo little, that it might incline
one to think that the fpirit of nitrq ufed by him was
weak. This, however, was not the cafe; a-s its fpe-
cific gravity at 58° of heat was 1,4923. It was able
to diflblve --— its weight of marble, and contained
M2
very little mixture of the vitriolic or marine acid : as
well as could be judged from an examination of it, it
was as little phlogitlicated as acid of that flrength
15 ufually is.”
Congela- Acids, efpecially thofe of the mineral kind, power-
of'vitfiol fully rehft congelation. There is, however, a peculi¬
arity with regard to that of vitriol. Mr Chaptal, a
foreign chemift, obferved that it condenfed by the
cold of the atmofphere, and the cryflals began to melt
only at +70° °f his thermometer; which, if Reau¬
mur’s, correfponds to about 470 of Fahrenheit. The
cryttals were unftuous from the melting acid, and they
felt warmer than the neighbouring bodies : the form
was that of a prifm of fix fides, flatted and terminated
by a pyramid of fix fides; but the pyramid appeared
on one end only ; on the other, the cryftal was loft in
the general mafs. The pyramid refulted from an af-
femblage of fix ifofceles triangles : the oil when the
cryftal was melted was of a yellowifh black ; on redi-
ftilling it in a proper apparatus, no peculiar gas came
over. M. Chaptal repeated his experimems with the
highly concentrated acid, but found that it did not
freeze ; that the denfity of the acid which he thought
froze moft eafily was to the oil, of the ufual ftrength
for fale, as from 63 and 65 to 66 ; and the neceffary
degree of cold about 19 of Fahrenheit. Oil of vi¬
triol once melted will not cryftallize again with the
fame degree of cold.
M. More, a confiderable manufafturer of oil of vi¬
triol at Hadimont near Vervier, in the duchy of JL.im-
bourg in Germany, attributes- this congelation to the
addition of nitrous air. The acid of vitriol is ufually
feparated from fulphur by burning it in clofe veflels;
and the air is fupplied by adding to the fulphur a
little nitre. He found, tlwt by mixing the acid, ca-
17 ] CON
pable of being congealed, with water, or employing Congela-
it for other purpofes, orange-coloured fumes, and the tlon' ;
fmell of the true nitrous acid, were very. evident. ,
When this gas was deftroyed, no degree of cold would
congeal the acid, whatever was its degree of concen¬
tration ; and the congelation was generally obferved
immediately after the procefs by which the acid was
obtained.
Mr Macquer relates, in the fecond edition of his
Chemical Dictionary, article Vitriolic Acid, that the
Duke d’Ayen had obferved the congelation of con¬
centrated vitriolic acid, which had been expofed to a
cold expreffed by 13 or 14 degrees below o on Reau¬
mur’s thermometer; but that mixtures, confifting of
one part of the above mentioned concentrated acid,
with two or more parts of water, could not be frozen
-'by the cold to which he expofed them, till he had di¬
lated the acid fo much that its denftty was to that oF
water as 1044- to 96 ; in which latter cafe of congela¬
tion it is probable that the water only was frozen, as
is the cafe in dilute folutions of falls. Similar experi¬
ments were made by M. de Morveau, and with equal
fuccefs. Having produced an intenfe cold by pouring
fpirit of nitre on pounded ice, he congealed a part of
fome vitriolic acid which had been previoully concen¬
trated ; but he obferved, that though a very intenfe
cold had been made ufe of to congeal the acid at firft,
it neverthelefs remained congealed in much fmaller de¬
grees of cold, and that it thawed very flowly. This
coincides with the obfervations of M. Chaptal; though
the latter obferves, that there is fome difference be¬
tween ftrong oil of vitriol lowered with water, and
that produced of a given ftrength by rectification.
The latter always has fome colour; and it will not
diffolve indigo in fuch a manner as to carry the colour
into the ftuff, though the ftronger oil, diluted to the
fame degree, fucceeds very well. Some obfervations
were alfo made by Mr M'Nab at Hudfon’s Bay, an
account of which is given in the Phil. Tranf. for 1786
by Mr Cavendifh, at whofe defire they had been made.
From them it appears, that a vitriolic acid, whofe fpe-
cific gravity was to that of water as 1843 to '°oo,
froze when expofed to a cold of —150 of Fahrenheit’s
fcale ; that another more .dilute vitriolic acid, confift¬
ing of 629 parts of the former concentrated acid, and
351 parts of water, congealed in a temperature of
—36 ; and that, when farther dilated, it was capable
of fuftaining a much greater degree of cold without
freezing at all. In thefe experiments, as well as in
thofe of Mr Morveau, it appeared that the whole of
the acid did not congeal, but that part of it retained
its fluidity ; and on examining the ftrength of that
which remained fluid, Mr Cavendiih found that.there
was very little difference between it and the other ^
whence he was led to fuppofe, that the reafon of this
congelation does not arife from any difference ia
ftrength, but on fome lefs obvious quality, and fuch.
as conftitutes the difference between common and icy
oil of vitriol.
In all the experiments hitherto made, however, Mr
Cavendifti had found fome uncertainty in determining
the point of eafieft. freezing ; neither could he deter¬
mine whether the cold neceflary for congelation does
not increafe without any lirpitation in proportion to
the ftrength of the acid. A new fet of experiments
3 were
Ctmgela*
Mr Kier’s
experi¬
ments.
CON [3
were thereiore made by Mr Keir to determine this
point. He had obferved, after a fevere froft at the
end of the year 1784 and beginning of 1785, that
fome vitriolic acid, contained in a corked phial, had
congealed, while other bottles containing the fame,
fome ftronger and fome weaker, retained their fluidity.
As the congelation was naturally imputed to the ex¬
tremity of the cold, he was afterwards furprifed to
find, when the froft ceafed, that the acid remained
congealed for many days, when the temperature of the
atmofphere was fometimes above 40° of Fahrenheit;
and when the congealed acid was brought into a warm
room on purpofe to thawit,a thermometer placed incon-
taftwith itdunngitsthawing cont!nuedftationaryat45®.
Hence he concluded, that the freezing and thawing
point of this acid Was nearly at 450 ; and accordingly,
on expofing the liquor which had been thawed to the air
at the temperature of 30°, the congelation again took
place in a few hours. From the circumftance of other
parcels of the fame acid, but of different ftrengths,
remaining fluid, though they had been expofed to a
much greater degree of cold, he was led to believe
that thfere muft be fome certain ftrength at-which the
acid is more difpofed to congeal than at any other.
The fpecific gravity of the acid which had frozen was
to that of water nearly as 1800 to 1000, and that of
the ftronger acid which had not frozen was as 1846
to 1000, which is the common denfity of that ufually
fold in England ; and there was not the leaft differ*
ence, excepting in point of ftrength, between the acid
which had frozen and that which had not; Mr Keir
having taken the acid fome weeks before with his own
hands from the bottle which contained the latter, and
diluted it with water, till it became of the fpecific
gravity of 1800.
To render the experiment complete, Mr Keir im-
merfed feveral acids of different ftrengths in melting
fnow, inftead of expofing them to the air ; the tem¬
perature of which was variable, whereas that of melt¬
ing fnow was certain and invariable. Thofe which
would not freeze in melting fnow were afterwards im-
merfed in a mixture of common fait, fnovv, and wa¬
ter ; the temperature of which, though not fo con-
ftant and determinate as that of melting fnow, gene¬
rally remained for feveral hours at 18°, and was fome¬
times feveral degrees lower. The intention of adding
water to the fnow and fait was to leffen the intenfity
of the cold of this mixture, and to render it more
permanent than if the fnow and fait alone were mixed.
The acids which had frozen in melting fnow were five
in number ; which being thawed and brought to the
temperature of 6o°, were found on examination to
havStthe following fpecific gravities, viz. 1786, 1784,
1780, >778, 1775. Thofe which had not congealed
with the ftielting fnow, but which did fo with the mix*
lure of fnow, fait, and water, were found, when
brought to the temperature of- 6o°, to be of the fol¬
lowing fpecific gravities, viz. 1814, 1810, 1804, 1794,
1790, 1770, 1759, 1750. Thofe which remained,
and would freeze neither in melting fnow nor in the
mixtura of fnow, fait, and watef, were of the gra¬
vities 1845, 1839, 1815, 1745, l72°> 1700,1610,
1551. From the firft of thefe it appears, that the
medium denfity of the acids which froze with the na-
18 ] CON
tural cold was 1780 ; and from the fecond, that at the Conecla-
denfities of 1790 and 1770 the acid had been incapa-, tlon ,
ble of freezing with that degree of cold. Hence it v ”
follows, that 1780 is nearly the degree of ftrength of
eafieft freezing, and that an increafe or diminution of
that denfity equal to -rffth of the whole, renders the
acid incapable of freezing with the cold of melting
fnow, though this cold is fomething above the freezing
point of the moft congealable acid. From the fecond
it appears, that by applying a more intenfe cold, viz.
that produced by a mixture of fnow, fait, and water,
the lirnits of the denfities of acids capable of congela¬
tion were extended to about above or below the
point of eafieft freezing : and there feems little reafon
to doubt, that, by greater augmentations of cold,
thefe limits may be further extended ; but in what ra¬
tio thefe augmentations and extenfions proceed, can¬
not be determined without many obfervations made in
different temperatures.
“ But (fays Mr Keir) though it is*probable that
the moft concentrated acids may be frozen, provided
the cold be fufficieritly intenfe, yet there feems reafon
to believe, that fome of the congelations which have
been obferved in highly concentrated acids, have been
effc&ed in confequence of the denfity of thefe acid*
being reduced nearly to the point of eafy freezing by
their having abforbed moifture from the air : for the
Duke d’Ayen and M. de Morveau expofed their acids
to the air in cups or open veffels; and the latter even
acquaints us, that on examining the fpecific gravity
of the acid which had frozen, he Found it to that of
water as 129 to 74; which denfity being lefs than
that of eafieft freezing, proves that the acid he em¬
ployed, and which he had previoufly concentrated,
had been aftually weakened during the experiment.
I have feveral times expofed concentrated oil of vitriol
in open veffels in frofty weather; and I have fome¬
times, but not always, obferved a congelation to take
place. Upon feparating the congealed part, and on
examining the fpecific gravity of the latter after it
had thawed, I found that it had been reduced to the
point of eafieft freezing. When the congealed acid
was kept longer expofed it gradually thawed, even
when the cold of the airincreafed; the reafon of which
is not to be imputed to the heat produced by the
moifture of the air mixing with the acid, but princi¬
pally to the diminution below the point of eafieft free¬
zing, which was occafioned by the continued abforp-
tion of moifture from the air, and which rendered the
acid incapable of continuing frozen without a great in¬
creafe of cold.
“ It appears, then, that the concentration of M. de
Morveau’s acid, at the time of its congelation, from
which circumftance Mr Cavendilh infers generally that
the vitriolic acid freezes more eafily as it is more denfe,
is not a true premife ; and that therefore the inference,
though juftly deduced, is invalid. On the contrary,
there feems every reafon to believe, that as the denfity
of the acids increafes beyond the point of eafieft free¬
zing, the facility of the congelation diminiihes ; at
leaft to as great denfity as we have ever been able to
obtain the vitriolic acid : for if it were pofiible to di-
veft it entirely of water, it would probably affume a
folid form in any temperature of the air.
4
The
CON [3
“ The cryftallization of the vitriolic acid is more or
lefs diflinft, according to the flovftiefs of the forma-
” tion of the cryilals and other favourable circumftances.
Sometimes they are very large, diitinftly lhaped, and
hard. Their ftiape is like thofe of the common mi¬
neral alkali and felenite fpar, but with angles different
in dimenfions from either of thefe. They are folid,
confiding of ten faces; of which the two larged are
equal, parallel, and opp'ofite to each other; and are
oblique-angled parallelograms or rhomboids, whofe
angles are, as near as could be meafured, of 105 and
75 degrees. Between thefe two rhomboidal faces are
placed eight of the form of trapeziums; and thus each
crydal may be fuppofed to be compounded of two
equal and fimilar frudums of pyramids joined together
by their rhomboidal bafes. They always funk in the
fluid acid to the bottom of the veffel, .which fliowed
that their denlity was increafed by congelation. It
was attempted to determine their fpeciiic gravity by
adding to this fluid fame concentrated acid, which
Ihould make them float in the liquor, the examination
of whofe fpecific gravity fhould afcertain that of the
floating cryflals ; but they were found to fink even in
the mod concentrated acid, and were confequently
denfer. Some of the congealable acid previoufly brought
to the freezing temperature was then poured into a
graduated narrow cylindrical glafs, up to a certain
mark, which indicated a fpace equal to that occupied
by 200 grains of water. The glafs was placed in a
mixture of fnow, fait, and water ; and when the acid
was frozen, a mark was made on the part of the glafs
to which it had funk. Having thawed the acid and
emptied the glafs, it was filled with water to the mark
to which it had funk by freezing; and it was then found
that 15 grains more of water were required to raife it
to the mark expreffing 200 grains ; which fhows, that
the diminution of bulk fuflained by the acid in freezing
had been equal to —— of the whole. Computing from
I3-3
this datum, we fliould edimate the fpecific gravity of
the congealed acid to have been 1924; but as it evi¬
dently contained a great number of bubbles, its real
fpecific gravity mud have been confiderably greater
than the above calculation, and cannot eafily be deter¬
mined on account of thefe bubbles. By way of com-
parifon, Mr Keir obferved the alteration of bulk which
water contained in the fame cylindrical vefiel would
fuffer by freezing; and found that its expanfion was
equal to about Toth of its bulk. The water had been
previoufly boiled, but neverthelefs contained a great
number of air bubbles ; fo that in this- refpeft there is
a confiderable difference between the congelations of
water and the vitriolic acid ; though perhaps it may
arife principally from the bubbles of eladic fluid
being in greater proportion in the one than the
other.
“ Greater cold is. produced by mixing fnow or
pounded ice with the congealed than with the fluid
vitriolic acid, though the quantity is not yet deter¬
mined. The greated cold produced by Mr M‘Nab at
Hudfon’s Bay, was effected by mixing fnow with a
vitriolic acid which had been previoufly congealed ;
and to this circumdance Mr Cavendifli imputes the in-
tenfity of the cold, as the liquefaction both of the
acid and the fnow had concurred in producing the
19 ] CON
fame effect ; while in mixing fluid acids with fnow, Conjrela-
the thawing of the fnow is probably the only produc- , tl0n' ,
tive caufe. ^
“ To compare the times requifite for the liquefac¬
tion of ice and of congealed oil of vitriol, two equal
and fimilar glaffeswere filled, one with the congealable
vitriolic acid, the other with water; aud after having
immerfed them in a freezing mixture till both were
congealed and reduced to the temperature of 28°, the
glaffes were withdrawn, wiped dry, and placed in a
room where the thermometer flood at 62°. The ice
thawed in 40 minutes, and the acid in 95 ; at the
end of which time the thermometer, which flood near
the glaffes, had rifen to 64°. Hence it appears that
the congealed acid requires more than twice the time
for its liquefadlion that ice does, though it cannot
thence be fairly inferred, that the cold generated by
the liquefaction of the ice and of congealed acid are irt
the above proportions of the times, from the following
confiderations, viz., that as, during the liquefaction of
the ice,.its temperature remains dationary at 321*, and
during the liquefaction of the acid, its temperature re¬
mains about 44 or 450, it appears, that the ice being
confiderably colder than the acid, will take the heat
from the contiguous air much fader. By this expe¬
riment, however, we know that a confiderable quantity
of cold is generated by the liquefadtion of the acid ;
and hence it appears probable, that in producing cold
artificially, by mixing fnow with acids in very cold
temperatures, it would probably be ufeful to employ a
vitriolic acid of the proper denfity for congelation, and
to freeze it previoufly to its mixture with fnow. It
mud not, however, be imagined, that the cold gene¬
rated by the mixture of thele two frozen fubdances 13
nearly equal to the fums of the. colds generated by the
fcparate 'liquefa&ions of the congealed acid and ice,
when fingly expofed to a thawing temperature; for
the mixture refulting from the liquefaClion, confiding
of the vitriolic acid and the water of the fnow, appears
from the generation of heat which occurs from the
mixture of thefe ingredients in a fluid date, to be fub-
ject to different laws than thofe which rule either of
the ingredients fepaiately.
“ The vitriolic acid, like water and other fluids, is
capable of retaining its fluidity when cooled confider¬
ably below its freezing point. A phial containing
fome congealable vitriolic acid being placed in a mix¬
ture of fait, fnow, and water, a thermometer -was foon
afterwards immerfed in it while the acid was yet fluid,
on which it quickly funk from 50 to 290. On moving
the thermometer in the fluid, to make it acquire the
exaft temperature, the mercury was obferved fuddenly
to rife ; and on looking at the acid, numberlefs fmali
crydals were obferved floating in it, which had been
fuddenly formed. The degree to which the mercury-
then rofe was 464°; and at another time, while the
acid was freezing, it flood at 450.”
From thefe experiments our author infers, “ 1. That
the vitriolic acid has a' point of eafied freezing, and
that this is when its fpecific gravity is to that of water
as 1780 to 1000. z. That the greater or lefs difpo-
fition to congelation does not depend on any other
ciicumdance than the flrength of the acid. 3. That
the freezing and thawing degree of the mod congeal-
abie acid is about 45° of Fahrenheit’s fcale-. It is,
however^
CON [ 320 ] CON
Congela- however, to be obferved, that this degree is inferred
tI°.n from the temperature indicated by the thermometers
Cengeries. immerfed in the freezing and thawing acids; but the
u—v   congelation of the fluid acid could never be accom-
plifhed without expofing it to a greater degree of cold,
either by expofmg it to the air in frofty weather or to
the cold of melting fnow. 4. Like water, this acid
poffeffes the property of retaining its fluidity when
cooled feveral degrees below the freezing point; and
of rifing fuddenly to it when its congelation is pro¬
moted by agitation, or by contact even with a warmer
thermometer. 5. That, like water and other congela-
ble fluids, the vitriolic acid generates cold by its lique-
faftion, and heat during its congelation, though the
quantity of this heat and cold remains to be deter¬
mined by future experiments. 6. That the acid, by
congelation, when the circumflances for- diftinft cry-
ftallization are favourable, affumes a regular cryftalline
form, a confiderable folidity and hardnefs, and a den-
fity much greater than it pofTeffed in its fluid date.”
Befides this fpecies of congelation, the vitriolic acid
is fubjedt to another, probably the fame defcribed by
Bafd Valentine and fome of the older chemifts. This
is effected in the.ordinary temperature of the air, even
Phil. 7*ran/, in fummer ; and, according to Mr Keir*, is peculiar
vol. Ixxvii. to that fpecies of oil of vitriol which is diftiiled from
p. *67. green vitriol, and which is pofiefled of a fmoking qua¬
lity in a high degree ; “ for not only the authors
(fays Mr Keir), by whom this congelation has been
obferved, have given this defeription of the acid em¬
ployed, but alfo the late experiments of Mr Dollfufs,
feem to fhow that this fmoking quality is efiential to
the phenomenon : for neither the acid obtained from
Vitriol, when deprived by reftification of its fmoking
quality, nor the Englifh oil of vitriol, which is known
to be obtained by burning fulphur, and which does
not fmoke, were found by his trials to be fufceptible of
this fpecies of congelation. It may, however, be
worth the attention of thofe chemifts who have an op¬
portunity of feeing this icy oil of vitrioly as' it is called,
to obferve more accurately than has yet been done, the
freezing temperature and the denfity of the congealable
acids; and to examine whether the denfity of this
fmoking acid alfo is connected with the glacial pro¬
perty. It feems alfo further deferving of inveftiga-
tion, whether there be not fome analogy between the
congelation of the fmoking oil of vitriol and the very
curious cryftallization which Dr Prieilley obferved in
a concentrated vitriolic acid faturated with nitrous
acid vapours 5 and whether this fmoking quality does
not proceed from fome marine or other volatile acid,
which may be contained in the martial vitriol whence
the vitriolic acid is obtained.’'
Mr Keir alfo obferves, that M. Cornatter has ef-
fefted the cryftalliz-tion of vitriolic acid, by diftilling
it with, nitrous acid and charcoal; and we can add
from our own experience, that a cryftallization in-
ftantly takes place on allowing the fumes of the ni¬
trous and vitriolic acids to mix together ; and this,
whether the former be procured from martial vitriol or
fulphur, and whether it be in a phlogifticated ftate or
not, concentration in both acids is here the only re-
quifite.
CONGER, in zoology. See Murtena.
CONGERIES, a Latin word, fometimes ufed in
N° 88.
our language for a collection or heap of feveral par-Congeftf »
tides or bodies united into one mafs or aggregate. _ I1
CONGESTION, in medicine, a mafs or colle&ion 0"g°' .
of humours, crowded together and hardened in any
part of the body, and there forming a preternatural
tumor.
Congeftion is effe&ed by little and little : in which
it differs from defluBinn, which is more fudden.
CONGIARIUM, Congiary, among medalifts, a
gift or donative reprefented on a medal. The word
comes from the Latin congius ; becaufe the firft pre-
fents made to the people of Rome confffted in wine
and oil, which were meafured out to them in congii.
The cong iary was properly a prefent made by the em¬
perors to the people of Rome. Thofe made to the
foldiers were not called congiaries but donatives. The
legend on medals reprefenting congiaries, is, Congiarium
or Liberalitas. Tiberius gave a congiary of three hun¬
dred pieces of money to each citizen : Caligula twice
gave three hundred feftercesa head: Nero, whofe con¬
giaries are the lirft that we find reprefented on medals,
gave four hundred.
CONGIUS, a liquid meafure of the ancient Ro¬
mans, containing the eighth part of the amphora, or
the fourth of the urna, or fix fextarii. The congius
in Englifti meafure contains 2,070,676 folid inches;
that is, feven pints, 4,942 folid inches.
CONGLOBATE gland. See Anatomy.
CONGLOMERATE gland. Ibid.
Conglomerate Flowers, are thofe growing on a
branching foot-ttalk, to which they are irregularly
but clofely connefted. This mode of inflorefcence,
as Linnaeus terms it, is oppofed to that in which the
flowers are irregularly and loofely fupported on their
foot-ftalks, hence termed a diffufe panicle *. The * See Pa-
term is exemplified in feveral of the graffes, particu- nule‘
larly in fome fpecies of the psa, fefeue grafs, and a-
groftis.
CONGLUTINATION, the gluing or faftening
any two-bodies together by the intromilfion of a third,
whofe parts are unctuous and tenacious, in the nature
of glue. See Glue.
CONGO, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
north by the river Zair, or Zarah, which divides it
from Loanga; on the fouth by the river Danda, which
feparates it from Angola; on the eaft by the king¬
doms of Fungono and Metamba, and the burnt moun¬
tains of the fun, thofe of chryftal or falt-petre and fil-
ver, or (according to Anthony Cavazzi, a late travel- 1
ler into thofe parts) by the mountain's of Coanza, Ber- Extent,
bela, and the great mountain of Chilandia or Aqui-
londa; and on the weft by that part of the Atlantic
ocean called the Ethiopic fea, or the fea of Congo. Ac¬
cording to thefe limits, Congo Proper extends about
three degrees from north to fouth; lying between 63
and 90 S. Lat. ; but widens in its breadth inland,
by the courfe of the river Zair, which runs winding-
above two degrees more to the north. Its length
from eaft to weft is very uncertain, as no obfervatiohs
have been taken of the exadl fituation of thofe moun¬
tains which bound it. a
The hiftory of this kingdom affords but few inte- Hiftory un-
refting particulars. Before its difeovery by the Por-«rtwnand
tuguefe, the hiftory is altogether uncertain and fabu¬
lous, as the inhabitants were totally unacquainted with
letters
CON [32
Congo, letters and learning. So little were they acquainted
— with chronology, that it is faid they did not even di-
ftinguifh between day and night; much lefs could they
compute their time by moons or years ; and therefore
could remember paft tranfaftions only by faying they
happened in fuch a king’s reign.
The coun- The country was difeovered by the Portuguefe in
’trydifeover-1484. The difeoverer was named Diego Cam, an
•ed by the expert and bold failor. He was very well received
J’omguefe. ^ ^ natjveSj ancl fent fome of his men with pre-
fents to the king ; but they being detained by unex-
pe&ed accidents beyond the promifed time of their
return. Cam was obliged to fail away without them,
and took with him four young Congoefe, as hoftages
for the fafety of his countrymen. Thefe he taught
the Portuguefe language, in which they made fuch
progrefs that king John was highly pleafed, and fent
them back next year to Congo with rich prefents;
charging them to exhort their monarch, in his name,
to become a convert to the Chriftian religion, and to
permit it to be propagated through his dominions. A
firm alliance was concluded between the two monarchs,
which continues to this day, though not without fome
interruptions, to which the Portuguefe themfelves have
4 given occafion more than the natives.
‘Cavazzi’s Any particular account we have of this kingdom,
account of refts almoft entirely on the credit of Anthony Cavaz-
Congo. ^ the traveller above mentioned. He was a capu¬
chin-friar, a native of the duchy of Modena, and was
fent milfionary into thofe parts de propaganda Jide, in
the year 1654, and arrived at Congo the fame year.
During his ftay there, his zeal to make converts made
him travel through all thefe different kingdoms ; and
the credit he gained, as well as the great employments
he was intrufted with, gave him an opportunity of in¬
forming himfelf of every thing relating to them with
j^reat exaftnefs. The extent and fituation, however,
he could not poffibly afeertain, for want of inftruments;
Extent lef- nor hath this defeft been fince fupplied. According
fened fince to him, the dominions of Congo extended a great deal
the intro- further eaftward and fouthward before the introduc-
ChrilUani- tion of Chriftianity than afterwards; a great number
ty. of the flates that were under the Congoefe monarchs,
either as fubjects, or tributary, having withdrawn
their allegiance out of diflike to them on that account.
Not content with oppofing the officers and troops
that came annually to raife the tribute impofed by
the king, they made fuch frequent and powerful in-
curfions into his dominions, that they obliged him to
draw his forces nearer the centre of Congo to pre¬
vent an invafion; by which means the kingdom, from
an extent of 600 leagues, was reduced to lefs than one
6 half.
Account of Congo Proper being fituated within the torrid zone,
the climate ;s liable to exceffive heats : as it lies on the fouthern
and feafons. tbe equino&ial, the feafons are of courfe oppo-
fite to ours. They reckon only two principal feafons,
the furtimer and winter; the former begins in Odfober,
and continues till February or March; during which
time the fun’s rays dart with fuch force, that the at-
mofphere appears to an European to be in a flame.
The exceffive'heat, however, is mitigated by the equal
length of the days and nights, as well as by the winds,
breezes, rains, and dews. The winter takes up the
other part of the year ; and is faid by the natives to
Vol. V. Part I.
i 1 CON
be proportionally cold, though to an European it would Conga, ,
appear hot. Thefe two feafons they divide into fix " v ' " -
leffer ones, viz. MafTanza, Neafu, Ecundi, Quitombo,
Quibifo, and Quibangala.
Maflanza begins with the month of Oftober, which
is the beginning of their fpring. The rains begin to
fall at that time, and continue during the next two,
and fometimes three, months. When they do fo, the
low lands are commonly overflowed by the extraor¬
dinary floods, and all their corn carried off. A dif-
after of this kind is commonly followed by a famine ;
for the lazy inhabitants take no care to lay up any
provifions, although fuch misfortunes happen very fre¬
quently. This firft feafon they reckon commences at
the time the plants begin to fpring.
The fecond feafon, Neafu, begins about the end of
January, when the produce of their lands has arrived
at its full height, and wants but a few days of being
ripened for harveft. This firft crop is no fooner ga¬
thered in, than they fow their fields afrefli, their land
commonly yielding them two harvefts.
The third and fourth feafons, called Ecundi and
Quitombo, are frequently blended together towards
the middle of March, when the more gentle rains be¬
gin to fall, and continue to do fo till the month of
May. Thefe two feafons are diftinguiflied by the
greater or leffer quantity of rain that falls during that
interval. During the reft of the time, the air is either
very clear, hot, and dry; or the clouds being over¬
charged with eledtric matter, burft out into the moft
terrible thunders and lightnings, without yielding the
leaft drop of rain, though they feem loaded with it.
The two laft, viz. the Quibifo and Quibangala,
make up their (hort winter, which confifts not in froft
or fnow, but in dry, blafting winds, which ftrip the
earth of all its verdure, till the next Maffanza begins
to reftore them to their former bloom.
They now divide their year into twelve lunar
months, and begin it in September. They have alfo
weeks confifting of four days only, the laft of which
is their fabbath ; and on it they religioully abftain from
every kind of work. This praftice, the compilers of 7
the Univerfal Hiftory conjedture to have arifen from Natives ex-
the extreme lazinefs for which this peeple, and in- ceffiyely in¬
deed all the African nations, are fo remarkable. Todolent*
this fhameful indolence alfo is to be aferibed the little
produce they reap from their lands, while the Portu¬
guefe fettled among them, who are at more pains in
the cultivation of theirs, enjoy all manner of plenty.
The natives, however, had rather run the rifle of the
moft terrible famines, than be at the tenth part of the
labour they fee the Portuguefe take. They feem to
think it below them to ufe any other exercifes than
thofe of dancing, leaping, hunting, fliocting, &c.; the
reft of their time they fpend in fmoking, and down¬
right idlenefs, committing the laborious part of their
houfehold affairs to their flaves, or, in want of them,
to their wives. Nothing is more common than to fee
thefe poor creatures toiling in the fields and woods
with a child tied to their backs, and fainting under
their exceffive labour and heavy burdens, or (which
is ftill worfe) hunger and thirft. What is yet more
furprifingly fhameful is, that though they have plenty
of domeftic animals which they might eafily make ufe
of for cultivating their grounds, and for other labori-
S s ous
CON [ 322 ] CON
Cong®, ous ferviccs, and though they fee the Portuguefe do it
every day to great advantage ; yet they will rather fee
their tender females fink under their toil and labour,
than be at the trouble of breeding up any of thefe ufe-
g ful creatures to their alliftance.
Vegetables The ground produces variety of grain, but no corn
produced in or rice except what is cultivated by the Pottuguefe.
ongo. Their maize, or Indian wheat, grows very ftrong, and
is well laden. This, being well ground, they make
into bread, or boil with water into a kind of pap. Of
this they have four kinds ; one of which refemblmg
what we call French wheat, is produced in plenty*
and makes fome amends for the want of indutlry in
the people. They cultivate alfo a variety of the peafe
and bean kind : but what they chiedy live upon, as
moll fuitable to their lazy difpofition, is a kind of nut,
like our filberds, which fall to the ground of them-
felves, and are to be found every where; every nut
that falls to the ground producing a new fhmb next
year. They have fcarcely any fruit-trees but what
have been brought thither by the Portuguefe. They
have various forts of palm-trees, ufeful both by their
fruit, leaves, an*l their juice, which is eafily converted
into wine ; alfo by affording a kind of oil with which
they drefs their vi£tuals, though the Europeans ufe it
only to burn in their lamps. They have alfo a vafl
number of plants and fhrubs, which it would be im-
pofiible to deferibe or enumerate. Wheat is the only
thing that the ground will not pfoduce. It puflies
forth, indeed, the flraw and the ear; the former of
which grows high enough, we are told, to hide a man
on horleback, but the latter is empty, without one grain
fit for ufe. Father Labat, however, who had lived a
confiderable time in fome of the American iflands,
where he had obferved the fame thing, tells us, that
he had the curiofity to examine thofe ears more care¬
fully, and had found fome few grains; and that, ha-
' ving fowed them afreflr, they produced veiy long ears,
full of large heavy grain. Whence he conjectures,
that if the Portuguefe had tried the fame experiment
in their African fettlements, it might perhaps have
been attended with the fame fuccefs.
Hazardous In the low lands the grafs grows fo high, rank,
travelling. an(j thick, that it becomes one of the mod dangerous
receptacles for wild beads, ferpents, and other venom¬
ous infeCts : on this account travelling is exceeding¬
ly hazardous, as they have few beaten roads in the
whole country, and travellers are obliged to march
over it through vad plains, in continual danger of be¬
ing devoured or dung to death ; to fay nothing of
the manifold difeafes produced by the unwholefome
dews with which the grafs is covered during fome part
of the day. The only method of guarding againft
all thefe evils effe&ually, is by fetting fire to the grafs
in the hot weather, when it is quite parched by the
heat of the fun : but, even this cannot be done with¬
out the greated danger ; becaufe both the wild beads
and venomous reptiles, being roufed out of their
places of retirement, will fly furioufly at thofe who
happen to be in the way. In this cafe there is no
poffibility of efcaping, but by climbing up the highed
trees, or defending one’s felf by fire-arms or other
weapons. In fuch emergencies, the natives have a
much better chance than the Europeans; the former
being able to climb trees with furprifing fwiftnefs;
while the latter mud be affided with rope-ladders, Conga,
which they commonly caufe their blacks to carry about  v J
with them, and to go up and faden to one of the
branches.
The flowers are here exceedingly beautiful and nu- Great°va-
merous. Almod every field and grove yields a much riety of
nobler profpedd than the European gardens uan bead ®0'ver3"
of, notwithdanding the pains bedowed on their culti¬
vation. The flowers are remarkable, not only for
the prodigious variety of their qplours, but the vail
quantity of heads which grow upon one Aalk. la
the day-time, indeed, they feem to have led their na¬
tural fragrancy ; tjiat being in fome meafure exhaled
by the heat of the fun hut this is amply compel)fated
after its fetting. and more efpecialiy a little before its
riflng, when their fweetndfs is again condenfed, and
revived by the coldnefs and dews of the night, after
which they exhale_their various refrelhing feents in a
much higher degree than ours. The lilies, which there
grow naturally in the fields, valleys, and woods, excel
thofe pf our gardens, not only in their extreme white-
nefs, but much more in 3 delightful fragrancy, without
offending the head, as the European lilies do by their
faintilh fweetnefs. The tulips which there grow wild,
though generally called Perjic, have fomething fa fur-
prifingly charming in the varfety and combination of
their colours, that they dazzle the eyes of an intenfe
beholder: neither do their dowers grow fingly as
with us, but ten or twelve upon one dalk; and with
this double advantage, that they diffufe a very revi¬
ving and agreeeable fweetnefs, and continue much long¬
er in their full bloom. Of the fame nature are their
tuberofes, hyacinths, and other native flowers ; which
fpring up in vad groups of 100 and 200 from one
root, though fomewhat fmaller than ours; fome of
them finely variegated, and all of them yielding an
agreeable fane 11. The rofes, jeffamines, and of
exotics brought thither from Europe or Ameiica, come
up likewife in great perfedlion ; but require a conilant
fupply of water, and diligent attendance, to prevent
them from degenerating. The American jeffamine,
in particular, indead of Angle flowers, will grow up by
dozens in a bunch; fome of them of an exquifite white,
and others of the colour of the mod vivid fire. ir
A vail variety of animals of different kinds are Animals o£-
found in the kingdom of Congo; the chief of which<!‘ffereut
are the elephant. This creature is modly found in the kinds,
province of Bamba, which abounds with woods, pa-
dure, and plenty of water ; the elephants delighting
much to bathe themfelves during the heat of the day.
They commonly go in troops of an hundred or more;
and fome of them are of fuch a mondrous fize, that
we are told the print of their hoof hath meafured;
four, nay /even* fpans in diameter. From the hair of
their tails, and that of fome otfar animals, the na¬
tives, efpecially the women, weave themfelves col¬
lars, bracelets, girdles, &c. with variety of devices¬
and figures, which denote their quality ; and are in
fuch edeem, that the hair of two elephants. tails is
fufficient to buy a Have. The reafon of this is, that
the natives have not the art of taming them, but are.
obliged to fend fome of their braved and ilouted men
to hunt them in the woods; which, is not done with¬
out great labour and danger, they being here ex¬
ceedingly fierce. The mod common way.of hunting;
them)
CON [ 323 ] CON
Congo, them Is by digging deep holes in the ground, the top fome atrocious crimes to be ftripped naked, tied hand Congo,
t—"v"~ of which they cover with branches and leaves, as is and foot, and thrown into a hole where thefe infe&s
pra&ifed in moll parts of Afn. fwarm ; where they are fure to be-devoured by them
Lions, leopards, tigers, wolves, and other beads of in lefs than 24 hours to the very bones. But crimi-
prey, abound here in great plenty, and do much da- rials are not the only perfons who are in danger front
inage. Here are alfo a vafl variety of monkeys of all the jaws of thefe little devouring infedls. People may
fizes and lhapes. The zebra, well known for its ex- be attacked by~them, as we have already hinted, in the
treme beauty and fwiftnefs, is alfo met with in this coun- nighttime, and while they are deeping in their beds,
try. They have alfo a variety of buffaloes and wild This obliges the natives to be careful where they
afles; but the dante feems to be an animal peculiar to lie down, and to kindle a fmall fire, or at lead to have
this kingdom. It is fhaped and coloured much like an a circle of burning hot embers round their beds. This
ox, though not fo large. Its fkin is commonly bought caution is dill more neceflary in the country villages
by the Portuguefe, and fent into Germany to be tan- and hamlets, where perfons are otherwife in danger of
ned and made into targets, which are then called dantes. being attacked by millions of them in the dead of the
The natives make ufe of their raw hide dried to night. In fuch a cafe, the only expedient to fave one’s
make their fhields ; which are fo tough that ho arrow ftlf is to jump up as foon as one feels the bite, to bmfh
or dart can fierce them ; and they are alfo large them off with all pofiible fpeed, and then at once to fet
enough to cover the whole body. The creature is the houfe on fire. The danger is dill greater in tra-
Vadlyfwift; and when wounded, will follow the feent veiling through the country, where a perfon is often
or frnoke of the gunpowder with fuch fury, that the obliged to take up his lodging on the bare ground;
hunter is obliged to climb up a tree with all poflible and may be overtaken during the heat of the day with
fpeed ; and this retreat,he always takes care to fecure fuch profound deep, as not to be awaked by thefe di-
beforC he ventures to fire. The wounded bead finding minutive animals till they have made their way through
its enemy out of its reach, days for him at the foot the fkin; and in fuch a cafe nothing will prevent their
of the tree, and will not flir from it ; of which the devouring a man alive, though there were ever fo
hunter taking the advantage, difpatches it with re- many hands to affid him: in fuch incredible quantities
peated {hots. The foreds of Congo alfo fwarm with do thefe creatures abound, notwithdanding the great
wild dogs, who, like the wolves, prey upon the tame numbers of monkeys who are continually ferreting the
cattle, and are fo fierce that they will attack armed ants out of their retreats, and feed upon them with
men. Their teeth are exceeding keen and fharp ; the utrnod avidity. This can only be aferibed to the
they never bark, but make a dreadful howling when natural lazinefs and indolence of the inhabitants;
T, famifhed or in purfuit of their prey. which is fuch, that they not only negle<d to rid their
Birds. This country alfo abounds with all the different lands of them by proper cultivation, but will fnffer their
kinds of birds that are to be found in other warm cli- houfes, nay even their very churches, to be undermined
mates. One fort, which they call birds of mufic, is by them. Another kind of thefe deftruftive vermin lie
greatly efteemed, infomuch that perfohs of the higheft fo thick upon the paths and highways, that a petfon
rank have from time immemorial taken the greatefl cannot Walk without trading upon, and having his
delight in keeping them in cages and aviaties for the legs and thighs almofl devoured by them. A third fort
fake of their furprifing melody. On the other hand, as of a wdiite and red colour, but very fmall, will gnaw
the Congoefe are fuperflitious to the laft degree, there their way through the hardefl wood, penetrate into a
are feveraff kinds of birds which they look upon as ftrong chefl, and in a little while devour all the
ominous, and are fo terrified at the fight or hearing clothes, linen, and every thing that is in it. A fourth
of them, that if they were going to enter upon ever fo fort, fmall and black, leave a moil intolerable flench
momentous, an expedition, if they were met in coun- upon every thing they touch or crawl over, whe-
cil, or going to engage an enemy with ever fo great ther clothes or houfehold-fluff, which are not eafiiy
an advantage, the-flight or cry of fuch birds would fweetened again; or if they pafs over vi&uals, they
throw them into a general panic, and difperfe them in are entirely fpoiled. A fifth fort harbour chiefly on
the utmofl hafte and confufion. The mofl dreadful of the leaves and branches of trees ; and if a man chance
the ominous kind are the crows, ravens, bats, and/ to climb up thither to fave himfelf from a wild beaft,
owls. The great owl is the mofl terrible of all, and he is fo tormented by them, that nothing but the fear
to him they give the name of kariampemla, by which of the jaws of the one could make him endure the
words they likewife denote the devil. flings of the other. A fixth fort is of the flying kind;
Fifh of different kinds abound on the coafls of Con- and is probably one of the former kinds, that live
go in great numbers; but the inland parts are infefted wholly under ground, till nature furnifhes them with
with fuch numbers of ferpents, fcorpions, and other wings. After this, they rife in fuch fwarms as darken
venomous infers, as are perhaps fufficient to overba- the air, and would make terrible havoc among all
lance every natural advantage we liave yet mentioned, kinds of vegetables, did not the natives come out
Ants very The mofl pernicious and dangerous kind are the ants; againft them in whole companies, and by dint of flaps,
dangerous, of which they reckon no lefs than fix feveral fpeciea'of and other flat weapons, knock them down by myriads,
different colours and fizes; all of them formidable on and then laying them in heaps, fet fire to their wings,
account of their prodigious numbers, and the mifehief which half broils them for food. Amidfl all this va-
they do not only to the fruits of the earth, but to men riety of pernicious infedls, however, they have one
and beafts; whom they will furround in the night time, fpecies of a more friendly and profitable kind, wa,
and devour even to the very bone. It is a common the induftrious bee, which furnifhes the inhabitants
pradtice, we are told, to condemn perfons guilty of with honey and wax in fuch plenty, that there is
S s 2 fcarce
CON t 324 ] CON
Cofigo. fcarce a hollow tree, clift of a rock, or chop of the
earth, in which their combs arc not found in great
14 quantities.
Congo very With refpeA to the populoufnefs of the kingdom of
populous. Congo, fome authors, writing either from mere conjec¬
ture, or at beft precarious inferences, have reprefented
it as thinly peopled. The accounts of the miffionaries
and Portuguefe, however, are dire&ly oppofite to
thefe. They found the country for the moft part co- '
vered with towns and villages, and thefe fwarming with
inhabitants; the cities well filled with people, parti¬
cularly the metropolis, which is faid to contain above
50,000 fouls. The provinces, though not equally
populous, yet in the whole make up fuch an amount,
as plainly proves, that what is wanting in the one is
amply made up by the other. We are told, that the
duchy of Bamba is Hill able to raife 200,000 fighting
men, and was formerly in a condition to raife double
that number; and that the army of the king of Congo,
in the year 1665, confifted of 900,000 fighting men,
who were attended by an infinite number of women,
children, and Haves. The numbers of the Congoefe
will appear the more credible, when we confider the
extreme fecundity of their women, the hardinefs with
which they bring up their children, and the ftoutnefs
and healthinefs of their men. In fome villages, if the
miffionaries are to be credited, the number of children
is fo great, that a father will part with one or two,
for any commodity he wants, or even for fome trifling
bawble he fancies; fo that the number of flaves they
fell abroad feldom amounts, communibus annis", to lefs
than 15,000 or'i6,oco.
Congoefe There is fcarce a nation on earth that have a higher
have8a high opinion of themfelves or their country, than the Con-
opinion of goefe, or that is more hardened againft all convidlion
themfelves. to tjie contrary, from reafon, experience, or the moft.
impartial comparifon with other countries in Europe
or Afia. Indeed, it is impoffible they fhould think
otherwife, when it is one of the fundamentals of their
belief, that the reft of the world was the work of an¬
gels, but that the kingdom of Congo, in its full and
ancient extent, was the handywork of the Supreme
Architeft; and muft of courfe have vaft prerogatives
and advantages over all others. When told of the
magnificence of the European and Afiatic courts, their
immenfe revenues, the grandeur of their palaces and
edifices, the richefs and happinefs of their fubjefts, the
great progrefs they have made in the arts and fciences
to which their country is wholly a ftranger, they cool¬
ly anfwer, that all this comes vaftly fliort of the dig¬
nity and-fplendor of the kings and kingdom of Congo;
and that there can be but one Congo in the world, to
the happinefs of whofe monarch and people all the
reft were created to contribute, and to whofe treafury
the fea and rivers pay their conftant tribute of ’zim-
bis (or ffitlls, whickare thiir cutrent coin) ; whilft other
princes mult condefcend to enrich themfetyes by dig¬
ging through rocks and mountains, to come at the ex¬
crements of the earth, fo they ftyle gold and filver
which are in fuch requeft among other nations. Ac¬
cordingly, they imagine, that the nations which come
to traffic with them, are forced to that fervile employ¬
ment by their poverty and the badnefs of their coun¬
try, rather than induced to it by luxury or avarice;
vvhilft they themfelves can indulge their natural indo¬
lence or floth, though attended with the moft pinching Congaj
poverty, rather than difgrace the dignity of their blood  .—'
by the leaft effort of induilry, which, how laudable The?r6flotlj
and beneficial foever, is looked upon by them as only pride, &€.,,
a leffer degree of flavery. But though they generally
efteem it fo much below their dignity to apply to any
ufeful work, they think it no difgrace to beg or fteal.
With refpeft to the firft, they are faid to be the moft
fhamelefs and importunate beggars in the world. They
will take no denial, fpare no crouching, lying, prayers,
to obtain what they want, nor curfes and ill language
when fent away without it. With regard to the laft,
they deem no theft unlawful or fcandalous, except it
be committed in a private manner, without the know¬
ledge of the perfon wronged. It is efteemed a piece
of bravery and gallantry to wrench any thing from
another by violence ; and this kind of theft is fo com¬
mon, not only among the vulgar, but alfo among the
great ones, that they make no fcruple, in their travels
from place to place, to feize not only upon all the
provifions they meet with in towns ancf villages, but
upon every thing elfe that falls in their way. Thefe
violences oblige the poor people to conceal the few va¬
luables they have, in fome fecret place out of the
knowledge and reach of thofe harpies; and they think
themfelves well off if they can efcape a fevere baftona-
ding, or other cruel ufage frequently inflifted upon
them, in order to make them difcover the place of their
concealment.
The complexion of the natives, both men and wo- Complex^
men, is black, though not in the fame degree ; fome on> charac*
being of a much deeper black than others. Their ^^ncu"&,
hair is black and finely curled ; fome have it alfo of a °mS/ '*
dark fandy colour: their eyes are moftly of a fine
lively black ;.but fome are of a dark fea-colour. They
have neither flat nofes. nor thick lips like the Nubians
and other negroes. Their ftature is moftly of the
middle fize; and, excepting their black complexion,
they much refemble the Portuguefe. In their temper
they are miftruftful, envious, jealous, and treacherous;
and where they once take a diftafte or affront, will
fpare no pains, nor ftick at any means, however bafe,
to be avenged of, and ci ulh their enemy under their
feet. There is no fuch thing among them as natural
affeftion. A hufband, if an Heathen, may take as
many wives as he pleafes; and if a Chriftian, may have
any number of concubines, whom he may divorce at
pleafure, or even fell them though with child. So
little regard have they for their children, that there is
fcarce one among them who will not fell a fon or a
daughter, or perhaps both, for a piece of cloth, a col¬
lar or girdle of coral or beads, and often for a bottle
of wine or brandy. jg
The religion of the Congoefe in many parts is down-Religion:
right idolatry, accompanied with the moft ridiculous
fuperftitions, and the moft abfurd and deteftable rites
invented by their gnngas or priefts;. and even in thofe
parts where Chriftianity is profefled, it is fo darkened
by fuperftitions of one kind or other, that we may
juftly queftion whether the people are any gainers by
the exchange.
The government of this kingdom is monarchical, Govern-
and as defpotic as any in Afia or Africa. The kings ment.
are the foie proprietors of all the lands within their
dominions; and thefe they can difpofe of to whom
they
CON [ 325 ] CON
Gongs, they pleafe, upon condition they pay a certain tribute
Cwgrega- out 0f tiiem ; upon failure of the payment of which,
, tl0n' or any other negledf, they turn them out. Even the
v princes of the blood are fubjedted to the fame law ; fo
that there is no perfon of any rank or quality what¬
ever that can bequeath a foot of land to his heirs or
fucceffors; and when thefe owners under the crown
die, the lands immediately return to it again, whether
they were in their pofleffion, or had been left to ever
fo many tenants under them; fo that it entirely de¬
pends on the prince whether thefe lands fhall be conti¬
nued in the fame, or be difpofed into other hands.
The Portuguefe, however, fince their fettling in thefe
parts, have prevailed upon the monarchs to permit the
heirs and fucceffors to continue in the quiet pflfeffion
of fuch lands, in order to avoid the confulions, or even
rebellions, which the alienatiorr and deprival of them
frequently occafxoned, and to oblige the tenants of
them to pay their tribute more exactly and readily
ao than they did before.
Commerce. St Salvador is the chief place of traffic the Portu¬
guefe and other Europeans have in this country.
There are thought to be about 4000 of them fettled
here, who trade .with molt parts of the kingdom.
The chief commodities they bring thither Arc either
the product of Brazil or European manufactures.
The former confift chiefly of grains, fruits, plants, &c.;
the latter of Turky carpets, Englifh cloth, and other
fluffs; copper, brafs veflels, fome kinds of blue ear¬
then ware, rings, and ornaments of gold, filver, and
other bafer metals; coral, glafs-beads, bugles, and
other trinkets ; light fluffs made of cotton, woollen,
and linen, for cloathing; and a great variety of tools
and other utenfils In return for thefe, they carry off
a great number of flaves, amounting to 15,000 or 16,000
annually, as we have already obferved. Formerly
they uied alfo to carry away elephants teeth, furs,
and other commodities of the country ; but thefe
branches of commerce are now greatly decayed, and
the flave-trade is what the Portuguefe merchants prin¬
cipally depend on.
Cong:', a term applied to tea of the fecond qua¬
lity.
CONGREGATION, an affembly of feveral eccle-
fiaftics, united fo as to conftitute a body.
The term is principally ufed for affemblies of cardi¬
nals appointed by the pope, and dillributed into feve¬
ral chambers, for the diicharge of certain functions
and jurifdidtions, after the manner of our offices and
courts. The firft is the congregation of the holy of¬
fice, or the inquilition : the'fecond, that of jurifdic-
tion over bifliops and regulars: the third, that of coun¬
cils ; this has power to interpret the council of Trent:
the fourth, that of cufloms, ceremonies, precedences,
canonizations, called the congregation of rites: the fifth,
that of St Peter’s fabric, which takes cognizance of
all caufes relating to piety and charity, part whereof
is due to the church of St Peter: the lixth, that of
waters, rivers, roads r the feventh, of fountains and
ftreets : the eighth, that of the index, which examines
the books to be printed or corrected : the ninth, that
of the council of Hate, for the management of the
territories belonging to the pope and church (fee
Camerlingo) : the tenth, de bono regimine; of which
two laft the cardinal-nephew is chief; the eleventh,
that of money : the twelfth, that of bilhops, wherein Conp rega-
thofe who are to be promoted to bilhoprics in Italy u[!n
are examined ; this is held before the pope : the thir- Congreve,
teenth, that of confiftorial matters ; the chief whereof k—y—J
is the cardinal-dean: the fourteenth, a congregation
for propagating the faith (fee College) : and the
fifteenth, that of eccleiiaftical immunity, for fettling
fuits againft churchmen. There is alfo a congrega¬
tion of alms, which takes care of every thing that re¬
lates to the fubfiftence of Rome and the ftate of the
church.
Congregation is alfo ufed for a company or fo-
ciety of religious cantoned out ©f this or that order j
and making, as it were, an inferior order, or a fubdi-
vilion of the order itfelf. Such are the congregations
of the oratory, and thofe of Cluny, &c. among the
Benedictines.
The word is alfo ufed for affemblies of pious perfons
in manner of fraternities, frequent among the Jefuits
in honour of the Virgin, &c. ■ It is likewife applied to
the audience in a church, particularly as conlifling of
the inhabitants of the fame parifh.
CONGREGATIONALISTS, in church-hiftory,.
a fed of Proteflants who reject all church-government,
except that of a Angle congregation under the direction
of one pallor.
CONGRESS, in political affairs, an affembly of com-
miffioners, envoys, deputies, &c. from feveral courts
meeting to concert matters for their common good.
Congress, in America, is the affembly of delegates
from the United States. See America.
Congress, in a judicial fenfe, the trial made by
appointment of a judge before furgeons and matrons, in
order to prove whether or no a man be impotent, be¬
fore fentence is palled for the diffolution of a marriage
folicited upon fuch a complaint.
Neither the civil nor canon law makes any mention
of the trial of virility by congrefs. It bad its origin
in France from the boldnefs of a young fellow, who, in
open court, having been hard preffed by his wife, de¬
manded the congrefs. The judge, furprifed with the
novelty of the demand, found it could not be denied,
as being the furelt evidence that the cafe could admit
of. In time it became a branch in the French jurifpru-
dence, and was authorifed by decreets and arrets. It
obtained for about 120 years ; and was annulled by an
arret of parliament in 1677, as being found precarious;
fome having failed under the experiment out of mere
modefly and fliame, which is found to have the fame
effedt with adlual impotency.
CONGREVE (William), a younger brother of an
ancient family in Staffordlhire. His father was employ¬
ed in the ftewardlhip of the great eftate of the Earl of
Burlington in Ireland, where he relided many years; and
our author was born there in 1672. Mr Conoreve en¬
tered into the Middle-Temple when he came "to Eng¬
land, and began to ftudy the law; but his bias was
toward polite literature and poetry. His firft perfor¬
mance was a novel, intituled, Incognita, or Love and -
Duty reconciled. He foon after began his comedy of
the Old Bachelor ; which was the amufement. of fome
leifure hours during a flow recoveiy from a fit of illnefs
foon after his return to England ; yet was in itfelf fo
perfect, that Mr Dryden, on its being fhown to him,,
declared he had never in his life, feen fuch a firft play.
When:,
CON [ 326 ] CON
Corgi-eve. ^\r},en br0Ught on the ftage in 169^, it met with fuch
*' ' v-1 -' univerfal approbation, that Mr Congreve, though he
was but 19 years old at the time of his writing it, be¬
came now conildered as a prop to the declining ftage,
and a fifing genius id*dramatic poetry. The nest year
he produced the Double Dealer ; which, for what rea-
fon is not obvious, did not meet with fo much fuccefs
as the former. The merit of his fir ft play, however,
had obtained him the favour and patronage of Lord
Halifax, and fome peculiar mark of diftindtion from
‘Queen Mary ; on whofe death, which happened in the
clofe of this year, he wrote a very elegant elegiac pa-
ftoral. In 1695, when Betterton opened the new
houfe in Lincoln’s-Inn Fields, Mr Congreve joining
with him, gave him his comedy of Love for LoHee, with
which the company opened their campaign; and which
met with fuch fuccefs, that they immediately offered
the author a {hare in the management of the houfe, on
■condition of his furnilhing them with one play yearly.
This offer he accepted ; but whether through indo¬
lence, or that corredtnefs which he looked upon as ne-
ceffary to his works, his Mourning Brule did not come
out till 1697,nor his Way of the World till two years after
that. The indifferent fuccefs this laft mentioned
play, though an exceeding good one, met with from
the public, completed that difguft to the theatre,
which a long conteft with Jeremy Collier, who had
attacked the immoralities of the Englifh ftage, and
more efpecially fome of .his pieces, had begun, and he
determined never more to write for the ftage. 'How¬
ever, though he qmtted dramatic writing, he did not
lay down the pen entirely; but occafionally wrote
many little pieces both in profe and verfe, all of which
Hand on the records of literary fame. It is very pof-
fible, however, that he might not fo foon have given
way to this difguft, had not the eafinefs of his cir-
cumftances rendered any fubfervience to the opinions
and caprice of the town abfolutely unneceffary to him.
For his abilities having very early in life raifed him to
the acquaintance of the Earl of. Halifax, who was
then the Maecenas of the age ; that nobleman, defirous
of raifing fo promifing a genius above the necefiky of
too hafty produftions, made him one of the commif-
lioners for licenfing hackney-coaches ; or, according to
Coxeter, a commiflioner of the wine-licence. He foon
after beftowed on him a place in the pipe-office ; and
not long after gave him a poll in the cuftoms worth
-6001. per annum. In the year 1718, he was appoint¬
ed fecretary of Jamaica ; fo that, with all together, his
income towards the later part of his life was upwards
of 1200I. a-year.
The greateft part of the laft 20 years of his life
was fpent in eafe and retirement; and he either did
not, or affected not to give himfelf any trouble about
reputation. Yet fome part of that condudf might pro¬
ceed from' a degree of pride ; to which purpofe, T.
Cibber, in his lives of the poets, Vol. IV. p. 93. re¬
lates the following anecdote of him : “ When the ce¬
lebrated Voltaire was’in England, he waited upon Mr
Congreve, and paffed fome compliments upon the me¬
rit and reputation of his works. Congreve thanked
him ; but at the fame time told that ingenious fo¬
reigner, that he did not choofe to be confidered as an
author, but only as a private gentleman, and in that
light expe&ed to be vifited. Voltaire anfwered, that
if he had never been any thing but a private gentle- Cnncnilry.
man, in all probability he had never been troubled ——v~—'
with that vifit.” He obferves, in his own account of
the tranfa&ion, that he was not a little difgufted with
fo unfeafonable a piece of vanity.
Towards the clofe of his life he was much afflifted
with the gout; and malting a tour to Bath for the be¬
nefit of the waters, was unfortunately overturned in
his chariot; by which, it is fuppofed, he got fome
inward bruife, as he ever after complained of a pain
in his fide ; and, on Ins return to London, continu¬
ed gradually declining in his health, till the 19th of
January 1729, when he died, aged 57 ; and, on the
26th following, was buried in Weftminfter Abbey,
the pall being fupported by perfor.s of the firft di-
ftimkion.
CONGRUITY, a fuitablenefs or relation of agree¬
ment between things.
The terms cmgruity and propriety are not applicable
" to any fingle objeef : they imply a plurality, and ob-
vioufly fignify a particular relation between different
objefts. Thus we currently fay, that a decent garb is
fuitable or proper for a judge ; modeft behaviour for a
young w-oman ; and a lofty ftyle for an epic poem :
and, on the other hand, that it is unfuitable or incon¬
gruous to fee a little woman funk in an overgrown far¬
thingale, a coat richly embroidered covering coarfe and
dirty linen, a mean fubjeft in an elevated ftyle, an ele¬
vated fubjed: in a mean ftyle, a firft minifter darning
his wife’s {locking, or a reverend prelate in lawn fleeves
dancing a hornpipe.
The perception we have of this relation, which
feems peculiar to man, cannot proceed from any other
caufe, but from ^fenfe of congruity or propriety; for,
fuppofing us deftitute of that fenfe, the terms would
be to us unintelligible.
It is a matter of experience, that congruity or pro¬
priety, wherever perceived, is agreeable ; and that in¬
congruity or impropriety, wh’erever perceived, is dif-
agreeable. The only difficulty is, to afeertain what are
the particular objefts that in conjunction fuggeft thefe
relations; for there are many objects that do not : the
fea, for example, viewed in conjundtion with a pic¬
ture, or a man viewed in conjundtion with a moun¬
tain, fuggeft not either congruity or incongruity. It
feems-natural to infer, wjiat will be found true by in¬
duction, that we never perceive congruity nor incon¬
gruity but among things that are connedted together
by fome relation; fuch as a man and his adtions, a
principal and his acceffories, a fubjedt and its orna¬
ments. We are indeed fo framed by nature, as, a-
mong things fo connedted, to require a certain fuit¬
ablenefs or correfpondence, termed congruity or pro¬
priety ; and to be difpleafed when we find the oppofite
relation of incongruity or impropriety.
If things connedted be the fubjedt of congruity, it
is reafonable before-hand to expedl, that a degree of
congruity ftiould be required proportioned to the de¬
gree of the connedtion. And upon examination we
find this to hold in fadt: where the relation is inti¬
mate, as between a caufe and its effedt, a whole and
its parts, we require the ftridteft congruity; but
where the relation is flight, or accidental, as among
things jumbled together in the fame place, we require
little or no congruity: the ftridteft propriety is re-
2 quired
- CON
Cacgruity quired in behaviour and manner of living ; beeaufe a
man is connedled with thefe by the relation of caufe
and effeft: the relation between an edifice and the
ground it (lands upon, is.of the moil intimate kind;
and therefore the iituation of a great houfe ought to
be lofty ; its relation to neighbouring hills, rivers,
planes, being that of propinquity only, demands but
a fmull (hare of congruity : among members of the
fame club, the congruity ought to be conliderabie,
as well as among things placed for (how in the fame
niche : among paffengers in a Itage-coach, we re¬
quire very little congruity ; and lefs dill at a public
fptclacle.
Congruity is fo nearly allied to beauty, as com¬
monly to be held a fpeci'es of it ; and yet they differ
fo eiTentially as never to coincide : beauty, like colour,
is placed upon a fingle fubjeCt; congruity upon a plu¬
rality : further, a thing beautiful in itfelf, may, with
relation to other things, produce the ftrongelt fenfe of
incongruity.
Congruity and 'propriety are commonly reckoned
fynonymous terms ; but they are diltinguilhable ; and
the precife meaning of each mud be afcertained. Con¬
gruity is the genus of which propriety is a fpecies;
for we call nothing propriety, but that congrulty or
fuitablenefs which ought to fubfift between fenfible be¬
ings and their thoughts, words, and adlions.
In order to give a full view of thefe fecondary rela¬
tions, we (hall trace them through fome of the mod
conliderable primary relations. The relation of a part
to the whole, being extremely intimate, demands the
utmod degree of congruity; even the (lighted devia¬
tion is difgudful.
Examples of congruity and incongruity are furnidi-
ed in plenty by the relation between a fubjedl and its
ornaments. A literary performance intended merely
for amufement, is fufceptible of much ornament, as
well as a muGc-room or a play-houfe ; for in gaiety,
the mind hath a peculiar rdifh for (how and decora¬
tion. The mod gorgeous apparel, however improper
in tragedy, is not unfuitable to opera-actors : the truth
• is, an opera, in its prefent form, is a mighty fine
thing; but as it deviates from nature in its capital cir-
cumdances, we look not for nature not' propriety in
thofe which are acceffory. On the other hand, a ferious
[ 327 ] CON
be'iiflr a dancing-room ought to be all of them gay. Congruity.
No pidture is proper for a church but what has rtli- U’“n' , J.
gion for its fubjedt. A11 the ornaments upon a (hield
ought to relate to war; and Virgil, with great judg¬
ment, confines the carvings upon the (hleld of zEneas
to the military hidory of the Romans : but this beau¬
ty is overlooked by Homer ; for the bulk of the fculp-
ture upon the (hield of Achilles, is of the arts of peace
in general, and of joy and fedivity in particular : the
author of Telemachu-s betrays the fame inattention, in
deferibing the (hield of that young hero.
In judging of propriety with regard to ornaments,
we mud attend, not only to the nature of the fubjedl
that is to be adorned, but alfo to the circumdances in
which it is placed : the ornaments that are proper for a
ball, will appear not altogether fo decent at public wor-
(hip ; and the fame perfon ought to drefs differently
for a marriage-fead and for a burial.
Nothing is more intimately related to a man, than
his fentiments, words, and adlipns ; and therefore we
require here the drifted conformity. When we find
what w'e thus require, we have a lively fenfe of pro¬
priety : when we find the contrary, our fenfe of im¬
propriety is not lefs lively. Hence the univerfal dif-
tade of affeftation, which confids in making a (how of
greater delicacy and refinement than is fuited either to
the charafter or circumdance of the perfon.
Congruity and propriety, w'hcrever perceived, ap¬
pear agreeable ; and every agreeable objeft produceth
in the mind a pleafant emotion: incongruity and im¬
propriety, on the other hand, are difagreeable; and
of courfe produce painful emotions. Thefe emo¬
tions, whether pleafant or painful, fometimes vanifh
without any confequence; but more frequently oc«
cafion other emotions, which we proceed to exem-
Pi;fy- . . . •.
When any (light incongruity is perceived in an ac¬
cidental combination of perfons or things, as of paf¬
fengers in a dage-coach, or of individuals dining at
an ordinary ; the painful emotion of incongruity, after
a momentary exidence, vaniiheth without producing
any effeft. But this is not the cafe of propriety and
impropriety: voluntary afts, whether words or deeds,,
are imputed to the author; when proper, we reward
him with our edeem ; when improper, we puniih him-
and important fubjeft admits not much ornament; nor with our contempt. Let us fuppofe, for example, a
a fubjeft that of itfelf is extremely beautiful: and a
fubjeft that fills the mind with its loftinels and gran¬
deur, appears bed in a drefs altogether plain.
To a perfon of a mean appearance, gorgeous appa¬
rel is unfuitable ; which, befides the incongruity, has a
bad effeft; for by contrad it (hows the meannefs of
appearance in the dronged light. Sweetnefs of look
and manner, requires fimplicity of drefs, joined with
the greated elegance. A (lately and majedic air re¬
generous aftion fuited to the charafter of the author,.
which raifes ia him and in every fpeftator the pleafant
emotion of propriety : this emotion generates in the
author both felf edeem and joy ; the former when he
confiders the relation to the aftion-; and the latter when
he confiders the good opinion that others will entertain
of him : the fame emotion of propriety produceth in;
the fpeftators elleem for the author of the aftion; and
when they think of themfelves, it alfo produceth, by
quires fumptuous apparel, which ought not to be means of contrad, an emotion of humility. To difeo-
gaudy, nor crowded with little ornaments. A woman
of confummate beauty can bear to be highly adorned,
and yet (hows bed in a plain drefs:
 r— For lovelinefs
Needs n' t the foreign aid of ornament.
But is when unadurn’d, adorn’d the moft.
‘Thanfan's Au’.uvm, ao8.
Congruity' regulates not only the quantity of orna¬
ment,.. but alfo the kind.. The ornaments that em-
ver the effefts of an unfuitable aftion, we mud invert
each of thefe circumdances: the painful emotion of
impropriety generates in the. author of the aftion both
humility aad (hame ; the former when he confiders
his relation to the aftion, and the latter when he con¬
fiders what others will think of him : the fame emo¬
tion of impropriety produceth in the fpeftators con--
fempt for the author of the aftion ; and it alfo pro-
duceth, by means of contrad,. when they think off
them-
CON [ 328 '1 CON
Congrmty. tliemfelves, an emotion of felf-efteem. Here then are
'““'“"Y—many difFerent'emotions, derived from the fame aftlon,
•confidered in different views by different perfons; a
machine provided with many fprings, and not a little
complicated. Propriety of aftion, it would jfeem, is
* chief favourite of nature, when fuch care and foli-
citude is bellowed upon it. It is not left to our
own choice; but, like juflice, is required at our
hands; and, like juflice, is enforced by natural re¬
wards and punifhments : a man cannot, with impunity,
do any thing unbecoming or improper; he fcrffers the
chaflifement of contempt inflifted by others, and of
fhame inflifted by himfelf. An apparatus fo compli¬
cated, and fo Angular, ought to roufe our attention :
for nature doth nothing in vain; and we may con¬
clude with great certainty, that this curious branch of
the human Conflitution is intended for fome valuable
purpofe.
A grofs impropriety is punifhed with contempt and
indignation, which are vented againfl the offender by
correfponding external expreffions : nor is even the
flighted impropriety fuffered to pafs without fome de¬
gree of contempt. But there are improprieties, of
the (lighter kind, that provoke laughter; of which
we have examples without end, in the blunders and
abfurdities of our own fpecies : fuch improprieties re¬
ceive a different punifhment, as will appear by what
follows. The- emotions of contempt and of laughter
occafioned by ah impropriety of this kind, uniting in¬
timately in the mind of the fpeftator, are expreffed
externally by a peculiar fort of laugh, termed a laugh
of dertfon or from. An impropriety that thus moves
not only contempt, but laughter, is diltinguidied by
the epithet of ridiculous ; and a laugh of derifion or
fcorn is the punifhmerrt provided for it by nature. Nor
ought it to efcape obfervation, that we are fo fond of
inflidling this punifhment, as fometimes to exert it even
againd creatures of an inferior fpecies : witnefs a tur-
kycock fwelling with pride, and drutting with difplay-
ed feathers; a ridiculous objeft, which in a gay mood
is apt to provoke a laugh of derifion.
We mud not expedl, that thefe different impro¬
prieties are feparated by didindl boundaries : for of
improprieties, from the flighted to the mod grofs,
from the mod ridble to the mod ferious, there are de¬
grees without end. Hence it is, that in viewing fome
unbecoming actions, too rifible for anger, and too fe¬
rious for derifion, the fpeftator feels a fort of mixt
emotion, partaking both of derifxon and of anger;
which accounts for an exprelhon, common with refpefl
to the impropriety of fome actions, that we know not
whether to laugh or be angry.
It cannot fail to be obferved, that in the cafe of a
rifible impropriety, which is always flight, the con¬
tempt we have for the offender is extremely faint, tho’
deriiion, its gratification, is extremely pleafant. This
difproportion between a pafiion and its gratification,
feems not conformable to the analogy of nature. In
looking about for a folution, we mud re (left upon
what is laid down above, that an improper adfion not
only moves our contempt for the author, but alfo, by
means of contrail, fwells the good opinion we have
of ourfelves. This contributes, more than any other
article, to the pleafure we have in ridiculing follies
and abfurdities ; and accordingly, it is well known,
-that they who put the greated value upon themfelves
89. • 1
are the mod prone to laugh at others. Pride, which is Congmity,
a vivid paffion, pleafant in itfelf, and not lefs fo in
its gratification, would fingly be fufficient to account
for the pleafure of ridicule, without borrowing any
aid from contempt. Hence appears the reafon of a
noted obfervation, That we are the mod difpofed to
ridicule the blunders and abfurdities of others, when
we are in high fpirits ; for in high fpirits, felf-conceit
difplays itfelf with more than ordinary vigour.
With regard to the final caufes of congruity and
impropriety; one, regarding congruity, is pretty ob¬
vious, that the fenfe of congruity, as one principle of
the fine arts, contributes in a remarkable degree to
our entertainment. Congruity, indeed, with refpeft
to quantity, coincides with proportion: when the
parts of a building are nicely adjuded to each other,
it may be faid indifferently, that it is agreeable by the
congruity of its parts, or by the proportion of its parts.
But propriety, which regards voluntary agents only,
can never be the fame with proportion : a very long
nofe is difproportioned, but cannot be termed impro¬
per. In fome inftances, it is true, impropriety coin¬
cides with difproportion in the fame fubjedt, but never
in the fame refpefl; for example, a very little man
buckled to a long toledo: confidering the man and the
fword with refpedt to fize, we perceive a difpropor¬
tion ; confidering the fword as the choice of the man,
we perceive an impropriety.
The fenfe of impropriety with refpeft to midakes,
blunders, and abfurdities, is happily contrived for the
good of mankind. In the fpeflators, it is produ&ive
of mirth and laughter, excellent recreation in an in¬
terval from bufinefs. But this is a trifle in refpefl of
what follows. It is painful to be the fubjeft of ridi¬
cule ; and to punifh ^with ridicule the man who is
guilty of an abfurdity, tends to put him more upon his
guard in time coming. Thus even the mod innocent
blunder is not, committed with impunity; becaufe,
were errors licenfed where they do no hurt, inatten¬
tion would grow into a habit, and be the occafion of
much hurt.
The final caufe of propriety as to moral duties, is
of all the mod illudrious. To have a jud notion of
it, the moral duties that refpefl others mud be didin-
guiflied from thofe that refpedl ourfelves. Fidelity,
gratitude, and the forbearing injury, are examples of
the fird fort; temperance, modedy, firmnefs of mind,
are examples of the other : the former are made duties
by the fenfe of judice ; the latter by the fenfe of pro¬
priety. Here is a final caufe of the fenfe of pro¬
priety, that mud roufe our attention. It is undoubt¬
edly the intered of every man, to fuit his behaviour
to the dignity of his nature, and to the dation allotted
him by Providence ; for fuch rational conduct con¬
tributes in every refpedl to happinefs, by preferving
health, by procuring plenty, by gaining the edeem of
others, and, which of all is the greated bleffing, by
gaining a judly-founded fe!f-cfteern. But in a matter
fo effential to our well-being, even felf-intereft is not
relied on : the powerful authority of duty is fuperad-
ded to the motive of intered. The God of nature, in
all things effential to our happinefs, hath obferved one
uniform method: to keep us deady in our condudl, he |
hath fortified us with natural laws and principles,
which prevent many aberrations, that would daily hap¬
pen were we totally furrendered tofo fallible a guide as
human
CON [329
Congrufty. human reafon. Propriety cannot rightly be confidered
k-~v in another light, than as the natural law that regulates
our conduct with refpedt to ourfelves; as juftice is the
natural law that regulates our conduct with relpe£t to
others. We call propriety a law, not lefs than juftice ;
becaufe both are equally rules of conduit that ought
to be obeyed : propriety includes this obligation ; for
to fay an aition is proper, is, in other words, to fay,
that it ought to be performed ; and to fay it is impro»
per, is, in other words, to fay that it ought to be for¬
borne. It is this very charaiter of ought and Jhould
that makes juftice a law to us ; and the fame charac¬
ter is applicable to propriety, though perhaps more
faintly than to juftice : but the difference is in degree
only, not in kind ; and we ought, without hefitation
or relu&ance, to fubmit equally to the government of
both.
But it muft, in the next place, be obferved, that to
the fenfe of propriety, as well as of juftice, are annexed
the fanCtions of rewards and puniftiments ; which evi¬
dently prove the one to be a law as well as the other.
The fatisfaCtion a man hath in doing his duty, joined
with the efteem and good-will of others, is the reward
that belongs to both equally. The puniftiments alfo,
though not the fame, are nearly allied; and differ in
] CON
degree more than in quality. Difobedience to the law Congrufty,
of juftice, is puniftied with retnorfe ; difobedience to c,'ni• .
the law of propriety, with ftiame, which is remorfe in '' ^ -
a lower degree. Every tranfgreffion of the law of ju¬
ftice raifes indignation in the beholder; and fo doth
every flagrant tranfgreffion of the law of propriety.
Slighter improprieties receive a milder punifhment:
they are always rebuked with fome degree of con¬
tempt, and frequently with derifion. In general, it is
true, that the rewards and punifiiments annexed to the
fenfe of propriety, are flighter in degree than thofe
annexed to the fenfe of juftice : which is wifely or¬
dered, becaufe duty to others is ftill more effential to
fociety than duty fo ourfelves ; for fociety could not
fubfift a moment were individuals not protetfied from
the headftrong and turbulent paffion of their neigh¬
bours.
CONI, a ftrong town of Italy in Piedmont, and ca¬
pital of a territory of that name, with a good citadel.
The town being divided into two faftions, it furrender-
ed to the French in .1641; but was reftored to the
Duke of Savoy foon after. It is feated at the con¬
fluence of the rivers Greffe and Sture. E. Long. 7.
29. N. Lat. 44. 23.
CONIC SECTIONS
ARE curve lines formed by the interfedtions of a
cone and plane.
If a cone be cut by a plane through the vertex,
the fedtion will be a triangle ABC, Plate CXLVI.
fig. 1.
If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to its bafe, the
feftion will be a circle. If it be cut by a plane DEF,
fig. 1. in fuch a diredtion, that the fide AC of a tri¬
angle palling through the vertex, and having its bafe
BC perpendicular to EF, may be parallel to DP> the
fedtion is a parabola; if it be cut by a plane DR,
fig. 2. meeting AC, the fedtion is an ellipfe ; and if it
be cut by a plane DMO, fig. 3. which would meet AC
extended beyond A, it is an hyperbola.
If any line HG, fig. 1. be drawn in a parabola per¬
pendicular to DP, the fquare of HG frill be to the
fquare of EP, as DG to DP; for let LHK be a fec-
tion parallel to the bafe, and therefore a circle, the
redtangle LGK will be eqdal to the fquare of HG,
and the redtangle BPC equal to the fquare of EP;
therefore thefe fquares will be to each other as their
redtangles; that is, as BP to LG, that is DP to DG.
Sect. I. Defcription of Conic ScBions on a Plane.
1. PARABOLA.
“Let AB, fig. 4. be any right line, and C any point
“ without it, and DKF a ruler, which let be placed in
“ the fame plane in which the right line and point are,
“ in fuch a manner that one fide of it, as DK, be ap-
“ plied to the right line AB, and the other fide KF
“ coincide with the point C; and at F, the extremi-
“ ty of the fide KF, let be fixed one end of the thread
“ FNC, whofe length is equal to KF, and the other
“ extremity of it at the point C, and let part of the
“ thread, as FG, be brought clofe to the fide KF by
“ a fmall pin G; then let the fquare DKF be moved
Vot. V. Part I.
“ from B towards A, fo that all the while its fide DK
“ be applied clofe to the line BA, and in the mean
“ time the thread being extended will always be ap-
“ plied to the fide KF, being ftopt from going from
“ it by means of the fmall pin ; and by the motion of
“ the fmall pin N there will be deferibed a certain
“ curve, which is called a femi-parahola.
“ And if the fquare be brought to its firft given po-
“ fition, and in the fame manner be moved along the
“ line AB, from B .towards H, the other femi-para-
“ bola will be deferibed.”
The line AB is called the direSrix ; C, the focus ;
any line perpendicular to AB, a diameter; the point
where it meets the curve, its vertex; and four time*
the diftance of the vertex from the directrix, its latus
rectum or parameter.
2. ELLIPSE.
“ If any two points, as A and B, fig. 5. be taken
“ in any plane, and in them are fixed the extremities
“ of a thread, whole length is greater than the dif-
“ tance between the points, and the thread extended
“ by means of a fmall pin C, and if the pin be moved
“ round from any point until it return to the place
“ from whence it began to move, the thread being
“ extended during the whole time of the revolution,
“ the figure which the fmall pin by this revolution
“ deferibes is called an ellipfe.”
The points AB are called the foci; D, the centre;
EF, the tranfverfe axis ; GH, the leffer axis} and any
other line palling through D, a diameter.
3. HYPERBOLA.
“ If to the point A, fig. 6. in any plane, one end
“ of the rule AB be placed, in fuch a manner, that
“ about that point, as a centre, it may freely move;
T t « and
330
CONIC S E
H and if to the other end B, of the rule AB, be fixed
“ the extremity of the thread BDC, whofe length is
“ fmaller than the rule AB, and the other end of the
“ thread, being fixed in the point C, coinciding with
“ the fide of the rule AB, which is in the fame plane
“ with the given point A; and let part of the thread,
“ as BD, be brought clofe to the fide of the rule AB,
“ by means of a fmall pin D ; then let the rule be
“ moved about the point A, from C towards T, the
“ thread all the while being extended, and the rc-
“ maining part coinciding with the fide of the rule
“ being ftopt from going from it by means- of the
“ fmall pin, and By the motion of the fmall pin D, a
“ certain figure is deferibed which is called the femi-
“ hyperbola.”
The other femi-hyperbola is deferibed in the fame
way, and the oppoiite HKF, by fixing the ruler to
C, and the thread to A, and deferibing it in the fame
manner. A and C are called foci; the point G, which
bifefts AC, the centre; KE, the tranfverfe axis; a line
drawn through the centre meeting the hyperbolas, a
tranfverfe diameter; a line drawn through the centre,
perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis, and cut off by
the circle MN, whofe centre is E, and radius equal to
CG, is called the fecond axis.
If a line be drawn through the vertex E, equal and
parallel to the fecond axis GP and GO be joined, they
are called ajfymptotes. Any line drawn through the
centre, not 'meeting the hyperbolas, and equal in
length to the part of a tangent parallel to it, and in¬
tercepted betwixt the affymptotes, is called a fecond
diameter.
An ordinate to any fe&ion is a line bife&ed by a
diameter and the abfcifla, the part of the diameter cut
off by the ordinate.
Conjugate diameters in the ellipfe and hyperbola
are fuch as mutually bifecl lines parallel to the other;
and a third proportional to two conjugate diameters
is called the latus reUum of that diameter, which, is the
firfl In the proportion.
In the parabola, the lines drawn from any point to
the focus are equal to perpendiculars to the dire&rix ;
being both equal to the part of the thread feparated
from the ruler.
In the ellipfe, the two lines drawn from any point
in the curve to the foci are equal to each other, being
equal to the length of the thread; they are alfo equal
to the tranfverfe axis. In the hyperbola the difference
of the lines drawn from any point to the foci is equal,
being equal to the difference of the lengths of the ru¬
ler and thread, and is equal to the tranfverfe axis.
From thefe fundamental properties all the others are
derived.
The ellipfe returns into itfelf. The parabola and
hyperbola may be extended without limit.
Every line perpendicular to the dire&rix of a pa¬
rabola meets it in one point, and falls afterwards
within it; and every line drawn from the focus meets
it in one point, and falls afterwards without it. And
every line that paffes through a parabola, not perpen¬
dicular to the dire&rix, will meet it again, but only
once.
Every line paffing through the centre of an ellipfe
is bifetted by it; the tranfverfe axis is the greateft of
C T^I O N S. Se&,
all thefe lines ; the leffer axis the leaf! ; and thefe near¬
er the tranfverfe axis greater than thofe more remote.
In the hyperbola, every line pafiing through the
centre, is btfeded by the oppofite hyperbola, and the
tranfverfe axis is the leaft of all thefe lines ; alfo the
fecon'd axis is the leaft .of all the fecond diameters.
Every line drawn from the centre within the angle
contained by the affymptotes, meets at once, and falls,
afterwards within it; and every line drawn through
the centre without that angle, never meets it; and a
line which cuts one of the affymptotes, and cuts the
other extended beyond the centre, will meet both the
oppofite hyperbolas in one point.
If a line GM, fig. 4. be drawn from a point in a
parabola perpendicular to the axis, it will be an ordi¬
nate to the axis, and its fquare will be equal to the
re&angle under the abfeiffa MI and latus redlum; for,
becaufe GMC is a right angle, GMq is equal to the
difference of GCq and CMq; but GC is equal to GE, *
which is equal to MB ; therefore GMq is equal to
BMq—CMq; which, becaufe Cl and IB are equal, is
(8 Euc. 2.) equal to four times the reftangle under MI
and IB, or equal to the reftangle under MI and the
latus re&um.
Hence it follows, that if different ordinates be
drawn to the axis, their fquares being each equal to-
the re&angle under the abfeiffa and latus reftum, will
be to each other in the proportion of the abfeiffas,
which is the fame property as was fhown before to
take place in the parabola cut from the cone, and
proves thofe curves to be the fame.
This property is extended alfo to the ordinates of
other diameters, whofe fquares are equal to ;the rec¬
tangle under the abfeiffas and parameters of their re-
fpeftive diameters.
In the ellipfe, the fquare of the ordinate is to the
reftangle under the fegments of the diameter, as the
fquare of the diameter parallel to the ordinate to the
fquare of the diameter to which it is drawn, or as the
fir ft diameter to its latus reftum ; that is, LKq fig. 5.
is to EKFas EFq to GHq.
In the hyperbola, the fquare of the ordinate is to
the re&angle contained under the fegments of the dia¬
meters betwixt its vertices, as the fquare of the dia¬
meter parallel to the ordinate to the fquare of the dia¬
meter to which it is drawn, or as the firft diameter
to its latus redtum; that is, SXq is to EXK as MNq
to KEq.
Or if an ordinate be drawn t<5 a fecond diameter,,
its fquare will be to the fum of the fquares of the fe¬
cond diameter, and of the line intercepted betwixt
the ordinate and centre, in the fame proportion : that
is, RZq fig. 6. is to ZGq added to GMq, as KEq to
MNq. Thefe are the moft important properties of
the conic feftions; and, by means of thefe, it is de-
monftrated, that the figures are the fame deferibed on.
a plane as cut from the cone; which we have demon-
ftrated in the cafe of the parabola. .
Sect. II. Equations of the Conic Sections
Are derived from the above properties. The equa¬
tion of any curve, is an algebraic exprefiion, which
denotes the relation betwixt the ordinate and abfeiffa;
the abfeiffa being equal to x, and the, ordinate equal'toy.
Scfl. II.
33i
CONIC S
If p be the parameter of a parabola, then z:px ;
which is an equation for all parabolas.
If a be the diameter of an ellipfe, p its parameter ;
then yr\ ax~xx : : p : a; and Xax—xx; an
equation for all ellipfes.
If a be a tranfverfe diameter of a hyperbola, p its
parameter; then y* : a x-bx* 1 : p a, and j* r=
—Xax+xx.
a
If a be a fecond diameter of an hyperbola, then y* r=
aa-\-xx :: p : a; and y' ~~X aa-{-xx ; which are e-
quations for all hyperbolas.
As all thefe equations are exprefled by the fecond
powers of x and y, all conic fe&ions are curves of the
fecond order; and converfely, the locus of every
quadratic equation is a conic feftion, and is a parabola,
ellipfe, or hyperbola, according, as the form of the
equation correfponds with the above ones, or with
fome other deduced from lines drawn in a different
manner with refpedt to the fedtion.
Sedt. III. General Properties of Conic Sections.
A tangent to a parabola bifedts the angle contain¬
ed by the lines drawn to the focus and diredtrix; in
an ellipfe and hyperbola, it bifedts the angle contained
by the lines drawn to the foci.
In all the fedtions, lines parallel to the tangent are
ordinates to the diameter paffing through the point of
contadt; and in the ellipfe and hyperbola, the diame¬
ters parallel to the tangent, and thofe pafling through
the points of contadt, are mutually conjugate to each
other. If an ordinate be drawn from a point to a di¬
ameter, and a tangent from the fame point which
meets the diameter produced; in the parabola, the
part of the diameter betwixt the ordinate and tan¬
gent will be bifedted in the vertex ; and in the ellipfe
and hyperbola, the femi-diameter will be a mean pro¬
portion betwixt the fegments of the diameter betwixt
the centre and ordinate, and betwixt the centre and
tangent.
The parallelogram formed by tangents drawn thro’
the vertices of any conjugate diameters, in the fame
ellipfe or hyperbola, will be equal to each other.
Sect. IV. Properties peculiar to the HyperVola.
As the hyperbola has fome curious properties ari-
fing from its affymptotes, which appear at f!rlt view
almoft incredible, we (hall briefly demonftrate them,
x. The hyperbola and its affymptotes never meet :
if not, let them meet in S, fig. 6. ; then by the pro¬
perty of the curve the redlangle KXE is to SX1' as
GE*1 to GMq or EP'1; that is, as GXq to SXq ; where¬
fore, KXE will be equal to the fquare of GX ; but
the redtangle KXE, together with the fquare of GE,
is alfo equal to the fquare of GX j which is abfurd.
2. If a line be drawn through a hyperbola parallel
to its fecond axis, the redtangle, by the fegments of
that line, bitwixt the point in the hyperbola and the
affymptotes, will be equal to the fquare of the fecond
For if SZ, fig. 6. be drawn perpendicular to the fe¬
cond axis, by the property of the curve, the fquare of
E C T I O N S.
MG, that is, the fquare of PE is to the fquare of GE,
as the fquares ZG and the fquare of MG together,
to the fquave of SZ or GX : and the fquares of F_X
and GX are in the fame proportion, becaufe the tri¬
angles RXG, PEG are equiangular ; therefore the
fquares ZG and MG are equal to the fquare of RX;
from which, taking the equal fquares of SX and ZG,
there remains the redlangle RSV, equal to the fquare
of MG.
3. Hence, if right lines be drawn parallel to the fe¬
cond axis, cutting an hyperbola and its affymptotes,
the reftangles contained betwixt the hyperbola and
points where the lines cut the affymptotes will be e-
qual to each other ; for' they are feverally equal to
the fquare of the fecond axis.
4. If from any points, dand S, in a hyperbola, there
be drawn lines parallel to the affymptotes da SQ^and
S£ dc, the rectangle uhder d a and d c will be equal to
the redlangle under QS and Si; alfo the parallelo¬
grams da, G c, and SQG b, which are equiangular,
and confequently proportional to the redtangles, are
equal.
For draw YW RV parallel to the fecond axis, the
redlangle Y W is equal to the redfangle RSV ;
wherefore, WD is to SV as RS is to dY. But be¬
caufe the triangles RQS, AYD, and GSV cdW, are
equiangular, W d is to SV as c d to S b, and R S is to
DY as SQto da; wherefore, d c is to S i as SQjo
da: and the redlangle d c, da, is equal to the reSl-
angle QS, S b.
5. The affymptotes always approach nearer the hy¬
perbola.
For, becaufe the redlangle under SQ__and S i or
QG, is equal to the redlangle under d a and d c, or
AG, and QG is greater than a G; therefore a d is
greater than QS.
9. The affymptotes come nearer the hyperbola than
any alfignable diftance.
Let X be any fmall line. Take any point, as d, in
the hyperbola, and draw d a, d c, parallel to. thd af¬
fymptotes ; and as X is to d a, fo let aG be to GQ^
Draw QS parallel to ad, meeting the hyperbola in S,
then QS will be equal to X. For the redlangle SQG
, will be equal to the redlangle d aG •, and confequently
SQ_is to d a as AG to GQ^
If any point be taken in the affymptote below Q,
it can eaiily be fhown that its diftance is lefs than the
line X.
Sect. V. Areas contained by Conic SeBions.
The area of a parabola is equal to y the area of a
circuirifcribed parallelogram. ’
The area of an dlipfe is equal to the area of a circle
whofe diameter is a mean proportional betwixt its
greater and leffer axes.
If two lines, a d and QS, be drawn parallel to orfe
of the affymptotes of an hyperbqla, the fpace a QS d,
bounded by thefe parallel lines, the affymptotes and
the hyperbola will be equal to the logarithm of a Qj_
whofe module is a d, fuppofing a G equal to unity.
Sect. VI. Curvature of Conic SeBions.
The curvature of any conic fedliort, at the vertices
of its axis, is equal to the curvature of a Circle whofe
diameter is equal to the parameter of its axis.
Tt 2
If
332
CONIC SECTIONS. Sea. VIII.
If a tangent be drawn from any other point of a
conic fe&ion, the curvature of the fediion in that point
will be equal ta the curvature of a circle to which the
fame line is a tangent, and which cuts off from the
diameter of the fe&ion, drawn through the point, a
part equal to its parameter.
Sect. VII. Ufes of Conic SeBlons.
Any body, projefted from the furface of the earth,
defcribes a parabola, to which the direction wherein
it is projected is a tangent: and the diftance of the
directrix is equal to the height from which a body
muft fall to acquire the velocity wherewith it is pro*'
jefted : hence the properties of the parabola are the
foundation of gunnery.
All bodies adted on by a central force, which de-
creafes as the fquare of the diftances increafes, and
impreffed with any projedtile motion, making any
angle with the diredtion of the central force, muft de-
fcribe conic fedtions, having the central force in one
of the foci, and will defcribe parabolas, ellipfes, and
hyperbolas, according to the proportion betwixt the
central and projedtile force. This is proved by diredt
demonftration.
CON
Conkhthy- CONICHTHYODONTES, or Plectronitje, in
odonces natural hiftory, one of the three names the foffile teeth
Coniffal*. of fifhes are known by.
Wa—-y— < CONIFERJE, in botany, an order ofoplants in the
Fragmenta methodi naturalis of Linnaeus, containing the
following genera, viz. cupreffus, ephedra, equifetum,
juniperus, pinus, taxus, thuja.
CONIFEROUS trees, fuch as bear hard dry feed-
veflels of a conical figure ; confiding of feveral woody
parts, being moftly fcaly, adhering clofely together,
and feparating when ripe.
CONIMBRICA (anc. geog.), a town of Lufita-
nia, on the fouth fide of the river Monda ; from the
ruins of which arofe Coimbra, in its neighbourhood, a
city of Portugal. W. Long. 9. 5. Lat. 40. 16.
CONINGSECK, a town of Suabia in Germany,
and capital of a county of the fame name. E. Long.
9. 23. N. Lat. 47. 50.
CONJOINT, in a general fenfe, fignifies united or
eoimedted.
Conjoint Degrees, in mufic, two notes which fol¬
low each other immediately in the order of the fcale,
as ut and re.
Conjoint Fetrachords, two tetiachords, or fourths,
where the fame chord is the higheft of one and the
loweft of the other.
CONISSALdE, in natural hiftory, a clafs of fofills
naturally and effentially compounded, not inflammable,
nor foluble in water, found in detached mafles, and
formed of cryftalline matter debafed by earth.
Of this clafs there are two orders, and of each of
thefe only one genus. Coniflalx of the firft order a„re
found in form of a naturally regular and uniform pow¬
der; all the genuine particles of which are nearly of
©ne determinate fhape, appearing regularly concreted,
and cot fragments of others once larger! Coniffalae of
The great principle of gravitation a£ls in. this man¬
ner ; and all the heavenly bodies defcribe conic fec-
tions having the fun in one of the foci; the orbits of
the planets are ellipfes, whofe tranfverfe and leffer
diameters are nearly equal: it is uncertain whether
the comets defcribe ellipfes with very unequal axes,
and fo return after a great number of years; or whe¬
ther they defcribe parabolas and hyperbolas, in which
cafe they will never return.
Sect. VIII. Ufes of Conic SeQions in the Solution of
Geometrical Problems.
Majiy problems can be folved by conic feftions that
cannot be folved by right lines and circles. The fol¬
lowing theorems, which follow from the Ampler pro¬
perties of the feftions, will give a fpecimen of this.
A point equally diftant from a given point and a gi¬
ven line, is fituated in a given parabola.
A point, the fum of whofe diftances from two given
points is given, is fituated in a given ellipfe.
A point, the difference of whofe diftances from two
given points is given, is fituated in a given hyper¬
bola.
CON
the fecond order are found in form of a rude, irregu- Conjugate
lar, and ftiapelefs powder, the particles of which are (I
never of any determinate figure, but feem broken , .
fragments of once larger mafies.
To the former genus belong the different kinds of
fand ; and to the latter the faburrse, or gritts.
CONJUGATE diameter, or Axis, of an Ellipfis,
the fhorteft of the two diameters, or that bifeCting ,
the axis.
CONJUGATION, in grammar, a regular diftri-
bution of the feveral inflexions of verbs in their differ¬
ent voices, moods, tenfes, numbers, and perfons, fo as
to diftinguifh them from one another. See Grammar
and Language.
CONIUM, hemlock : A genus of the digynia or¬
der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 45th order,
Umbellata. The partial involucra are halved, and moft¬
ly triphyllous; the fruit fubglobofe and quinque-ftria-
ted, the flrise crenated on each fide. The fpecies are
three ; 1. The maculatum, or greater hemlock, grows na¬
turally on the fides of banks and roads in many parts
of Britain. It is a biennial plant which perifhes after
it has ripened its feeds. It hath a long taper root
like a parfnip, but fmaller. The ftalk is fmooth, (pot¬
ted with purple, and rifes from four to upwards of fix
feet high ; branching out toward the top into feveral
fmaller ftalks, garnilhed with decompounded leaves,
whofe lobes are cut at the top into three parts ; thefe
are of a lucid green, and have a difagreeable fmelL
The ftalks are terminated by umbels of white flowers,
each being compofed of about ten rays or fmall um¬
bels, and have a great number of flowers, which fpread
open, each fitting upon a diftindt footftalk; the feeda-
are fmall and channelled, and like thofe of anifeed.
It flowers in June, and the feeds ripen in autumn.
2. The
CON t 333 ] CON
Conium 2. The Unuifolium, with ftriated feeds, differs from the
II firft. in having taller {talks, which are not fo much
tjcm*" fpotted. The leaves are much narrower, and of a
. ^ ' 1 palpr green : and this difference is conftant. It is a
biennial plant, and grows naturally in Germany- 3.
The africanum, with prickly feeds, is a native of the
Cape of Good Hope. The plant rarely grows above
nine inches high ; the lower leaves are divided like
thofe of the fmall wild rue, and are. of a greyifh co¬
lour ; thofe upon the {talk are narrower, but of the
fame colour ; thefe are terminated by umbels of white
flowers, each of the larger umbels being compofed of
three fmall ones; the involucrum hath three narrow
leaves fituated under the umbel. This flowers in July
and ripens feed in autumn, foon after which the plants
decay.
Medicinal Ufes. The firft fpecies is fometimes ap¬
plied externally, in the form of decoftion, infufion,
or poultice, as a difcutient. Thefe are apt to exco¬
riate, and their vapour is to fome particularly difa-
greeable; and hurtful. The ftalks are infignificant,
and the roots very virulent. With regard to its vir¬
tue when taken internally, it has been generally ac¬
counted poifonous; which it doubtlefs is, in a high
degree, when ufed in any confiderable quantity. But
Dr Stoerk has lately found, that in certain fmall dofes
it may be taken with great fafety ; and that, without
at all difordering the conftitution, or even producing
any fenfible operation, it fometimes proves a powerful
refolvent in many obftinate diforders. In fcirrhus, the
internal and external ufe of hemlock has been found
ufeful, but then mercury has been generally ufed at
the fame time. In open cancer, it often abates the
pains, and is free from the conftipating effects of opi¬
um. It is likewife ufed in fcrophulous tumors and ul¬
cers, and in other ulcers that are only defined by the
term ill-conditioned. It is alfo recommended by fome
in chincough, and various other difeafes. Its com¬
mon, and perhaps beft form, is that of the powdered
leaves, in the dofe at firft of two or three grains a-day,
which in fome cafes has been gradually increafed to
upwards of two ounces a-day, without producing gid-
dinefs. An extract from the feeds is faid to produce
giddinefs fooner than that from the leaves. Hence,
while both the London and Edinburgh colleges have
given a place to the fuccus fpiffatus cicutae, into the
pharmacopoeia of the latter an extra&um feminum ci¬
cutae is alfo introduced.
CONJUNCT, in a general fenfe, fignifies conjoin¬
ed, concurrent, or united.
Conjunct Rights, in Scots law. See Law, Part III.
n° clxxx. 15, &c.
Conjunct, or Conjident Perfons, in Scots law.
Ibid. n° clxxxiii. 8.
CONJUNCTION, in aftronomy, the meeting of
two or more ftars or planets in the fame degree of the
zodiac.
Conjunction, in grammarian indeclinable word
or particle, which ferves to join words and fentences
together, and thereby {hows their relation or depend¬
ence upon one another. See Grammar.
CONJURATION, magic words, chara&ers, or ce¬
remonies, whereby evil fpirits, tempefts, See. are fup-
pofed to be railed, or driven away. The Romifh
griefts gretend to expel devils, by preparing holy wa¬
ter in a particular manner, and fprinkling it over the
poffeffed, with a number of conjurations and exor-
cifms.
Some authors make the difference between conju-'
ration and witchcraft to eonfift in this; that the for¬
mer effe&s its end by prayers and invocation of God’s
name, &c. to compel the devil to do what is defired ;
fo that the conjurer is fuppofed to be at war with the
devil, and that evil fpirit to a& merely out of con-
ftraint: whereas the latter attains its end by an im¬
mediate application to the devil himfelf; and the de¬
vil’s complaifance is fuppofed.to be the confequence of
fome compaft between them, fo that the devil and the
witch have a good underftanding together. Both thefe,
again, differ from enchantment and forcery ; in that
thefe latter operate fecretly and flowly by fpells, charms,-
&c. without ever calling on the devil, or having any
conference with him.
Conn. See Cgnd.
CONNAUGHT, one of the four provinces of Ire¬
land, bounded on the eaft by that of Leinfter, on the
weft by the ocean, on the north and north-weft by?
part of the ocean and province of Ulfter, and on the
fouth and eaft by Munfter. It is about 130 miles in
length, and 84 in breadth. It has no rivers of any
great note befides the Shannon. It has feveral con¬
venient bays and creeks, and is fertile in many places.
It had feveral dangerous bogs, over-run with woods,
which are now in fome meafure cleared away. This
province produces abundance of cattle, Iheep, deer,.,'
hawks, and honey ; but the inhabitants being lazy, it
is the leaft cultivated of all the four provinces. It
contains 1 archbilhopric, 5 bilhoprics, 6 counties, 7
market-towns, 8 places of trade, 10 boroughs that fend
members to parliament, 47,256 houfes, 24 old caftles,
befides fortreffes that have been creeled of late, and
330 parishes. The principal town is Galway.
CONNARUS, Ceylon sumach : A genus of the
decandria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. , The ftigma is Ample,,
the capfule bivalved,. unilocular, and- monofpermous.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the monocarpus. This
is a native of India, and rifes with a ligneous ftaik
eight or ten feet high, which is hard, rigid, and co¬
vered with a black bark,, and divides upward into two
or three branches garnifhed with trifoliate leaves, ha¬
ving long footftalks placed alternate. It is propagated
by cuttings, and is to be treated in the. fame manner
with other tender exotics.
CONNECTICUT, a large river in New England,
which gives name to one of the five colonies of that
province (fee the next article). It rifes in a fwamp
on the height of land, in Lat. 45. 10. Long. 4. E.
After a fleepy courfe of eight or ten miles, it tumbles
over four feparate falls, and turning weft keeps clofe.
under the hills which form the northern boundary of
the vale through which it runs. The Amonoofuck
and Ifrael rivers, two principal branches of Connefti-
cut river, fall into it from the eaft, between the lati¬
tudes 440 and 450. Between the towns of Walpole
on the eaft, and Weftminfter on the weft, fide, of the.
river, are the great Falls. The whole river, compref-
fed between two rocks fcarcely 30 feet afunder, {hoots
with amazing rapidity into a broadbafon below. Over;
Conn
II
Conredti-^
CON [ 334 ] CON
Conre&i- thefe falls, a bridge 160 feet in length, was built in
, cut~ , 1784, under which the higheil floods may pafs with-
* out detriment. This is the firi’t bridge that was ever
ereAed over this noble river. Above Deerfield in Maf-
fachufets it receives Deerfield river from the weft,
and Miller’s river from the eaft, after which it turns
wefterly in a finuous courfe to Fighting falls, and a
little after tumbles over Deerfield falls, which are im-
paflable by boats. At Windfor in Connetticut it re¬
ceives Farmington river from the weft ; and at Hart¬
ford meets the tide. From Hartford it pafles on in a
crooked courfe, until it falls into Long Ifland found,
between Saybrook and Lyme.
The length of this river, in a ftraight line, is near¬
ly 300 miles. Its general courfe is feveral degrees weft
of fouth. It is from 80 to 100 roods wide, 130 miles
from its mouth. At its mouth is a bar of fand which
confiderably obftru&s the navigation. Ten feet water
at full tides is found on this bar, and the fame depth
to Middleton. The diftance of the bar from this
place, as the river runs, is 36 miles. Above Middle-
ton are feveral ftioals which ftretch quite acrofs the ri¬
ver. Only fix feet water is found on the fhoal at high
tide, and here the tide ebbs and flows but about eight
inches. About three miles below Middleton the river
is contracted to about 40 roods in breadth by two high
mountains. Almoft every where elfe the banks are
low, and fpread into fine extenfive meadows. In the
fpring floods, which generally happen in May, thefe
meadows are covered with water. At Hartford the
water fometimes rifes 20 feet above the common fur-
face of the river, and having all to pafs through the
above-mentioned ftrait, it is fometimes two or three
weeks before it returns to its ufual bed. Thefe floods
add nothirtg to the depth of water on the bar at the
mouth of the river ; this bar lying too far off in the
found to be affected by them.
On this beautiful river, whofe banks are fettled al¬
moft to its femree, are many pleafant, neat, well-built
towns. On its weftern bank, from its mouth north¬
ward, are the towns of Saybrook, Haddatn, Middle-
ton, Weathersfield, Hartford, Windfor, and Suffield,
in Conne&icut ; Weft Springfield, Northampton, Hat¬
field, and Deerfield, in Maffachufets ; Guilford, Brat-
tleborough, in which is Fort Dummer, Weftminfter,
Windfor, Hartford, Fairlee, Newbury, Brunfwick,
and many others in Vermont. Crofling the river into
New H.ampftiire, and travelling on the eaftern bank,
you pafs through Woodbury nearly oppofite to Brunf¬
wick, Northumberland, the Coos country, Lyman,
Orford, Lyme, Hanover, in which is Dartmouth Col¬
lege, Lebanon, Corniftr, Clermont, Charlefton, or
NJ 4, Chefterfield, and many others in New Hamp-
fhire, Sunderland, Hadley, Springfield, Long Meadow,
in Maffachufetts; and in Connefticut, Enfield, Eaft
Windfor, Eaft Hartford, Glaftenbury, Eaft Haddam,
and Lyme.
This river is navigable to Hartford, upwards of 50
miles from its mouth, and the produce of the country
for 200 miles above is brought thither in boats. The
boats which are ufed in this bufinefs are flat-bottomed,
long, and narrow, for the convenience of going up
ftream, and of fo light a make as to be portable in
carts. They are taken out of the river at three dif¬
ferent carrying places, all of which make ijp miles.
rT-
Sturgeon, falmon, and fhad, are caught in plenty Ccnncdb
in their feafon, from the mouth of the river upwards, cut~ .
excepting fturgeon, which do not afeend the upper v "
falls ; befides a variety of fmall fifti, fuch as pike, carp, /
pearch, &c.
From this river are employed three brigs of 180
tons each, in the European trade ; and about 60 fail
from 60 to 150 tons, in the Weft India trade ; be¬
fides a few fiftiermen, and 40 or 50 coafting veffels.
Connecticut, one of the five ftates of New
England in America ; bounded on the north by Maf¬
fachufets ; on the eaft by Rhode Ifland ; on the
fouth, by the found, which divides it from Long Ifland;
and on the weft, by the province of New York.
The divifional line between Conne&icut and Maf¬
fachufets, as fettled in 1713, was found to be about
72 miles in length. The line dividing Conne&icut
from Rhode Ifland was fettled in 1728,and found lobe
about 45 miles. The fea epaft, from the mouth of
Paukatuk river, which forms a part of the eaftern
boundary of Connefticut, in a dire<ft fouthweftwardly
line to the mbuth of Byram river, is reckoned at about
90 miles. The line between Connefticut and New
York runs from latitude 41. o. to latitude 42. 2.; 72
miles. Connefticut contains about 4674 fquare miles ;
equal to about 2,960,000 acres. t
This ftate is watered by feveral fine rivers, the prin- Rivers,
cipal of which are, ConneSicut deferibed in the pre¬
ceding article, Houfatonik, and the Thames. One
branch of the Houfatonik rifes in Lanefborough, the
other in Windfor, both in Berkfhire county in Maf¬
fachufets. It paffes through a number of pleafant
towns, and empties into the found between Stratford
and Milford. It is navigable 12 miles, to Derby. A
bar of {hells, at its mouth, obftrufts its navigation for
large veffels. In this river, between Salifoury and Ca¬
naan, is a cataraft, where the water of the whole ri¬
ver, which is 150 yards wide, falls about iixty feet
petpendicularly, in a perfe&ly white ftieet. A copi¬
ous mill arifes, in which floating rainbows are feen in
various places at the fame time, exhibiting a feene ex¬
ceedingly grand and beautiful.
The Thames empties into Long Ifland found at
New London. It is navigable 14 miles, to Norwich
Landing. Here it lofes its name, and branches into
Shetucket on the eaft, and Norwich or Little river on
the weft. The city of Norwich Hands on the tongue
of land between thefe rivers. Little river, about a
mile from its mouth, has a remaikable and very ro¬
mantic cataradl. A rock 10 or 12 feet in perpendi¬
cular heDht; extends quite acrofs the channel of the
river. Over this the whole river pitches, in one entire
flieet, upon a bed ,of rocks below. Here the river is
compreffed intoa very narrow channel between two crag¬
gy cliffs, one of which towers to a confiderable'height.
The channel defeends gradually, is very crooked, and
covered with pointed rocks. Upon thefe the water
fwiftly tumbles, foaming with the moft violent agita¬
tion, 15 or 20 rods, into a broad bafon which fpreads
before it. At the bottom of the perpendicular falls,
the rocksare curioufly excavated by theconftant pouring
of the water. Some of the cavities, which are all of a
circular form, are five or fix feet deep. The friioothnefs
of the water above its defeent—the regularity and
beauty of the perpendicular fail—the tremendous
2 roughnefs
G O N [ 335 ] CON
<?onnc«i- roughn’cfs of the other, and the craggy, towering cliff
^ cut- which impends the whole, prefent to the view of the
fpeftator a fcene indefcribably delightful and majeftic.
On this river are fome of the fineft mill feats in New
England, and thofe immediately below the falls, oc¬
cupied by Lathrop’s mills, are perhaps not exceeded by
any in the world. Acrofs the mouth of this river is
abroad, commodious bridge in the form of a wharf,
built at a great expence.
Shetucket river, the other branch of the Thames,
four miles from its mouth, receives Quinnabog, which
has its fource in Brimfield in Maffachufets ; thence
palling through Sturbridge and Dudly in Maffachu-
fets, it croffes into Connedicut, and divides Pomfret
from Killingly, Canterbury from Plainfield, and Lilbon
from Prefton, and then mingles with Shetucket. In
paffing through this hilly country, it tumbles over
many falls, and affords a vaft number of mill feats.
The fource of the Shetucket is not far from that of
Quinnabog. It has the name of Willamantik while
palling through Stafford, and between Tolland and
Willington, Coventry and Mansfield. Below Wind¬
ham it takes the name of Shetucket, and empties as
above. Thefe rivers are fed by numberlefs brooks
from every part of the adjacent country. At the
mouth of Shetucket is a bridge of timber 124 feet in
length, fupported at each end by pillars, and held up
in the middle by braces on the top, in the nature of
Harbours.
an arch.
The two principal harbours are at New London and
.New Haven. The former opens to the fouth. From
the light-houfe, which Hands at the mouth of the har¬
bour, to the town, is about three miles; the breadth is
three quarters of a mile, and in fome places more. The
harbour has from five to fix fathoms water—a clear
bottom—tough ooze, and as far as one mile above the
town is entirely fecure and commodious for large
Ihips. New Haven harbour is greatly inferior to that
of New London. It is a bay which lets up northerly
from the found about four miles. Its entrance is about
half a mile wide. It has very good anchorage, and two
and an half fathoms at low water, and three fathoms and
four feet at common tides. The whole of the fea
coail is indented with harbours, many of which are fafe
and commodious, but are not fufficiently, ufed to merit
a defcription.
Connetticut, though fubjeft to the extremes of heat
and cold in their feafons, and to frequent fudden
changes, is very healthful. As many as one in 46
of the inhabitants of Connecticut, who were living in
1774, were upwards of 70 years old. From accurate
calculation it is found, that about one in eight live
to the age of 70 years and upwards; one in 13 to
the age of 80 years, and one in about 30 to the age
of 90.
In the maritime towns the weather is variable, ac¬
cording as the wind blows from the fea or land. As
you advance into the country, the fea breezes have lefs
effedf upon the air, and confequently the weather is
lefs variable. The fhorteft day is 8 hours and 58
minutes, and the longeft 15 hours. The northwell
winds, in the winter-feafon, are often extremely fevere
and piercing, occafioned by the great body of fnow
which lies concealed from the diffolving influence of
fun in the immenfe forefts north aud noithweil. The
clear and ferehe temperature of the Iky, however, Conne&i-
makes amends for the feverity of the weather, and is cut' .
favourable to health and longevity. Conne&icut isge- * -
nerally broken land, made up of mountains, hills, and
valleys; and is exceedingly well watered. Some fmall
parts of it are thrn and barren. It lies in the fifth and
fixth northern climates, and has a ftrong fertile foil.
Its principal produftions are Indian corn, rye, wheat
in many parts of the ftate, oats and barley, which are
heavy and good, and of late buck-wheat—flax in large
quantities—fome hemp, potatoes of feveral kinds,pump¬
kins, turnips, peas, beans, &c. &c. fruits of all kinds,
which are common to the climate. The- foil is very
well calculated for pafture and mowing, which enables
the farmers to feed large numbers of neat cattle and
horfes. Aftual calculation has evinced, that any given
quantity of the beft mowing land in Conne&icut, pro¬
duces about twice as much clear profit as the fame
quantity of the beft wheat land in the ftate of New
York. Many farmers, in the eaftern part of the ftate,
have lately found their advantage in raifing mules,
which are carried from the ports of Norwich and New
London to the Weft India iflands, and yield a hand-
fome profit. The beef, pork, butter, and cheefe of
Coune&icut, are equal to any in the vvorld. 4
The trade of Connecticut is principally with the Trade.
Weft India iflands, and is carried on in veffels from 60
to 140 tons. The exports confift of horfes, mules,
oxen, oak Haves, hoops, pine boards, oak planks, beans,
Indian corn, filh, beef, pork, &c. Horfes, live cattle,
and lumber, are permitted in the Dutch, Danilh, and
French ports. Beef and fifti are liable to fuch heavy
duties in the French iflands, as that little profit arifes
to the merchant who fends them to their ports. Pork
and flour are prohibited. As the ordinance making
free ports in the French Weft India iflands extends to
all foreigners, the price of molafles and other articles,
has been greatly enhanced by the Englilh purchafes
for Canada and Nova Scotia ; fo that the trade of Con¬
necticut with the French Weft India iflands is not pro¬
fitable. Cotton, cocoa, indigo, and fugars, are not
permitted to be brought away by Americans. The
feverity with which thefe prohibitory laws are ad-
miniftered is fuch, as that thefe articles cannot be
fmuggled.
Connecticut has a large number of coafting veffels
employed in carrying the produce of the ftate to other
Hates—To Rhode Ifland, Maffachufets, and New
Hamplhire, they carry pork, wheat, corn, and rye. To
North and South-Carolinas and Georgia, butter, cheefe,..
falted beef, Cyder, apples, potatoes, hay, &c. and re¬
ceive in return vice, indigo, and money. But as New
York is nearer, and the ftate of the markets always well
known, much of the produce of Connecticut, efpecially
of the weftern parts, is carried there ; particularly pot
and pearl afttes, flax-feed, beef, pork, cheefe, and but¬
ter, in large quantities. Moft of the produce of Con-
nedticut river, from the parts of Maffachufets, New
Hamplhire, and Vermont, as well as of Connecticut,
which are adjacent, goes to the fame market. Con-
fiderable quantities of the produce of the eaftern parts
of the ftate are marketed at Bofton and Providence.
The value of the whole exported produce and com¬
modities from this ftate, before the year 1774, was
then eftithated at about L. 200,poo lawful money an¬
nually..
c o
Conne&'i- nually. Since this time
cut- made, fo that it is impofiible to tell whether the amount
j^ag fince been increafed or diminifhed.
In 1774, the number of (hipping in Connefticut
was 180; their tonage 10,317 ; feafaring men 1162 ;
hefides upwards of 20 fail of coafting veffels, which
employed about 90 feamen. This ftate has not yet
fully recovered the confufion in which it was involved
by the late war; fo that the number of (hipping, &c.
has not, at any period fince 1774, been afcertained with
accuracy. It is probable, however, confidering the
Ioffes fuftained by the war, the decay of the fhip-build-
ing bufinefs, and the number of unfortunate fhip-
wrecks, and Ioffes by hurricanes in the Weft Indies,
N T 336 1 . CON
accurate eftimate has been nufaftured in our own country, it may always he pro- ConnedtJ.
cured and ufed in a frefh ftate. The oil is prefled from cut-
the feed in the fame manner that cold drawn linfeed ^
oil is obtained from flax-feed, and with as little trouble.
Sweet olive oil fells for fix (hillings a quart. Should
the oil of the fun-flower fell for only two-thirds of that
price, the produce of an acre of ground, fuppofing it
to yield only 40 bufhels of the feed, will be L. 32,
a fum far beyond the product of an acre of ground in
any kind of grain. The feed is raifed with very little
trouble, and grows in land of moderate fertility. It
may be gathered_and (helled, (it for the extraction of
the oil, by women and children. ^
Connefticut is divided into eight counties, •»/'«. Hart- Civil divi-
that the (hipping and feamen are not now fo numerous ford, New Haven, New London, Fairfield, Windham,fion8 :intl
Litchfield, Middlefex, and ToUand. The counties P°rulaUo**
are fubdivided into upwards of 80 townfliips; each of
which is a corporation, invefted with power to hold
lands, choofe their own town-officers, to make pru¬
dential laws, the penalty of tranfgreffion not to ex¬
ceed 20 s. and to choofe their own reprefentatives to
the general afiembly. The townlhips are generally
divided into two or more parifties, in each of which is
as in 1774.
The number of (hipping from the port of New Lon¬
don employed in 1788 m the European and Weft India
trade, was four (hips, one fnow, 54 brigantines, 32
fchooners, and 45 (loops. The number of horfes and
cattle exported from the diftrift round New London,
from the 10th of January 1787 to the 10th of Ja¬
nuary 1788, was 6917; befides jack-afles imported and
:xported, not included. From 1786 to 1787, the one or more places for public worlhip.
number was 6671 ; fo that the laft year exceeded the
other 246. From March 1787 to January 1788,1454
borfes, 700 oxen, and 23 cows, were exported from the
port of Middleton.
The farmers in Connefticut and their families are
moftly clothed in plain, decent, homefpun cloth. Their
linens and wollens are manufaftured in the family way ;
and although they are generally of a coarfer kind,
they are of a ftronger texture, and much more durable
than thofe imported from France and Great Britain.
Many of their cloths are fine and handfome.
In New Haven is a linen manufaftory which flou-
rifties, and one for cotton is about to be eftabliftied.
In Eaft Hartford is a glafs-work, a fnuff and powder
mill, and an iron-work and (litting-mill. Iron works
are eftabliftied alfo at Salilbury, Norwich, and other great plenty.
Connefticut is the moft populous, in proportion to
its extent, of any of the thirteen dates. It is laid out
in fmall farms from 50 to 300 or 400 acres each, which
are held by the farmers in fee Ample; and are gene¬
rally cultivated as well as the nature of the foil will
admit. The ftate is chequered with innumerable roads
or highways, eroding each other in every direftion.
A traveller in any of thefe roads, even in the moft un¬
fettled parts of the ftate, will feldom pafs more than
two or three miles without finding a houfe or cottage,
and a farm under fuch improvements as to afford the
neceffaries for the fupport of a family. The whole
ftate refembles a well-cultivated garden ; which, with
that degree of induftry that is neceffary to happinefs,
produces the neceffaries and conveniences of life in
parts of the ftate. At Stafford is a furnace at which
is made large quantities of hollow ware and other iron¬
mongery, fufiicient to fupply the whole ftate. Paper
is manufaftured at Norwich, Hartford, New Haven,
and in Litchfield county. Nails of every fize are made
in ahnoft every town and village in Connefticut; fo
that confiderable quantities can be exported to the
neighbouring dates, and at a better rate than they can
be had from Europe. Ironmongery, hats of the bed
kinds, candles, leather, (hoes, and boots, are manu¬
faftured in this ftate. We muft not omit to mention
wooden dilhes and other wooden ware, which are
made in vaft quantities in Suffield and fome few other
places, and fold in almoft every part of the eaftern
ftates. Oil-mills, of a new and very ingenious con-
ftruftion, have been erefted in feveral parts of the
ftate.
It appears from experiments made formerly in this
ftate, that a buftiel of fun-flower feed yields a gallon
of oil; and that an acre of ground planted with the
feed at three feet apart, will yield between forty and
fifty‘bu(hels of the feed. This oil is as mild as fweet
oil, and is equally agreeable with fallads, and as a me¬
dicine. It may, moreover, be ufed with advantage in
paints, varnilhes, and ointments. From its being ma-
N° 89.
In 1756, the number of inhabitants in Connefticut
was 130,611 ; in 1774, there were 197,856 fouls. In
18 years, the increafe'was 67,245; from 1774 to
1782, the increafe was but 11,294 perfons. This
comparatively fmall increafe of inhabitants may be fatis-
faftorily accounted for from the deftruftion of the war,
and the numerous emigrations to Vermont, the weftern
parts of New Hampfhire, and other ftates.
The inhabitants are almoft entirely of Englilh de-
feent. Thfcre are no Dutch, French, or Germans,
and very few Scotch or Iri(h people, in any part of
New England. y
In addition to what has been already faid on thefe Character,
particulars under New England, it may be obferved, manners,
that the people of Connefticut are remarkably fond of ^lc-
having all their difputes, even thofe of the moft tri¬
vial kind, fettled according to law. The prevalence
of this litigious fpirit affords employment and fupport
for a numerous body of lawyers. The number of ac¬
tions entered annually upon the feveral dockets in the
ftate, juftifies the above obfervations. That party
fpirit, however, which is the bane of political happi¬
nefs, has not raged with fuch violence in this ftate as
in Maffachufets and Rhode-Kland. Public proceed¬
ings have been condufted, generally, and efpecially of
3 late>
CON [ 337 ] CON
Conned!- late, with mach -calmnefs and candour. The people
cut- are well informed in regard to their rights, and judi-
’v cious in the methods they adopt to fecure them.
The clergy, who are numerous, and, as a body,
very refpe&able, have hitherto preferved a kind of a-
riftocratical balance in the very democratical govern¬
ment of the Hate ; which has happily operated as a
check upon the overbearing fpirit of republicanifm.
It has been lamented that the unhappy religious dif-
putes which have too much prevailed among fome of
the clergy, and the too great attention that others
have paid to their temporal concerns, to the negle£t
of their flocks, and an inattention to the qualifica¬
tions of thofe who have been admitted to the facred
office, have, heretofore, confiderably diminiihed their
influence. It is a pleafing circumftance that the rage
for theological difputation is abating ; and greater
ftriftnefs is obferved in the admiffion of candidates to
the miniftry. Their influence is on the increafe ; and
it is no doubt to be attributed, in part, to their in-
creafing influence, that an evident reformation in the
manners of the people of this Itate has taken place
fince the peace. In regard to learning and abilities,
the clergy, at the prefent day, are equal to their pre-
8 deceflbrs at any former period.
Religion. As to ecclefiaftical government and difcipline, each
church is a feparate jurifdiftion, and claims authority
to choofe their own minifter, to exercife government,
and to enjoy gofpel ordinances within itfelf. The
churches, however, are not independent of each other;
they are aflbciated for mutual benefit and convenience.
The aflbciations have power to licence candidates for
the miniftry,’ito confult for the general welfare, and
to recommend meafures to be adopted by the churches,
but have no authority to enforce them. When dif-
putes arife in churches, councils are called, by the par¬
ties, to fettle them ; but their power is only advifory.
There are as many aflbciations in the ftate as there
are counties; and they meet twice in a year. Thefe
are all combined in one general aflbciation, who meet
annually.
All religions that are confiftent with the peace of
fociety are tolerated in Connedticut; and a fpirit of
liberality and catholicifm is increafing. There are
very few religious fedts in this ftate ; the bulk of the
people are congregationalifts. Befides thefe there
are epifcopalians and baptifts ; and formerly there was
a fociety of Sandimanians at New-Haven ; but they
are now reduced to a very fmall number. The epif-
copalian churches are refpeftable, and are under the
fuperintendance of a biftiop. There were 29 con¬
gregations of the baptifts in 1784. Thefe congrega¬
tions, with thofe in the neighbouring ftates, meet in
aflbciations, by delegation, annually.
Chief There are a great number of very pleafant towns,
towns, both maritime and inland, in Connedlicut. It con¬
tains five incorporated towns or cities. —Two of thefe,
Hartford and New Haven, are the capitals of the
ftate. The general aflembly is holden at the former
in May, and at the latter in Obtober, annually. See
Hartford and A^w-Haven.
c ..,0 ^ In no part of the world is the education of all ranks
academies pe°ple more attended ,to than in Connebticut. Al¬
and fchools. moft every town in the ftate is divided into diftribfs,
and each diftribt has a public fchool kept in it a greater
Vox.. V. Part I.
or lefs part of every year. Somewhat more than one Connedtii
third of the monies arifing from a tax on the polls and cut-
rateable eftate of the inhabitants, is appropriated to the '~*"v'***J
fupport of fchools, in the feveral towns, for the educa¬
tion of children and youth. The law directs that a
grammar fchool fliall be kept in every county town
throughout the ftate.
There is a gramma^ fchool at Hartford, and ano¬
ther at New Haven, fupportcd by a donation of go¬
vernor Hopkins. This venerable and benevolent gen¬
tleman, in his laft will, dated 1657, left in the hands
of Theophilus Eaton, Efq; and three others, a legacy
of L. 1324, “ as an encouragement, in thefe foreign,
plantations, of breeding up hopeful youths both at
the grammar fchool and college.” In 1664, this le ¬
gacy was equally divided between New Haven and
Hartford ; and grammar fchools were erebled, which
have been fupported ever fince.
At Greenfield there is a refpeftable academy, un¬
der the care and inftruftion of the Rev. Dr Dwight.
At Plainfield is another, under the care of the Rev.
Mr Benedibt. This academy has flouriffied for feve¬
ral years, and furnilhed a number of ftudents for Yale
and Dartmouth colleges. At Norwich and Windham,
likewife, are academies furnifhed with able inftruftors;
each of thefe academies have 60 or 70 fcholars.
Yale College was founded in 1700, and remained
at Killingworth until 1707—then at Saybrook until
1716, when it was removed and fixed at New Haven.
See New Haven. ir
On the bank of Connebticut river, two miles from Mines, mf-
Middleton, is a lead mine, which was wrought during "T1*8* an^
the war, at the expence of the ftate, and was produc-10 1
tive. It is too expenfive to work in time 'of peace.
Copper mines have been difcovered and opened in fe¬
veral parts of the ftate, but have proved unprofitable,
and are much neglefted. Iron mines are numerous
and produbtive. Steel ore has been found in the
mountains between Woodbury and New Milford.
Talcs of various kinds, white, brown, and chocolate
coloured cryftals, zink or fpelter, a femimetal, and
feveral other foffils and metals, have been found in Con¬
nebticut. ia
All freeholders in the ftate are required by law to Mode of
give in lifts of their polls and rateable eftate, to per- levying
fqns appointed in the refpebtive towns to receive them,taxcs*
on or before the 20th of Auguft annually. Thefe are
valued according to law, arranged in proper order, and
fent to the general aflembly annually in May.
The fum total of the lift of the polls and rateable
eftate of the inhabitants of Connebticut, as brought
into the general aflembly in May 1787, were as fol¬
lows :
Sum total of the Angle lift L. 1,484,901 6 4^
Afleflinents, - - - 47,790 2 9
One quarter of the fourfolds, - 1,1769 4
Total, - L. 1,533,867 18 si
On this fum taxes are levied, fo much on the pound,
according to the fum propofed to be raifed. A tax
of two-pence on the pound would raifeL. 12,782, 4s.
The ordinary annual expences of government be¬
fore the war amounted to near L. 4000 Sterling, ex-
clufive of that which was appropriated to the fupport
of fchools. The expences have fince increafed.
U u
At
COM t 3
Coi'ii'tfti- • At Stafford is a medicinal fpring, which is faid to
, cut' be a fovereign remedy for icorbutic, cutaneous, and
j3 other diforders. At Guilford is a fpring, whofe wa-
Mineral ter, it is faid, when feparated from the'fountain, will
fprings. evaporate ^even when put into a bottle and tightly
14 corked.
Conflate- It is difficult to fay what is the conllitution of this
courts of ^ate‘ Contented with the form of government which
juftice. originated from the charter of Charles II. granted in
1662, the people have not been difpofed to run the
hazard of framing a new conftitution fince the decla¬
ration of independence. They have tacitly adopted
their old charter as the ground of civil government,
fo far as it is applicable to an independent people.
Agreeable to this charter, the fupreme legiflative
authority of the ftate is veiled in a governor, deputy-
governor, twelve affiftants or counfellors, and the re-
prefentatives of the people, ffyled the General Jiffemkly.
The governor, deputy-governor, and affiilants, are an¬
nually chofen by the freemen in the month of May.
The reprefentatives (their number not to exceed two
from each town) are chofen by the freemen twice a-
year, to attend the two annual feffions, on the fecond
Thurfdays of May and October. This affembly has
powed to erect judicatories, for the trial of caufcs civil
and criminal,and to ordain and eitablilh laws for fettling
the forms and ceremonies of government. By thefe
laws the general affembly is divided into two branches,
called the upper and lower houfes. The upper houfe
is compofed of the governer, deputy-governor, and af¬
fiftants; the lower houfe, of the reprei'entatives of people.
No law can pafs without the concurrence of bothhoufes.
The judges of the fuperior court hold their offices du¬
ring the pleafure of the general affembly. The judges
of the county courts, and juftices, are annually ap¬
pointed. Sheriffs are appointed by the governor and
. council, without limitation of time. The governor
is captain-general of the militia, the deputy-governor
lieutenant-general. All other military offices are ap¬
pointed by the affembly, and commiffioned by the go¬
vernor.
1’he mode of elefting the governor, deputy gover¬
nor, affiftants, treafurer, and fecretary, is as follows :
The freemen in the feveral towns meet on the Monday
next after the firft Tuefday in April, annually, and
give in their votes for the perfons they chocfe for the
faid offices refpeflively, with their names written on a
piece of paper, which are received and fealed up by a
conftable in open meeting, the votes for each office by
themfelves, with the name of the town and office writ¬
ten on the outfide. Thefe votes, thus fealed, are fent
to the general affembly in May, and there counted by
a committee from both houfes. All freemen are eli¬
gible to any office in government. In choofmg affift¬
ants, twenty perfons are nominated, by the vote of
each freeman, at the freemen’s meeting for choofing
reprefentatives in September annually. Thefe votes
are fealed up, and fent to the general affembly in Oc¬
tober, and are there counted by a committee of both
houfes, and the twenty perfons who have the moft
votes Hand in nomination ; out of which number the
twelve who have the greateft number of votes, given
by the freemen at their meeting in April, are in May
declared affiftants in the manner above mentioned.
The qualifications of freemen are, maturity in years,
38 1 CON-
quiet and peaceable behaviour, a civil converfation, and
freehold eftate to the value of forty {hillings per annum,
or forty pounds perfonal eftate in the lift, certified by
the felcct men of the town; it is neceffary alfo that
they take the oath of fidelity to the ftate. Their
names are enrolled in the town clerk’s office, and they
continue freemen for life, unlefs disfranchifed by fen-
tence of the fuperior court, on conviction of mifde-
meanor.
The courts are as follows: The juftices of the
peace, of whom a number are annually appointed in
each town by the general affembly, have authority to
hear and determine civil actions, where the demand
does not exceed four pounds. If the demand exceeds
forty {hillings, an appeal to the county is allowed.
They have cognizance of fmall offences, and may pu-
nilh by fine not exceeding forty {hillings, or whip¬
ping not exceeding ten ftripes, or fitting in the ftocks.
There are eight county courts in the ftate, held in
the feveral counties by one judge and four juftices of
the quorum, who have jurifdiction of all criminaf cafes,
arifing within their refpedtive counties, where the pu-
niftiment does not extend to life, limb, or baniftunent.
They have original jurifdi&ion of all civil aftions
which exceed the' jurifdidtion of a juftice. Either
party may appeal to the fuperior court, if the demand
exceeds twenty pounds, except on bonds or notes
vouched by two witneffes.
There are feveral courts of probate in each county,
confifting of one judge. The peculiar province o£
this court is, the probate of wills, granting adminiftra-
tion ofintellate eliates, ordering diftribution of them,
and appointing guardians for minors, See. An appeal
lies from any decree of this court to the fuperior
court.
The fuperior court confifts of five judges. It has
authority in all criminal cafes extending to life, limb,
or baniihment, and other high crimes and mifdemea-
nors, to gant divorces, and to hear and determine all
civil actions brought by appeal from the county courts,
or the court of probate, and to corredt the errors of all
inferior courts. This is a circuit court, and has two
Hated feffions in each county annually. The fuperior
and county courts try matters of fadt by a jury, or
without if the parties will agree.
There is a fupreme court of errors, confiftingof the
deputy governor and the twelve affiftants. Their foie
bufinefs is to determine writs of error brought on.
judgments of the fuperior court, where the error com¬
plained of appears on the record. They have two-
ftated feffions annually, wz. on the Tuefdays of the
weeks preceding the ftated feffions of the general af¬
fembly.
The county court is a court of chancery, empowered,
to hear and determine cafes in equity, where the
matter in demand does not exceed one hundred pounds.
The fuperior court has cognizance of all cafes where
the demand exceeds that fum. Error may be brought
from the county to the fuperior court, and from the
fuperiort court to the fupreme court of errors, on
judgment in cafes of equity as well as of lav/.
The general affembly only have power to grant par¬
dons and reprieves, to grant commiffions of bankruptcy,,
or protedl the perfons and eftates of unfortunate
debtors..
The.
Conne&t*
CON [ 339 1 CON
GonneiJH- The common law of England, fo far as it is appli-
, cut~ cable to this country, is confidered as the common
* law of this ftate. The reports of adjudication in the
courts of king’s bench, common pleas, and chancery,
are read in the courts of this ftate as authorities ; yet
the judges do nbl confider them as conclufively bind¬
ing, unlefs founded on folid reafons-which will apply
in this ftate, or fan&ioned by concurrent adjudications
of their own courts.
The feudal fyftem of defeents was- never adopted in
this ftate. All the real eftate of inteftates is divided
equally among the children, males and females, except
that the eldeft fon has a double portion. And all
eftates given in tail, muft be given to fome perfon then
in being, or to their immediate iffue, and (hall become
fee-fimple eftates to the iflue of the firft donee in
tail. The widow of an inteftate is intitled to a third
part of the perfonal eftate for ever, and to her dower,
or third part of the houfes and lands belonging to the
15 inteftate at the time of his death, during her life.
Pradice of The practice of law in this ftate has more- fimplicity,
law. but lefs precifion, than in England. Affiftants and
judges are impowered to iffue writs through the ftate,
and juftices through their refpeftive counties. In
thefe writs, the fubftance of the complaints or the de¬
clarations muft be contained ; and if neither of the
parties fhow good reafon for delay, the caufes are
heard and determined the fame term to which the writs
are returnable. Few of thp fiftions of law, fo com¬
mon in the Englilh praftice, are known in this ftate.
The plaintiff always has his eleftion to attach or fum-
mon the defendant. Attornies are admitted and qua¬
lified by the county courts. Previous to their ad-
miffion to the bar, they muft ftudy two years with a
pradtifing attorney in the ftate, if they have had a college
education^ and three years if they have not; their
ttiorals muft be good, and their charafters unblemifhed;
and they muft fuftain an examination by the attorneys
of the court of the county where they are admitted,
and be by them recommended to the court. When
admitted to the county court, they can practice, with¬
out other qualifications, in any court in the ftate.
There are upon an average about thirteen attornies to
each county, one hundred and four in the ftate; a very
great proportion for the real exigencies of the people.
Yet from the litigious" fpirit of the citizens, the moft
of them find employment and fupport. There is no
attorney general, but there is one attorney to the ftate
, 5 in each county.
Hiftory. The prefent territory of Connedlicut, at the time
of the firft arrival of the Englifti, was poffeffed by the
Pequot, the Mohegan, Podunk, and many other fmall-
er tribes of Indians.
The Pequots were numerous and warlike; Their
country extended along the fea coaft from Paukatuk
to Conne&icut river. About the year 1630, this
powerful tribe extended their conquefts oyer a confi-
derable part of Connecticut, over all Long Ifland, and
part of Narraganfet. Saffacus, who was the grand
monarch of the whole country, was king of this na¬
tion. The feat of his dominion was at New London;
the ancient Indian name of which was Pequot.
The Mohegans were a numerous tribe, and their
territory extenfive. Their ancient claim, which was
5
furveyed and fettled by commifiioners from queen Anne ConneAi-
in 1705, comprehended all New London county, ex- cu<"
cept a narrow ftrip of about eight miles wide, on the ' *
fea coaft, almoft the whole of the county of Windham,
and a part of the counties of Tolland and Hartford.
Uncas, diftinguilhed for his friendlhip to the Englifti,
was the Sachem of this tribe.
The Podunks inhabited Eaft Hartford, and the cir¬
cumjacent country. The firft Sachem of this tribe,
of -whom the Englifti had any knowledge, was Ta-
tanimoo. He was able to bring into the field more
than 200 fighting men.
The firft grant of Conne&icut was made by the
Plymouth council to the earl of Warwick, in 1630,
and confirmed by his majefty in council the. fame year.
This grant comprehended all that part of New Eng- '
land which lies weft from Narraganfett river, 120 miles
on the fea coaft, from thence, in latitude and breadth
aforefaid, to the fduth fea. The year following, the
earl afiigned this grant to lord Say and Seal, lord
Brook, and nine others.
No Englifti fettlements were attempted in Connec¬
ticut until the year 1633, when a number of Indian
traders, having purchafed of Zequaffon and Natawa-
nute, two principal Sachems, a traft of land at the
mouth of Little river in Windfor, built a houfe and
fortified it, and ever after maintained their right of
foil upon the river.
The fame year, a little before the arrival of the
Englifti, a company of Dutch traders came to Hart¬
ford, and built a houfe which they called the Ilirfc of
Good Hope, and eredled a fmall fort, in which they
planted two cannon. The remains of this fettlement
are ftill vifible on the bank of Connefticut river. This
was the only fettlement of the Dutch in Connedricut
in thefe ancient times. The Dutch, and after them
the province of New York, for ajong time claimed as
far eaft as the weftern bank of Connecticut river. It
belongs to the profeffed hiftorian to prove or difprove
the juftice of this claim. Douglas fays, “ The par¬
tition line between New York and Connecticut, as
eftabliftied December 1. 1664, run from the mouth
of Memoroncok river, a little weft from Byram river,
N. N. W. and was the ancient eufcrly limits of New
Tork, until November 23. 1683, when the line was
run nearly the fame as it is now fettled.” If Douglas
is right, the New York claim could not have been well
founded.
In 1634, Lord Say and Seal, &c. fent over a fmalJ.
number of men, who built a fort at Saybrook, and held
a treaty with the Pequot Indians, who in a formal,
manner gave to the Englifti their right to Connecticut
river and the adjacent country.
In 1635, t^ie Plymouth council granted to the Duke
of Hamilton, all lands between Narraganfett and Con¬
necticut rivers, and back into the country as far
as Maffachufets fouth line. This covered a part of
the Earl of Warwick’s patent, and occafioned fome
difputes in the colony. There were feveral attempts to
revive the Hamilton claim, but were never profecuted.
In OCtober of this year, about fixty perfons from
Newtown, Dorchefter, and Watertown, in Maffachu¬
fets, came and fettled at Hartford, Wethersfield, and
Windfor, in Connecticut; and the June following the
U u 2 fa-
CON
Conne&l- famous Mr Hooker and his company came and fettled
t cut- at Hartford, and was a friend and father to the colony
v to the day of his death.
The firft court held in Connefticut was at Hartford,
April 26. 1636.
The year 1637 was diftinguifhed by the war with
the Pequots. This warlike nation had, for fome time,
been troublefome neighbours. They folicited the Nar-
raganfetts to join them in extirpating the Englifh.
They had furprized and killed feveral of the Englifh
upon Connecticut river. Thefe threatening appearan¬
ces and adtual hoftilities induced the three colonies
of Maffachufets, Plymouth, and Connefticut, to com¬
bine their farces, to carry the war into their country,
and to attempt the entire deftruftion of the whole
tribe. Myantonomo, the Narraganfet Sachem, and
Uncas, Sachem of the Mohegans, fent to the Englifh
and offered their fervice to join with them againft the
Pequots. Forces were accordingly raifed in all the
t 34° 1
CON
The Englifh thus obtained the country eaft of the Conne
Dutch fettlements, by right of conqueft. The pur- cut
fuit of the Indians led to an acquaintance with the
lands on the fea coaft from Saybrook to Fairfield. It
was reported to be a very fine country. This favour¬
able report induced Meffrs Eaton and Hopkins, two
very refpeclable London merchants, and Mr Daven¬
port, a man of diftinguifhed piety and abilities, with
their company, who arrived this, year (1637) from
London, to think of this part of the country as the
place of their fettlement. Their friends in Maffachu-
fets, forry to part with fo valuable a company, dif-
fuaded them from their purpofe. Influenced, how¬
ever, by the promifing profpefts which the country af¬
forded, and flattering themfelves that they fhould be
out of the jurifdiftion of a general governor, with
which the country was from time to time threatened,
they determined to proceed. Accordingly, in March
1638, with the confent of their friends on Connedti-
colonies ; but thofe of Connedticut, on account of cut river, they fettled at New Flaven,-and laid the
their vicinity to the enemy, were firft in action. Cap¬
tain Mafpn, with 80 Englifh and 100 Indians from
Connecticut river, prbceeded by water to the Narra-
ganfett’s country, where 200 of that tribe joined him.
On the 24th of May, they began their march for Saf-
facus fort on Pequot, now Thames river. They af¬
terwards determined firft to affault Myftic fort, which
was fituated between them and Pequot river. On the
morning of the 26th of May the attack was made.
The Indians, after a midnight revel, were buried in a
deep fleep At the moment of their approach, the
centinel happened to be gone into a wigwam to light
his pipe. * The barking of a dog gave the alarm. The
Indians awoke, feiz^d their arrows, and began their
hideous yell. They were joined in their tremendous
noife by the Indians in the Englifh army, who were
foundation of a flourifhing colony, of which Quinni-
piak, now New Haven, was the chief town. The
firft public worfhip, in this new plantation, was at¬
tended on Lord’s day, April 18. 1638, under a large
fpreading oak. The Rev. Mr Davenport preached
from Matt. iii. 1. on the temptations of the wildernefs.
Both colonies, by voluntary compaft, formed them¬
felves into diftindft commonwealths, and remained fo
until their union in 1665.
In 1639, the three towns on Connefticut river, al-
feady mentioned, finding themfelves without the li¬
mits of any jurifdittion, formed themfelves into a body
politic, and agreed upon articles of civil government.
Thefe articles were the foundation of Connecticut
charter; which was granted in 1662. The fubftance
of the articles, fo far as they refpedt the holding of
in the rear and afraid to approach. The battle was affemblies, the time and manner of eleCting magiftrates
warm and bloody, and the victory complete. The
fort was taken—about 70 wigwams burnt—50 or 60
of the Indians were killed—many were wounded and
taken, and the reft efcaped. Saffacus and his warriors
at Pequot, {truck with terror at the news of this de¬
feat, demolifhed their principal fort, burnt their wig¬
wams, and fled to the weftward. Capt. Stoughton,
with 160 men from Maflachufets, had by this time
arrived at Saybrook. He with his forces joined Cap¬
tain Mafon and purfued the Indians, and overtook ’d
furrounded them in a great fwamp near Fairfield, rx
Sachem and ninety-nine women and children came out
and delivered themfelves up to their purfuers. Terms
of peace were offered to the reft : but after a fhort
parley they determined, that as they had lived they
would die together. There were about 80 who
made this refolution. Part of thefe efcaped by means
of the darknefs of the night. The reft were either
killed or taken. In this aCtion the Indians had guns,
and other civil officers (except that in the old con:-
federation no perfon was to be chofen governor more
than once in two years), and the extent of legiflative
powers, was transferred into, and eftablifhed in faid,
charter.
The firft church was gathered in New Haven this
year, and confifted of feven members. Thefe were
chofen by the fettlers after Mr Davenport had preach¬
ed from the words of Solomon, * Wifdom hath build-
‘ ed her houfe, fhe hath hewed out her feven pillars.f
Thefe men were indeed the pillars of the church, to
whom the reft were added as they became qualified.
They were alfo the court to try all civil aCtions.
The firft fettlers in New Haven had all things com¬
mon ; all purchafes were made in the name and for the
ufe of the whole plantation ; and the lands were ap¬
portioned out to each family according to their num¬
ber and original ftock.
At their firft ele&ion, in Oftober 1639, MrTheo*
which is the firft account of their having ufed them, philus Eaton was chofen governor, for the firft year.
Saffacus fled to the Mohawks, by whom it is reported
he was murdered ; but it is more probable that he and
his company incorporated with them. Many of the
Indian captives were unjuftifiably Cent to Bermudas and
fold for flaves. The Pequot tribe was wholly extin-
guiffied. This fuccefsful expedition ftruck the Indi¬
an? that remained with fuch terror, as reftrained them
from open hoftilities for near forty years.after.
Their ele&ions, by agreement, were to be annual;
and the word of God their only rule in conducing
the affairs of government in the plantation.
In 1643, the articles of confederation between the
four New England colonies, mentioned under the ar¬
ticle New England, were unanimoufly adopted by
the colonies of New Haven and Connefticut.
The Englifh fettlement on Delaware, which was-
under
CON f 341 ] CON
Genne&i- under tlie junfdiclion of ISTew Haven, was furprized
cut. by the Swedes, and the people put in irons, under a
falfe pretence that they were entering into a confpi-
racy with the Indians to extirpate the Swedes.
The general court of New Haven, this year, eila-
bliihed it as a fundamental article not to be difputed,
That none be admitted as free burgeffes but church
members, and that none but fuch ftiould vote at elec¬
tions. They alfo ordained. That each town choofe
from among themfelves judges (church members) to be
a court, to have cognizance of all civil actions not ex¬
ceeding twenty pounds ; and of criminal caufes, where
the punifliment was, fitting in the ftocks, whipping,
and fining not exceeding five pounds. There was li¬
berty of appeal from this to the court of magiilrates.
The court of magiitrates confifted of all the magi-
ftrates throughout the colony,'who were to meet twice
a-year at New Haven, for the trial of all capital cau¬
fes. Six made a quorum. The general court was to
confift of the governor, deputy-governor, magiftrates,
and two rep relent at ives from each town. The annual
jeledlion of officers of government was at this time efta-
bliffied, and has ever fince continued.
The unfettled ftate of the colony had hitherto pre¬
vented their eftablilhing a code of laws. To fupply
this defeft, the general court ordered, ‘ That the ju¬
dicial laws of God, as they were delivered to Mofes,
and as they are a fence to the moral, being neither
typical nor ceremonial, nor having any reference to
Canaan, firall be accounted of moral equity and gene¬
rally bind all offenders, and be rule to all the courts
in this jurifdidtion in their proceedings againft offen¬
ders, until they be branched out into particulars here¬
after.’
About this time a war broke out between the Mo-
hegan and Narraganfett Indians. A perfonal quarrel
between Myantonomo, fachem of the Narraganfetts,
and Uncas fachem of the Mohegans, was the founda¬
tion of the war. Myantonomo railed an army of 900
warriors, and marched towards the Mohegan country.
Uncas by his fpies received timely notice of their ap¬
proach. His feat of refidence was in fome part of
Norwich. He quickly collected 600 of his bravefb
warriors, and told them, ‘ The Narraganfetts muff
not come into our town; we muff meet them.’ They
accordingly marched about three miles to a large plain,
where the two armies met, and halted within bow-lhot
of each other. A parley was propofed by Uncas, and
agreed to by Myantonomo. The fachems met, and
Uncas addreffed his enemy as follows. ‘ You have a
great many brave men : fo have I. You and I have
quarrelled ; but thefe warriors, what have they done ?
Shall they die to avenge a private quarrel between us ?
No. Come like a brave man, as you pretend to be,
and letk us fight. If you kill me, my men fiiall be
yours; if I kill you, your men lhall be mine.’ Myan¬
tonomo replied^: ‘ My men came to fight, and they
lhall fight.’ Uncas, like an experienced warrior, a-
ware of the refult of the conference from the fuperior
force of his enemy, had previoufiy fignified to his men,
that if Myantonomo refufed to fight him in fingle
combat, he would immediately fall, which was to be
the fignal for them to begin the attack. As foon
therefore as Myantonomo had finifhed his laconic
peech,. Uncas dropped : his men inftantly obeyed the
fignal, and poured in a Ihower of arrows upon the un- Connedti-
fufpe&ing Narraganfetts, and rulhing on with their j “lt‘
horrid yells and favage fiercenefs, put them to flight. '
Many were killed on the fpot, the reft were clofely
purfued, and fome were precipitately driven down
craggy precipices, and dalhed in pieces. At a place
called, from this event, Sachem's plain, Uncas over¬
took and feized Myantonomo by the Ihoulder. They
fat down together; and Uncas with a hoop called in
his men, and the battle ceafed. Doubtful what to do
with the royal prifoner, Uncas and his warriors, in
council, determined to carry him to the governor and
council at Hartford, and be advifed by them. Thither he
was accordingly conducted. The governor having advi¬
fed with his council, told Uncas, that the Englifh were
not then at war with the Narraganfetts, and of courfe
that it was not proper for them to intermeddle in the
matter. Uncas was left to do with him as he pleafed.
Myantonomo was conducted back to the plain where
he was taken, and put to death by Uncas himfelf.
The tragic feene did not end with his death. Uncas,
after the manner of the Indians, with his tomahawk
cut off a large piece of flefli from the ffioulder of his
flaughtered enemy, broiled and eat it, faying, with
an air of favage triumph, ‘ It is the fweeteft meat I
ever eat. It makes me have a ftout heart.’ His body
was afterwards buried, and a pillar eredled over it*
the remains of which are viiible to this day.
The Narraganfetts were greatly enraged at the death
of their prince, and refolved to take vengeance on the
Mohegans. The united colonies interpofed to pre¬
vent a war between them, but in vain. The Narra-
ganfetts refolutely declared, they would continue the
war until they had Uncas’s head. But as Uncas had
ever been a friend to the Englifh, they joined him a-
gainft his enemies, and were victorious. Such, how¬
ever, was the enmity of the Narraganfetts to the Eng-
lifli, that they afterwards fent fome of their men to
Uncas, with large prefents, to induce him to join with
them in a war with the colonies. Uncas replied,-
“ Go tell your king that I will go to Norwich, and
advife with Major John Mafon and Mr Fitch ; if they
tell me to join him and fight againft the Engliffi, I
will join him.” In the war that happened foon after,
Uncas affifted the Englifh, and the Narraganfetts were
fubdued, and never after were formidable.
In confideration of the fuccefs and increafe of the
New England colonies, and that they had been of no
charge to the nation, and in profpeCl of their being
in future very ferviceable to it, the Englifh parlia¬
ment, March 10. 1643, granted them an exemp¬
tion from all cuftoms, fubudies, and other duties, until
further order.
In 1644, the Connefticut adventurers purchafed of
Mr Fenwick, agent for Lord Say and Seal, and Lord
Brook, their right to the colony of Connecticut, for
L.1600.
The hiftory of Connecticut is marked with traces
of the fame fpirit which has been mentioned as
charaCteriftic of the Maffachufets, in different ftagss
of their hiftory. Indeed, as Maffaehufets was the
flock whence Connecticut proceeded, this is to be ex¬
pected.
The colonies of Connecticut and New Haven, from
their firft fsttlement, increafed rapidly ; traCts of land
CON [ 342 ] CON
Connedti- were purcliafed of the Indians, and new towns fettled
( Cllf- from Stamford to Stonington, and far back into the
country, when, in 1661, Major John Mafon, as agent
for the colony, bought of the natives all lands which
had not before been purchafed by particular towns,
and made a public furrender of them to the colony, in
the prefence of the general afl'embly. Having done
thefe things, the colonies petitioned King Charles II.
for a charter, and their petition was granted. His
Majefty, on the 23d of April 1662, iffued his letters
patent under the great feal, ordaining that the colony
of Conne&icut fhould for ever hereafter be one body
corporate and politic, in fail and in name, confirming to
them their ancient grant and purchafe, and fixing their
boundaries as follows, viz. “ All that part of his Ma-
jhfty’s dominions in New England, in America, bound¬
ed eaft by Narraganfett river, commonly called Narra-
ganjett bay, where the river falleth into the fea ; and
on the north by the line 0/ Maffachufets plantation,
and on the fouth by the fea, and in longitude as the
line of the Mafiachufets colony, running from eaft to
weft, that is to fay, from the faid Narraganfett bay on
the eaft, to the fouth fea on the weft part, with the
ifiands thereunto belonging.” This charter has ever
fince remained-the balls of the government of Con-
uefticut.
Such was the ignorance of the Europeans refpe&-
ing the geography of America, when they firft affumed
the right of giving away lands which the God of na¬
ture had long before given to the Indians, that their
patents extended they knew not where, many of them
were of doubtful conftruCtion, and very often covered
each other , in part, and have produced innumerable
■difputes and mifchiefs in the colonies, fome of which
are not fettled to this day. Connetticut conftrued her
■charter literally, and palling over New York, which
was then in poffeflion of the fubje&s of a Chriftian
prince, claimed, in latitude and breadth mentioned
therein, to the South Sea. Accordingly purchafes
were made of the Indians, on the Delaware river, weft
of the weftern bounds of New York, and within the
fuppofed limits of Connecticut charter, and fettle-
ments were made thereon by people from, and under
the jurifdiftion of, Conne&icut. The charter of Penn-
fylvania, granted to William Penn, in 1681, covered
thefe fettlements. This laid the foundation for a dif-
pute, which for a long time was maintained with
warmth on both fides. The matter was at laft fub-
mitted to gentlemen chofen for the purpofe, who de¬
cided the difpute in favour of Pennfylvania. Many,
however, ftill alfert the juftice of the Connecticut
claim. The ftate of Connecticut has lately ceded to
Congrefs all their lands weft of Pennfylvania, except a
referve of 20 miles fquare. This ceffion Congrefs have
accepted, and thereby indubitably eftablilhed the right
of Connefticut to the referve.
The colony of New Haven, though unconnedt-
\ed with the colony of Connefticut, was compre¬
hended within the limits of their charter, and, as
they concluded, within their jurifdidtion. But New
Haven remonftrated againft their claim, and refufed to
unite with them until they ftiould hear from Eng¬
land. It was not until the year 1665, when it was be¬
lieved that the king’s commifiioners had a defign upon
the New England charters, that thefe two colonies
formed a union, which has ever fince amicably fubfifted Conne<5H-
between them. cut.
In 1672, the laws of the colony were revifed, and v J
the general court ordered them to be printed; and al-
fo, that “ every family ftiould buy one of the law
books ; fuch as pay in iilver, to have a book for 12 d.
fuch as pay in wheat, to pay a peck and half a book ;
and fuch as pay in peafe, to pay 2 s. a book, the peafe
at 3 s. the bufhel.” Perhaps it is owing to this early
and univerfal fpread of law books, that the people of
Connefticut are to this day fo fond of the law. In
1750, the laws of Connecticut were again revifed, and
publiftied in a fmall folio volume of 258 pages. Dr
Douglas obferves, that they were the moft natural, e-
quitable, plain, and concife code of laws for plantations
hitherto extant.” There has been a revifion of them
fince the peace, in which they were greatly and very
judicioufly fimplified.
The years 1675 and 1676 were diftinguiftied by
the wars with Philip and his Indians, and with the
Narraganfetts, by which the colony was thrown into
great diftrefs and confufion. The inroads of the en¬
raged favages were marked with cruel murders^ and
with fire and devaftation.
In j 684, the charter of Maflachufets bay and Ply-
mduth Were taken away, in confequence of Quo
warrantos which had been iffued againft them. The
charter of ConneCIicut would have fliared the fame fate,
had it not been for W^dfworth, Efq; who,
having very artfully procured it when it was on the
point of being delivered up, buried it under an oak
tree in Hartford, where it remained until all danger
was over, and then was dug up and reaffumed.
Connecticut has ever made rapid advances in popu¬
lation. There have been more emigrations from this
than from any of the other ftates, and yet it i§ at pre-
fent full of inhabitants. This increafe, under the di¬
vine benediftion, may be afcrihed to-feveral caufes.
The bulk of the inhabitants are indultrious, fagacious
hulhandmen. Their farms furnilh them with all the
neceffaries, moft of the conveniences, and but few of
the luxuries, of life. They of courfe are generally term-
perate, and, if they choofe, can fubfift with as much
independence as is confident with happinefs. The fub-
fiftence of the farmer is fubftantial, and does not de¬
pend on incidental circumftanceS, like that of moft o-
ther profefiions. There is no neceflity of ferving an
apprenticefhip to the bufinefs, nor of a large flock of
money to commence it to advantage. Farmers, who
deal much in barter, have lefs need of money than any
other clafs of people. The eafe with which a com¬
fortable fubfiftence is obtained, induces the hufband-
man to marry young. The cultivation of his farm
makes him ftrong and healthful. He toils cheerfully
through tlie day—eats the fruit of Iris own labour with
a gladfome heart:—at night devoutly thanks his boun¬
teous God for his daily bleffings—retires to reft, and
his fleep is fweet. Such circumftances as thefe have
greatly contributed to the amazing increafe of inhabi¬
tants in this ftate.
Befides, the people live under a free government,
and have no fear of a tyrant. There are no overgrown
eftates, with rich and ambitious landlords, to have an
undue and pernicious influence in the election of civil
officers. Property is equally enough divided, and muft
continue
CON [ 343 ] CON
Conned*!- continue to be fo as long as eftates defcead as they now of phyfic.be went toFrance,and refided fometime in the Connor
do. No perfon is prohibited from voting, or from
being elefted into office, on account of his poverty,
j He who has the moft merit, not he who has the moil
money, is generally chofeninto public office. As in
univerfity ofMontpelier. Afterwards he went to Paris; p
where he obtained great ikill in medicine, anatomy,, on°p5 .
and chemiflry. From thence he travelled to Venice,
vith the two.fons of the high-chancellor of Poland;
ftances of this, it is to be obferved, that many of the and then taking a tour through great part of Ger-
citizens of Connecticut, from the humble walks of life,
have arifen to the firft offices in the Hate, and filled
them with dignity and reputation. That bafe bufinefs
of electioneering, which is fo diredtly calculated to in-
many, went to Warfaw, where he was made phyfi-*
cian to king John Sobiefl<i. In 1695, he came to
England, read a courfe of ledlures in London and
Oxford, and became member of the Royal Society and
troduce wicked and defigning men into office, is yet College of Phyficians ; afterwards, being invited to
but little known in Connecticut. A man who wifhes
to be chofen into office, acts wifely for that end, when
he keeps his defires to himfelf.
Cambridge, he read public ledtures there, and made
various experiments in chemillry. He has rendered
himfclf memorable for a philofophical and medical trea-
A thirit for learning prevails among all ranks of tife in Latin, entitled Evangelium Medici, i. e. “ the
people in the ftate. More of the young men in Con¬
necticut, in proportion to their numbers, receive a
public education, than in any of the dates. Dr Frank¬
lin and other literary characters have honoured this
date by faying, that it is the Athens of America.
The revolution, which fo effentially affedted the go¬
vernments of moft of the colonies, produced no very
perceptible alteration in the government of Connecti¬
cut. While under the jurifdiCtion of Great Britain,
Phyfician’s Gofpel ;” tending to explain the miracles
performed by Chrift as natural events, upon the prin¬
ciples of natural philofophy. He wrote alfo a hiftory
of Poland; and died in 1698, hged 32.
Connor, a city of Ireland, in the county of An¬
trim and province of Ulfter. W. Long. 6. 30. N.
Lat. 54. 50.
CONOCARPUS, button-wood A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
they eleCted their own governors, and all fubordinate 'plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
civil officers, and made their own laws in the fame
manner and with as little control as they now do.
Connecticut has ever been a republic, and perhaps as
perfeCt and as happy a republic as has ever exifted.
While other ftates, more monarchical in their govern¬
ment and manners, have been under a neceffity of un¬
dertaking the difficult talk of altering their old, or
forming new conftitutions, and of changing their mo¬
narchical for republican manners, Connecticut has
uninterruptedly proceeded in her old track, both as to
government and manners; and by thefe means has a-
voided thofe convullions which have rent other ftates
into violent parties.
48th order, Aggregate. The corolla is pentapeta-
lous; the feeds naked, folitary, inferior; the flowers
aggregafe. There are two fpecies, the ereCta and
procumbens, both natives of the Weft Indies. They
rife to the height of about 16 feet, but are trees of no
beauty, nor is the wood of them ufed for any mechamc
purpofe in the countries where they grow naturally.
They are, however, preferyed in fome botanic gardens-
in Britain for the fake of variety
CONOID, in geometry, a folid body, generated
by the revolution of a conic feCtion about its axis. See
Conic SeBions.
CONOIDES, in anatomy, a gland found in the
CONNECTION, or Connexion, the relation or third ventricle of the brain, called pinealis, from its
dependence of one thing upon another.
Connection, or Continuity, in the drama, confifts
in the joining of the feveral fcenes together.
The conneftion Is faid to be obferved, when the
fcenes of an aft fucceed one another immediately,
and are fo joined as that the- ftage is never left
empty.
CONNECTIVES, in grammar, one of the four
fpecies under which, according to Mr Harris, all words
may be included^ They are of two kinds; and as they
conned fentences or words, are called by the different
names of conjunctions and prepfitions. See Grammar.
CONN1VENT valves, in anatomy, thofe wrin¬
kles, cellules, and vafcules, which are found in the in-
fide of the two inteftines ilium and jejunum. See A-
natomy n° 93. etfeq.
CONNOISSEUR, a French term, of late ufed in
Engliffi : it literally denotes a perfon well verfed in any
thing; being formed of the verb connoitre, “toknow,
underiland.” Hence it comes to be ufed in our lan¬
guage for a critic, or perfon who is a thorough judge
or matter in any way, particularly in matters of paint¬
ing and fculpture.
CONNOR (Bernard), a learnedphyfician, was born
in the county of Kerry, in Ireland, about the year
1666. Having determined to apply himfelf to. the ftudy
refemblance to a pine-apple. See Anatomy, n° 132.
CONON, the renowned Athenian general and ad¬
miral, flourilhed 394 years before Chrift. See Atti¬
ca, n° 162, 163. After his defeat by Lyfander, he
fled to Evagoras king of Cyprus : after which he put
himfelf under the proteftion of Artaxerxes king of
Perfia ; with whofe army he delivered Athens from
the oppreffion of ftrangers, and rebuilt its walls. In
the 360th year of Rome, he beat the Lacedemonians
in a fea-fight near Cnidus upon the coaft of Afia, de¬
prived them of the fovereign rule they had on fea ever
Cnee the taking of Athens, and had fome other confi
derable advantages over them : but falling into the
hands of Teribazus a Perfian, who envied his glory, he
was put to death.
CONOPS, in zoology; a genus of infefts belong¬
ing to the order diptera, the charafters of which are;
The roftrum is porrefted, and jointed like a knee. The
antennae terminate by a flat and; folid articulation, re-
fembling the bowl of a fpoon, with a lateral brittle,
which when clofely examined appears to be very hairy.
Of this genus, there are feveral fpecies. 1. The
calcitrans is to be found every where, efpecially
in autumn, when it haraffes the horfes, and draws
blood from them with its fting. 2. The macroce-
phala might at firft fight be miftaken for a fpecies of
wafp*.
CON l 344 1 CON
Conovium wafp. It is fmooth 5 the forepart of the head is
II lemon-colour, as are the poifers; the feet are dun-
. coloured. The thorax is variegated with black and
* reddifh dun. The fame takes place with refpeft to
the fegments of the abdomen; fome of which are edged
with lemon-colour, chiefly the fecond, and part of
the third, towards the fides. The wings are brown,
watered, and clouded. This beautiful conops is found
in meadows. There are eleven or twelve other fpe-
cies.
CONOVIUM, (anc. geog.) a town of the Ordo-
vices, in Britain. From its ruins arofe, at the di-
ftance of four miles, Abercon’wey> the mouth of the
Conwey*, in Caernarvonlhire ; and on the fpot where
Conovium ftood is a hamlet, called Ccerhean, the old
town, (Camden.)
CONQUEST, in civil jurifprudence, is the ac-
cjuifition of property in common by a number of per-
fons.
In fome countries they confound acquifition with
ccnqueft; but, according to the moll general accep¬
tation, acquifition is the gaining of unappropriated
goods before the eftablilhment of a community:
whereas by the term canquejt, is ordinarily intended
whatever is acquired by a number of perfons in com¬
munity ; or by fome one for all the others.—As it is
more efpecially in the union of perfons by marriage
that a community of property takes place; fo it is in
reference to them that we frequently ufe the word
conqueji. There are neverthelefs conquefts alfo among
other perfons who are in a tacit community or fociety;
fuch as obtain by particular local cuftoms. Accord¬
ing to this fenfe of the word, it has been contended by
feveral, that William I. claimed this kingdom; that
is, not by right of arms, but by right of conqueft or
.acquell; under promife of fucceflion made by Edward
the Confelfor, and a contradl entered into by Harold
to fupport his pretenfions to that fucceffion : and by
old writers, conqueflus, acquifitio, and perquifitio, are
frequently ufed as fynonymous terms.
Conquest, -in the law of nations, is the acquifi¬
tion of fovereignty by force of arms, by fome fo¬
reign prince ; who reduces the vanquilhed under his
empire. The right of conqueft is derived from the
laws of war; and when a people is fubjedted, the con-
duft of the conqueror is regulated by four kinds of
law. Firfl, the law of nature, which didlates what¬
ever tends to felf-prefervation; fecondly, our reafon,
which teaches us to ufe others, as we would be treat¬
ed ourfelves; thirdly, the laws of political fociety, to
which nature has not afligned any precife boundary;
laftly, the law which is derived from the particular cir-
.cumllances attending the conqueft. Thus, a ftate
conquered by another will be treated in one of the
four methods following: Either the conqueror will
continue it under its own laws, and will only claim the
exercife of civil and ecclefiaftical fovereignty; or he
will impofe a new form of government; or he will de-
ftroy the frame of their fociety, and incorporate the
inhabitants with others; or he will exterminate them.
CONRAD II. eledted emperor of Germany in 1004.
He was obliged to take the field againft moft of the
German dukes who had revolted from him; and he
put Ernell duke of Suabia under the ban of the em-
N° 89.
pire. This being one of the earlieft inftances of fuch a Conrad
profcription, the formula is inferted here for its fingu- r J*
larity. “We declare thy wife a widow, thy children
orphans; and we fend thee, in the name of the devil,' j
to the four corners of the world.” It was in the reign
of this prince that the German fiefs became hereditary.
He died in 1039.
Conrad III. emperor of Germany in 1138. The
duke of Bavaria oppofed his election, and being put
under the ban of the empire, and deprived of his du¬
chy, he could not furvive his difgrace. The margrave
of Aullria was ordered by the Emperor to take pof-
feffion of Bavaria ; but Welfti, uncle to the deceafed
Duke, attacked him, and was defeated near the caftle
of Winlburgh : the battle fought upon this occafion is
famous in hillory, as having given rife to the party names
of Guelphs and Gibbeltnes, afterwards affumed in Italy.
The parole of the day with the Bavarians was Welfii,
from the name of their general; that of the Imperia-
lifts Werblingen, from a fmall village where Frederic
Duke of Suabia, their commander, had been nur-
fed: by degrees thefe names ferved to diftinguifh
the two parties ; and the Italians, who could not ac-
cuftom themfelves to fuch rough words, formed from
them their Guelphs and Gibbelines. He died in
1152.
Conrad of Lichtenau, or Abbas Ufpergenfis, was
author of an Univerfal Chronology from the creation
to 12 29, continued by an anonymous writer to Cha.V.
He colledled a fine library, and died about the year
1240.
CONRADIN, or Conrad junior, fon of Con¬
rad IV. was acknowledged Emperor by the Gibbe-
lines, who received him in triumph at Rome: but
Pope Alexander IV. had publiflied a crufade againft
this orphan; and Urban VII. his fucceffor, gave the
empire to Qharles of Anjou, brother to Louis IX.
king of France; and the unfortunate youth, though
powerfully fupported even by the Turks, loft a battle,
in which he was taken prifoner, and was beheaded, by
order of hisbafe opponent, publicly at Naples in 1229,
in the 18th year of his age. In him ended the race of
the Dukes of Suabia, which had produced feveral
kings and emperors.
CONSANGUINITY, or Kindred, is defined by
the writers on thefe fubje&s to be, vinculum perfona-
rum ab eodem Jlipite defcendentium; “ the connexion or
relation of perfons defcended from the fame ftock or
common anceftor.” This confanguinity is either lineal
or collateral.
Lineal confanguinity is that which fubfifts between
perfons of whom one is defcended in a diredl line from
the other; as between John Stiles (the propofitus in
the table of confanguinity) and his father, grandfa¬
ther, great-grandfather, and fo upwards in the direct
afcending line; or between John Stiles and his fon,
grand-fon, great-grandfon, and fo downwards in the
direft defcending line. Every generation, in this di-
redt lineal confanguinity, conftitutes a different de¬
gree, reckoning either upwards or downwards: the
father of John Stiles is related to him in thefirft de¬
gree, and fo likewife is his fon; his grandfire and
grandfon, in the fecond; his great grandfire and great-
grandfon in the third. This is the only natural way of
reckoning
Plate CXLYI.
COPTIC SECTIOlSr^.
CON
[ 345 1
CON
Confan ui reckoning the degrees in the diretl line ; and therefore merous iflue : both thefe iffues are lineally defeended Confangui-
°nkyfU1 univerfally obtains, as well in the civil and canon, as from John Stiles as their common anceftor; and they , ml:y- f
in the common law. are collateral kinfmen to each' other, becaufe they are , ' J
The doArine of lineal confanguinity is fufficiently all defeended from this common anceftor, and all have
plain and obvious ; but it is, at the firft view, afto- a portion of his blood in their veins, which denomi-
niftving to confider the number of lineal anceftors nates them confanguineous.
which every man has, within no very great number We muft be careful to remember, that the very be-
of degreesand fo many different bloods is a man ing of collateral confanguinity confifts in this defeent
faid to contain in his veins, as he hath lineal ance- from one and the fame common anceftor. Thus Tt-
ftors. Of thefe he hath two in the iirft defeending de- tins and his brother are related ; why ? becaufe both
gree ; his own parents : he hath four in the fecond ; are derived from one father : Titius and his firft cou-
the parents of his father, and the parents of his mo- fin are related ; why ? becaufe both defeend from the
ther : he hath eight in the third, the parents of his fame grandfather; and his fecond coufin’s claim to
two grandfather's, and of his two grandmothers : and, confanguinity is this, that they are both derived from
. . ^ , r ">Q To one an(j tue fame great-grandfather. In ftrort, as
many anceftors as a man has, fo many common ftocks
he has from which collateral kinfmen may be derived.
And as we are taught by holy writ, that there is one
couple of common anceftors belonging to us all, from
whom the whole race of mankind is defeended, the
obvious and undeniable confequence is, that all men
are in fome degree related to one another. For, in¬
deed, if we only fuppofe each couple of our anceftors
to have left, one with another, two children ; and
each of thofe children to have left, on an average, two
more (and without fuch a fuppofition the human fpe-
by the fame rule of progrefiion, he hath 128 in the fe-
venth ; 1024 in the tenth ; and at the 20th degree, or
the diftanceof 20 generations, every man hath above
a million of anceftors, as common arithmetic will de-
monftrate (a). This lineal confanguinity, we may
obferve, falls ftri&ly within the definition of vin¬
culum perfonarum rib eodetn Jlipite defeatdentium; fince li¬
neal relations are fuch as defeend one from the other,
and both of courfe from the fame common anceftor.
Collateral kindred anfwers to the fame defeription :
collateral relations agreeing with the lineal in this,
that they defeend from the fame ftock or anceftor;
but differing in this, that they do not defeend the one cies muft be daily diminiihing); we (hall find that all
from the other. Collateral kinfmen, then, are fuch as
lineally fpringfrom one and the fame anceftor, who is
the flips, or “ root,” the fpes, “ trunk,” or common
ftock, from whence thefe relations are branched out.
As if John Stiles hath two fbns, who have each a nu-
Vol. V. Part I.
of us have now fubfifting near 270 millions of kindred
in the 15th degree, at the fame diftance from the feve-
ral common anceftors as we ourfelves are* befides thofe
that are one or two degrees nearer to or farther from
the common ftock, who may amount to as many
X x more.
(a) This will feem furprifing to thofe who are unacquainted with the increafing power of progreflive
numbers ; but is palpably evident from the following table of a geometrical progrelfion, in which the firft
term is 2, and the denominator alfo 2 : or, to fpeak more intelligibly, it is evident, for that each of us has
two anceftors in the firft degree, the number of whom is doubled at every remove ; becaufe each of our ance¬
ftor* has alfo two immediate anceftors of his own.
1 2
2 4
3 §
4 16
5 32
6 64
7 128
8 256
9 512
10 1024
11 2048
12 4096
13 8192
. 14 16384
15 32768
16 65536
17 131072
18 262144
19 524288
20 1048576
A Ihorter way of finding the number of anceftors at any even degree, is by fquaring the number of an¬
ceftors at half that number of degrees. Thus, 16, the number of anceftors at 4 degrees, is the fquare
ef 4, the number of anceftors at two; 256 is the fquare of 16; 65536 of 256; and the number of ance¬
ftors at 40 degrees would be the fquare of 1,048,576, or upwards of a piillion of millions.
CON [ 346 ] CON
Confangui- raore ( b). And if this calculation Ihould appear in-,
nhy. compatible with the number of inhabitants on the earth,
it is becaufe, by intermarriages among the feveral de-
fcendents from the fame anceiior, a hundred or a thou-
fand modes of confanguinity may be confolidated in
one perfon ; or he may be related to us a hundred or
a thoufand different ways.
The method of computing thefe degrees in the ca-
* non law, which we have adopted, is as follows. We
begin at the common anceftor, and reckon downwards;
and in whatfoever degree the two perfons, or the
moft remote of them, is diftant from the common an¬
ceftor, that is the degree in which they are related to
each other. Thus, Titius and his brother are related
in the firft degree ; for from the father to each of
them is counted only one : Titius and his nephew are
related in the fecond degree ; for the nephew is two
degrees removed from the common anceftor, viz. his
own grandfather, the father of Titius : or (to give
a more illuftrious inftance from the Englifh annals)
King Henry VII. who flew Richard III. in the battle
of Bofworth, was related to that prince in the fifth
degree. Let the propofitus, therefore, in the table of
confanguinity, reprefentKing Richardlll. and the clafs
marked e, King Henry VII. Now their common ftock
or anceftor was King Edward III. the abavus in the Confangui-
fame table : from him to Edmund Duke of York, the nity-
proavus is one degree; to Richard Earl of Cambridge, v J-
the avus, two ; to Richard Duke of York, the pater,
three ; to King Richard III. xhnpropoftlus, four; and
from King Edward III. to John of Gant (a) is one de¬
gree ; to John Earl of Somerfet (e) two; to John
Duke of Somerfet (c) three; to Margaret Countefs
of Richmond (d) four; to King Heniy VII. (e) five.
Which laft-mentioned prince, being the fartheft re¬
moved from the common ftock, gives the denomination
to the degree of kindred in the canon and municipal
law. Though according to the computation of the
civilians (who count upwards from either of the per¬
fons related, to the common ftock, and then down¬
wards again to the other; reckoning a degree for each
perfon both afeending and defeending). thefe two
princes were related, in the ninth degree : for from
King Richard III. to Richard Duke of York is one
degree; to Richard Earl of Cambridge two; to Ed¬
mund Duke of York three ; to King Edward III. the
common anceftor, four ; to John of Gant five; to
John Earl of Somerfet fix ; to John Duke of So¬
merfet feven ; to Margaret Countefs of Richmond
eight ; to King Henry VII. nine. See the Table of
Confanguinity
(b) This willfwell more confiderably than the former calculation: for here, though the firft term is but 1, the
denominator is 4; that is, there is one kinfman (a brother) in the firft degree, who makes, together with the
propofitus, the two defeendents from the firft couple of anceftors; and in every other degree, the number of
kindred mull be the quadruple of thofe in the degree which immediately precedes it. For fince each couple of
anceftors has two defeendents who increafe in a duplicate ratio, it will follow, that the ratio in which all the
defeendents increafe downwards, mull be double to that in which the anceftors increafe upwards : but we have
feen, that the anceftors increafe in a duplicate ratio : therefore the defeendents mull increafe in a double dupli¬
cate ; that is, in a quadruple ratio.
Collateral Degrees. Number of Kindred.
1 1
2 4
3 1(6
4 64
5 256
6 1024
7 4096
8 16384
9 65536
10 262j44
11 1048576
12 4194304
* 13 16777216
14 67108864
15 268435456
16 1073741824
17 4294967296
18 17179869184
19 68719476736
20 274877906944
This calculation may alfo be formed by a more compendious procefs, viz. by fquaring the couples, or half
the number of anceftors,.at any given degree ; which will furnilh us with the number of kindred we have in the
fame degree, at equal diftance with ourfelves from the common ftock, befides thofe at unequal diftances. Thus,
in the tenth lineal degree, tire number of ancdlors is 1024 ; its half, or the Couples, amount to 512 ; the num¬
ber of kindred in the tenth collateral degree amounts therefore to 262144, or the fquare of 512. And if we
will be at the trouble to recoiled the Hate of the fevtral families within our own knowledge, and obferve how
far they agree with this account; that is, whether, on an average, every man has not one brother or fitter, four
firft-coufms, fixteen fecond-couflns, and fo on j we lhall find, that the prefent calculation is very far from be¬
ing overcharged.
CON t 347 ] CON
Confangui-Confanguinity (Plate CXLVI), wherein all the de*
nity> grees of collatei-al kindred to the prapofitus are com-
Oonlauicc. pUte(j}. as far as tjle tenth of the civilians and the
feventh of the canonifts inclufive ; *the former being
diftinguilhed by the numeral letters,- the latter by the
common ciphers.
Consanguinity and Affinity (degrees of), forbid¬
den in marriage. See Marriage ; and Law, Part
III. N' clx. 4.
Consanguinity and Affinity, an bbje&ion againft.
a judge. See Law, Part III. N° clvi. 12. Againft
a witnefs, ibid. cl::xxiv. 1 2
CONSCIENCE, a fecret teftimony of the foul,
'whereby it gives its approbation to things that are
naturally good, and condemns thofe that are evil. See
■Moral Philofophy.
A man of integrity will never liften to any reafon, or
givewvay to any meafure, or be milled by any induce¬
ment, againft eonfcience.-—The inhabitants of a great
town offered Marlhal de Turenne 100,000 crownsi,
upon condition he would take another road, and not
march his troops their way. He anfwered them, “ As
your town is not on the road I intend to march, I
cannot accept the money you offer me.”—The Earl
of Derby, in the reign of Edward III. making a de-
fcent in Guienne, carried by ftorm the town of Ber¬
gerac, and gave it up to be plundered. A Welch
knight happened by chance to light upon the receiver’s
office. He found there fuch a quantity of money
that he thought himfelf obliged to acquaint his gene¬
ral with it, imagining that fo great a booty naturally
belonged to him. But he was agreeably .furprifed
when the earl told him, with a pleafant countenance,
that he wilhed him joy of his good fortune ; and that
he did not make the keeping of his word to depend
upon the great or little value of the thing he had pro-
raifed.—In the liege of Falifci by Camillus general of
the Romans, the ichoolmafter of the town, who had
the children of the fenators under his care, led them
abroad under the pretext of recreation, and carried
them to the Roman camp, faying to Camillus, that
by this artifice he had delivered Falifci into his hands.
Camjllus abhorring this treachery, obferved, “ That
there were laws for war as well as for peace; and
that the Romans were taught to make war with irite-
grity not lefs than with courage.” He ordered the
fchoolmafter to be ftripped, his hands to be bound be¬
hind his back, and to be delivered to the boys to be
lalhed back into the town- The Falerians, formerly
obftinate in refiftance, ftruck with an aft of juftice fo
illuftrious, delivered themlelves up to the Romans;
convinced that they would be far better to have the
Romans for their allies than their enemies.
It is a faying. That no man ever offended his own
confcience, but lirft or fell it was revenged upon him.
The power of confcience indeed has been remarked in
all ages, and the examplescf it upon record ate innu¬
merable. The following is related by Mr Fordyce,
, V01 u in his Dialogues on Education j-, as a real occurrence
' p. 4oi. which happened in a neighbouring ftate not many
years ago. A jeweller, a man of good charafter and
confiderable wealth, having occafon in:the way of his
bufmefs to travel at feme diftance from the place of
his abode, took along with him a fervant, in order to
take care of his portmanteau. He had with him fome
of his beft jewels, arid a large fum of money, to which Confeience
his fervant was likewife privy. The mafter having oc- II
cafion to difmount on the road, the fervant watching Confcnpt.
his opportunity, took a piftol from his mafter’s faddle v"
and ffiot him dead on the fpot; then rifled him of his
jewels and money, and hanging a large ftone to his
neck, he threw him into the nearell canal. With this
booty he made off to a diftant part of the country,
where he had reafon to believe that neither he nor his
mafter were known. There he began' to trade in a
very low way at firft, that his obfeurity might fereen
him from obfervation, and in the courfe of a good
many years feemed to rife, by the natural progrefs of
bufinefs, into wealth and confideration ; fo that his
good fortune appeared at once the effeft and reward
of induftry and virtue. Of thefe he counterfeited the
appearance fo well, that he grew into great credit,
married into a good family, and by laying out his hid¬
den ftores difcreetly, as he faw occafion, and joining
to all an univerfal affability, he was admitted to a
{hare of the-government of the town, and rofe from
one poll to another, till at length he was chofen chief
magiftrate. In this office he maintained a fair cha¬
rafter, and continued to fill it with no fmall applaufe,
both as a governor and a judge ; till one day as he fat
on the bench with fome of his brethren, a criminal
was brought before him who was accufed of murder¬
ing his mafter. The evidence came out full, the jury
brought in their verdift that the prifoner was guilty,
and the whole affembly waited the fentence of the pre-
fident of the court (which he happened to be that
day) with great fufpence. Mean while he appeared
to be in unufual diforder and agitation of mind, and
his colour changed often ; at length he arofe from his
feat, and coming down from the bench, placed him¬
felf juft by the unfortunate man at the bar. “ You
fee before you (faid he, addreffing himfelf to thofe
who had fat on the bench with him), a ftriking in-
ftance of the juft awards of heaven, which this day,
after 30 years concealment, prefents to you a greater
criminal than the man juft now found guilty.” Then
he made an ample confeffion of his guilt, and of all
its aggravations. “ Nor can I feel (continued he)
any relief from the agonies of an awakened confcience,
but by requiring that juftice be forthwith done againft
me in the moft public and folemn manner.” We may
eafily fuppofe the amazement of all the affembly, and
elpecially of his fellow-judges. However, they proceed¬
ed, upon this confeffion, to pafs fentence upon him, and
.he died with all the fymptoms of a-penitent mind.
Courts of Conscience, are courts for recovery of
fmall debts, conftituted by aft of parliament in Lon¬
don, Wdtminfter, &c. and other populous and trading
diftrifts.
CONSCIOUSNESS. Metaphyficians, in lieu of
the word confcienee, which feems appropriated to theo¬
logical or moral matters, ordinarily ufe that of con-
feioufnefs ; whereby they mean an inner fentiment of a
thing, whereof one .i.ay have a clear and diftinft no¬
tion. In this fehfe they lay that we do not knciw
our own foul, nor are aifr.red of the exiftence of our
own thoughts, otherwife than by felf confcioufnefs.
See Metaphysics.
CONSCRIPT, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given to the fenators of Rome, who were called con-
X x 2
CON t 348 ] CON
Confecra- fcript fathers, on account of their names being all en-
tion, tered in one regifter.
, Confent-. CONSECRATION, the aft of devoting any thing
to the fervice and worihip of God. The Mofaical
law ordained, that all the firft-born, both of man and
beaft, (hould be fan&ified or confecrated to God. We
find alfo, that Jofhua confecrated the Gibeonites, as
Solomon and David did the Nethinims, to the fervice
of the temple ; and that the Hebrews fometimes con¬
fecrated their fields and cattle to the Lord, after which
they were no longer in their power.
Among the ancient Chriftians, the confecration of
churches was performed with a great deal of pious fo-
lemnity. In what manner it was done for the three
firft ages, is uncertain"; the authentic accounts reach¬
ing no higher than the fourth, when, in the peaceable
reign of Conftantine, churches were every where built,
and dedicated with great folemnity. Some think the
confecration confifted in fetting up the fign of the
crofs, or in placing a communion-table in the church ;
and others, that no more was done than preaching a
panegyrical fermon in commemoration of the founder,
and that then they proceeded to prayers, one of which
was compofed on purpofc for the church to be confe¬
crated. The Romanifts have a great deal of pious
foppery in the ceremonies of confecration ; which they
bellow on almoll every thing, as bells, candles, books,
water, oil, allies, palms, fwords, banners, pidlures,
crolfes, agnus-dei’s, rofes, childrens clouts, &c.
In England, churches have been always confecrated
with particular ceremonies, the form of which was
left to the difcretion of the bilhop. That obferved
by bilhop Laud, in confecrating St Catherine Creed
church, in London, gave great offence.
Consecration is particularly ufed for the benedic¬
tion of the elements in the eucharift.
Consecration, among medalifts, is the ceremony
of the apotheofis of an emperor, or his tranllation in¬
to heaven and reception among the gods. On medals
the confecration is thus reprefented : on one fide is
the emperor’s head, crowned with laurel, fometimes
veiled ; and the infcription gives him the title of d'vuus :
on the reverfe is a temple, a buftum, an altar, or an
eagle taking its flight towards heaven, either trom off
the altar, or from a cippus : at other times the em¬
peror is feen in the air, borne up by the eagle ; the
infcription always, confecratio. Thefe are the ufual
fymbols: yet on the reverfe of that of Antoninus is
the Antonine column. In the apotheofis of empreffes,
inllead of an eagle there is a peacock. As to the ho¬
nours rendered thefe princes after death, they were ex¬
plained by the words confecratio, pater, divus, and deus.
Sometimes around the temple or altar are put, memoria
felix, or memoria aterna ; for princeffes, aternitas, and
fderilus recepta ; on the fide of the head, dea, or ©f«.
CONSENT, in a general fenfe, denotes much the
fame with Assent.
Consent of Parts, in the animal economy, an a-
greement or lympathy, whereby when one part is im¬
mediately affefted, another at a diftance becomes af¬
fected in the fame manner.
This mutual accord or confent is fuppofed to be ef¬
fected by the commerce of the nerves, and their art¬
ful dillnbution and ramification throughout the body.
The effeCt is £0 fenfible as even to come under the
phyfician’s cognizance : thus, the ftone in the blad- Confentes
der, by vellicating the fibres there, will pain and draw Confgrva
them fo much into fpafms, as to affedt the coats of the
bowels, in the fame manner, by the intermediation of ■
nervous threads, and make a colic there ; and alfo ex¬
tend their twitches fometimes as far as the flomach,
and occafion grievous vomitings : the remedy, there¬
fore, in fuch cafes, is to regard the part originally
affeCled, how remote and grievous foever may be the
confequences and fymptoms in other places.
The fifth conjugation of nerves branched to the
parts of the eye, the ear, thofe of the mouth, cheeks,
praecordia, and parts adjacent, &c. is fuppofed by na-
turaliils to be the inftrument of that particular and
extraordinary confent between thofe parts. Hence it
is, that a favoury thing feen or fmelled excites the
appetite, and affcfis the glands and parts of the
m mth ; that a lhameful thing feen or heard affefts
the cheeks with blulhes ; on the contrary, if it pleafe,
it affedls the prascordia, and excites the mufcles of the
mouth and face to laughter; if it grieve, it affeCts
the glands of the eyes, fo as to occafion tears, and
the mufcles of the face, putting them into an afpeft
of crying. Dr Willis, quoted by Mr Derham, im¬
putes the pleafure of killing, and its effedls, to this
pair of nerves; which being branched both to the lips
and the. genital parts, when the former are affe&ed
an irritation is occafroned in the latter. See Sympa¬
thy.
CONSENTES, the name which the Romans gave
to the 12 fuperior gods, the Dii majorum gentium.
The word fignifies as much as confentientes; that is,
who confented to the deliberations of Jupiter’s council.
They were twelve in number, whofe name Ennius has
briefly expreffed in thefe lines,
Juno, Vefa, Minerva^ Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars,
Merturius, Jovi, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo.
CONSEQUENCE, in logic, the conclufion, or
what refults from reafon or argument. See Conclu¬
sion.
The confequence is that other propofition.in which
the extremes or premifes of a fyllogifm are joined, or
feparated; and is gained from what was afferted in?
the premifes.
This word, in a more rellrained fenfe, is ufed for
the relation or connexion between two propofitions*
whereof one is inferred from the other.
CONSEQUENT, fomething deduced or gathered,
from a former argumentation. But, in a more pre-
cife fenfe, it is ufed for the propofition which contains
the conclufion, confidered in itfelf, without any regard
to the antecedent: in which fenfe the confequent may
be true, though the confequence be falfe. See the
preceding article.
CONSERVATOR, an officer ordained for the fe-
curity and prefervation of the privileges of fome cities
and communities, having a commiffion to judge of and
determine the differences among them.
In molt catholic univerfities there are two conferva-
tors ; the confervator of royal privileges, or thofe
granted by kings; and the confervator of apoftolical
privileges, or thofe granted by the pope. The lirll.
takes cognizance of perfonal and mixed caufes between
the regents, Undents, &c. and the latter of fpiritual
matters between ecclefiallice.
Anciently
Conferva-
H
Confign-
CON [ 349 ] CON
Anciently there were appointed confervators of trea¬
ties of peace between princes ; which confervators be¬
came judges of the infra&ions made on a treaty, and
were charged with procuring fatisfaftiou to be made.
Thefe were ufually the feudatories of the feveral pow¬
ers. In lieu of confervators, princes now have recourfe
to other indifferent princes to guarantee their treaties.
CoNSERrATOR of Seots Privileges, at Campvere, is an
officer belonging to the royal boroughs of Scotland,
who takes care of the mercantile affairs of Scotland,
agreeable to the ftaple contradt between them and the
States-General.
Conservator of the Peace, in the ancient Englifh
cuftoms, was a perfon who had an efpecial charge, by
virtue of his office, to fee the king’s peace kept. Till
the ereftion of juftices of the peace by king Ed¬
ward III. there were feveral perfons who by common
law were interefted in keeping the fame: fome having
that charge as incident to other offices ; and others
fimply, or of itfelf, called cujlodes, or confervators of
the peace. The chamberlain of Chefter is ftill a con-
fervator in that county ; and petty conftables are, by
the common law* confervators, &c. in the firft fenfe,
within their own jurifdiction : fo are alfo the coroner
and the ffieriff within their own county. The king
is the principal confervator of the peace within all his
dominions: the lord chancellor, lord treafurer, lord
high Reward, lord marfhal, lord high conflable, all the
juflices of the court of king’s bench, by their office,
and the mailer of the rolls, by prefcription, are gene¬
ral confervators of the peace through the whole king¬
dom, and may commit breakers of the peace, and bind
them in recog nifances to keep it.
Conservator of the Truce, and. Safe Conducts, was
an officer appointed in every fea-port, under the king’s
letters patent. His charge was to inquire of all of¬
fences committed againfl the king’s truce, and fafe
condu&s upon the main fea, out of the franchifes of
the cinque-ports, as the admirals were wont to do,
and fuch other things as are declared anno 3 Hen. V.
cap. 6.
CONSERVATORIOS, are mufical fchools efla-
bliihed for the inftruftion of children in the profeffion
of mufic. There are four of thefe at Venice, defign-
ed for the education of girls, and three at Naples, for
the education of boys. It has been fuggefled that
the operation of caftration was performed in the con-
fervatorios ; but the practice is abfolutely prohibited ;
and the young caftrati are brought from Lucia in Pug¬
lia : but before the operation is performed, their voices
are tried in a confervatorio. The fcholars of the Ve¬
netian confervatorios have been chiefly celebrated for
tafte and neatnefs of execution ; and thofe of Naples
have had the reputation of being the fixkcontrapuntijls,
or compofers, in Europe.
CONSERVATORY, a term fometimes ufed for a
green-houfe or ice-houfe.
CONSERVE, in pharmacy, a form of medicine
contrived to preferve the flowers, herbs, roots, or
fruits of feveral fimples, as near as poffible to what
they are when frefh gathered. See Pharmacy.
CONSIGNMENT, in law, the depofiting any
fum of money, bills, papers, or commodities, in good
hands; , either by appointment of a court of juftice, in
order to be delivered to the perfohs to whom they are Conflgn-
adjudged ; or voluntarily, in order to their being re-
mitted to the perfons they belong to, or fent to the Confiftory.
places they are defigned for.  v*—■'
Consignment of Goods, in commerce, is the de¬
livering or making them over to another : thus, goods
are faid to be configned to a faftor, v^hen they are
fent to him to be fold, &c. ; or when a faftor fends
back goods to his principal, they are faid to be con*
figned to him.
CONSISTENCE, in phyfics, that ftate of a body
wherein its component particles are fo conne&ed or
entangled among themfelves, as not to feparate or
recede from each other. It differs from continuity in
this, that it implies a regard to motion or reft, which
continuity does not, it being fufficient to denominate
a thing continuous that its parts are contiguous to each-
other.
CONSISTENTES, in church-hiftory, a kind of pe¬
nitents who were allowed to affifl at prayers, but who
could not be admitted to receive the facrament.
CONSISTORY (ConJJtflorium), fignifies as much
as pratorium, a tribunal: it is commonly ufed for a
council-houfe of ecclefiaftical perfons, or place of ju¬
ftice in the fpiritual court; a feffion or aflembly of pre¬
lates. And every archbifhop and bifhop of every dio-
cefe hath a confitlory court held before his chancellor
or commiffary in his cathedral church, or other conve¬
nient place of his diocefe, for ecclefiaftical caufes. The
bifhop’s chancellor is the judge of this court, fuppofed
to be fkilled in the civil and canon law; and in places
of the diocefe far remote from the bilhop’s confiftory,
the bifhop appoints a commiffary to judge in all caufes
within a certain diftridt, and a regifter to enter his de¬
crees, &c..
Consistory, at Rome, denotes the college of car¬
dinals, or the pope’s fenate and council, before-
whom judiciary caufes are pleaded. Du-Cange derives
the word from confiflorium ; i. e. locus ubi cotfijlitur;
ufed chiefly for a veftibule, gallery, or anti-chamber,
where the courtiers wait for admiffion; and called-
a confflente multitudine.
The confiftory is the firft: court, or tribunal of
Rome : it never meets but when the pope pleafes to
convoke it: the pope' prefides in it in perfon, mount¬
ed on a magnificent throne, and habited in his pontifi¬
calia ; on the right are the cardinal-biftiops and priefts*
and on the left the cardinal deacons. The place where
it is held, is a large hall in the apoftolical palace,
where princes and ambafladors of kings are received.
The other prelates, prothonotaries, auditors of the ro¬
ta, and other officers, are feated on the fteps of the
throne : the courtiers fit on the ground ; ambafladors
on the right, and confittorial and fifeal advocates be¬
hind the cardinals.
Befides the public confiftory, there is alfo a private
one, held in a retired chamber, called the chamber of
papegay; the pope’s throne here being only raifed two
fteps high. Nobody is here admitted but the cardinals,
whofe opinions are colle&ed, and called fentencest
Here are firft propofed and pafled all bulls for bfffiop-
ricks, abbeys, &c. Hence biffiopricks and abbeys
are faid to be confiftorial benefices; in regard, they
muft be propofed in the confiftory, the annates be paid
i to
CON [ 35° ] CON
Coiififtory to the pope, and his bulls taken. Anciently they were
r II. eleftive ; but by the concordat, which abolifhes elec-
■ ^ ^' tions. they are appointed to be collated by the pope
alone, on the nomination of the prince.
Consistory was alfo the name of a court under
Conftantine, where he fat in perfon, and heard caufes :
the members of this court were called comites.
Consistory is alfo ufed among the reformed, for
a council or afltmbly of minifters and elders, to regu¬
late their affairs, difcipline, &c.
Consistory, or court Chriftian in the Englifli laws,
is a council of ecclefiaftical perfons, or the place of
juflice in an ecclefiaftical or fpiritual court. Every
archbifhop and bifhop has a confiftory-court, held be¬
fore his chancellor or commiffary, either in his cathe¬
dral, in fome chapel, aifle, or portico, belonging there¬
to ; or in fome other convenient place of his diocefe, for
ecclefiaflical caufes. The fpiritual court was anciently,
in the time of the Saxons, joined with the county or
hundred court; and the original of theconfiftory court,
as divided from thofe courts, is found in a lavy of the
conqueror, quoted by lord Coke. From this court
there lies an appeal to the archbifhop of each province
refpe&ivtly.
CONSOLATION, one of the places in rhetoric
wherein the orator endeavours to abate and moderate
the grief or concern of another.
CONSOLE, in architedlure, an ornament cut upon
the key of 'an arch, which has a projefture, and on
occafion feivesto fupport little corniches, figures, bufts,
and vafes.
CONSOLIDATION, in law, the combining and
uniting two benefices into one. The term is borrowed
from the civil law ; where it properly fignifiesan union
of the poffefiion, or occupation, with the property.
Thus, if a man have by legacy ufum fruttum fundi, and
afterwards buy the property, or fee-limple, of the
heir ; this is called a confolldation.
Consol ib at ion, in medicine, the adfion of uniting
broken bones, or the lips of wounds, by means of con-
folidating remedies, as they are called ; which cleanfing
with a moderate heat and force, taking corruption out
of the wounds, and preferving the temperature of the
parts, caufe the nourifhment to be fitly applied to the
part affefted.
Among the many inftances of the confolidating
power of blood and ra.v flefh, we have a very re¬
markable one in Barthoiine’s Medical Obfervations.
A man being condemned to have his nofe cut off by
the hand of the common executioner, the friends, who
were to be prefent,' provided a new loaf of warm bread,,
which was cut in the middle, and the nofe received in
it as it fell from the face : the nofe was after this nicely
placed on the face again; and, being fewed on, the
whole in time confolidated, and left no other marks
of the ignominy than the fear round the whole nofe,
and the traces of the flitches.
CONSONANCE, in mufic. See I nterval.
CONSONANT, a letter that cannot be founded
without fome lingle or double vowel before or after it;
as b, c, d, &c.
CONSORT, Sfieen Consort. See Queen.
CONSPIRACY, in law, fignifies an agreement be¬
tween two or more, falfely to indidl, or procure to be
indifted, an innocent perfon, of felony.
CONSPIRATORS are, by flatute, defined to be Confpira-
fuch as bind themfelves by oath, covenant, or other al- tors,
liance, to afiift: one another falfely and malicioufly to Conftsble.
inditi perfons, or falfely to maintain pleas. —-y—J
Confpirators in treafon, are thofe that plot againft
the king and the government.
CONSTABLE, according to fome, is a Saxon
word, compounded of coning, “ king,” and fap/e, which
fignifies the “ flay or fupport of the king.” But as
we borrowed the name as well as tfie office of Conjiable
from the French, Sir William Blackftone is rather in¬
clined to deduce it, with Sir Henry Spelman and Dr
Cowel, from that language; wherein it is plainly de¬
rived from the Latin copies Jlabuli, an officer well
known in the empire; fo called, becaufe, like the
great conftable of France, as well as the lord high
con liable of England, he was to regulate all matters
of chivalry, tilts, tournaments, and feats of arms, which
were performed on horfeback.—The
Lord High Constable of England is the feventh
great officer of the crown ; and he, with the earl
marfhal of England, were formerly judges of the court
of chivalry,, called in king Henry IV.’s time Curia
Militaris, and now the court of honour. It is the
fountain of the martial law, and anciently was held in
the king's hall. The power of the lord high con-
flable was formerly fo great, and of which fo improper
a ufe was made, that fo early as the 13th of king Rich¬
ard II. a flatute paffed for regulating and abridging
the fame, together with the power of the earl mar fhal
of England ; and by this flatute, no plea could be tri¬
ed by them or their courts, that could be tried by the
common law of the realm. The office of conftable
exifled before the conquefl. After the conquefl, the
office went with inheritance, and by the tenure of the
manors of Harlefield, Newman, and Whitenhurft, in
Glouceflerfhire, by grand ferjeanty in the family of
the Bohuns earl of Hereford and Effex, and after¬
wards in line of Sefford as heirs-general to them ; but
in 1521, this great office became forfeited to the king
in the perfon of Edward Stafford duke of Bucking¬
ham, who was that year attainted for high treafon; and
in confideration of its extenfive’ power, dignity, and
large authority, both in time of war and peace, it has
never been granted to any perfon, otherwife than hac
•vice, and that to attend at a coronation, or trial by
combat. In France, the fame office was alfo fuppreffed
about a century after by an edict of Louis XIII5
though it has been exercifed, in the command of the
Marshals, by the firft officer in the army.
Lord high conftable of Scotland was an office of
’ great antiquity and dignity. The firft upon record is
Hugo de Morvelle in the reign of David I. He had
two grand prerogatives, viz. Firit, the keeping of the
king’s fword, which the king, at his promotion, when
he fwears fealty, delivers to him naked. Hence the
badge of the conftable is a naked fword.—Second, The
abfolute and unlimitM command of the king’s armies
while in the field, in the abfence of the king; but
this command does not extend to caftles and garrifons.
He was likewife judge of all crimes committed within
two leagues of the king’s- houfe, which precindl was
called the C/w/wer o/-/We. Though his jurifdidlion
came at lafl to be exercifed only as to crimes during
the time of parliament, which fome extended likewife
2 to
CON L 35i 1 CON
Conftable. to all general conventions. This office was conferred
heritably upon the noble family of Errol,'by king Ro¬
bert Bruce ; and with them it ftill remains, being ex-
prefsly referved by the treaty of union.
Inferior Constmbies. From the great office of
high conftable is derived that inferior order, fince
called the conjlables of hundreds and franchfes; thefe
were firft ordained in the 13th year of Edward I. by
theilatute of Winehefter ; which, for the conferva-
tion of the peace, and view of armour, appointed that
two conftables Ihould be chofen in every hundred and
franchife. Thefe are what we now csAconJiahidarii capitales
or high conflables ; becaufe continuance of time, and in-
creafe of people, &c: have occafioned others of like na¬
ture, but inferior authority, in every town, called petty
ccnjlables, or fub-confalularu, firft inllituted about the
reign of Edward III.
The former, or modern high confalles, are appoint¬
ed at the court-leets of the franchife or hundred over
which they prefide ; or, in default of that, by the
juftices at their quarter-feffions ; and are removeablc
by the fame authority that appoints them. The petty
conjiabks have two offices united in them, the one an¬
cient, and the other modern. Their ancient office is
that of head-borough, tithing-man, 'or borfholder ;
who are as ancient as the time of king Alfred : their
more modern office is that of conftable merely ; which
was appointed fo lately as the reign of Edward III.
in order to affift the high-conftable. And in general
the ancient head-boroughs, tithing-men, and borlhold-
ers, were made ufe of to ferve as petty conftables ;
though not fo generally, but that in many places they
ftill continue diftinit officers from the conftables.
They are all chofen by the jury at the court-leet; or
if no court-leet be held, are appointed by two juftices
of the peace.
The general duty of all conftables, both high and
petty, as well as of the other officers, is to keep the
king’s peace in their feveral diftrifts ; and to that pur-
pofe they are armed with very large powers of ar-
refting and imprifoning, of breaking open houfes, and
the like : of the extent of which powers, confidering
what manner of men are for the moft part put upon
thefe offices, it is perhaps very well that they are ge¬
nerally kept in ignorance. One of their principal
duties arifing from the ftatute of Winchefter, which
appoints them, is to keep watch and ward in their re-
fpeftive jurifdi&ions. Ward, guard, or cujiodia, is
chiefly intended of the day-time, in order to appre¬
hend rioters, and robbers oh the highway's ; the man¬
ner of doing which is left to the difcretion of the juf¬
tices of the peace and the cohftable : the hundred be¬
ing, however, liable for all the robberies committed
therein by day-light, for having kept negligent guard.
Watch is properly applicable to the night only, (being
called among the Saxons ivach't or ivadiu) ; and it be¬
gins when ward ends, and ends when that begins:
for, by the ftatute of Winchefter, in walled towns the
gates ffiall be clofed from fun-fetting to fun-rifing ;
hnd watch (hall be kept in every borough and town,
efpecially in the fummer feafon, to apprehend all
rogues, vagabonds, and night-walkers, and make them
give an account of themfelves. The conftable may
appoint watchmen at his difcretion, regulated by the
cuftom of the place; and thefe, being his deputies, have,
fur the time being, the authority of their principal.
There are alfo conftables denominated from parti- Conftable.
cular places, as conftable of the Tower, of Dover v
caftle, of Windfor caftle, of the caftle of Caernarvon,
and many other of the caftles of Wales; whofe office
is the fame with that of the caftellani, or governors of
caftles.
Constables of London. The city of London is di¬
vided into 26 wards, and the wards into precinfts, in
each whereof is a conftable. They are nominated by
the inhabitants of each precintl on St Thomas’s day,
and Confirmed, or otherwife, at the court of wardmote.
After confirmation, they are fworn into their offices
at d court of aldermen, on the next Monday after
Twelfth day. 'Such as are chofen into the office, are
obliged to place the king’s arms, and the arms of the
city, over their doors ; and if they refide in alleys, at
the ends of fuch alleys toward the ftreets, to fignify
that a conftable lives there, and that they may be the
more eafily found when Wanted.
Constables to Juf ices of the Peace, in Scotland,
are the proper officers for executing their orders.
They have powers to fupprefs tumults, and to ap¬
prehend delinquents and thofe who can give no good
account of themfelves, and carry them to the next
juftice.
CONSTANCE, a ftrong town of Germany, in the
circle of Suabia, with a bifliop’s fee, whofe bifliop is a
prince of the empire. It has a handfome bridge, and
feveral fine ftrudtures, as well facred as profane. It
carries on a great trade, and is well fortified; and
though it pretends to be an imperial town, the Auf-
trians- keep a garrifon here. It is famous for a coun¬
cil held here in 1514, when there were three popes ;
but they were all depofed, and Martin V. was elefted
in their room. The council caufed Jerom of Prague
to be burnt, though the emperor Sigifmund had given
him a fafe conduct; in purfuance of this maxim, “ that
no faith is to be kept with heritics.” They likewife
condemned the doftrine of Wickliff,’ and ordered his
bones to be burned 40 years after he was dead-
However, the inhabitants now are Prbteftants. It is
feated on a lake of the fame name. E. Long. 9. 12.
N. Lat. 47. 35.
Constance, a great lake of Germany, between
Suabia and Swiflerland. It is 30 miles in length, and
8 in breadth. It is croffed by the river Rhine ; and
there are feveral towris on its banks.
CONSTANCY, in a general fenfe, denotes immu-
tablility, or invariablenefs.—In ethics,, or when applied,
to the human mind, the term implies refolution orllea-
dinefs, particularly under fuffenngs and the trials of
adverfity.
It was the faying of a heathen philofopher, That
there cannot be imagined upon earth a fpeftacle more
worthy the regard of the Creator intent on his works,
than a brave man fuperior to his fufferings. Nothing
indeed can be more noble or honourable than to have
courage enough to execute the commands of reafon
and confcience ; to maintain the dignity of our na¬
ture, and the ftation affigned us ; and to be proof a-
gainft poverty, pain, arid death itfelf, fo far as riot to
do any thing that is fcandalous or finful to avoid them.
To be thus, is to be great above title and fortune. This,
argues the foul of an heavenly extraftion, and is worthy
the offspring of the Deity.
Of this virtue the following example, related in.
Engliflu
CON E 352 1 CON
.'Confiable. Englirti hiftory, is here felefted, as fuperior perhaps, all
' V   circuraftances confidered, to any other'upon record.
" Sir William Afkevv of Kelfay, in Lincolnfhire, had
-feveral daughters. His fecoird, named Anne, had re¬
ceived a genteel education ; which, with an agreeable
figure and good underftanding, rendered her a very
proper perfon to be at the head of a family. Her fa¬
ther, regardlefs of his daughter’s inclination and hap-
pinefs, obliged her to marry a gentleman who had no¬
thing to recommend him but his fortune, and who was
a moft bigoted Papift. No fooner was he convinced
•of his wife’s regard for the doftrines of the reforma¬
tion from popery, than, by the inftigation of the
priefts, he violently drove her from his houfe, though
fire had born him two children, and her conduct was
unexceptionable. Abandoned by her hufband, fhe
came up to London, in order to procure a divorce,
and to make herfelf known to that part of the court
vdro either profelfed or were favourers of Proteftan-
tifm : but as Henry VIII. with confent of parlia¬
ment, had juft ena&ed the law of the fix articlesj com¬
monly called the bloodyJlatute, (he was cruelly betrayed
by her own hufband; and, upon his information, taken
into cuftody, and examined concerning her faith. The
aft above-mentioned denounced death againft all thofe
who fhould deny the doftrine of tranfubjlantiatwn ; or,
that the bread and wine made ufe of in the facrament
was not converted after confecration into the real bo¬
dy and blood-of Chrift; or, maintain the neceffity of
receiving the facrament ift both kinds ; or affirm, that
it was lawful for priefts to marry; that the vows of ce¬
libacy might be broken ; that private mafles were of no
avail; and that auricular confeffion to a prieft was not
neceffary to falvation. Upon thefe articles ffie was
examined by the inquifitor, a prieft, the lord-mayor of
London, and the biihop’s chancellor; and to all their
queries gave proper and pertinent anfwers ; but not
being fuch as they approved, ffie was fent backtopri-
fon, where ffie remained eleven days to ruminate alone
on her alarming fituation, and was denied the fmall
confolation of a friendly vifit. The king’s council
being at Greenwich, ffie was once more examined by
chancellor Wriothefley, Gardiner biffiop of Winche-
fter, Dr Cox, and Dr Robinfon; but not being able
to convince her of her fuppofed errors, ffie was fent to
the Tower. Mr Strype, from an authentic paper,
gives us the following ffiort account of her examina¬
tion, which may not, perhaps, be unentertaining or
ufclefs to the reader: “ Sir Martin Bowes (lord
mayor) fitting with the council, as moft meet for his
wifdom, and feeing her ftand upon life and death, I
pray you, quoth he, my lords, give me leave to talk
to this woman ? Leave was granted. Lord Mayor.
Thou fooliffi woman, fayeft thou that the prieft can¬
not make the holy body of Chrift l A. AJleiv. I fay fo,
my lord : for I have read that God made man ; but
that man made God I never read; nor I fuppofe ever
ffiall read it. Lord Mayor. No! Thou fooliffi wo¬
man, after the words of confecration, is it not the
Lord’s body ? A. AJbetu. No: it is but confccrated
bread, or facramental bread. Lord Mayor. What if a
moufe eat it after confecration ; what ffiall become of
this moufe ? what fayeft thou, thou fooliffi woman ?
A. AJbeiv. What ffiall become of her, fay you, my
lord ? Lord Mayor. I fay, that the moufe is damned.
N° 89,
A. AJhew. Alack, poor moufe!” Perceiving that Conftabfe,
fome could not keep in their laughing, the council p<)n^apna’
proceeded to the butchery and flaughter that they in- * J'.
tended before they came there It was ftrongly fu-
fpefted that Mrs Alkew was favoured by fome ladies
of high rank ; and that ffie carried on a religious cor-
refpondence with the queen. So that the chancellor
Wriothefley, hoping that he might difcover fomething
that would afford.matter of impeachment againft that
princefs, the Earl of Hertford, or his Countefs, who
all favoured reformation, ordered her to be put to the
rack: but her fortitude in fuffering, and her refolution
not to betray her friends, was proof againft that dia¬
bolical invention. Not a groan, not a word, could be
extorted from her. The chancellor, provoked with
what he called her obftinacy, augmented her tortures
with his own hands, and with unheard of violence : but
her courage and conftancy were invincible ; and thefe
barbarians gained nothing by their cruelties but ever-
lafting difgrace and infamy. As foon as ffie was taken
from the rack, Ihe fainted away ; but being recovered,
ffie was condemned to the flames. Her bones were dif-
located in fuch a manner, that they were forced to car¬
ry her in a chair to the place of execution. While ffie
was at the ftake, letters were brought her from the
lord chancellor, offering her the king’s pardon if flie
would recant. But ffie refufed to look at them ; tell¬
ing the meffenger, that “ ffie came not thither to deny
her Lord and Mailer.” The fame letters were alfo
tendered to three other perfons condemned to the fame
fate; and who, animated by her example, refufed to
accept them. Whereupon the lord-mayor command¬
ed the fire to be kindled ; and with favage ignorance
cried out,Fiatjujlitia, “Let juftice take its courfe.” The
faggots being lighted, ffie commended her foul, with
the utmoft compofure, into the hands of her Maker ;
and, like the great founder of the religion ffie profefs-
ed, expired, praying for her murderers, July 16. 1546,
about the 25th year of her age.
CONST ANITA, a diltrift at the Cape of Good
Hope, confifting of two farms, which produce the
well-known wine fo much prized in Europe, and
known by the name of Cape or Conjlantia wine. This
place is jituated at the diftance of a mile and a half
from Alphen, in a bending formed by and nearly un¬
der the ridge of hills, which comes from Meuifen-
mountain, and juft where it ftrikes off towards Hout-
bay. One of thefe farms is called Little Conftantia.
Here the white Conftantia wine is made. The other
produces the red. According to M. De la Call’s ac¬
count, not more than 60 figgars of red, and 90 of the
white Conftantia wine are made, each figgar being
reckoned at 600 French pints, or about 150 Swedifh
cans ; fo that the whole produce amounts to 22,500
cans. As the company are ufed to keep one third
of this for themfelves, the remainder is always be-
fpoke by the Europeans long before it is made. At
the Cape this wine is feldom feen at table, partly be-
caufe it is dear, and partly becaufe it is the produce
of the country. The red Conftantia wine fells for
about 60 rixdollars the half awin; but the white is
ufually to be purchafed at a more reafonable rate.
The genuine Conftantia wine is undeniably a very
racy and delicate defert wine, and has fomething pe¬
culiarly agreeable in the flavour of it. That its fu-
periority,
CON [ 353 J CON
Gonftantia periority, however, is not owing to any thing peculiar
0 - in the manner of preparing it, feems extremely pro-
tine*" » for then, without doubt, a great deal more of
it would be made. In fafl, Dr Sparmann informs us,
that the genuine wine can only be produced by certain
particular foils. The diftri&s that lie next to thefe
yield merely the common Cape wine, notwithftanding
that they have been planted with vine-ftocks taken ^
from this, as well as with fome brought from the
banks of the Rhine, whence it is fuppofed that the
true Conftantia fort originally comes ; nay, even tho’
all the vineyards about Conftantia feem to have the
fame foil. We have inftances at the Cape, as well as
in Europe, that good grapes fometimes produce a bad
wine; while, on the other hand, bad grapes will yield a
good fort of wine : therefore, towards making wine of a
certain quality, befides finer materials, there muft be
certain conditions and circumftances, which, by a di¬
ligent and rational inveftigation, might probably'be
explored to the great benefit of mankind.
Such as are apprized in what quantities Conftantia
wine is confumed in Europe, will perhaps think the
above calculation of the produce too limited. This,
however, Dr Sparmann aflures us, is by no means the
cafe ; the overplus being the produce of avarice, which,
goaded on by the defire of gain, will always hit upon
fome method of fatisfying the demands of luxury and
fenfuality. The votaries of thefe, accuftoitted to be
put off w'ith empty founds, do not feldom drink with
the higheft relifti an imaginary.Conftantia, with which,
however, this liquor has nothing in common befides
the mere name. It is therefore advifable, even at
the Cape itfelf, to take care, that whilft one has a ge¬
nuine fample given one to tafte, one is not made to
pay for a made-up red Conftantia, which ethemife is
in general fold for half the price. When a wine of
this kind has been (as it ufually is) meliorated by a
voyage, and at the fame time chriftened with the pom¬
pous name of genuine Csnftantia, of which it has in¬
deed in fome meafure the flavour, it eafily fells for fuch
in Europe.
CONSTANTINA, a ftrong and confiderable town
of Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers, and capital of a
territory of the fame name. It is the largeft and
ftrongeft place in all the eaftern parts; and it is feated
on the top of a great rock. There is no way to it
but by fteps cut out of the rock; and the ufual way
of puniftiing criminals here is to throw them down
the cliff. Here are a great many Roman antiquities,
particularly a triumphal arch. E. Long. 7. 12. N.
Lat. 36. 4.
ConstANTiNA, a town of Spain, in Andalufia, and
capital of a fmall territory of the fame name, with
a caftle feated on a mountain. W. Long. 5. 35.
N. Lat. 37. 40.
CONSTANTINE, a kingdom of Barbary of that
name, in Africa. It is bounded on the north by the
Mediterranean, on the eaft by the kingdom of Tunis,
on the fouth by Bildulgerid, and on the weft by the
river Sufegmar, which feparates it from the kingdom
of Bugia. The country is the new Numidia of the
ancients, and had its own king : but it is now a pro¬
vince to Algiers.
Constantine the Great, the firlt emperor of the
Vql. V. Part I.
Romans who embraced Chfiftianity. His-father, Con- Conftan-
ftantius Chlorus, rendered himfelf famous by his vie- tine-
tqrious expeditions to Germany and Britain : upon the ' ' y ''
abdication of Dioclefian, he fhared the Roman empire
with Galerius Maximinus in 305, and was at that time
at York* where he died in 306 ; having firft caufed
his fon Conftantine the Great to be proclaimed empe¬
ror by his army, and by the Englifh. Galerius at firft
refufed to admit Conftantine to his father’s ftiare in the
imperial throne ; but after having loft feveral battles,
' he Confented in 308. Maxentius, who fucceeded Ga¬
lerius, oppofed him : but Was defeated, and drowned
himfelf in the Tyber. The fenate then declared
Conftantine chief or frjl Auguftus, and Licinius his fe-
cond affociate in the empire, in 313. Thefe princes
publiftied an ediff, in their joint namesj m favour of .
the Chriftians ; but foon after Liuinius, jealous of Con*
ftantine’s renown, conceived an implacable hatred a-
gainft him, and renewed the perfecut.ions againft the
Chriftians. This brought on a rupture between the
emperors ; and a battle, in which Conftantine was
victorious. A ftiort peace enfued : but Licinius ha¬
ving lhamefully violated the treaty, the war was re¬
newed ; when Conftantine totally defeating him, he
fled to Nicomedia, where he was taken prifoner and
ftrangled in 323. Conftantine, now become foie ma¬
iler of the weftern and eaftern empires, immediately
formed the plan of eftablilhing Chriftianity as the reli¬
gion of the ftate} for which purpofe, he convoked
feveral ecclefiaftical councils: but finding he was like¬
ly to meet with great oppofition from the Pagan in
tereft at Rome, he conceived the defign of founding a
new city, to be the capital of his Chriftian empire ; fee
Constantinople. The glory' Conftantine had ac¬
quired by eftabliflung the Chriftian religion, was tar-
nilhed by the part he took in the perfecutions carried
on by the Arians, towards the clofe of his reign, a-
gainft their Chriftian brethren who differed from
them : feduced by Eufebius of Nicomedia, he banifh-
ed feveral eminent prelates; foon after which, he died in
337, the 66th year of his age, and 31ft of his reign.
As to the charafter of Conftantine, he was chafte,
pious, laborious, and indefatigable ; a great general,
luccefsful in war, and deferving Ids fuccefs by hir,
Ihining valour and by the brightnefs of his genius ; a
protestor of arts, and an encourager of them by his
beneficence. If we compare him with Auguftus, wc
fhall find that he ruined idolatry, by the fame precau¬
tions and the fame addrefs that the other ufed to de¬
ft, uy liberty. Like Auguftus, he laid the foundation
of a new empire ; but lefs Ikilful, and lefs polite, he
could not give it the fame liability : he weakened the
body of the ftate by adding to it, in fome meafure, a
fecond head in the foundation of Conftantinople ; and
tranfpbrtiug the centre of motion and ftrength too
near the eaftern extremity', he left without heat, and
almoft without life, the weftern parts, which foon be¬
came a prey to the barbarians. The Pagans were
too much his enemies to do him juftice. Eutropius
fays, that in the former part of his reign he was equal
to the moll accomplilhed princes, and in the latter to
the meaneft. The younger ViClor, who makes him
to have reigned more than 31 years, pretends, that in
the firft 10 years he was a hero ; in the 12 fucceeding
Y y ones
CON [ 354 ] CON
Con.tf.an- ones a robber ; and in the 10 laft a fpendthrift. It is
Conft’n eafy to perceive, with refpeft to thefe two reproaches
tinopie." Viftor’s, that the one relates to the riches which
w —• Conftantine took from idolatry, and the other to thofe
with which he loaded the church.
Constantine emperor of the Eaft in 1002, left
the care of the empire to his wife Helena, who load¬
ed the people with taxes, and fold all the offices in
church and ftate to the higheft; bidders; while the
emperor employed himfelf in reading, writing, and
the fine arts, till he became as good an architedl and
painter as he was a bad prince : he wrote feveral
( biographical and geographical works, which would
have done honour to his name, if he had not neglec¬
ted his duty to compofe them. He died in 959.
Constantine (Dracofes), the fon of Emmanuel
Paleologus,-was placed on the throne by fultan Amu-
rath in 1448. But Mahomet II. his fucceffor, refol-
ving to dethrone him, laid iiege to Conltantinople by
fea and land, and took it by affault in 1453, after it
had held out 58 days. The unfortunate emperor fee¬
ing the Turks enter 'the breaches, threw himfelf into
the midft of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the
children of the imperial houfe were maffacred by the
foldiers ; and the women referved to gratify the luft
of the conqueror : and thus terminated the dynalty of
the Conftantines, 1123 years after its eftablifhment at
Conftantinople.
Constantine (Robert), a learned phylician born
at Caen, taught polite literature in that city ; and ac¬
quired great reputation by his Ikill in the Greek lan¬
guage, in hiitory, and in medicine. He died in 1603,
aged 103. He wrote a dictionary in Greek and Latin
t and other works, which are efteemed.
Removing CONSTANTINOPLE, the modern name of the
ai feaTto”" ^y Byzantium in Thrace. If was enlarged and .
this city the beautified by the Roman emperor Conftamine the
caufe of the Great, in yke year 330. At the fame time he tranf-
decline cf ferrej tlqther the feat of the empire ; and this remo-
eiv-Tre^Crn va^ *s generally thought to have been one of the prin-
€n‘1 ‘re‘ cipal caufes of the fudden decline of the weftern em¬
pire after this period.
Conftantine 1° the year 332, the Sarmatians implored Conftan-
defeats the tine’s affiftance again!! the Goths, who had made an
Goths, irruption into their territories, and dettroyed every'
thing with fire and fword. The emperor readily grant¬
ed their requeft, and gained a complete victory.
Near 100,000 of the enemy perifhed, either in the
battle, or after it with hunger and cold. In confe-
quence of this overthrow, the Goths were obliged to
fue for peace ; but the ungrateful Sarmatians no foon-
er found themfelves delivered from their enemies,
- than they turned their arms again!! their benefaCtor,
And the and ravaged the provinces of Masfia and Thrace. The
Sarmatians. emperor, receiving intelligence of this treachery, re¬
turned with incredible expedition, cut great numbers
of them in pieces, and obliged the reft to fubmit to
what terms he was pieafed to impofe.
Is highly Conftantine feems to have been a prince very highly
refpefted, refpeCled, even by far diftant nations. In 333, ac¬
cording to Eufebius, amhaffadors arrived at Conftanti¬
nople from the Blemyes, Indians, Ethiopians, and Per-
fians, courting his friendffiip. They were received in
a mod obliging manner; and learning from the ambaf-
fadcis of Sapor king of Perlia, that there were great
numbers of Chriftians in their mafter’s dominions, Contfai*.
Conftantine wrote a letter in their behalf to the Per- diwpolitaa,
fian monarch. hiilory.
Next year, the Sarmatians being again attacked by v J
the Goths, found themfelves obliged to fet at liberty
and arm their Haves again!! them. By this means
they indeed overcame the Goths; but the viC!orious
Haves turning their arms again!! their mafters, drove
them out of the country. This misfortune obliged
them, to the number of 300,000, to apply for relief to He takes a
the Roman emperor, who incorporated with his le-number <>f
gions fuch as were capable of fervice ; and gave fettle- Sarmadanr
ments to the reft in Thrace, Scythia, Macedon, and!^0 Ius
Italy. This was the laft remarkable adlion of Con-army’
ftantine the Great. He died on May 25. 337, having H;, ^
divided the empire among his children and nephews, anddfvi-
in the following manner- Conftantine, his eldeft fon, fion of the
had Gaul, Spain, and Britain; Conftantius, the fe■ empire,
cond, had Alia, Syria, and Egypt; and Conftans, the
youngeft, Illyricum, Italy, and Africa. To his ne¬
phew Dalmatius, he gave Thrace, Macedon, and
Achaia; and to king Annibalianus, his other newhew,
Armenia Minor, Pontus, Cappadocia, and the city of
Ciefarea, which he defired might be the capital of his
kingdom.
After the death of Conftantine, the army and All his rela-
fenate proclaimed his three fons emperors, withouttio||s mur-
taking any notice of his two nephews, who were foon dere^-ex‘
after murdered, with Julius Conftantius the late em- ^rce ions
peror's brother, and all their friends and adherents, and two
Thus the family of Conftantine was at once reduced aephew3*
to his three fons, and two nephews Gallus and Julian,
the fobs of Julius Conftantius : and of thefe the former
owed his life to a malady, from which no one thought
he could recover ; and the latter to his infancy, being
then at moft about feven years of age. The three
brothers divided among themfelves the dominions of the
deceafed princes ; but did not long agree-together. In
340, Conftantine having in vain folicited Conftans to r £ ■
yield part of Italy to him, railed a confiderable army ; invades” the
and.under pretence of marching to the affiliance of his dominions
brother Conftantius, who was then at war with theof Con-
Perfians, made himfelf mailer of feveral places in Italy. ^ans*
Hereupon Conftans detached part of his army again!!
him ; and Conftantine, being drawn into an ambuf-
cade near Aquileia, was cut off with his whole forces. is defeated
His body was thrown into the river Anfa ; but being and killed,
afterwards difeovered, was fent to Conftantinople, and
interred there near the tomb of his father.
By the defeat and death of his brother, Conftans re- Conftans
maiued foie matter of all the weftern part of the em-foleiriafter
pire, in the quiet poffeffion of which he continued till of the Weft,
the year 350. This year, Magnentius, the fon of one M 11
Magnus, a native of Germany, finding Conftans de- tius revolts
fpifed by the army on account of his indolence and in-againfthua.
aftivity, refqlved to murder him, and fet up for him¬
felf. Having found means to gain over the chief of¬
ficers of the army to his defigns, he feized on the Im¬
perial palace at Autun, and diftributed among the po¬
pulace what fums he found there ; which induced not
only the city, but the neighbouring country, to efpoufe
his caufe. But Conftans being informed of what had
paffed, and finding himfelf unable to refift the ufurp-
er, fled towards Spain. He was overtaken, however,
by Gaifo, whom Magnentius had lent after him with a
ehofea
CON
Cnnftan- chofen body of troops, who difpatclied with many
tlh”ft0rWn WOUI?ds the unhappy prince at Helena, a fmall village
■ lituated near the foot of the Pyrenees.
ra Thus Conftantius acquired a right to the whole Ro-
Conftans man empire; though one half of it was feized by Mag-
murdered. ne^tius after the murder of Conftans. The former ed the tribunal along with Conftantius, the foldiers
had been engaged in a war with the Perfians, in pulled him down from thence, crying out, That they
which little advantage was gained on either fide; but would acknowledge no other emperor than Conftan-
the Perfians now giving no more difturbance, the em- tius alone. On this Veteranio threw himfelf at the
13 peror marched againft the ufurpers in the weft. Be- emperor’s feet, and implored his mercy. Conftantius
355 1 CON
At firft the emperor would hearken to no terms; but Conftati-
afterwards, that he might not have to oppofe two
enemies at once, concluded a feparate treaty with 1 ^ry' .
Veteranio, by which he agreed to take hijn for his
partner in the empire. But when Veteranio afcend-
the empire
pre- fides Magnentius, there were at this time two other
tenders to pretenders to the weftern empire. Veteranio, gene¬
ral of the foot in Pannonia, had, on the firft news of
the death of Conftans, caufed himfelf to be proclaimed
emperor by the legions under his command. He was
a native of Upper Msefia, and advanced in years when
he*ufurped the fovereignty ; but fo illiterate, that he
then firft learned to read. The third pretender was
Flavius Pqpilius Nepetianus, fon of Eutropia the filler
of Conftantine the Great. Having aflembled a com¬
pany of gladiators and men of defperate fortunes, he
affumed the purple on the 3d of June 350, and in
that attire prefented himfelf before the gates of Rome.
The prefect Anicetus, who commanded there for Mag¬
nentius, fallied out againft him with a body of Ro¬
mans ; who were foon driven back into the city. Soon
received him with great kindnefs, and fent him to
Prufia in Bithynia, where he allowed him a main¬
tenance fuitable to his quality.
Conftantius, now mailer of all Ulyricum, and of
the army commanded by Veteranio, refolved to march
againft Magnentius without delay. In the mean time, j-ent
however, on advice that the Perfians were prepa-ai,ainli; the
ring to invade the eaftern provinces, he married his Perfians.
filler Conftantina to his coufin-german Gallus; created
him Caefar on the 15th of March; and allotted him
for his ftiare not only all the Eatt, but likewife
Thrace and Conftantinople. About the fame time
Magnentius gave the title of Caefar to his brother
Decentius, whom he difpatched into Gaul to defend
that country againft the barbarians who had invaded
it; for Conftantius had not only ftirred up the Franks Conftantiu*
Nepotianns after Nepotianus made himfelf mailer of the city it- and Saxons to break into that province by promi- fihs up the
wiatM him. r-ir cn„j ._:-u ui—j —j n x/r„._ fing to relinquilh to them all the places they lhould?r“^to
conquer, but had fent them large fupplies of men andGauk
makes him- felf? which he filled with blood and llaughter. Mag-
of^Romer nent'us being informed of what had happened, fent
againft this new competitor his chief favourite and
prime miniller Marcellinus. Nepotianus received him
with great refolution; a bloody battle enfued between
the foldiers of Magnentius and the Romans who had
efpoufed the caufe of Nepotianus; but the latter being
x ^ betrayed by a fenator, named Heraclitus, his men were
He is de- put to flight, and he himfelf killed, after having enjoy-
feated and ed the fovereignty only 28 days. Marcellinus ordered
killed. ’ Ing head to be carried on the point of a lance through
the principal ftreets of the city ; put to death all thofe
5 who had declared for him; and under pretence of pre-
I(j verlting dillurbances, commanded a general mafl'acre
Tyranny of of all the relations of Con ftantine. Soon after, Mag-
Magneu- nentius himfelf came to Rome to make the neceffary
arms for that purpofe. On this encouragement the
barbarians invaded Gaul with a mighty army, over¬
threw Decentius in a pitched battle, committed every¬
where dreadful ravages, and reduced the country to
a moll deplorable fituation. In the mean time Mag¬
nentius having affembled a numerous army, left Italy,
and crofting the Alps, advanced into the plains of
Pannonia, where Conftantius, whole main ftrength
confilled in cavalry, was waiting for him. Magnen¬
tius, hearing that his competitor was encamped at a
fmall diftance, invited him by a melfenger to the ex-
teniive plains of Scifcia on the Save, there to decide rs defeated
which of them had the bell title to the empire. This by Mag-
challenge was by Conftantius received with great ncut“J®»
preparations for refifting Conftantius, who was exert- joy ; but as his troops marched towards Scifcia in dif-
Sends pro-
pi-fals of
ing himfelf to the utmoft in order to revenge the
death of his brother. In the city he behaved molt
tyrannically, putting to death many perfons of dif-
tinftion, in order to feize their eftates ; and obliged
the reft to contribute half of what they were worth
towards the expence of the war. Having by this
means raifed great fums, he aflembled a mighty ar¬
my compofed of Romans, Germans, Gauls, Franks,
Britons, Spaniards, &c. At the fame time, however,
dreading the uncertain iffues of war, he difpatched
ambafladors to Conftantius with propofals of accom¬
modation. Conftantius fet out from Antioch about the
beginning of autumn ; and, pafling through Conftanti¬
nople, arrived at Heraclea, where he was met by the
deputies from Magnentius, and others from Veteranio,
who had agreed to fupport each other in cafe the em¬
peror Would hearken to-no terms.
Magnentius propofed in his name a match between him
and Conftantia, or rather Conftahtina, the filler of
Conftantius, and widow of Annibalianus; offering, at
the fame time, to Conftantius the filler of Magnentius.
order, they fell into an ambufeade, and were put to
flight with great (laughter. With this fuccefs, Mag¬
nentius was fo elated, that he reje&ed all terms of
peace which were now offered by Conftantius; but
after fome time, a general engagement enfued at 2r
Murfa, in which Magnentius was entirely defeated, Maijnen-
with the lofs of 24,000 men. Conftantius, thought!u3 defeat-
vitlor, is faid to have loft 30,000, which feems im- edatMufa.
probable. All authors, however, agree, that the battle
of Murfa proved fatal to the weftern empire, and fatal' to* the
greatly contributed to its fpeedy decline. empire.
After his defeat at Murfa, Magnentius retired into
Italy, where he recruited his lhattered forces as well
as he could. But the beginning of the following year
352, Conftantius, having affembled his troops, furpri-
fed and took a ftrong callle on the Julian Alps, belong-
The deputies of ing to Magnentius, without the lofs of a man. After
this the emperor advanced in order to force the reft ;
upon which Magnentius was ftruck with fuch terror,
that he immediately abandoned Aquileia, and ordered
the troops that guarded the other paffes of the Alps to
Y y 2 follow
CON [ 35^ ] CON
Conflan- follow him. Thus Conftantius entering Italy without
nr;r made himftlf mafter of Aquileia. From
»ir-.—'v-' thence he advanced to Pavia, where Magnentius gain¬
ed a confiderable advantage over him. Notwith-
ftanding this lofs, however, Conftantius reduced the
whole country bordering on the Po, and Magncntius’s
men defertcd to him in whole troops, delivering up
to him the places they had garrifoned ; by which the
tyrant was fo diftieartened, that he left Italy, and reti¬
red with all his forces into Gaul. Soon after this, Afri¬
ca, Sicily, and Spain, declared for Conftantius; upon
which Magnentius fent a fenator, and after him fome
bifhops, to treat of a peace ; but the emperor treated
the fenator as a fpy, and fent back the bifhops with¬
out any anfwer.— Magnentius now finding his affairs
defperate, and that there were no hopes of pardon,
recruited his army in the beft manner he could, and
Magnen- difpatched an affaffin into the Eaft to mu,rder Gallus
tiusat- Caefar; hoping that his death would oblige the empe-
* eT g' 11° ror t0 withdraw his forces from Gaul, and march in
murdered8 Perf°n to the defence of the Eaftern provinces, which
were threatened by the Perfians. The affafiin gained
over fome of Callus’s guards; but the plot being dif-
covered before it could be put in execution, they were
24 all feized and executed as traitors.
Magnen- In 353, the war againft Magnentius was carried on
tins defeat- more vigour than ever, and at laft happily ended
titne ^It"l» ^7 a battle fought in the Higher Dauphiny. Mag-
all his fa- neritius, being defeated, took Ihelter in Lyons; but
mifyand the few foldiers who attended him, defpairing of any
himfcif. further fuccefs, refolved to purchafe the emperors favour
by delivering up to him his rival, the author of fo ca¬
lamitous a war. Accordingly they furrounded the
houfe where he lodged; upon which the tyrant, in
defpair, flew with his own hand his mother, hre bro¬
ther Defiderius whom he had created Caefar, and fuch
of his friends and relations as were with him; and
then, fixing his fword in a wall, threw himfelf upon it,
in order to avoid a more ftiameful death which he had
reafon to apprehend.
After the death of Magnentius, his brother Decen-
tius Caefar, who was marching to his affiftance, and
had already reached Sens, finding himfelf furrounded
on all fides by the emperor’s forces, chofe rather to
ftrangle himfelf than fall alive into the hands of his
C*mftaiituis«nenues. Thus Conftantius was left foie mafter of
foie mafter the Roman empire. His panegyrifts tell us, that after
of the em- jjjs victory he behaved with the greateft humanity,
forgiving and receiving into favour his greateft ene¬
mies; but other hiftorians differ confiderably from
them, and tell us that Conftantius now became haugh¬
ty, imperious, and cruel, of which many inftances are
given.
Many grie- This year the empire was fubje&ed to very grie¬
vous cala- vous calamities. Gaul was ravaged by the barbarians
mi ties. beyond the Rhine, and the difbanded troops of Mag¬
nentius. At Rome, the populace rofe on account of
a fcarcity of provifions. In Afia, the Ifaurian rob¬
bers over-ran Lycadnia and Pamphylia; and even laid
fiege to Seleucia, a city of great ftrength; which, how¬
ever, they were not able to make themfelves mafters
of. At the fame time, the Saracens committed dread¬
ful ravages in Mefopotamia, the Perfians alfo invaded
the province of Anthemufia on the Euphrates. But
Jthe Eaftern provinces were not fo much haraffed by
the barbarians as by Gallus Ctefar himfelf, who ought Conftan--
to have protected them. That prince was naturally
of a cruel, haughty, and tyrannical difpofition ; but “ ^ y* .
being elated with his fucceffes againft the Perfians, he z7
at laft behaved more like a tyrant and a madman than Tyranny of
a governor. His natural cruelty is faid to have been Gallus.
heightened by the inftigations of his wife Conftahtina,
who is by Ammianus ftyled th£ Megara, or “ fury of
her fex;” and he adds, that her ambition was equal to
her cruelty. Thus all the provinces and cities in the
Eaft were filled with blood and daughter. No man,
however innocent, was fure to livex>r enjoy his eftate
a whole day; for Gallins’s temper being equally fufpi-
eious and cruel, thofe who had any private enemies
took care to accufe them of crimes againft the ftate,
and with Gallus it was the fame thing to be accufed
and condemned. At laft the emperor being informed
from all quarters of the evil conduit of his brother-in-,
law, and being at the fame time told that he afpired
to the fovereignty, refolved upon his ruin. For this
end he wrote letters to Gallus and Conftantina, invi¬
ting them both into Italy. Though they had both fuf-
ficient reafon to fear the worft, yet they durft not
venture to difobey the emperor’s exprefs command.
Conftantina, who was well acquainted with her bro¬
ther’s temper, and hoped to pacify him by her artful
infinuations, fet out firft, leaving Gallus at Antioch ;
but (he had fcarce entered the province of Bithynia,
when (he was feized with a fever which put an end
to her life. Gallus now defpairing of being able to
appeafe his fovereign, thought of openly revolting ;
but moft of his friends deferted him on account of his
inconftant and cruel temper, fo that he was at laft ob¬
liged tofubmit to the pleafureof Conftantius. He ad¬
vanced therefore, according to his orders; but at Pe-
tavium was arrefted, and ftripped of all the enfigns of
his dignity. From thence he was carried to Flanona,
now Fianone in Dalmatia, where he was examined
by two of his moft inveterate enemies. He confeffed
moft of the crimes laid to his charge; but urged as an
excufe the evil counfels of his wife Conftantina. The g
emperor, provoked at this plea which reflected on his ^
After, and inftigated by the enemies of Gallus, figned to death,
a warrant for his execution, which was performed ac¬
cordingly. _
All this time the emperor had been engaged in a War with
war with the Germans : he had marched againft them the Ger-
in perfon; and though he gained no advantage, the mans‘-
barbarians thought proper to make peace with him..
This, however, was but ftiort-lived. No foonerwas
the Roman army withdrawn, than they began to make
new inroads into the empire. Againft them Con¬
ftantius difpatched Arbetio with the flower of the
army ; but he fell into an amhufcade, and was put to
•flight with the lofs of a great number of men. This.
lofs, however, was foon retrieved by the valour of,
Arintheus, who became famous in the reign of Va-
lens, and of two other officers, who falling upon *he
Germans, without, waiting the orders of their general,,
put them to flight, and obliged them to leave the Ro¬
man territories.
The tranquillity of the empire, which enfued on
this repulfe of the Germans, was foon interrupted by
a pretended confpiracy, by which in the end a true
one was produced. Sylvanus, a leading man among
. the
CON
C'-rOan-
hiliory.
30
Sylvs
the Franks, commanded in Gaul, and had there per¬
formed great exploits againft the barbarians. He had
been raifed to this poll by Arbetio ; but only with a
defign to remove him from the emperor’s prefence,
order to accompliih his ruin, which he did in the
C 357 1
CON
betrayed by f0ljowl'ng manner : One Dynames, keeper of the em-
logne, which had been kept concealed from the em- Conflaa-
peror. He arrived at Vienne before the end of the tin“Po!itan
year, and was received by the people of that city and hlftory' f
the neighbourhood with extraordinary joy. v
In 356, the barbarians beiieged slutun ; to relieve He fat out
which place, Julian marched with what forces he for Gaul.
peror’s mules, leaving Gaul, begged of Sylvanus letters could raife. When he came there, he found the fiegt
of recommendation to his friends at court; which raifed: on which he went in purfuit of the barbarians
being granted, the traitor erafed all but the, fubfcrip- to Auxerre, croffing with no fmall danger thick woods
tion. He then inferted directions to the friends of and forefts, from Auxerre to Troies. On his march
Sylvanus for the carrying on a confpiracy; and de- he was furrounded on all Tides by the barbarians, who
livering thefe forged letters to the prefect Lampri- moved about the country in great bodies; but he pnt
dius, they were by him fhowed to the emperor. Thus them to flight with an handful of men, cut great num- 35
Sylvanus was forced to revolt, and caufe himfelf to be bers of them in pieces, and took fome prifoners. From y5eyeats t^Q
proclaimed,emperor by the troops under his command. Troies he flattened to Rheims, where the main body ^arbarianf*
In the mean time, however, Dynames having thought of the army, commanded by Marcellus, waited his
proper to forge another letter, the fraud was difco- arrival. Leaving Rheims, he took his route towards
Decempagi, now Dieuze, on the Settle in Lorrain,
with a defign to oppofe the Germans who were bufy
in ravaging that province. But the enemy attacking
his rear unexpectedly, would have cut off two legions,.
had not the reft of the army, alarined at the fudden
noife, turned back to their affxftance. A few days
vered, and an enquiry fet on foot, which brought to
light the whole matter. Sylvanus was now declared
innocent, and letters fent to him by the emperor con¬
firming him in his poll; but thefe were fcarce gone,
when certain news arrived at the court of Sylvanus ha¬
ving revolted, and caufed himfelf be proclaimed em¬
peror. Conftantius, thunderftruck at this news, dif- afterwards he defeated the Germans, though with
[3T]
patched againft him Urficinus, an officer of great in¬
tegrity, as well as valour and experience in war; who
forgetting his former charaCter, pretended to be Syl-
I-i murder- vanus’s friend, and thus found means to cut him off by
treachery.
The barbarians, who had been hitherto kept quiet
d bv tji8 Dy the brave Sylvanus, no fooner heard of his death,
barbarians, than they broke into Gaul with greater fury than
r. They took and pillaged above forty cities, and
great lofs to his own army ; the victory, however,
opened him a way to Cologne. This city he found
abandoned by the b'arbarians. They had negledled
to fortify it: but Julian commanded the ancient for-
tifications to be repaired with all poffible expedition, fWtTfka-'11*
.auj , , and the houfes to be rebuilt; after which he retired Jons of
fed by die the brave Sylvanus, no fooner heard of his death, to Sens, and there took up his winter-quarters. This Cologne.
-o . ^ , year alfo Conftantius entered Germany on the fide of
. Rhaetia, laid, wafte the country far and wide ; and-
among the reft Cologne, which they levelled with obliged the barbarians to fue for peace, which was
the ground. At the fame time the Quadi and Sar- readily granted. The fame year he ena&ed two laws; Idolatry
matians entering Paunonia, deftroyed every thing with by one of which it was declared capital to facrificc, declared
fire and fword. The Perfians alfo, taking advantage or pay any kind of worfhip, to idols; the other, grantf Cap*tal
of the abfence of Urficinus, over-ran, without oppo- ing the effects of condemned perfons to belong to
fition, Armenia and Mefopotamia; Profper and Mau- their children and relations within the third degree IUS*
fonianus, who had fucceeded that brave commander in except in cafes of magic and treafon; but this laft one
the government of the Eaft, being more intent upon he revoked two years after.
pillaging than defending the provinces committed to In the beginning of the year 357, the barbarians fce-
their care. Conftantius, not thinking it advifable to fieged Julian a whole month in Sens; Marcellus, the
leave Italy himfelf, refolved at laft to raife his coufin commander in chief, never once offering to affift him
Julian ere- Juljan> thc brother of Callus-, to the dignity of Caefar. Julian, however, fo valiantly defended himfelf with
ated Cafar. Julian feems to have been a man of very extraordi- the few forces he had, that the barbarians at laft re-
nary talents.; for though before this time he had been tired. After this, Conftantius declared Julian cem¬
ent irely buried in obfeunty, and converfed only with mander in chief of aft the forces in Gaul; appointing
books, no fooner was he put at the head of an army under him one Severus,. an officer of great experience
than he behaved with the fame bravery, conduft, and and of a quite different difpofition from Marcellus!-
experience, as if he had been all his life bred up to On his arrival in Gaul, Julian received him with great
the art of war. He was appointed governor of Gaul; joy, raifed new troops, and fupplied them with arms
but before he fet out, Ctmttantius gave him in-mar- which he luckily found in an old arfenal. The em-
riage his After Helena,, and made him many valuable peror, refolving at all events to put a flop to the ter-
prefents. At the fame time, however, the jealous rible devaftations committed by the barbarous nations
emperor greatly limited his authority; gave him writ- chiefly by the.Alemans, wrote to Julian to march di-
ten inftrudtions how to behave ; ordered the generals redly againft them. At the fame time he fent Bar-
vvho ferved under him to watch all his a&ions no lefs batio, who had been appointed general in place of Svl-
than thofe of the enemy; and ftri&ly enjoined Julian vanus> with a body of 25 or 30,000 men, out of Italy'
himfelf not to give, any largeffes to the foldiery. in order to inclofe the enemy between two armies
Julian fet out from Milan on the ift of December The Leti, however, a German nation, paffing betweeJ
355., the emperor himfelf accompanying him as far as- the armies, advanced as far as Lyons, hoping to fur--
Pavia, from whence he purfued his journey to the prife that wealthy city ; but meeting with a warmer.
Alps, attended only by 360 foldiers. On his arrival reception than they expe&cd, contented themfelves..
at Turin he was. firft acquainted with the lofs of Co- with ravaging the country all round it. On the firft.
A notice-
CON [ 358 ] CON
Con nan- notice of this expedition, Julian detaclied ftrong par- deeded to Felix hi (hop of Rome, he exempted all mer- Conftan* i
t’hXry:!n t:eS to.Suard t,ie Paffages through which he knew the chandizing ecdefiaftics, with their wives, children, and ti,mPolita*' j
« y~ barbarians muft return. Thus they were all cut off domeftics, from every impofition ordinary and extra- luliQry' f ’ ;
38 except thofe who marched near the camp of Barbatio ; ordinary ; fuppofing the gains they made to be applied ” v i
The Let! who was fo far from cutting off their retreat, that he by them to the relief of the poor.
cut off by complained by a letter to Conftantius of fome officers In 358, as foon as the feafon was fit for aftion, Ju- julian^bm- ^
Julian. for attemping it. Thefe officers, among whom was lian took the field againft the Franks, with a defign toquersthe "
Valentinian afterwards emperor of the Welt, were, conquer them before the truce he had concluded with 1’ranks'
by the orders of Conftantius, cafhiered for their dif- the Alemans was expired. The Franks were at that
obedience. The other barbarians either fortified them- time divided into feveral tribes, the moft powerful of
felves in the countries which they had feized, ftop- which were the Salii and Chamavi. Thefirft of thefe
ping up all the avenues with huge trees, or took (hel- fent deputies, intreating that he would fuller them to
ter in the illands formed by the Rhine. Julian re- remain as friends to the empire in the country they
folved fir ft to attack the latter ; and with this view poffeffed. But Julian, without paying any regard to
demanded fome boats of Barbatio : but he, inftead of this deputation, entered their country, qnd obliged
complying with his juft requeft, immediately burnt all them to fubmit; after which he allotted them lands in
his boats, as he did on another occafion the provifions Gaul, incorporating great numbers of them into his
which had been fent to both armies, after he had plen- cavalry. He next marched againft the Chamavi, whom .
tifully fupplied his own. Julian, not in the leaft dif- he defeated and obliged to retire beyond the Rhine,
heartened with this unaccountable condudl, perfua- Afterwards he rebuilt three forts on the river Meufe,
ded foifte of the moft refolute of his men to wade over which had been deftroyed by the barbarians; but want-
to one of the iflands. Here they killed all the Ger- ing provifions in a country fo often ravaged, he order-
He forces mans w^° ta^en ffielter in it. They then feized ed 6 or 800 veffels to be built in Britain for the con-
the barba- their boats, and purfued the (laughter in feveral other veying corn from thence, into Gaul. Julian continued
rians to a- iflands, till the enemy abandoned thfem all, and retired in the country of the Chamavi till the expiration of
ban don the to their refpe&ive countries with their wives and his truce with the Altmans; and tBen laying a bridge
theRhine w^at ^00ty they could carry. On their departure, of boats over the Rhine, he entered their country, put-
t e me. gar^atj0 attempted to lay a bridge of boats over the ting all to fire and fword. At laft two of their kings Grantif a
Rhine ; but the enemy, apprifed of his ^intention, came in perfon to him to fue for peace: which Julian peace to the
threw a great number of huge trees into the river, granted, upon their promifing to fet at liberty the *tap- Germans,
which being carried by the ftream againft the boats, tives they had taken ; to fupply a certain quantity of
funk feveral of them, and parted the reft. The Ro- corn when required ; and to furniflr wood, iron, and
man general then thought proper to retire ; but the carriages, for repairing the cities they had ruined. The
barbarians falling unexpe&edly upon him in his re- prifoners whom he at this time releafed, amounted to
treat, cut great numbers of his men in pieces, took upwards of 20,000. ^
moft of his baggage, laid wafte the neighbouring, coun- Soon after the vernal equinox of this year 358, Con- Expedition
try, and returned in triumph loaded with booty. E- ftantius marched in perfon againft the Quadi and Sar- ®f Uonftan-
lated with this fuccefs, they aflembled in great num- matians, whofe country lay beyond the Danube. Ha-
bers under the command of Chnodomarius, a prince of ving crofted that river on a bridge of boats, he laid mimn^*
great renown among them, and fix other kings. They wafte the territories of the Sarmatians; who thereupon tions.
encamped in the neighbourhood of Straflrourg. Here came in great numbers, together with the Quadi, pre-
Entirely they were encountered by Julian ; who put them to tending to fue for peace. Their true defign was to
defeats flight, with the lofs of 6 or 8000 of their men (lain in furprife the Romans; but the latter fufpefting it, fell
Strft>our<* ancl a vaftly greater number drowned in the upon them fword in hand, and cut them all in pieces.
d river; while Julian himfelf loft only 243 private This obliged the reft to fue for peace in good earned,
men and four tribunes. In this adfion Chnodomarius which was granted on the delivery of hoftages. The
was taken, and fent to Rome, where he foon after emperor then marched againft the Limigantes, that is,
died. the (laves who, in 334, had driven the Sarmatians out
After the battle, Julian advanced with all his army of their country, and feized it for themfelves *. They » See no^
T to Mayence, where he built a bridge over the Rhine . ufed the fame artifice as the Sarmatians and Quadi had
He enters and entered Germany, having with difficulty prevailed done, coming in great numbers under pretence of fub-
Germany upon his army to follow him. Here he ravaged the mining, but prepared to fail upon him unexpectedly if
and con- country till the time of the autumnal equinox, when opportunity offered; The emperor, obferving their
truce^idth be*ng prevented by fnow from advancing any further, furly looks, and diftrufting them, caufed his troops fur-
thebarba- he began to repair the fort of Trajan, by fome fuppo- round them infenfi'bly while he was (peaking. The Li¬
lians. fed to be the caftle of Cromburgh, about three or four migantes then difpleafed with the conditions he offered
leagues from Frankfort. The barbarians were now them, laid their hands on their fwords i on which
fo much alarmed, that they fent deputies to treat of a they were attacked by the Roman foldi’ers. Finding
peace; but this Julian refufed to grant them upon it impoffible to make their efcape, they made ’ with
any terms. He confented, however,-to a truce for fe- great fury towards the tribunal, but were repulfed by
41 ven months, upon their promifing to (lore with provi- the guards forming themfelves into a wedge, and every
Remarks- f10n8 the fort he was building in their country. This one of them cut in pieces. After this, the emperor He expels
ble laws of year Conftantius made fome remarkable laws. By one ravaged their country to fueh a degree, that they were the Lira*-
fX 'm" he puniftred with confifcation fuch as renounced the in the end obliged to fubmit to the only condition he^301108
Chriftian for the Jewifh religion ; and by another, ad- thought proper to allow them, which was to quit their
country,
CON L 359 1 CON
Conftaii- country, and retire to a more diftant place. Thecoun-
tinopolitan tr„ was rellored to the Sarmatians who w'ere its
. hifton- or[^;nal pofiTefibrs.
This year is alfo remarkable for a very haugjrty
Haughty embaffy from Sapor king of Perfia. The ambaffa-
embaffy dor, named Narfes, brought a letter, in which the Per-
fromSapor flan monarch flyled himfelf “king of kings, brother
Perfiaf of the fun and moon’” &c- He acquainted the em¬
peror that he might lawfully infift on having all the
countries beyond the river Strymon in Macedon deli¬
vered up to him; but left his demands fhould feem
unreafonable, he would be contented with Armenia
and Mefopotamia, which had been mod unjuftly taken
from his grandfather Narfes. He added, that unlefs
juftice was done him, he was refolved to alfert his
right by force of arms. This letter was-prefented to
Conftantius wrapped up in a piece of white filk; but
he, without entering into any negociation with the
ambaffador, wrote a letter to Sapor, in which he told
him, that aa he had maintained the Roman dominions
in their full extent, when he was poflefled only of the
Eaft, he could not fuffer them to be curtailed now
*vhen he was mafter of the whole empire. In a few
days, however, he fent another letter with rich pre-
fents; being very defirous at lead to put off the war
till he had fecured the northern provinces againft the
incurfions of the barbarians, that he-might then employ
all the forces of the empire againft fo formidable an
enemy. This embaffy proved unfuccefsful, as did al-
fo another which was fent foon after. The laft am-
4S baffadors were imprifoned as fpies, but afterwards dif-
A law a- miffed unhurt. . By a law of Conftantius dated in 35^
gain It ma- aj} magicians, augurs, aftrologers, and pretenders to
gicians, c-art 0f divination, were declared enemies to man¬
kind ; and fuch of them as were found in the court
either of the emperor or of Julian, he commanded to
be put to the torture, and fpecifkd what torments they
were to undergo.
In 359, Julian continued his endeavours for relie¬
ving the province of Gaul, which had fuffered fo much
from the incurfions of the barbarians. He erefted
magazines in different places, vifited the cities which
had fuffered moft, and gave orders for repairing their
walls and fortifications properly. He then croffed the
49 Rhine, and purfued the war in Germany with great
Treachery fuccefs, infomuch that the barbarians fubmitted to fuch
«f theLi- terms as he pleafed to impofe. In the mean time the
Hugantes. empgror, having received intelligence that the Limi-
gantes had quitted the country in which he had placed
them, haftened to the banks of the Danube, in order
to prevent jjieir entering Pannonia. On his arrival
he fent deputies, defiring to know what had induced
them to abandon the country which had been allotted
them. The Limigantes anfwered, in appearance with
thegreateft fubmiffion imaginable, that they were whil¬
ing to live as true fubje&s of the empire in any other
place ; but that the country he had allotted them was
quite uninhabitable, as they could demonftrate if they
were but allowed to crofs the river, and lay their com¬
plaints before , him. This requeft was granted ; but
while he afcended his tribunal, the barbarians unex-
peCtedly fell upon his guards fword in hand, killed
50 feveral of them, and the emperor with difficulty faved
They are himfelf by flight. The reft of the troops, however,
ali cut off. foon took the alarm, and furrounding, the Limigantes,
cut them all off to a man. This year Conftantius in- Conflan-
ftituted a court of inquifition againft all thofe who tl'IJ°^r't,an
confulted heathen oracles. Paulas Catena, a noted , 1 .
and cruel informer, was difpatched into the Eaft to ^
profecute them ; and Modeftus, then count of the Eaft, The hea-
and equally remarkable for his cruelty, was appointed then* cruel«
judge. His tribunal was eredled at, Scythopolis in *yPe^c“
Paleftine, whither perfons of both fexes, and ofcu e
every rank and condition, were daily dragged in crowds
from all parts, and either confined in dungeons, or
torn in pieces in a moft cruel and barbarous manner by
racks, or publicly executed. 52
In 359, Sapor king of Perfia began hoftilities, be-ThePerff-
ing encouraged thereto by the abfence of Urficinus,an®
whom the emperor had recalled, and appointed in his l0 IlUC *’
room que Sabinianus, a perfon very unfit for fuch an
office. During this campaign, however, he made
very little progrefs; having only taken two Roman
forts, and deftroyed the city of Amida, the fiege of
which is faid to have coft him 30,000 men. On the
firft news of the Perfian invafion, Conftantius had
thought proper to fend Urficinus into the Eaft ; but his
enemies prevented him from receiving the fupplies
neceffary for carrying on the war, fo that he found
it impoffible to take any effc&ual means for (topping
the progrefs of the Pe-rfians. On his return, he was
unexpectedly charged with the lofs of Amida, and all
the difafters that had happened during the campaign.
Two judges were appointed to inquire into his con¬
duct ; but they, being creatures of his enemies, left
the matter doubtful. On this Urficinus was fo much
exafperated, that he appealed to the emperor, and in
the heat of paffion, let fall fome unguarded expref-
fions, which being immediately carried to the em¬
peror, the general was deprived of all his employ¬
ments.
Conftantius refolved to march next year in perfon Conftantius
againft the Perfians ; but in the mean time, dreading marches in
to encounter fo formidable an enemy, he applied him- perfon a-
felf wholly to the affembling of a mighty army, by gainftthem*-
which he might be able fully to cope with them. For
this purpofe he wrote to Julian to fend him part of
his forces, without confidering that by fo doing he
left the province of Gaul expofed to the ravages of
the barbarians. Julian refolved immediately to com¬
ply with the emperor’s orders; but at the fame time
to abdicate the dignity of Casfar,. that he might not
be blamed for the lofs of the province. Accordingly
he fuffered the heft foldiers to be draughted out of his
army. They were, however, very unwilling to leave r ,■ **
him, and at laft proclaimed him emperor. Whether chimedeua-
this was done abfolutely againft Julian’s confent or not peror.
is uncertain ; but he wrote to the emperor, and perfua-
ded the whole army alfb to fend a letter along with his,
in which they acquainted Conftantius with what had
happened, and entreated him to acknowledge Julian as
his partner in the empire. But this was pofitivcly re-
fufed by Conftantius, who began to prepare for war.
Julian then, defigning to be before-hand with the em¬
peror, caufed his troops take an oath of allegiance to
himfelf, and with furprifing expedition made himfelf
mafter of the whole country of Illyricum, and the
important pafs feparating that country from Thrace.
Conftantius was thunder-ftruck with this news ; but
hearing that the Perfians had retired, he marched.
S' with.
. 56
Julian re*
(tores the
heathen re-
a magnificent porch leading to it, and in another porch
a (lately library, in which he lodged all his books. In
the month of May, A. D. 362. he fet out for Antioch;
and on the firft of January renewed in that city the
facrifices to Jupiter for the fafety of the empire, which
CON [ 560 ] CO N
Conflan- with all his forces againfl his competitor. On his ar- was a Pagan, and immediately on his aeceflion to the OonfiaH-
*XT ri'Va* 3t r^ai^us *n Cilicia, he was feized with a feve- throne, reftored the heathen religion. He invited to
1 ^ ' ■ rifh diftemper, occafroned chiefly by the uneafinefs court the philofophers, magicians, &c. from all parts; 1 <>r>‘ f
S5 and perplexity of his mind. He purfued his march, neverthelefs he did not raife any perfecution againft ^
Conftantius however, to Mopfucrene, a place on the borders of the Chriflians. On the contrary, he recalled from ba-ReCais the
marches a- Cilicia, at the foot of Mount Taurus. Here he was nifhment all the orthodox bifhops who had been fent
fnudiesl1”’ to ft°P by the violence of his diforder, which into exile during the former reign ; but with a de- I'hcr^ "’f*
increafed every day, and atJaft carried him off on the fign, as is obferved both by the Chriflian and PaganglClan,, C*
13th of November 361, in the 45th year of his age. writers, to raife diflurbances and fow diflenlions in the
By the death of Conftantius Julian now became church. go
mailer of the whole Roman empire without a rival. As the Perfians were now preparing to carry on Marches a-
He had been educated in the Chriftian religion; but the war with vigour, Julian found himfelf under
fecretly apoftatized from it long before, and as foon as neceffity of marching againfl them in perfon. But Perfun**
he faw himfelf mafter of Illyricum, openly avowed before he fet out, he enriched the city of Conftanti-
his apoftafy, and caufed the temples of the gods to be nopie with many valuable gifts. He formed a large
opened. When the meftengers arrived at Naiflus in harbour to fhelter the {hips from the fouth wind, built
Illyricum, where he then was, to acquaint him with
his being foie mafter of the empire, they found him
Confulting the entrails of viclims concerning the event
of his journey. , As the omens were uncertain, he was
at that time very much embarrafled and perplexed ;
but the arrival of the meflengers put an end to all his had been fo long omitted. During his flay in this ci-
fears, and he immediately fet out for Conftantinople. ty, he continued his preparations for the Perfian war,
At Heraclea he was met by almoft all the inhabitants ere&ing magazines, making new levies, and above all
of this metropolis, into which he made his public en- confulting the oracles, arufpices, magicians, fife. The
try on the 1 rth of December 361, being attended by oracles of Delphi, Delos, and Dodona, affured him of
the whole fenate in a body, by all the magiflrates, and vidtory. The arufpices, indeed, and moft of his cour-
by the nobility magnificently dreffed, every one tefti- tiers and officers, did all that lay in their power to di-
fying the utmoft joy at feeing fuch a promifing young vert him from his intended expedition ; but the de*
prince raifed to the empire without bloodfhed. He was ceitful anfwets of the oracles and magicians, and the
again declared emperor by the fenate of Conftanti- defire of adding the Perfian monarch to the many
nople ; and as foon as that ceremony was over, he caufed kings he had already feen humbled at his feet, prevail-
the obfequies of Conftantius to be performed with great ed over all other confiderations. Many nations lent
pomp. deputies to him offering their affiftance ; but thefe of*
» The firft; care of Julian was to inquire into the con- fers he reje&ed, telling them that the Romans were to
fome of the 0f the late emperor’s minifters. Several of thefe, affift their allies, but flood in no need of any affift-
late empe- been found guilty of enormous crimes, were ance from them. He likewife rejefted, and in a very
"fters*.mim" condemned and executed; particularly the noted in- difobliging manner, the offers of the Saracens; an-
former Paulus Catena, and another named Apodamus, fwering them, when they complained of his flopping
were fentenced to be burnt alive. Along with thefe, the penfion paid them by other emperors, that a war-
however, was put to death one Urfula, a man of like prince had fteel, but no gold ; which they refent-
unexceptxonable charafler, and to whom Julian him- ing, joined the Perfians, and continued faithful to them
felf was highly indebted. He had been fupplied to the laft. However, he wrote to Arfaces king of
with money by Urfula unknown to the emperor, at Armenia, enjoining him to keep his troops in readinef*
the time when he was fent into Gaul with the title to execute the orders he fhould foon tranfmit to him. 6l
of Ccefar, but without the money neceffary for the Having made the neceffary preparations for fo im- caffes the
fupport of that dignity. For what reafon he was portant an enterprife, Julian fent orders to his troops Euphra:es,
now put to death, hiftori&ns do not acquaint us. Ju- to crofs the Euphrates, defigning to enter the enemy’s
lian himfelf tells us, that he was executed without his country before they had the leaft notice of his march ;
knowledge. for which purpofe he had placed guards on all the
Reforms The emperor next fet about reforming the court, roads. From Antioch he proceeded to Litarba, a place
the court. As the vaft number of offices was in his time become about 15 leagues diftant, which he reached the fame
an intolerable burden, he difeharged all thofe whom day. From thence he went to Bertea, where he halted
he thought ufelefs. He reduced, among the reft, the a day, and exhorted the council to reflore the worfhip
officers called agentes in rebus, from 10,000 to t 7 ; of the gods ; but this exhortation, it feems, was com*
and drfeharged thoufands of cooks, barbers, &c. who plied witli but by few. From Beraea he proceeded to
by their large falaries drained the exchequer. The Batnte ; and was better pleafed with the inhabitants of
cur toft, whole office it was to inform the emperor of the latter, becaufe they had, before his arrival, res
what had pafied in the different provinces, were all llored the worfhip of the gods. T. here he offered fa-
difeharged, and that employment entirely fuppreffed. orifices ; and having immolated a great number of vic-
Thus he was enabled to eafe the people of the heavy tims, he purfued the next day his journey to Hiera-
taxes with which they were loaded : and this he did by polis, the capital of the province of Euphrattfiana,
abating a fifth part of all taxes and impofts throughout which he reached on the 9th of march. Here he
the kingdom. lodged in the houfe of one for whom he had a parti-
As to religious matters, Julian, as before obferved* cular efteem, chiefly bccaufe neither Conftantius nor
• N° 89. Callus,
V
63 „
Lays walte
Aflyria.
64
Advai.ces
to Ctefi-
phon.
CON [ 361 ] CON
Galius, who had both lodged in his houfe, had been pofed by the enemy. But Julian pafTed that river in Conflan-
able to make him renounce the worfiiip of his idols, fpite of their utmoft efforts, and drove them into the tlI^®r‘an
As he entered this city, 50 of his foldiers were killed city with the lofs of a great number of their men, he ■ - ^ <
by the fall of a porch. He left Hierapolison the 13th himfelf, in the mean time, lofing only 70 or 75. ^
of March ; and having paffed the Euphrates on a bridge Julian had now advanced fo far into the enemy’s Begins
of boats, came to Batnas a fmall city of Ofrhoene, country, that he found it neceffary to think of a re-retreat, but
about 10 leagues from Hierapolis; and here 50 more of treat, as it was impoffible for him to winter in Per-f*r JWante0y
his foldiers were killed by the fall of a ftack of draw. fia. For this reafon he made no attempt on Ctefi-proviflonj).
From Batnae he proceeded to Carrhfe ; where, in the phon, but began to march back along the banks of
famous temple of the moon, it is faid he facrificed a the Tigris, foon after he had paffed that river. In
woman to that planet. the mean time the king of Perfia was affembling a
While Julian continued in this city, he received ad- formidable army, with a defign to fall upon the Ro-
vice that a party of the enemies horfe had broke into mans in their march; but being defirous of putting an
the Roman territories. On this he refolved to leave end to fo deftruclive a war, he fent very advantage-
an army in Mefopotamia, to guard the frontiers of the ous propofals of peace to Julian. Thefe the Roman
empire on that fide, while he advanced on the other emperor very imprudently rejefted; and foon after,
into the heart of the Perfian dominions. This army deceived by treacherous guides, he quitted the river,
confifted, according to fome, of 20,000, according to and entered into an unknown country totally laid wafte
others, of 30,000 chofen troops. It was commanded by the enemy, and where he was continually harafled
by Procopius, and Sebaftian a famous manichean who by ftrong parties, who in a manner furrounded his ar-
had been governor of Egypt, and had perfecuted there, my, and attacked him fometimes in the front, and
with the utmoft cruelty, the orthodox Chriftians. fometimes in the rear. A ftill worfe ftep he was per-
Thefe two were to join*, if poffible, Arfaces king of fuaded to take by the treacherous guides already men-
Armenia, to lay wafte the fruitful plains of Media, tioned^ and this w'as to burn his fleet, left it fhouldfall
and meet the emperor-in Aflyria. To Arfaces Julian into the hands of the enenvy. As foon as the fleet w'as
himfelf wrote, but in the moft difobliging manner ima- fet on fire, the whole army cried out, that the emperor
ginable, threatening to treat him as a rebel if he did was betrayed, and that the guides were traitors em-
not execute, with the utmoft punftuality, the orders ployed by the enemy. Julian ordered them immedi-
given him ; and at the conclufion told him, that the ately to be put to the rack, upon which they confefled
God he adored would not be able to fcreen him from the treafon ; but it was too late. The fleet was al-
his indignation. ready in flames; they could by no means be extin-
There were two roads leading from Carrhae to Per- guilhed; and no part was faved except 12 veflels,
fia ; the one to the left by Nifibis ; the other to the which were defigned to be made ufe of in the building
right through the province of Aflyria, along the banks of bridges, and for this purpofe were conveyed over
of the Euphrates. Julian chofe the latter, but caufed land in waggons.
magazines to be erefted on both roads ; and, after The emperor thus finding himfelf in a ftrange coun¬
having viewed his army, fet out on the 25th of March, try, and his army greatly difpirited, called a council
He paired the Abora, which feparated the Roman and of his chief officers, in which it was refolved to pro-
Perfian dominions, near its conflux with the Euphra- ’ ceed to Cprduene, which lay fouth of Armenia, and
tes ; after which he broke down the bridge, that his belonged to the Romans. With this view, they had
troops might not be tempted to defert, feeing they not proceeded far when they were met by the king
could not return home. As he proceeded on his march, of Perfia, at the head' of a very numerous army, at-
a foldier and two horfes were ftruck dead by a flalh tended by his two fons, and all the principal nobility
of lightning; and a lion of an extraordinary fize pre- of the kingdom. Several lharp encounters happened,
fenting himfelf to the army, was in a moment dif- in which, though the Perfians were always defeated,
patched by the foldiers with a Ihower of darts. Thefe yet the Romans reaped no advantages from their vic-
omens occafioned great difputes between the philofo- tories, but were reduced to the laft extremity for want
phers and arufpices : the latter looking upon them as of provifions. In one of'thefe Ikirmilhes, when the 66
inaufpicious, advifed the emperor to return ; but the Romans were fuddenly attacked, the emperor, eager
former refuted their arguments with others more agree- to repulfe the enemy, haftened to the field of battle iTafuddui
able to Julian’s temper. without his armour, when he received a mortal wounda“ackby
Having pafled the Abora, Julian entered Aflyria, by a dart, which, through his arm and fide, piercedthe Per-
which he found very populous, and abounding with his very liver. Of this wound he died the fame night, f'a“S‘
all the nectflaries of life ; but he laid it wafte far and the 26th of June 363, in the 32d year of his age, af^
near, deltroying the magazines and provifions which ter having reigned fcatce 20 months from the time he
he could not carry along with him ; and thus he put became foie mailer of the Roman empire,
it out of his power to return the fame way he came ; As Julian had declined naming any fucceflbr, the ,67
a flep which was judged very impolitic. As he met choice of a new emperor devolved on the army. They
with no army in the_ field to oppofe him, he advanced unanimoufly chofe Jovian, a very able commander, the entire,
to the walls of Ctefiphon, the metropolis of the Per- whofe father had lately reiigned the poll of comes do- *
fian empire ; having reduced all the ftrong holds that mejicorum, in order to lead a retired life. The va-
lay in his way. Here, having caufed the canal to be lour and experience of Jovian, however, were not
cleared, which was formerly dug by Trajan bet ween _ fufficient to extricate the Roman army from the diffi-
thefe two rivers, he conveyed his fleet from ihe former culties in which they had been plunged by the impru-
tothe latter^ On the banks of. the Tigris he was op- dence of his predeceffor. The famine raged in the
Z z camp
CON [ 362 1 CON
Confirm- camp to fuch a degree, that not a Tingle man would
'ZCT" ^ave ^een ^*ve> not t^e PerTians unexpededly
v-, v 1 Tent propofals of peace. Thefe were now received
68 with the utmoft joy. A peace was concluded for 30
Concludes years ; the terms of which were, that Jovian fhould
wFththe reft°ie t0 t^ie Perfians the five provinces which had
I’ei fians. ^een taken from them in the reign of JDioclefian, with
feveral caftles, and the cities of Nifibis and Singara.
After the conclufion of the treaty, Jovian purfued his
march without molettation. When he arrived at An¬
tioch, he revoked all the laws that had been made in
the former reign againft Chriftianity and in favour of
paganifm. He efpoufed alfo the caufe of the ortho¬
dox Chriftians againft the Arians; and recalled all thofe
who had been formerly banifhed, particularly Athana-
fius, to whom he wrote a very obliging letter with
his own hand. It is generally believed alfo that Atha-
nafius, at the defire of Jovian, now compofed the
creed which ftill goes by his name, and is fubferibed
by all the bilhops in Europe. But this emperor did
not live to make any great alterations, or even to vi-
fit his capital as emperor ; for in his way to Conftan-
His death, tinople he was found dead in his bed, on the 16th or
17th of February 364, after he had lived 33 years,
7o and reigned feven months and 40 days.
Valentinian After the death of Jovian, Valentinian was chofen
chofenem- emperor. Immediately on his acceffion, the foldiers
choofes Va- mut*n>e(i> and with great clamour required him to
lens for his choofe a partner in the fovereignty. Though he did
partner. not inftantly comply with their demand, yet in a few
days he chofe his brother Valens for his partner ; and,
as the empire was threatened on all fides with an in-
vafion of the barbarous nations, he thought proper to
divide it. This famous partition was made at Mediana
in Dacia ; when Valens had for his (hare the whole of
Afia, Egypt, and Thrace ; and Valentinian all the
Weft; that is, Illyricum, Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain,
and Africa.
71. After this partition, Valens returned to Conftanti-
j-evoltf118 n0P^e> where the beginning of his reign was difturbed
by the revolt of Procopius, a relation of Julian. On
the death of that emperor, he had fled into Taurica
Cherfonefus for fear of Jovian; but not trufting the
barbarians who inhabited that country, he returned in
difguife into the Roman territories, where having
gained over an eunuch of great wealth, by name Eu-
genlus, lately difgraced by Valens, and fome officers
who commanded the troops lent againft the Goths,
he got himfelf proclaimed emperor. At firft he was
joined only by the lovveft of the people, but at length
he was acknowledged by the whole city of Conftanti-
nople. On the news of this revolt, Valens would
have abdicated the fovereignty, had he not been pre¬
vented by the importunities of his friends. He there¬
fore difpatched fome troops againft the ufurper; but
thefe were gained over, and Procopius continued for
fome time t<? gain ground. It is probable he would
finally have fucceeded, had he not become fo much
elated with his good fortune, that he grew tyranni¬
cal and infupportable to his own party. In confe¬
rs defeated quence of this alteration in his difpofition, he was firft
abandoned by fome of his principal officers; and foon af¬
ter defeated in battle, taken prifoner, and put to death.
73 This revolt produced a war betwixt Valens and the
the Goths. Goths. The latter, having been foliated by Proco¬
and put to
death.
plus, had fent 3000 men to his affiftance. On hear- Conftan-
ing the news of the ufurper’s death, they marched t,l,'lfolltart
back ; but Valen* detached againft them a body of, 11 “ry‘ .
troops, who took them all prifoners notwithftanding
the vigorous refiftance they made. Athanaric, king
of the Goths, expoftulated on this proceeding with
Valens; but that emperor proving dbftinate, both
parties prepared for war. In 367 and 369, Valens
gained great advantages over his enemies; and ob¬
liged them to fue for peace, which was concluded up¬
on terms very advantageous to the Romans. The
reft of this reign contains nothing remarkable, except
the cruelty with which Valens perfecuted the ortho¬
dox clergy. The latter fent 80 of their number to
him, in order to lay their complaints before him ; but thodox
he, inftead of giving them any relief, determined to clergy eo
put them all to death. But the perfon who was or- eleliaftic*.
dered to execute this fentence, fearing left the pub-
lie execution of fo many ecclefiaftics might raife dif- J
turbances, ordered them all to be put on board a ftiip*
pretending that the emperor had ordered them only
to be lent into baniihment; but when the veffel was
at fome diftance from land, the mariners fet fire to it,
and made their own efcape in the boat. The Ihip was
driven by a ftrong wind into an harbour, where it
was confumed and all that were in it. A perfecutionJVTagician*'l
was alfo commenced againll magicians, or thofe
had books of magic in their cuftody. This occafioned
the deftru&ion of many innocent perfons ; for books
of this kind were often conveyed into libraries un¬
known to the owners of them, and this was certainly
folio wed. by death and confifcation of goods- Here¬
upon perfons of all ranks were feized with fuch terror
that they burnt their libraries, left books of magic
fhould have been fecretly conveyed in amongft the
others. In 378, the Goths, whom Valens had admit¬
ted into Thrace, advanced from that province to Ma-
cedon and Theflaly, where they committed dreadful ra
vages. They afterwards blocked up the city of Con-Vaje^s(j^
ftantinople, plundered the fuburbs, and at laft totally feated and-
defeated and killed the emperor himfelf. The day af- killed by
ter the battle, hearing that an immenfe treafime wasthe G°th*.
lodged in Adrianople, the barbarians laid fiege to that
place: but being quite ftrangers to the art of befieging
towns, they were repulfed with great flaughter ; up¬
on which they dropped that enterprife, and returned
before Conftantinople. But here great numbers of
them were cut in pieces by the Saracens, whom Maria
their queen had fent to the affiftance of the Romans;
fo that they were obliged to abandon this defign like-
wife, and retire from the neighbourhood of that city.
By the death of Valens, the empire once more fell ^
into the hands of a Tingle perfon. This was Gratian, Grarian
who had held the empire of the Weft after the death takesTheo-
of Valentinian. He repulfed many barbarous nations^’
who threatened the empire at that time with diffolu-
tion ; but finding himfelf prefled on all Tides, he foon
refolved to take a colleague, in order to eafe him of
fome part of"the burden. Accordingly, on the 19th
of January 379, he declared Theodofius his partner in
the empire, and committed to his care all the provin¬
ces which had been governed by Valens.
Theodofius is greatly extolled by the hiftorians of
thofe ages on account of his extraordinary valour and
piety; and for thefe qualifications has been honoured
3 with
fore the ambition of the ufurper prompted him
break his promiie.. In 387, he pafi'ed the Alps on aot ValentL-
fudden ; and meeting with no oppohtion, marched to iran.
Milan where Valeritinian ufually reiided. The young
empire o
his accef-
£o&..
CON r 363 1 CON
Cmftan- with the firname of//je Crw#. From the many perfe- figns on the dominions of Valentinian. As Tneodofius Ccnftan.
tinopolitan cut;ng ]aws ,however, made in his time, it would feem at that time found himfelf in danger from the barba- 0PoIlta«
1 hl{tor>- that his piety was at lead very much mifguided * and rians, he not only forbore to attack Maximus after-, °ry' .
that if he was naturally of a humane and compaffionate this declai-ation, but even acknowledged him for his 8r
difpofition, fuperflition and paffion had often totally partner in the empire. It was not long, however, be-who in-
obfeured it. He certainly was a man of great con- „r ,1.^ ..r. 1 i..-- .^adesth.
du£t and experience in war, and indeed the prefent
ftate of the empire called for an exertion of all his abi-
Miferable lines. The provinces of Dacia, Thrace, and lllyri- _ . t 0
ftate of the cum, were already loft; the Goths, Taifali, Alans, prince fled iirft to Aquileia; and from thence to Thef-
«n an(j £[unns> were mafters Gf the greateft part of thefe falonica, to implore the prote&ion of Theodofms.
provinces, and had ravaged and laid wafte the reft. The latter, in anfwer to Valentinian’s letter, inform-
The Iberians, Armenians, and Perfians, were likewife cd him, that he was not at all furprifed at the pro-
up in arms, and ready to take advantage of the dif- grefs Maximus had made, becaufe the ufurper had
trailed ftate of the empire. The few foldiers, who protected, and Valentinian had perfecuted, the ortho-
had furvived the late defeat, kept within the ftrong <i°x Chriftians. At laft he prevailed on the young
holds of Thrace, without daring fo much as to look prince to renounce the Arian herefy which he had hi-
abroad, much lefs face the viftorious enemy, who mo- therto maintained; after which Theodofius promifed
ved about the country in great bodies. But notwith- t0 him with all the forces of the Eaft. At firft,
Handing this critical fituation, the hiftorians of thofe however, he fent meflengers to Maximus, earneftly
times give us no account of the tranfa&ions of the exhorting him to reftore the provinces he had taken
year 379. Many great battles indeed are faid to Tom Valentinian, and content himfelf with Gaul,
have been fought, and as many vidtories obtained by Spain, and Britain. But the ufurper would hearken St
Theodofius; but the accounts of thefe are fo con- to no terms. This very year he befieged and tookHIs fucceff’
fufed and contradiftory, that no ftrefs can be laid up- Aquileia, Quaderna, Bonoria, Mutina, Rhegium, Pla-
on them. centia, and many other cities in Italy. The following
In the month of February 380, Theodofius was year he was acknowledged in Rome, and in all the
feized with a dangerous malady, fo that Gratian found provinces of Africa. Theodolius, therefore, finding a
himfelf obliged to carry on the war alone. This em- war inevitable, fpent the remaining months of this
peror, apprehending that the neighbouring barbarians and the beginning of the following year in making the
might break into fome of the provinces, concluded a neceffary preparations. His army confifted chiefly of
peace with the Goths, which was confirmed by Theo- Goths, Huns, Alans, and other barbarians, whom he
dofius on his recovery. The treaty was very'advan- was glad to take into the fervice in order to prevent g,
tageous to the barbarians ; but they, difregarding all their raifing difturbancea on the frontiers. He defeat-Detcated
their engagements, no fooner heard that Gratian had ed Maximus in two battles, took him prifoner, and put and put tt»
left Illyricum, than they pafied the Danube, and break- him to death. The ufurper had left his fon Vidor,death by
ing into Thrace and Pannonia, advanced as far as Ma- whom he created Auguftus, in Gaul, to awe the inhabi- fiuhseod°'
79 cedon, deftroying 2.11 with fire and fword. Theodofius, tants in his abfence. Againft him the emperor dif- 1US*
Jbe however, drawing together his forces, marched againft patched Arbogaftes, who took him prifoner after having
Theodo- t!iern ’ and’ according the moft refpedable author!- difperfed the troops that attended him, and put him to
fius. ties, gained a complete vidory; though Zofimus re- death. The vidory was ufed afterwards by Theodo-
lates, that he was utterly defeated. fius with great clemency and moderation.
The following year, Athanaric, the moft powerful 10389, Theodofius took a journey to Rome ; and,
of all the Gothic princes, being driven out by a fadion according to Prudentius, at this time converted the ple^rf a"-
at home, recurred to Theodofius, by whom he was fenate and people from idolatry to Chriftianity. The lexandria,
received with great tokens of friendftrip. The em- next year was remarkable for the deftrudion of theand
peror himfelf went out to meet him, and attended celebrated temple of Serapis. in Alexandria; which, aQr£U®h°tut
him with his numerous retinue into the city. The according to the defeription of Ammianus Marcdlinus^ deftroyed.’
Gothic prince died the fame year; and Theodofius furpaffed all others iii the world, that of Jupiter Capi-
caufed him to be buried after the Roman manner with tolinus alone excepted. The reafou of its being now
fuch pomp and Solemnity, that the Goths, who attend- deftroyed was as follows. Theophilus, biihop of Alex-
ed him in his flight, returned home with a refolution andria, having begged and obtained of the emperor
never to moleft the Romans any more. Nay, out of an old temple, formerly-confecrated to Bacchus, but
gratitude to the emperor, they took upon them, to then ruined and forfaken, with a defign to convert it
guard the banks of' the Danube, and prevent the em- into a church, the workmen found among the rubbifh
pire from being invaded on that fide. feveral obfeene figures, which the biftiop, to ridicule
Gradari Jn.383> onf Maximus revolted againft Gratian in the fuperftition of the Heathens, caufed to be expofed
murdered Britain ; and in the end, having got the unhappy em- to public view. This provoked the Pagaris to fuch a
by Maxi- Peror int« ms power, caufed him to be put to death, degree, that they flew to arms ; and falling unexpec-
mus, and aflumed the empire of the Weft himfelf. Gra- tedly upon the Chriftians, cut great numbers of them
tian. had divided his dominions with his brother Va- in pieces. The latter, however, foon ‘took arms in
lentiman, whom he allowed to reign in Italy and Weft their own defence ; and being fupported by the few
Illyricum, referving the reft to himfelf. Maximus foldiers who were quartered in the city, beo-an to re-
therefore,^ immediately after his' ufurpation, fent de- pel force by force. Thus a civil war was° kindled,
puties to Theodofius, afluring him that he had no de- and no day paffed without fome encounter. The Pa-
Z z 2 gana
CON [ 364 ] CON
Conftan- gans ufecj to retire to the temple of Serapis ; and found thefe paffes guarded by Flavianus prefect of Italy, Conflan-
^hiftory^” ltl.ence fa%ing out unexpeftedly feized on fuch Chri- 'at the head of a confiderable body of Roman troops, “iioiwiitait,
i.. iV.. ,> ftians as they met, and, dragging them into the tem- Thefe were utterly defeated by Theodofius, who lllll;o^y^ f
pie, either forced them by the moll exquifite torments thereupon crofled the Alps and advanced into Italy. " J' v J
to facrifiee to their idol, or, if they refufed, racked He was foon met by Eugenius; and a bloody battle
them to death. As they foon expefted to be attacked enfued, without any decifive advantage on either fide,
by the emperor’s troops, they chofe a philofopher The next day the emperor led his troops in perfon
m. a... r iU-.*-1 j _ J~e— — J- againft the enemy, utterly defeated them, and took
their camp. Eugenius was taken prifoner by his own Eueeidu*
men, and brought to Theodofius, who reproached him defeated,
with the murder of Valentinian, with the calamities taken pri-
he had brought on the empire by his unjull ufur-f“ner>an<*
pation, and with putting his confidence in Hercules,
and not in the true God ; for on his chief ilandard he eat
had difplayed the image of that fabulous hero. Euge¬
nius begged earnellly for his life; but while he lay pro-
ftrate at the emperor’s feet, his own foldiers cut off
his head, and carrying it about on the point of a fpear,
fiiowed it to thofe in the camp, who had not yet fubmit-
ted to Theodofius. At this they were all thunderllruck;
but being informed that Theodofius was ready to receive
them into favour, they threw down their arms and
fubnlitted. After this, Arbogalles, defpairing of par- Aiboeaflcs-
don, fled to the mountains; but being informed that lays vio-
diligent fearch was made for him, he laid violent hands ^nt hands
on himfelf. His children, and thofe of Eugenius,oa
took fan&uary in churches: but the emperor not only
pardoned, but took the opportunity of converting them
to Chriftianity, reftored to them their paternal eftates,
and raifed them to confiderable employments in the
ilate. Soon after this, Theodofius appointed his fon
Honorius emperor of the Weft, affigning him for his
ftiare Italy, Gaul, Spain, Africa, and Weft lilyricum.
named Olympus for their leader, with a defign to de¬
fend themfelves to the laft extremity. The emperor,
however, would not fuffer any puniftiment to be inflic¬
ted upon them for the lives of thofe they had taken
away, but readily forgave them: however, he ordered
all the temples of Alexandria to be immediately pulled
down, and commanded the bifhop to fee his orders put
in execution. The Pagans no fooner heard that the
emperor was acquainted with their proceedings than
they abandoned the temple, which was jin a fliort time
deftroyed by Theophilus; nothing being left except
the foundations, which could not be removed on ac¬
count of the extraordinary weight and fize of the
Hones. Not fatisfied with the deftruttion of the Alexan¬
drian temples, the zealous bilhop encouraged the people
to pull down all the other temples, oratories, chapels,
and places fet apart for the worfhip of the Heathen
gods throughout Egypt, and the ftatues of the gods
themfelves to be either burnt or melted down. Of
the innumerable ftatues which at that time were to be
found in Egypt, he is faid to have fpared but one,
tok. that of an ape, in order to expofe the Pagan re¬
ligion to "ridicule. On his return to Conftantinople,
Theodofius ordered fuch temples as were yet Handing
to be thrown down, and the Arians to be every where
driven out of the cities.
The next year, as he prepared for his return to Con- T, ^ f
ftantinople, he was feized with a dropfy, owing to the °1US
Valentinian In 392, Valentinian, emperor of the Weft, was The next year,
murdered treacheroufly murdered by Arbogaftes his general; ftantinople, he   .    B
^{Kwho w^0’ though he might afterwards have eafily feized great fatigues he had undergone during the war. As
raifoEu-0 on the fovereignty himfelf, chofe to confer it upon foon as he perceived himfelf to be in danger, he made
genius to, one Eugenius, and to reign in his name. This new his will; by which he bequeathed the empire of the
the empire, ufurper, though a Chriftian, was greatly favoured by A ww.n.\«, -.-n xj„-— r
the Pagans, who were well apprized that he only bore
the title of emperor, while the whole power lodged in
Eaft to Arcadius, and confirmed Honorius in the pof-
fefiion of the Weft. He likewife confirmed the pardon
u which he had granted to all thofe who had borne arms
Arbogaftes, who pretended to be greatly attached to againft him, and remitted a tribute which had proved
their religion. The arufpices began to appear anew, very burdenfome to the people ; and charged his two
and informed him that he was deftined to the
pire of the whole world ; that he would foon gain
a complete vi&ory over Theodofius, who was as much
hated as Eugenius was beloved by the gods, &c. But
though Eugenius feemed to favour the Pagans, yet in
the very beginning of his reign he wrote to St Am-
brofe. The holy man did not anfwer his letter till
he was preffed by fome friends to recommend them to
the new prince ; and then he wrote to this infamous
ufurper with all the refpedl due to an emperor. Soon
after his acceffion to the empire, Eugenius fent depu¬
ties to Theodofius; and they are faid to have -been
fons to fee thefe points of his will executed. He died
at Milan on the 17th of January 395, in the 16th of
his reign and 50th of his age.
From the time of Theodofius to the time when the Empire u-
Roman empire in the Weft was totally deftroyed by furped hy-
the Goths, we find but very little remarkable in the Bafilifcus.
hiftory of Conftantinople. At this time the eallern
empire was ufurped by Bafilifcus, who had driven out
Zeno-the lawful emperor; being affifted in his confpi-
racy by the emprefs Verina his filter. Zeno fled in¬
to Ifauria, whither he was purfued by Ulus and Tre-
condes, two of the ufurper’s generals; who having
ceived by him in a very obliging manner. He did eafily defeated the few troops he had with him, for-
not, however, intend to enter into any alliance with
this ufurper, but immediately began his military pre¬
parations. In 394, he fet out from Conftantinople,
and was at Adrianople on the 15th of June that year.
He bent his march through Dacia, and the other pro¬
vinces between Thrace and the Julian Alps, with a
defign to force the paffes of thefe mountains, and break
into Italy before the army of Eugenius was in a con¬
dition to oppofe him. On his arrival at the Alps, he
ced the unhappy prince to Ihut himfelf up in a caftle,
which they immediately invefted. But in a Ihort
time Bafilifcus having difobliged the people by his cru¬
elty, avarice, and other bad qualities, for which he was
no lefs remarkable than his predeceffor had been, his
generals joined with Zeno, whom they reftored to the
throne. After his reftoration, Zeno having got Bafilif¬
cus into his power, confined him in a caftle of Cappado¬
cia together with his wife Zenonides, where they both
perilhed.
CON [ 365 ] CON
Gonftan- perlfhed with hunger and cold. This happened in the
t*h'flortan year467* a^ter Bahhfcus had reigned about 20 months.
■ 1 ory' During the time of this ufurpation a dreadful fire hap-
90 pened at Conllantinople, which confumed great part
Is ftarved of the city, with the library containing 120,000 ve¬
to death lumes; among which wete the works of Homer,
Creature wr‘tten» as ‘8 on l^e great 6llt a dragon 120
at Con{tan-^ee* |onS*. . , . , _ , ,
tinopie. The misfortunes which Zeno had undergone did
not work any reformation upon him. He ftill conti¬
nued the fame vicious courfes which had given occa-
fibn to the ufurpation of Bafilifcua. Other confpira-
cies were formed againft him, but he had the good
fortune to efcape them. He engaged in a war with
the Oftrogoths, in which he proved unfuccefsful, and
was obliged to yield the provinces of Lower Dacia
and Moetra to them. In a fhort time, however, Theo-
doric their king made an irruption into Thrace, and
advanced within 15 miles of Contlantinople, with a de-
fign to befiege that capital: but the following year, 485,
they retired in order to attack Odoacer king of Italy;
of which country Theodoric was proclaimed king in
493. The emperor Zeno died in the year 491, in the
65th year of his age, and 17th of his reign.
Decfine of The Roman empire had now for a long time been
the Roman on the decline : the ancient valour and military difei-
whltfow0 P^ne wh*ch had for fuch a long time rendered the Ro-
2^ ’ mans fuperior to other nations, had greatly degenera¬
ted; fo that they were now by no means fo powerful as
formerly. The tumults and diforders which had hap¬
pened in the empire from time to time by the many
ufurpations, had contributed alfo to weaken it very
much. But what proved of the greateft detriment
was the allowing vaft fwarms of barbarians to fettle
in the different provinces, and to ferve in the Roman
empire in feparate and independent bodies. This had
proved the immediate caufe of the dilfolution of the
weflern empire; but as it affe&ed the eaftern parts
lefs, the Conftantinopolitan empire continued for up¬
wards of 900 years after the weftern one was totally
diffolved. The weak and imprudent adminiftration of
It revives ^eno, an^ Anaitafius who fucceeded him, had reduced
under Juf- t^ie eahern empire ftill more ; and it might poflibly
tin and Juf-have expired in a fhort time after the weftern one,
tinian. had not the wife and vigorous conduct of Juftin, and
his partner Juftinian, revived in -fome meafure the an¬
cient martial fpirit which had originally railed the Ro¬
man empire to its higheft pitch of grandeur.
Juftin afeended the throne in 518. In 521 he en¬
gaged in a war with the Perfians, who had all along
been very formidable enemies to the Roman name.
Againft them he employed the famous Belifarius; but
of him we hear nothing remarkable till after the ac-
ceffion of Juftinian. This prince was the nephew of
Jtiftin, and was by him taken as his partner in the em¬
pire in 527 ; and the fame year Juftin died, in the
77th year of his age and 9th of his reign. Juftinian
being now foie mafter of the empire, bent his whole
force againft the Perfians. The latter proved fuccefs-
ful in the firft engagement; but were foon after utterly
defeated by Belifarius on the frontiers of Periia, and
« likewife by another general named Dorotheus in Ar-
juftnnan’s men‘a- The war continued with various fuccefs du-
war with ring the firft. five years of Juftinian’s reign. In the
the fer- fixth year a peace was concluded upon the following
terms: 1. That the Roman emperor fhould pay to Conftan-
Cofrhoes, the king of Perfia, 1000 pounds weight of nnopolua*
gold. 2. That both princes fhould reftore the places 1 °ry’ .
they had taken during the wars. 3. That the com¬
mander of the Roman forces fttould no longer refide
at Daras on the Eerfian frontiers, but at a place called
Conftantina in Mefopotamia, as he had formerly done.
4. That the Iberians, who had fided with the Romans,
Ihould be at liberty to return to their own country or
ftay at Conilantinople. This peace, concluded in 532,
was ftyled eternal; but in the event proved of very
ftioft duration.
About this time happened at Conftantinople the Great tc-
greateft tumult mentioned in hiftory. It began among mult in
the different faftions in the circus, but ended in an Conftan
open rebellion. The multitude, highly diffatisfied with tinor4
the conduit of John the prefectus pratorio, and of Tre-
bonianus then queftor, forced Hypatius, nephew to the
emperor Anaftafius, to accept the empire, and pro¬
claimed him with great folemnity in the forum. As
the two above-mentioned minifttrs were greatly ab¬
horred by the populace on account of their avarice,
Juftinian immediately difeharged them, hoping by
that means to appeafe the tumult: but this was lo far
from anfwering the purpofe, that the multitude only
grew the more outrageous upon it; and moft of the
fenators joining them, the emperor was fo much alarm¬
ed, that he had thoughts of abandoning the city and
making his efcape by fea. In this dilemma the em-
prefs Theodora encouraged and perfuaded him rather
to part with his life than the kingdom ; and he at laft
refolved to defend himfelf to the utmoft, with the few
fenators who had not yet abandoned him. In the
mean time, the rebels having attempted in vain to
force the gates of the palace, carried Hypatius in tri¬
umph to the circus; where, while he was beholding
the fports from the imperial throne, amidft the ftrouts
and acclamations of the people, Belifarius, who had
been recalled from Perfia, entered the city with a
confiderable body of troops. Being then apprifed of
the ufurpation of Hypatius, he marched ftraight to the
circus; fell fword in hand upon the difarmed multi¬
tude ; and with the affiftance of a band of Heruli,
headed by Mundus governor of Illyricum, cut about
30,000 of them in pieces. Hypatius the ufurper, and
Pompeius another of the nephews of Anaftaiius, were
taken prifoners and carried to the emperor, by whofe
orders they were both beheaded, and their bodies caft
into the fea. Their eftates were confifcated, and like-
wiie the eftates of fuch fenators as had joined with
them; but the emperor caufed great part of their
lands and effedts to be afterwards reftored, together
with their honours and dignities, to their children.
Juftinian having now no other enemy to contend
with, turned his arms againft the Vandals in Africa,
and the Goths in Italy ; both which provinces he re¬
covered out of the hands o£. the barbarians * . But be- * See B ',.
fore his general Belifarius had time to eftablifh fulfy bary and
the Roman power in Italy, he was recalled in order to Goihs-
carry mi the war againlt Cofrhoes king of Periia, Ano9Jcr
who, in defiance of the treaty formerly concluded in war with
532, entered the Roman domuiions at the head of a the Per-
powerful army. The fame year,, however,, a peacefians-
was concluded between the two nations upon the fol¬
lowing conditions : 1. That the Romans ihould, with-
1 in<
CON
[ 366
C«n!hn. In two months, pay to the Periian king 5000 pounds
* htflorv*11 weiSht °f g°Jd, and an annual penfion of 500. 2. That
• y the Perfians fhould relinquifh all claim to the fortrefs
of Daras, and maintain a body of troops to guard the
Cafpian gates, and prevent the barbarians from break¬
ing into the empire, 3. That upon-payment of the
above-mentioned fum, Cofrhoes ihould immediately
withdraw his troops from the Roman dominions. The
treaty being figned, and the llipulated fum paid, Cof-
C O N
An expedition again ft the Lombards was about this Conftan-
time undertaken, but with very little fuccefs,' a body tmopolhan,
of 20,000 Romans being almoft entirely cut off by one 1 °r> ' .
of the Lombard generals. In 671 the Saracens ra¬
vaged feveral provinces, made a defeent in Sicily, took u fac-eft-
and plundered the city of Syracufe, and over-ran theful expedi-
whole illand, deftroying every thing with fire and
fword. In like manner they laid wafte Cilicia ; and
„ „ . x ^ having pafled the winter at Smyrna, they entered jq0
rhoes began to march back again; but by the way Thrace in the winter of the year 672, and laid fiege Conftanti-
plundered .feveral cities as if the war had Hill conti- to Conftantinople itfelf. Here, however, they were nol,!e he-
nued. Hereupon Juftinian refolved to purfue the war repulfed with great lofs : but next fpring they renew-
with the utmoft vigour; and for that purpofe dif- ed their attempt, in which they met with the famec^8 3ra*
patched Belifarius into the eaft. But foon after he bad fuccefs 5 «iany of their (hips being burnt by the
was obliged to recal him in order to oppofe the Goths fea-Jire, as it was called, becaufe it burnt under water;
who had gained great advantages in Italy after his de- and in their return home their fleet was wrecked off
the Scyllaei
>n- parture. The Perfian war was then carried on with
ciHGcd. indifferent fuccefs till the year 5^8, when a peace was
concluded upon the emperor again paying an immenfe
fum to the enemy. Tlw fame year the Huns, pall¬
ing the Danube in the depth of winter, marched in
two bodies direftly for Cpnftantinople ; and laying
wafte the countries through which they paffed, came,
without meeting the leaft oppofitio.n, within 150 fur¬
longs of the city. But Belifarius marching out againft
them with an handful of men, put them to flight; the
emperor, however, to prevent them from invading the
empire anew, agreed to pay them an annual tribute,
upon their promifing to defend rfie empire 'againft all
other barbarians, and to ferve in the Roman armies
when required. This was the laft exploit performed
by Belifarius, who on his return to Conftantinople was
difgraced, (tripped of all his employments, and con-
fiped to his houfe, on pretence of a confpiracy againft
* See Beli- emperor *. In the year 565 a real confpiracy was
ferius. formed againft Juftinian, which he happily efcaped,
and the confpirators were executed; but the emperor
promontory. At laft a peace'was con¬
cluded for 30 years, on condition that the Saracens
Ihould retain all the provinces they had feized ; and
that they Ihould pay to the emperor and his fucceffors
3000 pounds weight of gold, 50 Haves, and as many
choice horfes. IoX
This peace was fcarce concluded, when the empire Empire in-
was invaded by a new enemy, who proved very trouble- va(led by
fome fora long time. Thefe were the Bulgarians;‘i14 S3'
who breaking into Thrace, defeated the Roman army
fent againft them, and ravaged the country far and
wide. The emperor confented to pay them an annual
penfion, rather than continue a doubtful war; and al¬
lowed them to fettle in LowerMoefia, which from them
was afterwards called Bulgaria. In 687, they were at¬
tacked by Juftinian II. who entered their country
without provocation, or regarding the treaties former¬
ly concluded with them. But they falling fuddenly
upon him, drove him out of their country, and obli¬
ged him to reftore the towns and captives he had ta¬
ken. In 697, this emperor was depofed; and in his
did not long furvive it, being carried off by a natural exile fled to Trebelis king of the Bulgarians, by whom
•death in 566, in the 39th year of his reign.
During the reign of Juftinian, the majefty of the
Roman empire feemed to revive. He recovered the
provinces of Italy and Africa out of the hands of the
barbarians, by whom they had been held for a number
'Decline of years ; but after his death they were foon loft, and dition by no better fuccefs than his ingratitude defer-
he was kindly entertained, and by whofe means he was
reftored to his throne ; but foon forgetting this fa¬
vour, he invaded the country of the Bulgarians, with
a defign to wreft from them thofe provinces which he
had yielded to them. He was attended in this expe-^,^10^
Kxr 4-knn Viiq trvorrntitiiHp HeTpr- r . •
ved, his army being utterly defeated, and he himfelfnian 11.
obliged to make his efcape in a light vefl'el to Conftan¬
tinople. The Bulgarians continued their inroads and
ravages at different times, generally defeated the Ro¬
mans who ventured to oppofe them, till the year 800,
the feventh of the reign of Nicephorus, when they fur-
the empire the empire tended fall to diffolution; In 569 Italy
after Jufti- was conquered by the Lombards, who held it for the
sinan. fpace or 200 years. Some amends, however, was
made for the lofs by the acquifition of Perfarmenia ;
the inhabitants of which, being perfecuted by the Per¬
fians on account of the Chriftian religion which they
profeffed, revolted ^o the Romans. This produced a prifed the city of Sardica’in Moefia, and put the whole
war between the two nations, who continued to wea- garrifon, confiding of 6000 men, to the (word. The
ken each other, till at laft the Perfian monarchy was emperor marched againft them with a confiderable ar-
utterly overthrown, and that of the Romans greatly my : but the enemy retired at his approach ; and he,
d See Ara- reduced by the Saracens f. Thefe new enemies at- inftead of purfuing them, remrned to Conftantinople. ^
tacked the Romans in the year 632, and purfued their Two years after, he entered Bulgaria at the head of•j.jlejr^’oun_
cenquefts with incredible rapidity. In the fpace of a powerful army, deftroying every tiling with fire and try cruelly
four years they teduced the provinces of Egypt, Sy- fword. The king offered to conclude a peace with by
ria, and Paleftine. 11 648 they were alfo mailers of him upon honourable terms; but Nicephorus, rejedt-iuI4el °"
Mefopotamia, Phoenicia, Africa, Cyprus, Aradus, ing hispropofals, continued to wafte the country, de-
and Rhodes; and having defeated the Roman fleet, ftroyrng the cities, and putting all the^ inhabitants,
commanded by the emperor Conftans in perfon, they
concluded a peace on condition of keeping the vaft Ox-
tent of territory they had feized, and paying for it
10O6 uumtni a-^eaf.
without diftinftion of fex or age, to the fword. The
king was fo much affe&ed with thefe cruelties which
were exercifed on his fubjecls, that he fent a fe-
cond embalfy to Nicephorus, offering to conclude
CON
[ 367 1
CON
ConITan- a peace with him upon any terms, provided he would princes of the blood, who had taken fhelter in the C'onftan-
tinop .litan qa;t J,;s country> But Nicephoros difmiffing the am- mountains, to fubmit, and throw themfelves on the t’"?>;olltaa
, hlitory' , baffadors with fcorn, the Bulgarian monarch attacked emoeror’s mercy. ; 1 v0'y* 1
^ unexpeftedly the Roman camp, forced it, and cut off Ibatzes, however, a perfon nearly allied to the royal i08
WhcTit cut almoft the whole army, with the emperor himfelf, and family, who had diftinguilhed himfelf in a very emi-Ihatvcsa-
ofF with his a great number of patricians. His fucceflbr Michael nent manner during the whole courfe of the war, re-
whole ar- Ukewife engaged in a war with the Bulgarians; but fufed to fubmit, and fled to a ileep and craggy mounT°U ’
niy‘ being utterly defeated, he was fo grieved that he re- tain, with a defign to defend himfelf there to the laft
figned the empire. After this the Bulgarians conti- extremity. Bafilius endeavoured to caufe him fubmit
to.? nued to be very formidable enemies to the empire, till by fair means, but he equally defpifed both threats and to^
Theircoun-the year 979, when they were attacked by BafiliusJI. promifes. At laft Euftathius Daphnomelus, whom He is taken
Bafiaded The Bul.?arians were at that time governed by a king
liuill. named Samuel; who having ravaged the Roman terri¬
tories, as was the common pra&ice of his nation, Ba-
filiusjent agafnft him one Nicephorus Uranus at the
head of a powerful army. Uranus, leaving his bag¬
gage at Larifla, reached by long marches the Sper-
Bafilius had lately appointed governor of Achridus,by a ftrata*
the chief city of Bulgaria, undertook to fecure himK6111,
by a moft defperate and improbable fcheme. Without
communicating his defign to any, he repaired, with
two perfons in whom he could confide, to the moun¬
tain on which Ibatzes had fortified himfelf. He ho-
chius, and encamped with his whole army over againft ped to pafs undifcovered among the many ftrangers
the enemy, who lay on the oppofite bank. As theri- who flocked thither to celebrate the approaching feaft
as greatly fwelled with the heavy rains that had of the Virgin Mary, for whom Ibatzes had a particu-
lately fallen, Samuel, not imagining the Romans would
attempt to pafs it, fuffered his troops to roam in large
parties about the country in queft of booty. But Ura¬
nus having at length found out a place where the river
tvas fordable, pafled it in the dead of the night with¬
out being perceived. He then fell upon the Bulgari¬
ans who were left in the camp, and lay for the moft
part afleep; cut great numbers of them in pieces;
took a great number of prifoners,. with all their bag¬
gage ; and made himfelf mafter of their camp. Sa-
lar veneration. In this he found himfelf miftaken; for
he was known by the guards, and carried before the
prince. To him he pretended to have fomething of im¬
portance to communicate ; but as foon as Ibatzes had
retired with him into a remote place, Daphnomelus
threw himfelf fuddenly upon him, and with the aflrft-
ance of the two men whom he had brought with him,
pulled out both his eyes, and got fafe to an abandoned
caftle on the top of the hill. Here they were imme¬
diately furrounded by the troops of Ibatzes; but
muel and his fon were dangeroufly wounded ; and Daphnomelus exhorting them now to fubmit to the
would have been taken, had they not all that day con- emperor, by whom he affured them they would be well
cealed themfelves among the dead. The next night received, they congratulated Daphnomelus on his fuc-
they ftole away to the mountains of iEtola, and from cefs, and fuffered him to conduct the unhappy Ibatzes .
thence made their efcape into Bulgaria. The follow- a prifoner to Bafilius. The emperor was no lefs far¬
ing year the emperor entered Bulgaria at the head of prifed than pleafed at the fuccefs of this bold attempt;
a numerous and well-difciplined army ; defeated Sa- and rewarded Daphnoir.elus with the government of
muel in a pitched battle, and took feveral ftrong ci- Dyrrhachium, and all the rich moveables of his pri-
dty.
ties. The emperor himfelf, however,, at laft, nar¬
rowly elcaped being cut off with his whole army ; be¬
ing unexpectedly attacked by the Bulgarians in a nar¬
row pafs. From this danger he was relieved by the
arrival of Nicephorus Xiphias, governor of Philpopo-
lis, with a confiderable body of troops ; who falling
upon the enemies rear, put them to flight. Bafilius
n" purfued them clofe ; and having taken an incredible
number of captives, caufed their eyes to be pulled out.
foner. After this, having accompliflied the entire r
duftion of Bulgaria, he returned to Conftantincple
:‘i incredible number of captives; where he was -
received by the fenate and people with all pofiible de-
monftrations of joy.
All this time the Saracens had at intervals invaded
the Roman dominions, and even attempted to make
themfelves mafters of Conftantinople. Their internal •
divifions, however, rendered them now much lefs for-
leaving to every hundred a guide with one eye, that midahle enemies than they had formerly been; fo that
he might condu& them to Samuel. This {hocking fomc provinces were even recovered for a time out of
fpeftacle fo affeCted the unhappy king, that he fell in- their hands; though the weak and diftrafted ftate of
to a deep fwoon, and died two days after. The Ro- the empire rendered it impoffible to preferve fuch con-
man emperor purfued his conquefts, and in the fpace quefts. But in 1041, the empire was invaded by an-p^1^
’ of two years made himfelf mafter of moft of the ene- enemy, not very powerful at that time indeed, but whopireinva-
\ mies ftrong holds. He defeated alfo the fucceffor of by degrees gathered ftrength fufficient to overthrowd«i by the :
The coun- Samuel in feveral engagements; and having at laft both the Roman and Saracen empires. Thefe were theTurkt;'
tty fubdu- killed him in battle, the Bulgarians fubmitted them- Turks; who having quitted their anc>ent habitations
ed. felves without referve. The vaft treafures of their in the neighbourhood of mount Cauca|us, and paffed them!*11 °
princes were by Bafilius diftributed among his fol- the Cafpian ftraits, fettled in Armenia Major, about
diers by way of donative. Soon after, the widow the year 844. There they continued an unknown and
of the late king, with her fix daughters and three of defpicable people, till the inteftine warsof the Saracens
her fons, furrendered themfelves to the Roman empe- gave them an opportunity of aggrandizing themfelves.
ror, by whom they were received with the utmoft civi- About the year 1030, Mohammed the fon of Sambrael
lity and refpcd. This obliging behaviour encouraged fultan of Perfia, not finding himfelf a match for Pifa-
the three other .fons of the late king, and moft of the ris fultan of Babylon, with whom he was at war, had
CON E 368 ] CON
Couftsn- recourfe to the Turks, who fent him 5000 men under
f hiftory " t^e comrnan(^ or>e Tangrolipix, a leading man among
» - y ' ■ them. By their afliftance Mohammed defeated his ad-
verfary ; but when the Turks defired leave to return
home, he refufed to part with them. Upon this they
withdrew without his confent to a neighbouring de¬
fart; and being there joined by feveral difcontented
Perfians, began to make frequent inroads into the
fultan’s territories. Againft them Mohammed imme¬
diately difpatched an army of 20,000 men ; who, be¬
ing furpriied in the night, were utterly defeated by
Tangrolipix. The fame of this vi&ory drew multi¬
tudes to him from all parts; fo that in a ftiort time
Tangrolipix faw himfelf at the head of 50,000 men.
Upon this Mohammed marched againft them in per-
fon, but was thrown from his horfe in the beginning of
the engagement, and killed by the fall; upon which
' his men threw down their arms, and fubmitted toTan-
grolipix.
After this vi&ory the Turkiih general made war
upon the fultan of Babylon : whom he at length flew,
and annexed his dominions to his own. He then fent
IIZ his nephew, named Cutlu-Mofes, againft the Arabians;
They de- but by them he was defeated, and forced to fly to-
*eat the Ro-wards Media. Through this province he was denied
mans. a paffoge by Stephen the Roman governor; upon which
Cutlu-Mofes was obliged to force a paflage by en¬
countering the Roman army. Thefe he put to flight,
took the governor himfelf prifoner, and without any
further oppofition reached the confines of Perfia,
where he fold Stephen for a flave. Returning from
thence to Tangrolipix, he excufed, in the beft manner
he could, his defeat by the Arabians; but at the fame
time acquainted him with his vi&ory over the Romans
in Media, encouraging him to invade that fertile coun¬
try, which he faid might be eafily conquered, as it was
inhabited by none but ’women, meaning the Romans.
At that time Tangrolipix did not hearken to his ad¬
vice, but marched againft the Arabians at the head of
w a numerous army. He was, however, attended with
no better fuccefs than his nephew had been; and
therefore began to refleft on what he had told him.
Soon after he fent Afan his brother's fon with an army
A Turkifh of 20,000 men to reduce Media. Purfuant to his or-
army en- ders, the young prince entered that country, and
<tire]y cut eomm;tted every where dreadful ravages: but being in
the end drawn into an ambufh by the Roman generals,
114 he was cut off with his whole army. Tangrolipix, no
They again Way difcouraged by this misfortune, fent a new army
invade the jnt0 near ioo,ooo ftrong; who after having ra-
*)I e‘ vaged the country without oppofition, laid fiege to
Artza a place of great trade, and therefore reckoned
the moft wealthy in thofe parts. Not being able to re¬
duce it by any other means, they fet it on fire; and
thus in a ihort time it was utterly deftroyed: the
buildings being reduced to afhes, and 150,000 of the
inhabitants perifhing either by the flames or the fword.
After this Abraham Halim, half brother to Tangro¬
lipix, hearing that the Romans, reinforced with a bo¬
dy of troops under the command of Liparites governor
II(. of Iberia, had taken the field, marched againft them,
An obdi- and offered them battle; which they not declining,
nate en- the two armies engaged with incredible fury. The
gagement. ylftory continued long doubtful; but at length inclined
to the Romans; who neverthelefs did not think pro-
N° 90.
per to purfue the fugitives, as their general Liparites Conflan-
was taken prifoner. The emperor, greatly concerned til?°£oll<ta*
for the captivity of Liparites, difpatched ambaffadors , hl“:oIT- ,
with rich prefents, and a large fum of money to re- ’ J
deem him, and at the fame time to conclude an al¬
liance with Tangrolipix. The fultan received the pre¬
fents; but generoufly returned them together with the
money to Liparites, whom he fet at liberty without
any ranfom ; only requiring him, at his departure, ne¬
ver more to bear arms againft the Turks. Not long
after, Tangrolipix fent a perfon of great authority a-
mong the Turks, with the charafter of ambaffador, to
Conftantinople ; who having arrogantly exhorted the
emperor to fubmit to his mafter, and acknowledge
.himfelf his tributary, was ignominioufly driven out of
the city. •
Tangrolipix, highly affronted at the reception his
ambaffador had met with, entered Iberia while the
emperor Conftantine Monomachus 'was engaged in a
war with the Pat/.inacse, a Scythian nation. Having 116
ravaged that country, he returned from thence toMe-^eTur^s
dia, and laid fiege to Mantzichierta, a place defended Manfzichi
by a numerous garrifon, and fortified with a triple wall erta>.
and deep ditches. However, as it was fituated in an
open plain country, he hoped to be mafter of it in a
fhort time. But finding the befieged determined to de¬
fend themfelves to the laft extremity, he refolved to
raife the fiege, after he had continued it 30 days. One •
of his officers, however, named Alcan, prevailed on him
to continue it but one day longer, and to commit the
management of the attacks to him. This being grant¬
ed, Alcan difpofed his men with fuch fkill, and fo en¬
couraged them by his example, that, notwithftanding
the vigorous oppofition they met with, the place would
have probably been taken, had not Alcan been flain as
he was mounting the wall. The befieged, knowing
him by the richnefs of his armour, drew him by the
hair into the city, and cutting off his head threw it
over the wall among the enemy; which fo dilhearten-
ed them, that they gave over the affault and retired. The fiege
The next fpring Tangrolipix returned, and ravaged I-raifed.
beria with the utmoft cruelty, fparing neither fex nor
age. But on the approach of the Roman army he
retired to Tauris, leaving 30,000 men behind him to
infeft the frontiers of the empire. This they did with
great fuccefs, the borders being through the avarice
of Monomachus unguarded. Till the time of this em¬
peror, the provinces bordering on the countries of
the barbarians had maintained, at their own charge,
forces to defend them ; and were on that account ex¬
empted from paying tribute : but as Monomachus ex¬
acted from them the fame fums that were paid by o-
thers, they were no longer in a condition to defend
themfelves.
In 1063 died the emperor Conftantine Ducas, ha¬
ving left the empire to his three fons, Michael, An-
dronicus, and Conftantine : but as they were all very ng
young, he appointed the emprefs Eudocia regent du- The em-
ring their minority, after having required of her an prefs Eudo-
oath never to marry ; which oath was with great fo-
lemnity lodged in the hands of the patriarch. He like- t{^uvv^er
wife obliged the fenators folemnly to fwear that they will never
would acknowledge none for their fovereign but his marry. ,
three fons. No fooner, however, was he dead, than
the Turks, hearing that the empire was governed by
a
CON L 369 1 CON
Ctwftan- a woman, broke into Mefopotamia, Cilicia, and Cap-
tinopolitan pat]oc;aj deftroying all with fire and fword. The em-
. |lIlfl:o, prefs was no way in a condition to oppofe them, the
v""u" greater part of the army having been difbanded in her
hulband’s life-time, and the troops that were ftill on
foot being undifciplined, and altogether unfit for fer-
vice. The concern which this gave the emprefs was
aggravated by the feditious fpeeches of a difcontented
party at home, who repeated on all occafions that the
prefent ftate of affairs required a man of courage and
addrefs at the helm, inftead of a weak and helplefs
woman ; and as they imagined the emprefs would ne¬
ver think of marrying, in confequence of the oath {he
Tj. had taken, they hoped by thefe fpeeches to induce the
The em- people to revolt, and choofe a new emperor. This Eu-
prefs deter- docia was aware of; and therefore determined to pre-
mines to vent the evils that threatened heifelf and her family,
oath'r hef ^7 marrying fome perfon of merit who was capable of
defeating her enemies both at home and abroad. At
this time one Romanus Diogenes, a perfon of a moft
beautiful afpeft, extraordinary parts, and illuflrious
birth, being accufed of afpiring to the empire, tried
and convicted, was brought forth to receive fentence
of death. But the emprefs, touched with compaffion
at his appearance, gently upbraided him with his am-
iao bition, fet him at liberty, and foon after appointed
She reco- him commander in chief of all her forces. In this fla¬
yers the tion he acquitted himfelf fo well, that the emprefs re-
v'hichV" halved to marry him if file could but recover the wri-
was con- ting in which her oath was contained out of the hands
tained, of the patriarch. In order to this, fhe applied to a fa¬
vourite eunuch; who going to the patriarch, told him,
that the emprefs was fo taken with his nephew named
Bar das, that fhe was determined to marry and raife
him to the empire, provided the patriarch abfolved
her from the oath fire had taken, and convinced the
fenate of the lawfulnefs of her marriage. The pa¬
triarch,’ dazzled with the profpeft of his nephew’s
promotion, readily undertook to perform both. He
fir ft obtained the confent of the fenate by reprefenting
to them the dangerous ftate of the empire, and ex¬
claiming againft the rafh oath which the jealoufy of
the late emperor had extorted from the emprefs. He
then publicly difcharged her from it; reftored the
writing to her ; and exhorted her to marry fome de-
ferving objedt, wdio being entrufled with an abfolute
authority, might be capable of defending the empire.
And mar- The emprefs, thus difcharged from her oath, married
rSes Roma- a few days after Romanus Diogenes; who was there-
n is Diego-, upon proclaimed emperor, to the great difappointmest
11C3‘ of the patriarch.
As the new emperor Was a man of great a&ivity
and experience in war, he no fooner faw himfelf veft-
ed with the fovereign power, than he took upon him
the command of the army, and paffed over into Alia
over into with the few forces he could affemble, recruiting and
Afia. inuring them on his march to military difeipline, which
had been utterly neglected in the preceding reigns.
On his arrival in this continent, he was informed that
the Turks had furprifed and plundered the city of Neo-
He deferts caefarea, and were retiring with their booty. On this
the Turks, news he haftened after them at the head of a chofen
body of light armed. troops, and came up with them
on the third day. As the Turks were marching in
diforder, without the leaft apprehenfion of an enemy,
Vol.V. Parti.
Romapus alt great numbers of them in pieces, and Conflait-
eafily recovered the booty ; •after which he purfued his t'^,0^tan
march to Aleppo, which he retook from them, toge- ‘ ry' .
ther with Hierapolis, where he built a ftrong caftle.
As he was returning to join the forces he had left Gains a fe-
behind him, he was met by a numerous body of Turks, con<i vidto-
who attempted to cut off his retreat. At firft he pre-^’
.tended to decline an engagement through fear; but
attacked them afterwards with fuch vigour when they
leaft expefted it, that he put them to flight at the firft
onfet, and might have gained a complete vidtory had
he thought proper to purfue them. After this, feve-
ral towns fubmitted to him ; but the feafon being now
far fpent, the emperor returned to Conftantinople. The
following year he palled over into Afia early in the
fpring; and being informed that the Turks had facked
the rich city of Iconium, befides gaining other con-
fiderable advantages, he marched in perfon againft
them. But the Turks, not thinking it advifable to They are
wait his coming, retired in great hafte. The Arme-again de-
nians, however, encouraged by the approach of the^£ateJ-
emperor’s army, fell upon the enemy in the plains of
Tarfus, put them to flight, and ftripped them both of
their baggage and the booty they had taken. The
fpring following .he emperor once more entered Afia
at the head of acon£derable army which he had raifed,
and with incredible pains difeiplined during the win¬
ter. When the two armies drew near to each other,
Axan, the Turkifh Sultan, and fon of the famous
Tangrolipix, fent propofals to Romanus for a lading I2(-
and honourable peace. Thefe were imprudently rejec-The Ro-
ted, and a defperate engagement enfued, when, in mans de-
fpite of the utmoft efforts of the emperor, his armyfeated an^
w'as routed, and he himfelf wounded and taken pri- ^ taken"
foner. When this news was brought to Axan, he
could fcarcely believe it; but being convinced by the
appearance of the royal captive in his prefence, he ten¬
derly embraced him, and addreffed him in an affec¬
tionate manner: “ Grieve not (faid he), moft noble
emperor, at your misfortune; for fuch is the chance
of war, fometimes overwhelming one, and fometimes
another: you fhall have no occafion to complain of
your captivity ; for I will not ufe you as my prifoner,
but as an emperor.” The Turk was as good as his
word. He lodged the emperor in a royal pavilion;
affigned him attendants, with an equipage fuitable to
his quality ; and difeharged fuch prifpners as he de¬
fined. After he had for fome days entertained his
royal captive with extraoi dinary magnificence, a per¬
petual peace was concluded betwixt them, and the
emperor difmiffed with the greateft marks of honour
imaginable. He then fet out with the Turkifh am-
baffador for Conftantinople, where the peace was to
be ratified ; but by the way he was informed that Eu-
docia had been driven from the throne by John the
brother of Conftantine Ducas, and Pfellus a leading Eudocia de-
man in the fenate, who had confined her to a monaf-pofed and *
tery, and proclaimed her eldeft fon, Michael Ducas,confil,ed i:‘
emperor. On this intelligence, Romanus retired toa moasftc*
a ftrong caftle near Theodofiopolis, where he hoped in^’
a flrort time to be joined by great numbers of his
friends and adherents. But in the mean time John,
who had taken upon him to a£t as guardian to the
young prince, difpatched Andronieus with a confide-
rable army againft him. Andronicus having eafily de-
3 A feated
G O N [ 370 1 CON
Gonfhn- feated the fmall army which Romanus had with him,
t'hiftor'tan ^'m to Ay to Adana a city in Cilicia, where
1 ‘ °ry' . he was clofely befieged, and at laft obliged to furren-
der. Andronicus carried his prifoner into Phrygia,
hu8 where he fell dangeroufly ill, being, as was fufpe&ed,
Romanus fecretly poifoned. But the poifon being too flow in
d-ath1 ^ts 0Pera,i°n> J0^111 ordered his eyes to be put out;
which was done with fuch cruelty that he died foon af¬
ter, in the year 1067, having reigned three years and
119 eight months.
The Turks Axan was no fooner informed of the tragical end of
vSkTihe ^r'en^ anc* ^an he refolved to invade the
empire. empire anew; and that not with a defign only to plun-
130 der as formerly, but to conquer, and keep what he
They defeat had once conquered. The emperor difpatched againft
*°* him Ifaac Comnenus, with a confiderable army ; but
he was utterly defeated and taken prifoner by Axan.
Another army was quickly fent off under the com¬
mand of John Ducas the emperor’s uncle. He gained
at firft fome advantages, and would probably have put
a Hop to their conqudls,. had not one Rufelius, or
Urfelius, revolted with the troops he had under his
command, caufed himfelf to be proclaimed emperor,
and reduced feveral cities in Phrygia and Cappadocia.
Againft him John marched with all his forces, fuf-
fering the Turks in the mean time to purfue their con-
quefts; but coming to an engagement with the rebels,
131 his army was entirely defeated, and himfelf taken pri-
Thcy gain afoner. Notwithftanding this vidfory, Rufelius was fo
ftcond vie- much alarmed at the progrefs of the Turks, that He not
^ only releafed his prifoner, but joined with him againft
the common enemy, by whom they were both defeat¬
ed and taken prifoners. Axan, however, was for fome
time prevented from purfuing his conquefts by Cutlu-
Mofes, nephew to the late Tangrolipix. He had re¬
volted againft his uncle; but being defeated by him in
a pitched battle, had taken refuge in Arabia, whence
he now returned at the head of a confiderable army,
in order to difpute the fovereignty with Axan. But
while the two armies were preparing to engage, the
kalif of Babylon, who was ftill looked upon as the fuc-
ceffor of the great prophet, interpofed his authority.
He reprefented the dangers of their inteftine diffen-
fions; and by his mediation, an agreement was at laft
concluded, on condition that Axan Ihould enjoy ujidif-
turbed the monarchy lately left him by his father, and
Cutlu-Mofes ftiould poffefs fuch provinces of the Ro¬
man empire as he or his fons fhould in procefs of time
conquer.
After this agreement, both the Turkifh princes
turned their forces againft the empire; and before the
year 1077, made themfelves mailers of all Media,
They con- Lycaonia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia, fixing the capital
rafpravfn- c^ty their empire at Nice in the latter province.
ces. During all this time, the emperors of Conilantinople,
as well as their fubjedls, feemed to be in a manner
infatuated. No notice was taken of the great pro¬
grefs made by thefe barbarians. The generals were
ambitious only of feiaing the tottering empire, which
feemed ready to fall a prey to the Turks; and, after
k was obtained, fpent their time in opprefiing their
fubjefts, rather than in making any attempts to repulfe
the enemy.
At laft Alexins Comnenus, having wrefted the em¬
pire from Nicephoru Botoniates, in 1077, began to
prepare for oppofing fo formidable an enemy. But Conftan-
before he fet out, as his foldiers had committed great till<?Politan
outrages on his acceffion to the empire, he refolved hlft0fy,JI
to make confeffion of his fins, and do open penanefi
forthofe he had fuffered his army to commit. Ac-Alexius
cordingly he appeared in the attire of a penitent be-Comnenus
fore the patriarch and feveral other ecclefiaftics, ac-floPs t,,|eir
knowledged himfelf guilty of the many diforders thatprosrefs’
had been committed by his foldiers, and begged of
the patriarch to impofe upon him a penance fuitable
to the greatnefs of his crimes. The penance enjoined
him and his adherents by the patriarch was to fall, lie
upon the ground, and praftife feveral other aufterities
for the fpace of 40 days. This command was religiouf-
ly obeyed, and the emperor then began to prepare for
war with fo much vigour, that Solyman, the Turkifh
fultan, fon and fucceffor to Cultu-Mofes, difpatched
ambaffadorsto Alexius with propofalsof peace. Thefe
were-at firil rejedled; but the emperor was at laft glad
to accept them on certain advice, that Robert Guif-
chard, duke Af Puglia and Calabria, was making great
preparations againft him in the Weft.
To this expedition, Robert was incited by Michael Robert
Ducas. That prince had been depofed by Nicepho- Guifchard’s
ru Botoniates, and towards the end of the ufurper’s
reign fled into the Weft, where he was received by emperor. *
Robert, who was prevailed upon to favour his caufe.
For this purpofe, Robert made great preparations;
and thefe were continued even after the depofition of
Botoniates. He failed with all his forces from Brun- He paffes
dufium; and landing at Buthrotum in Epirus, made ove.r into
himfelf mafter of that place, while his fon Bohemond bJfieULan<1
with part of the army reduced Aulon, a celebrated DyrrhTdu-
port and city in the country now called Albania, wax.A
From thence they advanced to Dyrrhachiutn, which
they invefted both by fea and land; but met with a
moft vigorous oppoikion from George Paleologus,
whom the emperor bad entrufted with the defence of
that important place. In fpite of the utmoft efforts of
the enemy, this commander held out till the arrival of
the Venetian fleet, by whom Robert’s navy command¬
ed by Bohemond was utterly defeated, the admiral
himfelf having narrowly efcaped being taken prifoner.
After this viftory, the Venetians landed without lofs
of time, and being joined by Paleologus’s men, fell up¬
on Robert’s troops with fuch fury, that they deftroy-
ed their works, burnt their engines, and forced them
back to their camp in great diforder. As the Vene¬
tians were now matters at fea, the befieged were fup-
plied with plenty of provifions, while a famine began
to rage in the camp of the enemy; and this calamity
was foon followed by a plague, which in the fpace of
three months is faid to have deftroyed ten thoufand
men. Nothwithllanding all thefe difafters, however,
Robert did not abandon the fiege: having found_means
to fupply his famifhed troops with provifions, he con¬
tinued it with fuch vigour, that the courage of the be¬
fieged began at laft to fail them ; and Paleologus fent
repeated meflages to the emperor, acquainting him
that he would be obliged to furrender unlefs very
fpeedily aflifted. On this Alexius marched in perfoa
to the relief of the city, but was defeated with great
lofs by Robert. The whole right wing of Alexius’s
army, finding themfelves hard preffed by the enemy,
fled to a. church dedicated to St Michael, imagining
CON [ 371 1 CON
Gbnftan- they would there find themfelves in a place of fafety; ever, they returned in fuch numbers, that the empe- Con (Tan-
t*vn<>Iitan ^ut t^ie v^or^ous army purfuing them, fee fire to the ror refolved to march againft them in perfon. Ac-tiV?'?olltan
, 1 °ry‘ , church, which was burnt to afhes with all who were cordingly he fet out for Adrianople, and from thence y* -
in it. The emperor himfelf with great difficulty made to a place called I^ardea. Here, contrary to the ad-
his efcape, leaving the enemy mafters of his camp and vice of his beft officers, he ventured a battle; in which The Ro-
all his baggage. Soon after this defeat, the city fur- he was utterly defeated with the lofs of vaft numbersnian3 de-
rendered; and Alexis being deftitute of refources for of his men, he himfelf efcaping with the utmolt diffi-featecI‘
carrying on? the war, feized on the wealth of churches eulty. The next year he was attended with no bet-
and monafteries, which gave much offence to the clergy,
and had like to have occafioned great dillurbances in
the Imperial city. At the fame time, Alexius enter¬
ing into an alliant-e with Henry emperor of Germany,
perfuaded him to invade the dominions of Robert in
Italy. At firft Henry met with great fuccefs; but
was fqon overcome, and driven out of that country by
Robert. Bohemond, in the mean time, reduced fe-
veral places in Illyricum; and, having defeated Alexius
ter fuccefs, his army being entirely defeated with the I40
lofs of his camp and baggage. In the year following, They at
ro8<j., the emperor retrieved his credit; and gave the defeat.
Scythians fuch an overthrow, that very few efcaped^ ^
the general flaughter. Notwithftanding this difafter,
however, they again invaded the empire in 1093.
To this they were encouraged by an impoftor called
Leot who pretended to be the eldetl fon of Romanus
Diogenes. The young Prince had been flain in a
_ *3<5
The city
furremkr
in two pitched battles, entered Theffaly, and fat down battle with the Turks; but as the Scythians only want-
before Lariffa. This place, being defended by an of- ed a pretence to renew the war, they received the
ficer of great courage and experience in war, held out ' impollor with joy. By a ftratagem, however, Leo
till the emperor came to its relief. Soon after his ar- was murdered ; and the Scythians being afterwards
rival, he found means to draw a ftrong party of Bohe-
mond’s men into an ambufeade, and cut them off al-
moft entirely. However, in the battle which was
fought a few days after, Bohemond had the advan-
tage ; but his troops* mutinying and refufing to carry
on the war, he was obliged to return to Italy. Alexi¬
us taking advantage of his abfence, recovered feveral
cities; and being informed that Robert was making
overthrown in two great battles, were obliged to fub-
mit on the emperor’s own terms. I4I
Since the year 1083, the war had been carried on The Holy
with the Turks with various fuccefs; but now an af- War.
fociation was formed in the Weft againft thefe infidels,
which* threatened the utter ruin of the Turkiffi nation.
This was occafioned by the fuperftition of the Chrifti-
ans, who thought it a meritorious a&ion to venture
great preparations againft him, he had recourfe once their lives for the recovery of the Holy Land, poffel-
more to the Venetians. By them he was affifted with
a powerful fleet, which defeated that of Robert in two
engagements ; but being foon after furprifed by him,
they were defeated with the lofs of almoft their Whole
navy. Robert is faid to have ufed his viftory with
great barbarity, putting many of his prifoners to death
fed at that time by the Turks and Saracens. Had the
weftern princes been properly affifted by the empe¬
rors the Eaft in this undertaking, the Turks had
undoubtedly been unable to refill them ; but fo far
from this, the Latins were looked upon by them as
fio lefs enemies than the Turks; and indeed whatever
•ith unheard-of torments. The Venetians equipped places they took from the infidels, they never thought
a fecond fleet; and joining that of the emperor, fell of reftoring to the emperors of Conftantinople', to
unexpeftedly upon Robert’s navy, who were riding whom they originally belonged, but erefted a number
without the leaft apprehenfion in Buthiotum, funk of fmall independent principalities; which neither ha-
moft of his Ihips, and took a great number of prifon- ving fufficient ftrength to defend themfelves, nor be¬
ers, his wife and younger fons having narrowly efca- ing properly fupported by one another, foon became r .2
ped falling into their hands. Robert made great pre- a prey to the Turks. In the year 1203, happened a Dreadful
ed by parations to revenge this defeat; but was prevented dreadful fire at Conflantinople, occafioned by fome ibe at Con-
death of by death from executing his defigns: and, after his Latin foldiers. Thefe had plundered a mofque, which
bert. deceafe, his fon Roger did not think proper to purfue the Turks refiding in Conftantinople had been fuffered
fo dangerous and expenfive a war. He therefore re- to build there. For this reafon they were attacked
v.:„    __j -u. -1    ^ inftdels ; who being much fuperior to them in
number, the Latins found themfelves obliged to fet
fire to fome houfes, in order to make their efcape with
fafety. The flame fpreading in an inftant from ftreet
137
The war
ended
called his troops, and the places which had been con¬
quered by Robert and Bohemond fubmitted anew to
the emperor.
This war was fcarce ended, when the Scythians
138
The Scy- _ _ ^
thian war. palling the Danube laid wafte great part of Thrace, tp ftreet, reduced in a Ihort time great part of the city-
committing every Where the greateft barbarities. A- to allies, with the capacious ftore-houfes which had
gainft them the emperor difpatched an army under been built at a vaft expence on the quay. The late
the command of Pacurianus and Branas. The latter emperor Ifaac Angelus, who had been reftored to his
infilled upon engaging the enemy contrary to the opi- throne by the Latins, died foon after their departure
nion of his colleague; and his ralhnefs caufed the lofs from Conftantinople, leaving his fon Alexius foie ma-
of the greater part of the army, who were cut off by fter of the empire. The young prince, to difeharge
the Scythians, together with the two generals. Tali- the large fums he had promifed to the French and Ve-
ciusy an officer who had fignalized himfelf on many netians for their affiftance, was obliged to lay heavy
occafions, was appointed to command the army in taxes on his fubje&s; and this, with the great efteem
their room. He fell upon the enemy as they lay fe-
curely in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis, cut great
numbers of them in pieces, and obliged the reft to re¬
tire in great confufion. The following fpring, how-
and friendfliip {bowed to his deliverers, raifed a general
difeontent among the people of Conftantinople, who
were fworn enemies to the Latins. This encouraged
John Ducas, furnamed Murtzuphlus, from his joined
3 A 2 and
CON [ 372 1 CON
Conftan- and thick eye-brows, to attempt the fovereignty.
tinopohtan Unhappily he found means to put his treacherous de-
.[ hiltory. jn execut;{on. an(i ftrangled the young prince
with his own hands. After this he prefented himfelf
Miu-tzu- t0 t^ie people > told them what he had done, which he
phlus flran- pretended was in order to fecure their liberties; and
g'esrheem-earneftly intreated them to choofe an emperor who
peior.- jia(j courage enough to defend them againft the La¬
tins that were ready to opprefe and enflave them. On
this he was inftantly fainted emperor by the inconftant
multitude ; but this ufurpation proved the ruin of the
city. The Latins immediately refolved to revenge
the death of the young prince ; and, as they had been
fo often betrayed and retarded in their expeditions to
the Holy Land by the emperors of Conftantinople,
to make themfelves mailers of that city, and feize the
empire for themfelves. In confequence of this refo-
lution they muftergd all their forces in Afia, and
having croffed th£ Itraits, laid liege to Conftantinople
by fea and land. The tyrant, who was a man of great
courage and experience in war, made a vigorous de¬
fence. The Latins, however, after having battered
the walls for feveral days together with an incredible
number of engines, gave a general aflault on the 8th
of April 1204. The attack lafted From break of day
till three in the afternoon, when they were forced to
retire, after having loft fome of their engines, and a great
number of men. The aflault was neverthelefs renewed
144 four days after; when, after a warm difpute, the
The city French planted their ftandard on one of the towers ;
Sundered tlie Venetians obferving, they quickly made
by1tile La- themfelves mailers of four other towers, where they
tins. Kkewife difplayed their enfigns. In the mean time
three of the gates being broke down by the battering
rams, and tliofe who had fcaled the walls having killed
the guards, and opened the gates between the towers
they had taken, the whole army entered, and drew
up in battle array between the walls. The Greeks
fled up and down in the greateft confufion; and fe¬
veral parties were by the Latins difpatched to fcour
the ftreets, who put all they met to the fword, with¬
out diftindlion of age or condition. Night put a
flop to the dreadful daughter, when the princes found¬
ing the retreat, placed their men in different quarters
of the city, with orders to be upon their guard, not
doubting, but they fhould be attacked early next
morning. They were furprifed, however, at that time
by the entire fubmiflion of the Greeks ; to whom
they promifed their lives, but at the fame time, order¬
ing t rem to ^retire’ tef their houfes, they gave up the
city to b> plundered by the foldiers for that day.
They ftriclly enjoined their men to abftain from
daughter, to preferve the honour of the women, and
to bring the whole .‘booty info one place, that a juft
diftribution might b ’ made according to the rank and
merit of each individ lal. The Greeks had undoubt¬
edly concealed their moft valuable effects during the
night; many perfonsof the firft rank had efcaped, and
carried, along with them immenfe treafures; the fol¬
diers had probably, as.is ufual in all fuch cafes, refer-
ved things of great value for themfelves, notwithftand-
ing all prohibitions tothe contrary; and yet the booty,
without the ftatues, pidlures, and-jewels, amounted to
a fum almoft incredible. As for Murtzuphlus; he made
his efcape in the night; embarking on a fmall veffel
with Euphrofyne, the wife of Alexius Angeius a late Conftan-
ufurper, and her daughter Eudoxia, for whofe fake he tinopolitan
had abandoned his lawful wife. hlt*'>ry' ,
Conftantinople continued fubjecl to the Latins till
the year 1261, when they were expelled by one The^atins
Alexius Strategopulus. He was a perfon of an illuftri-expelled.
Ous family ; and, for his eminent fervices, diftinguiihed
with the title of Cetfar. He had been lent againft
Alexius Angeius defpot of Epirus, who now attempted
to recover 'fome places in Theffaly and Greece from
Michael Paleologus, one of the Greek emperors, that,
fince the capture of Conftantinople, had- kept their
court at Nice ; and to try whether he could on his
match furprife the imperial city itfelf. Alexius, having
paffed the ftraits, encamped at a place called Rhegium,
where he was informed by the natives that a ftrong
body of the Latins had been fent to the fiege of
Daphnufa, that the garrifon was in great want of
provifions, and that it would be no difficult matter to
furprife the city. Hereupon the Greek general refol¬
ved at all events to attempt it; in which he was en¬
couraged by fome of the inhabitants, who, coming pri¬
vately to his camp, offered themfelves to be his guides.
He approached the walls i i the dead of the night,
which fome of his men fcaled without being obferyed;
and, killing the Gentries whom they found afleep,
opened one of the gates to the reft of the army.
The Greeks ruffling in, put all they met to the fvvord;
and at the fame time, to create more terror, fet fire
to the city in four different places. The Latins,
concluding from thence that the enemy’s forces were
far more numerous than they really were, did not fo
much as attempt either to drive them out, or to ex-
tinguifh the flames. In this general confufion, the
emperor Baldwin, quitting the enfigns of majefty, fled
with Juftinian the Latin patriarch, and fome of his
intimate friends, to the fea-fide ; and there, embark¬
ing on a fmall veffel, failed firft to Euboea, and after¬
wards to Venice, leaving the Greeks in full poffeffion
of Conftantinople. When news of this furpriiing and
altogether unexpe&ed fuccefs of Alexius were firft
brought to Paleologus, he could fcarce give credit to
it; but receiving foon after letters from Alexius him¬
felf, with a particular account of fo memorable an
event, he ordered public thanks to be returned in all
the churches, appeared, in public in his imperial robes,,
attended by the nobility in their bell apparel, and
ordered couriers to be difpatched with the agreeable
news into all parts of the empire. ,
Soon after, having fettled his affairs at Nice, he fet Entry of
out for Conftantinople with the emprefs, his fon An- Michael
dronicus, the fenate, and nobility; to take poffeffion Paleog°ius
of the imperial city, and fix his refidence in that place ‘”to the
that had originally been defigned for the feat of the y‘
eaftern empire. Having paffed the ftraits, he ad¬
vanced to the golden gate, and continued fome days
without the walls, while the citizens were bufied in
making the neceffary preparations to receive him with,
a magnificence fuitable to the ocCafion. On the day
appointed, the golden gate, which had been long fhut
up, was opened,, and the emperor entering it amidfl.
the repeated acclamations of the multitude, marched,
on foot to the great palace. He was preceded by the.
biffiop of Cyileus, who carried an image of the Virgin.
Mary, fuppokd to have been done by St Luke, and:
C O. N [ 373 ] CON
Conftan- followed by all the great officers, nobility, and chief
tinopolitan cit;2;ens> pompoufly dreffed. Public thanks were again
, lu^ry' , returned in the church of St Sophia, at which the em¬
peror affifted in perfon, with the clergy, the fenate,
and nobility. Thefe exercifes were fucceeded by all
forts of rejoicings; after which the emperor carefully
He refolvesfurveyed the imperial city. This furvey greatly al¬
to reitore layed his joy. He faw the tlately palaces and other
u torts 01-magnjficent buildings of the Roman emperors lying in
deur^111 ruins; the many capacious buildings that had been
ere&ed by his predeceflbrs, at an immerjfe charge,
deltroyed by fire, and other unavoidable accidents of
war; feveral ftreets abandoned by the inhabitants, and
choaked up with rubbifh, &c. Thefe objefts gave the
emperor no fmall concern, and kindled in him a defire
of reftoring the city to its former luftre. In the mean
time, looking upon Alexius as the reftorer of his coun¬
try, he caufed him to be clad in magnificent robes ;
placed with 'his own hand a crown on his head.; or¬
dered him to be condudted through the city, as it were
in triumph ; decreed that for a whole year the name
of Alexius fhould be joined in the public prayers with
his own : and, to perpetuate the memory of fo great
and glorious an aftion, he commanded his ftatue to be
eredted on a ftately pillar of marble before the church
of the Apoftles. His next care was to re-people the
city, many Greeek families having withdrawn from it
while it was held by the Latins, and the Latins
now preparing to return to their refpedtive countries.
The former were recalled home j and the latter, in
regard of the great trade they carried on, were al¬
lowed many valuable privileges, which induced them
not to remove. The Greeks were allowed to live in
one of the molt beautiful quarters of the city, to be
governed by their own law’s and magiftrates, and to
trade without paying cuftoms or taxes of any kind.
Great privileges were likewile granted to the natives
of Venice and Pifa, which encouraged them to lay
afide all thoughts of removing,, and the trade they
carried on proved afterwards highly advantageous to
the Hate.
It was not long, however, before thefe regulations
were altered. The emperor being foon after informed
that Baldwin, lately expelled from Conftantinople, had
married his daughter to Charles king of Sicily, and
given him, by way of dowry, the imperial city itfelf,'
he ordered the Genoefe, who were become very nu¬
merous, to remove firft to Heraclea, and afterwards
to Galata, where they continued. As for the Pifans
and Venetians, who were not fo numerous and weal¬
thy, they were allowed to continue in the city. Pa-
leologus, though he had caufed himfelf to be proclaim¬
ed emperor, and was pofleffed of abfolute fovereignty,
o was as yet only guardian to the young emperor John
Great di- Lafcaris, then about 12 years of age.. But having now.
fturbances fettled the ftate, and having gained the affeftions both,
occafioned Qf natives and foreigners, he began to think of fecu-
treacher ring himfelf and his pofterity in the full enjoyment of
©f Paledo- t^le empire ; and for this reafon cruelly ordered the
gus. eyes of the young prince to be put out, pretending
that none but himfelf had any right to the city or em¬
pire of Conitantinople, which he alone had recovered
out of the hand of the Latins.
This piece of treachery and inhumanity involved him
in great troubles. The patriarch immediately excom-
4.
municated him ; and he would in all probability have Conftan-
been driven from the throne by a combination of the
wertern princes, had he not engaged pope Urban IV. ‘ ■
to efpoufe his caufe, by promifing to fubmit himfelf I4^
and his dominions to the Latin ohurch. Thus, indeed, Union of
he diverted the prefent ftorm ; but this proceeding the Greek
caufed the greatell diiturbances, not only in Conftan-
tinople, but throughout the whole empire, nor wasc
Paleologus able to reconcile his fabjedts to this union..
In 1283 Michael died, and was fucceeded by hisfon uilTolved,
Andronicus. His firft ftep was to reftore the ancient
Greek ceremonies, thinking he could not begin his
reign with a more popular aft. But thus he involved
himfelf in difficulties ftill greater than before. Though
Michael had not been able fully to reconcile his Greek,
fubjefts to the Latin ceremonies, yet he had in fome
degree accomplilhedhis purpofe. The Latins had got
a confiderable footing in the city, and defended their
ceremonies with great obftinacy; fo that the empire
was again thrown into a ferment by this imprudent
ftep- . . . ,5I
All this time the Turks had been continuing their War with
encroachments on the empire, which had it not beenthe Turks,
for the Crufadcs publiftied againft them by the Pope,
they would in all probability have made themfelves
mailers of before this time. They were now, how¬
ever,* very fuccefsfully oppofed by Conftantine the
emperor’s brother : but his valour rendered him fuf-
pefted by the emperor; in confequenee of which he was
thrown into prifon, along with feveral perfons of great
diftinftion. On the removal of this brave commander,,
the Turks, under the famous Othoman, made them¬
felves mafters of feveral places in Phrygia, Caria, and
Bithynia and, among the reft, of the city of Nice.
To put a ft op to their conquefts, the empetor difpatch-
ed againft. them Philanthropenus and Libadarius, two
officers of great experience in war. The former
gained fome advantages over the enemy ; but being
elated with his fuccefs, caufed himfelf to be proclaim¬
ed emperor. This rebellion, 4.owever, was foon fup-
prefied, ‘Philanthropenus being betrayed by his own .
men :. but the Turks taking advantage of thefe intef-
tine commotions, not only extended their dominions-
in Afia, but conquered moil of the iflands in the Me¬
diterranean ; and, being mafters at-fea, infefted the
coafts of the empire, to the utter ruin of trade and.
commerce. . '
From this time the Roman empire tended faft to
diflblution. After the revolt of Philanthropenus, the
emperor could no longer truft his fubjefts; and there¬
fore hired the Maffagetes to'^ffift him: but they, be¬
having in a carelefs manlier^ were firft defeated by
their enemies, and afterwards turned their arms a-
gain ft thofe they came tot affift. He next applied to
the Catalans,, who behaved in the fame manner ; and
having* ravaged the few places left the emperor in'
Afia,. returned into EuVope, and called the Turks to<
their affiftance.
This happened in the year 1292, and was the firft'Their firfb
appearance of the Turks in Europe. This enterprize, appearance
however, was unfuccefsful. Having loaded themfelves hi Europe,
with booty, they offered to depart quietly if they were
allowed a fafe paffage, and ftups to tranfport them to
Afia. To this the emperor, willing to get rid of fuch-
troublefome guefts, readily confented, and ordered the
vefftla,
CON [ 374 1 CON
•ConRan* veffels to be got ready with all poflible expedition.
tlnopoHtan jgut t[ie Greek officers obferving the immenfe booty
. ‘'ry' . with which they were loaded, refolved to fall upon
them in the night, and cut them all off at once. This
fcheme, however, was not managed with fuch fecrecy
but that the Turks had notice of it, and therefore pre¬
pared for their defence. They firlt furprifed a ftrong
caftle in the neighbourhood, and then found means to
acquaint their countrymen in Afla with their danger¬
ous fit nation. Their brethren, enticed with the hopes
of booty, were not long of coming to their affiftance ;
and having croffed the Hellefpont in great numbers,
ravaged the adjacent country, making excurfions to
the very gates of Conftantinople. At laft the empe¬
ror determined to root them out; and accordingly
marched againll them with all his forces, the country
people flocking to him from all quarters. The Turks
at firft gave themfelves over for loft ; but finding the
Greeks negligent of difcipline, they attacked their army
unexpedtedly, utterly defeated it, and made themfelves
mafters of the camp. After this unexpefted viftory,
they continued for two years to ravage Thrace in
the moft terrible manner. At laft, however, they
They are were defeated; and being afterwards (hut up in the
all cut in Cherfonefus, they were all cut in pieces or taken,
taken.’ ^ Soon after new commotions took place in this un¬
happy empire, of which the Turks did not fail to take
the advantage. In 1327 they made themfelves ma¬
fters of moft of the cities on the Maeander ; and, a-
mong the reft, of the ftrong and important city of
Prufa in Bithynia. The next year, however, Otho-
man, who may juftly be ftyled the founder of the
Turkilh monarchy, being dead, the emperor laid hold
of that opportunity to recover Nice, and fome other
important places, from the infidels. But thefe were
loft the year following, together with Abydus and
Nicomedia : and in 1330 a peace was concluded upon
condition that they fhould keep all their conquefts.
This peace they obferved no longer than ferved their
own purpofes ; for new commotions breaking out in
the empire, they purfued their conquefts, and by the
year 1357 had reduced 3JI Afia. They next pafled the
Hellefpont under the condudl of Solyman the fon, or
as others will have it, the brother of Orchanes, the fuc-
ceflbr of Othoman, and feized on a ftrong caftle on the
European fide. Soon after the Turkilh fultan died, and
Adrianople was fucceeded by Amurath. He extended the con-
taken by quefts of his predeceflbrs, and in a Ihort time reduced all
the Turks. Thrace, making Adrianople the feat of his empire. A-
murath was flain by treacher^jin a little time after, and
was fucceeded by his fon Bajazet. This prince greatly
enlarged his dominions by new conquefts. In a Ihort
time he reduced the countries of Theffaly, Macedon,
Phocis, Ptloponnefus, Myfia, and Bulgaria, driving
out the defpots or petty princes who ruled there. E-
lated with his frequent vi&ories, he began to look up-
1 on the Greek emperor, to whom nothing was now
left but the city of Conftantinople and the neighbour¬
ing country, as his vaffal. Accordingly he fent him
an arrogant and haughty meflage, commanding him to
pay a yearly tribute, and fend his fon Manuel to at¬
tend him in his military expeditions. This demand
the emperor was obliged to comply with, but died foon
after in the year 1392.
Manuel no fooner heard of his father’s death than
3
he haliened to Conftantinople, without taking leave of Cnnftan-
the fultan, or acquainting him with the reafons of his ti"?rolitan
fudden departure. At this Bajazet was fo highly of-. hlft°ry- f
fended, that he paffed with great expedition out of
Bithynia into Thrace, ravaged the country adjoining Bajazet be-
to Conftantinople, and at laft invefted the city itfelfhegcs Con-
both by fea and land. In this extremity Manuel hadtt*nt‘u0Pie'
recourfe to the weftern princes; who fent him an army
of 130,000 men, under the command of Sigifmund-
king of Hungary, and John count of Nevers. But
though the weftern troops proved at firft fuccefsful,
they were in the end defeated with great (laughter
by Bajazet, who then returned to the fiege with
greater vigour than ever. As he found, however,
that the citizens were determined to hold out to the
laft, he applied to John, the fon of Manuel’s elder bro¬
ther, who had a better title to the crown than Ma¬
nuel himfelf. With him he entered into a private
agreement, by virtue of which Bajazet was to place
John upon the throne of Conftantinople ; on the other
hand, John was to deliver up the city to the Turks,
and remove the imperial feat to Peloponnefus, which
the fultan promifed to relinquilh to him and his pofte-
rity. At the fame time he fent deputies to the inha¬
bitants of Conftantinople, offering to withdraw his
army, and ceafe from further hoftilities, provided they
expelled Manuel and placed John upon the throne.
This propofal rent the city into two fa&ions; but
Manuel prevented the mifchiefs which were ready to
enfue, by a voluntary refignation, upon condition that
he (hould be allowed to retire to whatever place he
thought proper with his wife and children.
With this condition John readily complied ; and
Manuel having received him into the city, and con-
du<fted him to the palace, fet fail for Venice. From
thence he went to the courts of all the weftern prin¬
ces to folicit their afliftance againft the Turks, whofe
power was grown formidable to all Europe. He was
every where received with the greateft demonftra-
tions of efteem, and promifed large fupplies; all Chri-
ftendom being now alarmed at the progrefs of the in¬
fidels.
In the mean time Bajazet did not fail to put John
in mind of his promife ; but the citizens refufing to
comply with fuch a fcandalous treaty, the fiege was
renewed, and the city affaulted with more fury than
ever. When it was already reduced to the laft extre¬
mity, news were brought the fultan that Tamerlane,
the vi&orious Tartar, having over-run all the Eaft
with incredible celerity, had now turned his arms
againft the Turks, and was preparing to break into
Syria. Bajazet, alarmed at the danger that threatened
him, raifed the fiege in great hafte,- and advanced
againft Tamerlane with a very numerous and well-dif- He is dc-
ciplined army ; but the Tartar totally defeated and took^ted and
him prifoner, after having cut moft of his men in pieces : jj’””
and thus Conftantinople was preferved for the prefent. Tamerlane,
But this relief was of (hort duration. In 1424 the 157
city was again befieged by Amurath II. The inha-Amurath
bitants defended themfelves with great bravery ; but^j^^j
muft in the end liave fubmitted, had not the emperor nopie-
prevailed upon the prince of Caramania to counte¬
nance an impoftor and pretender to the Turkifti throne. I5g
This obliged Amurath to raife the fiege, and march The fiege
with all his forces againft the ufurper, whom he foonra»fed.
reduced.
Conftan- reduced.
c o
Having then
H C 375 ] .
i other enemies to contend He had i
CON
his camp a piece of ordnance of prodigious Ctmf'an-
’ r • j * i • i » it r ^ tirtonnliran
ti^^^tan with, he entered Macedon at the head of a powerful fize, which is faid to have carried a ball of 100 pounds
. 1 °’y' . armv : and having ravaged the country far and near, weierht made of hard black ftone hrmitrb*- frr>m 1 °ry'
s army ; and having ravaged the country far and near,
he took and plundered Theffalonica, as he did alfo
mod of the cities of jEtolia, Phocis, and Bceotia.
From Greece he marched into Servia ; which country
weight made of hard black done brought from the ^
Euxine Sea. With this vad piece the enemy made
feveral breaches in the walls; which, however, were
repaired with incredible expedition by the befieged.
he foon reduced. He next broke into the dominions But Mohammed, the better to carry on the fiege,
of the king of Hungary, and befieged the ftrong city caufed new levies to be made throughout his extenfive
of Belgrade ; but here he met with a vigorous repulfe, dominions, by which his army was foon increafed to
no fewer than 15,000 Turks being, (lain by the Chri- near 400,000 men; while the garrifon confided only
dians in one Tally, which obliged the fultan to drop the of 9000 regular'troops, viz. 6000 Greeks and 3000
.j Genoefe and Venetians. As the enemy continued to
batter the walls day and night without intermilfion, a
great part of them was at lad beaten down ; but while
the Turks were bufy in filling up the ditch, in order
to give the affauk, a new wall was built. This threw
the tyrant into a prodigious rage, which was greatly
enterprize and retire.
Succefs of In his retreat he was attacked by the celebrated
John Hun- John Hunniades, who cut great numbers of his men
niades a- jn pieces, and obliged the red to fly with precipita-
Turksthe t'on' ^ot a^ter ga‘ne{I a more complete
viftory over the enemy in the plains of Tranfylvania,
with the lofs of only 3000 of his own men, whereas heightened when he faw his whole fleet worded by five
20,000 of the Turks were killed on the field of battle,
and alniod an equal number in the purfuit. Amurath,
who was then at Adrianople, fent an army into Tran¬
fylvania far more numerous than the former ; but
they were attended with no better fuccefs, being cut
, off almod to a man by the brave Hungarian. He
i6o gained feveral other. viftories no lefs remarkable;
He is atlaft but was at lad entirely defeated in 1448 ; and with
defeated, this defeat ended all hopes of preferving the Roman
empire. The unhappy emperor was now obliged to
pay an annual tribute of 300,000 afpers to the fultan;
and to yield up to him fame drong holds which he
dill held on the Euxine Sea. However, as he doubt¬
ed not but Amurath would foon attempt to become
(hips, four of which were laden with corn from Pelo-
ponnefus, and the others with all manner of proviliona
from the ifle of Chios. Thefe opened themfelves a
way through the whole Turkilh fleet; and, to the
inexpreflible joy of the Chriltians, at lad got fafe into
the harbour.
The Turks attempted feveral times to force the ha-He conveys,
ven ; but all their efforts proving ineffeftual, Moham- galle)j
med formed a defign of conveying 80 galleys over land ba,
for the fpace of eight miles into it. This he accom- ven.
plifhed by means of certain engines, the contrivance of
a renegado ; and having then either taken or funk all
the fliips contained in it, he caufed a bridge to be built
oyer it with fufprifing expedition. By this means the
maker of the city itfelf, he renewed the union between city was laid open to an afiauit from that fide like-
the Greek and Latin churches, hoping that this would
induce the wedern princes to affid him in the defence
of the city againd the Turks. This union produced
wife. The place was' now afiaulted on all fides; and
Condantine being well apprifed that he could not long
hold out againd fuch a mighty fleet and fo numerous
great didurbances, which the emperor did not long an army, fent deputies to Mohammed, offering to ac~
furvive, but died in 1448, leaving the empire, now knowledge himfelf his vaffal, by paying him yearly
confined within the walls of Condantinople, to his bro- what tribute he fhould think proper to impofe, provi-
ther Condantine. ded he raifed the fiege and withdrew. The tyrant
Amurath the Turkifh fultan died in 1450, and was anfwered that he was determined at all events to be-
fucceeded by his fon. Mohammed. In the beginning come maker of the city-: but if the emperor deliver-
of his reign he entered into an alliance with Condan- ed it up forthwith, he would yield up to him Pelopon-
tine, and pretended a great defire to live in friend-
fhip with him and the other Chridian princes; but no
fooner had he put an end to a war in which he was
nefus, and other provinces to his brothers, which they
fhould enjoy peaceably as his friends and allies: but if
he held out to the lad extremity, and fuffered it to be
engaged with Ibrahim king of Caramania, than he taken by affault, he would put him ar I the whole no-
built a drong fort on the European fide of the Bofpho-
ms, oppofite to another in Afia ; in both of which he
placed drong garrifons. Thefe two cadles command¬
ed the Straits; and the former being but five miles
from the city, kept it in a manner blocked up. This
foon produced a mifunderdanding between him and
^ the emperor, which ended in the fiege of the city.
©Qnftanti- The fiege commenced on the fixth of April 1453.
rople befie- Mohammed’s numerous forces covering the plains be-
ged by Mo-fore it on the land-fide, and a fleet of 300 fail block-
cammed. jng ;t Up ky fea< emperor, however, had taken
care to fecure the haven, in which were three larg<
/urn. r n  j . ... , r „ °
bility to the fword, abandon the city to be plunder¬
ed by his foldiers, and carry the inhabitants into cap¬
tivity.
This condition was rafhly rejected by the emperor;
who thereby involved himfelf and all his fubje&s in the
mod terrible calamity. The fiege was renewed with
more vigour than ever, and. continued till the 25th of
May; when a report being fjsread in the Turkilh camp
that a mighty army was advancing in full march to the^ “hg1'07
relief of the city under the conduft of the celebrated Turkifh.
John Hunniades, the common foldiers, feized with a vamp,
panic, began to mutiny, and prefs Mohammed in
fliips, 20 fmall ones, and a great number of galleys, tumultuous, manner to break up the fiege. Nay, they
by means of a chain drawn crofs the entrance. Mo- openly threatened him with death, if he did not imme-
hammed began the fiege by planting batteries as near diately abandon the enterprize and retire from before
the city as he could, and raifing mounts in feveral pla- the city, which they defpaired of being able to reduce
«es as high as the walls themfelves, whence the be- before the arrival of the fuppofed fuccours. Moham-
fieged were iuceffantly galled with fliowers of arrows* med was upon the point of complying with their de¬
mand*
CON [ 370 ] CON
Cofiftart* iriandj when he was advifed by Zagan, a Turkifli of-
1 Wftory31 Acer of great intrepidity, and an irreconcileable enemy
t—- - to the Chriftian name, to give without lofs of time a
general affault. To this he faid the foldiery, how¬
ever mutinous, would not be averfe, provided the ful-
tan folemnly promifed to abandon the city to be plun¬
dered by'them. As fuch an advice belt fuited the hu¬
mour of Mohammed, he readily embraced it; and
caufed a proclamation to be phbliflied throughout the
camp, declaring, that he gave up to his foldiers all the
wealth of that opulent city, requiring to himfelf only
the empty houfes.
The defire of plunder foon got the better of that
fear which had felled the Turkilh army; and they un-
animoufly defired to be led on to the attack. Here*
upon Conftantine was fummoned for the laft time to
deliver up the city, with a promife of his life and li¬
berty ; but to this he anfwered, that he was unalter-
164 ably determined either to defend the city or to perifh
A general w;th it. The attack began at three in tbe morning
affault gi- on Tuefiky the 29th of May; fuch troops were firft
Vei1’ employed as the fidtan valued leaft, and defigned them
for no other purpofe than to tire the Chriftians, who
made a prodigious havock of that diforderly multi¬
tude. After the carnage had lalted fome hours, the
Janizaries and other frefh troops advanced in good or¬
der, and renewed the attack with incredible vigour^
The Chrift/ans, fummoning all their courage and refo-
lution, twice repulfed the enemy: but being in the
end quite fpent, they were no longer able to iland
their ground ; fo that the enemy in feveral places
broke into the city. In the mean time,> Juftiniani, the
commander of the Genoefe *and a feleft body of
Greeks, having received two wounds, one in the
thigh and the other in the hand, was fo difimrtened,
that he caufed himfelf to be conveyed to Galata, where
he foon after died of grief. His men, difmayed at
the fudden flight of their general, immediately quitted
,gf their polls and fled in the utmoft confufion. How-
Bravery of ever, the emperor, attended with a few of the molt re-
che empe- folute among the nobility, Hill kept his poll, ftriving
^ with unparalleled refolution to oppofe the multitude
of barbarians that now broke in from every quarter.
But being in the end overpowered with numbers, and
feeing all his friends lie dead on the ground, “ What!
(cried he aloud), is there no Chriftian left alive to ftfike
off my head ?” He had fcarce uttered thefe words,
wdien one of the enemy, not knowing him, gave him
a deep cut acrofs the face with his fab re ; and at the
He is kil- fame time, another coming behind him, with a blow
led. ' on the back part of his head laid him dead on the
ground. After the death of the emperor, the few
l6. Chriltians that were left alive betook themfelves to
The town flight; and the Turks, meeting with no further oppo-
plundered fition, entered the city, which they filled with blood
and the in- ancj flaughter. They gave no quarter, but put all they
hamrants mgt to ^ fWOrd, without diftinftion. Many thou-
ma acret. took refuge in the-church of St Sophia, but they
were all maffacred in their afylum by the enraged bar¬
barians ; who, prompted by their natural cruelty, the
defire of revenge, and love of booty, fpared no place
nor perfon. Moft of the nobility w^ere, by the fultan’s
orders, cut off, and the reft kept for purpofes more
grievous than death itfelf. Many of the inhabitants,
among whom were fome men of great learning, found
N° 9©.
means to make their efcape while the Turks were bu- Conftrtrt-
fied in plundering the city. * Thefe embarking on five dnopolitait
(hips then in the harbour, arrived fafe in Italy; where, h:ftory' .
with the ftudy of the Greek tongue, they revived the " ,
liberal fciences, which had.long been negle&ed in the
Weft. After the expiration of three days, Moham¬
med commanded his foldiers to forbear all further ho-
ttilities on pain of death ; and then put an end to as
cruel a pillage ^nd maffacre as any mentioned in hi-
ftory. The next day he made his public and trium¬
phal entry into Conftantinople, and chofe it for the
feat of the Turkifti empire, which it has continued to
be ever fince.
This city is now called by the Turks IJlampol, and Prefent
by the Greeks IJlampoli or Stampoli. It is feated at date of ths
the eaftern extremity of Romania, on a fmall neck of€lty*
land which advances towards Natolia, from which it
is feparated by a channel of a mile in breadth. The
fea of Marmora wafhes its walls on the fouth, and a
gulph of the channel of Conftantinople does the fame
on the north. It is delightfully fituated between the
Black Sea and the Archipelago, from whence it is fup-
plied with all neceflaries. The grand feignior’s pa¬
lace, called the Seraglio, is feated on the fea-fide, and
is furrouhded with walls flanked with towers, and fe¬
parated from the city by canals. It is faid the harbour
will eafily hold 1200 (hips. The number of houfes
muft needs be prodigious, ^ ;e one fire has burnt
down 30,000 in a day, with at greatly changing the
afpeft of the city. However, in general, they are
but mean, efpecially on the outlide, where there are
few or no windows; and the ftreets being narrow,
gives them a melancholy look. They reckon that
there are 3770 ftreets, imall and great; but they are
feldom or never clean ; and the people are infefted
with the plague almoft every year. The inhabitants
are half Turks, two-thirds of the other half Chrirtians,
and the reft Jews. Here are a great number of an¬
cient monuments ftill remaining, and particularly the
fuperb temble of Sophia, which is turned into a mofque.
and far furpaffes all the reft. The ftreet called 4dri
ample is the longeft and broadeft in the city ; an 1 the
bazars, or bezefteins, are the markets for felling all
forts of merchandize. The old and the new are pretty
near each other ; and are large fquare buildings, co¬
vered with domes, and fupported by arches and pila-
fters. The new is the bell, and contains all forts of
goods which are there expofed to fale. The market
for (laves, of both fexes, is not far off; and the Jews
are the principal merchants, who bring them here to
be fold. There are a great number of young girls
brought from Hungary, Greece, Candia, Ruffia, Min-
grelia, and Georgia, for the fervice of the Turks,
who generally buy them for their feraglios. The great
fquare, near the mofque of fid tan Bajazet, is the place
for public diverfions, where the jugglers and mounte¬
banks play a great variety of tricks. The circumfe¬
rence of this city is by fome faid to be 15 miles, and
by Mi Tournefort 23 miles ; to which if we add thd
fuburbs, it may be 34 miles in compafs. The fuburb
called Pera is charmingly fituated ; and is the place
where the ambaffadors of England, France, Venice,
and Holland, refide. This city is built in the form of
a triangle ; and as the ground rifes gradually, there is
a view of the whole town from the fea. The public
buildings,
CON t 377 1 C O N
Conftat buildings, fuch as the palaces, the mofques, bagnios,
ll.tu and caravanfaries for the entertainment of Grangers,
Tion.'U are many of them very magnificent. E. Long. 29. 20.
N. Lat. 41.4,
CONSTAT, in law, the name of a certificate which
the clerk of the pipe and auditors of the exchequer
make at the.requeft of any perfon who intends to plead
or move in that court for the difcharge of any thing ;
and the effeft of it is, the certifying what does conjlare
upon record touching the matter in queftion.—A con-
ftat is held to be fuperiorto a certificate ; becaufe this
may err or fail in its contents ; that cannot, as certify¬
ing nothing but what is evident upon record.
Alfo the exemplification under the great feal of the
inrolment of any letters patent is called a conjlat.
CONSTELLATION, in aftronomy, a fyftem of
feveral liars that are feen in the heavens near to one
another. Allronomers not only mark out the liars,
but, that they may better bring them into order, they
diftinguilh them by their fituation and polition in re-
fpedt to each other; and therefore they diftribute
them into alterifms or conllellations, allowing feveral
liars to make up one conllellation : and for the better
dillinguifiling and obferving them, they reduce the
conftellations to the forms of animals, as men, bulls,
bears, &c.; or to the images of fome things known, as
■of a crown, a harp, a balance, Icc.; or give them the
names of thofe whofe memories, in confideration of
fome notable exploit, they had a mind to tranfmit to
future ages.
The divifion of the liars by images and figures is of
great antiquity, and feems to be as old as aftronomy
itfelf: for in the moll ancient book of Job, Orion,
Ar&urus, and the Pleiades, are mentioned; and we
meet with the names of many of the conllellations in
the writings of the firft poets, Homer and Hefiod.
The ancients, in their divifion of the firmament,
took in only fo much as came under their notice, dif-
tributing it into 48 conftellations ; but the modern
aftronomers comprehend the wholly Harry firmament,
dividing it into three regions. See Astronomy-
Inrlxae.
CONSTERNATION is defined by ethical writers
to be an excefs of horror, qwing to the ill government
of our admiration and fear: or fuch an immoderate
degree of fear as confounds the faculties, and incapa¬
citates a perfon for confultation and execution.
CONSTIPATION, in medicine, a hardnefs of the
belly, with great coftivenefs. See Costlveness.
CONSTITUENT part, in phyfiology, an efien-
tial part in the compofition of any thing, differing
little from what is otherwife called element or prin¬
ciple.
CONSTITUTION, in matters of policy, fignifies
the form of government eftablilhed in any country or
kingdom.
Constitution alfo denotes an ordinance, decifion,
regulation, or law, made by authority of any fuperior,
ecclefiaftical or civil.
Vol. V. Part I.
/IpoJloUcal Constitutions, a colleftion of rcgula- Conftiut-
tions attributed to the apollles, and fuppofed to have ^on'
been colledled by St Clement, whofe name they like-
wife bear.
It is the general opinion, however, that they are
fpurious, and that St Clement had no hand in them.
They appeared firft in the 4th age, but have been
much changed and corrupted fince that time. They
are divided into eight books, confifting of a great
number of rules and precepts, relating to the duties of
Chriftians, and particularly the ceremonies and dif-
cipline of the church. Mr Whifton, in oppofition to
the general opinion, afferts them to be a part of the
facred writings,' didlated by the apoftles in their meet¬
ings, and written down from their own mouth by St
Clement; and intended as a fupplement to the New
Teftament, or rather as a fyftem of Chriftian faith
and polity. The reafon why the Conftitutions are
fufpe&ed by the orthodox, and perhaps the reafon al¬
fo why their genuinenefs is defended by Mr Whifton,
is, that they feem to favour Arianifm,
Constitution, in a phyfical fenfe, fignifies the
particular temperature of the body.
It is curious to obferve, fays Dr Percival, the revo¬
lution which hath taken place, within this century, in
the conftitutions of the inhabitants of Europe. Inflam¬
matory difeafes more rarely occur, and, in general,
are much lefs rapid and violent in their progrefs than
formerly(A); nor do they admit of the fame antiphlogi-
ftic method of cure that wras pradlifed with fuccefs 100
years ago. The experienced Sydenham makes 40
ounces of blood the mean quantity to be drawn in the
acute rheumatifm ; whereas this difeafe, as it now ap¬
pears in the London hofpitals, will not bear above half
that evacuation. Vernal intermittents are frequently
cured by a vomit and the bark, without venefeftion ;
which is a proof that at prefent they are accompanied
with fewer fymptoms of inflammation than they were
wont to be. This advantageous change, however, is
more than counterbalanced by the introdu&ion of a
numerous clafs of nervous ailments, in a great mea-
fure unknown to our anceftors; but which now prevail
univerfaliy, and are complicated with almoft every o-
ther diftemper. The bodies of men are enfeebled
and enervated ; and it is not uncommon to obferve
very high degrees of irritability, under the external
appearance of great ftrength and robuftnefs. The
hypochondria, palfie* cachexies, dropfies, and all thofe
difeafes which arife from laxity and debility, are in
our days endemic every where; and the hyfterics,'
winch ufed to be peculiar to the women, as the name
itfelf indicates, now attack both fexes indifcriminate-
ly. It is evident that fo great a revolution could not
be effefted without a concurrence of many caufes ; but
amongft thefe (according to Dr Percival), the pre¬
fent general ufe of tea* holds the firft and principal * Sic Tea.
rank. The fecond place may perhaps be allowed to
excefs in Spirituous liquors. This pernicious cuftom,
in many inftanCes at leaft, owes its rife to the former,
3 B which,
(a) The decreafe in the violence of inflammatory difeafes may perhaps in part be afcribed to the prefent
improved method of treating them. Moderate evacuations, cool air, aceftent diet, and the liberal ufe of fa-
line and antimonial medicines, are better adapted to check the progrefs of fevers, than copious bleedings, fti-
mvJating purgatives, and profufe fweats excited by theriaca and mithridate.
C O N [ 37§ 1 CON
tfonfhi&er which, by the lownefs and depreffion of fpirits it oc-
*i cafions, renders it almoil neceffary to have reeourfe to
,Con ia' fomething cordial and exhilarating. And hence pro¬
ceed thofe odious and difgraceful habits of intempe*
ranee, with which many of the fofter fex are now, alas!
chargeable.
CONSTRICTOR, an appellation given tn feveral
mufcles, on account of their conftringing or dofing
fome of the orifices of the body.
CONSTRICTION, in geometry, is the drawing
fuch lines, fuch a figure, &c. as are previoufiy necef¬
fary for making any demonftration appear more plain
and undeniable.
Construction of Equations. See Equations.
Construction, in grammar ; fyntax, or the ar¬
ranging and connecting the words of a fentence ac¬
cording to the rules of the language. See Grammar,
and Language.
The conftruCtion is generally more fimple, eafy, and
diredt, in the modern tongues than in the ancient:
we have very few of thofe inverfions which occafion
fo much embarraffment and obfeurity in the Latin ;
our thoughts are ufually delivered in the fame order
wherein the imagination conceives them : the nomina¬
tive cafe, for inttance, always precedes the verb, and
the verb goes before the oblique cafes it governs.
The Greeks and Latins, M. St. Evremont obferves,
ufually end their periods, where, in good fenfe and
„ reafon, they Ihonld have begun; and the elegance of
their language confifts, in fome meafure, in this capri¬
cious arrangement, or rather in this tranfpofal and dif-
order of the words. See Language.
Construction of Statutes, among lawyers. See Law,
Part II. np 49.
CONSUALIA, in antiquity, feafts which were
held among the ancients, in honour of the god Confus
j. e. Neptune ; different from thofe other feafts of the
fame deity called Neptunalia. They were introduced
with a magnificent cavalcade, or proceflion on horfe-
back ;■ becaufe Neptune was reputed to have firft
taught men the ufe of horfes; whence his furname of
Equejlris.
Evander is faid to have firil inftituted this feaft t it
was re-eftablifhed by Romulus, under the name of
Confus; becaufe it was fome god under the denomina¬
tion of Confus, that fuggefted to him the rape of the
Sabines. It is faid, that it was with a view to this
rape that he made that eltablilhment. This, however,
is certain, that it was to this feaft all his neighbours
were invited j when, taking advantage of the folem-
nities and facrifices, he feked the women. To draw
the greater concouife of people, he gave out, that he
had found an altar hid under ground, which he in¬
tended to confecrate, with facrifices to the god to
whom it had been originally eretted. Thofe who take
upon them to explain the myfteries of the heathen
theology, fay, that the altar hid under ground, is a
fymbol of the fecret defign of Romulus to feize his
neighbours wives.
The confualia were of the number of feafts called
facred ; as being confecrated to a divinity.—Originally
they were not diftinguifhtd from thofe of the Circus:
whence it is, that Valerius Maximus fays, that the
rape of the Sabines was effe&ed at the games of the
Circus.
Plutarch obferves, that during the days of this fo- Confubftan-
lemnity, horfes and affes were left at reft, and were
dreffed up with crowns, &c. on account of its being ConfiiL
the feaft of Neptunus Equeftris.— Feftus fays, the ca- t /
valcade was performed with mules ; it being an opi¬
nion, that this was the firft: animal ufed to draw the
car.
Servius gives us to underftand, that the confualia
fell on the 13th of Auguft } Plutarch, in the life of
Romulus, places them on the 18th, and the old Ro¬
man calendar on the 2 1 ft of that month.
CONSUBSTANT1AL, in theology, a term of
like import with co-effential} denoting fomething of
the fame fubilance with another. The oithodox be¬
lieve the Son of God to be confubftanrial with the Fa¬
ther.
The term o^owtrioc, eonfuljiantial, was firft adopted by
the fathers of the councils of Antioch and Nice, to ex-
prefs the orthodox do&rine the more precifdy, and to
ferve as a barrier and precaution againit the errors and
fubtleties of the Arians ; who owned every thing ex¬
cepting the conf'ubftantiality.
The Arians allowed, that the word was God, as
having been made God ; but they denied that he was
the fame God, and of the fame fubftance with the Fa¬
ther : accordingly they exerted themfelves to the ut-
moft to abolifti the ufe of the word. The emperor
Conftantine ufed all his authority with the bifhops to
have it expunged out of the fymbols ; but it ftill
maintained itfelf, and is at this day, as it was then, the
diftinguifhing criterion between an Athanafian and an
Arian. »
Sandius will have it, that the word confubftantial
was unknown till the time of the council of Nice ; but
it is certain it had been before propofed to the coun ¬
cil of Antioch, wherein Paulus Samofatenus had been
condemned; though it had there the fortune to be
reje&ed. CurcellsEus, on the other hand, maintains,
that it was an innovation in do&rine in the council of
Nice, to admit an exprefiion, the ufe whereof had
been abolifhed by the council of Antioch.
According to St Athanafius, the word confufetla®-
tial was only condemned in the council of Antioch,
inafmuch as it implied the idea of a pre-exiftent mat¬
ter, prior to the things formed thereof: now, in this
fenfe, it is certain, the Father and the Son are not
confubftantial, there having been no pre-exiftent mat¬
ter.
CONSUBSTANTIATION, a tenet of the Lu¬
theran church with regard to the manner of the change
made in the bread and wine in the eucharift. The di¬
vines of that profeffion maintain, that after confecra-
tion, the body and blood of our Saviour are fubftan-
tially prefent, together with the fubftance of the bread
and wine, which is called confubftantiation, or impa-
nation.
CONSUL, the chief magiftrate of the Roman com¬
monwealth, inverted with regal authority for th’e fpace
of one year. They were two in number, called confuis
a amfulendo, and annually chofien in the Campus Mar¬
tins. The two firft confuis were L. Jun. Brutus, and
L. Tarquinius Collatinus, chofen in the year of Rome
244, after the expulfion of the Tarquins. In the firil
times of the republic the two confuis were always cho¬
fen from Patrician families or noblemen, but the peo¬
ple
CON [ 379 ] CON
Conful.' pie obtained the privilege in the year of Rome 388,
*■—v-— of ele&ing one of the confuls from their own body,
and fometimes both were plebeians. The firfl conful
among the plebeians was L. Sextius- It was required
that every candidate for the confullhip Ihould be 43
years of age, called Itgitimum tempus. He was always
to appear at the eleftion as a private man without a
retinue,, and it was requifite before he canvalfed for
the office to have difcharged the fun&ions of quaeftor,
edile, and praetor. Sometimes thel'e qualifications
were difregarded. Val. Corvinus was made a conful
in his 23d year, and Scipio in his 24th. Young Ma¬
rius, Pompey, and Auguftus, were alfo under the pro¬
per age when they were invefted with the office, and
Pompey had never been quasllor or praetor. The pow¬
er of the confuls was unbounded, and they knew no
fuperior but the gods and the laws ; but after the ex¬
piration of their office their conduft was minutely fcru-
tinized by the people, and milbehaviour was often pu-
nilhed by the laws. The ,badges of their office was
tire pratexta, a fobe fringed with purple, afterwards
exchanged for the toga pifta or palmata. They were
preceded by 12 li&ors carrying the fajces or bundles of
flicks, in the middle of which appeared an axe. The
axe, as being the charafteriftic rather of tyranny than
of freedom, was taken away from the fafces by Vale¬
rius Poplicola, but it was reftored by his fucceffor.
They took it by turns monthly to be preceded by the
lidlors while at Rome, left the appearance of two per-
fons with the badges of royal authority (hould raife
apprehenfions in the multitude. While one appeared
publicly in ftate, only a crier walked before the other,
and the liftors followed behind without the fafces.
Their authority was equal; yet the Valerian law gave
the right of priority to the older, and the Julian law
to him who had molt children ; and he was generally
called conful major or prior. As their power was ab-
folute, they prefided over the fenate, and could con¬
vene and difmifs it at pleafure. The fenators were
their counfellors ; and among the Romans the manner
of reckoning their years was by the name of the con¬
fuls, and by M. Tull. Cicerone et L. Antonio Confulibus,
for inftance, the year of Rome 689 was always under-
flood. This cuftom lafted from the year of Rome 244
till the 1294, or 541ft year of the Ghriftian era. In
public affemblies the confuls fat in ivory chairs, and
held in their hand an ivoty wand called eburneus,
which had an eagle on its top as a fign of dignity and
power. When they had drawn by lot the provinces
over which they were to prefide during their conful-
fhip, they went to the capitol to offer their prayers to
the gods, and intreat them to protedl the republic ;
after this they departed from the city arrayed in their
military drefs and preceded by the lidlors. Sometimes
the provinces were affigned them without drawing by
lot, by the wilhand appointment of the fenators. At
their departure they were provided by the ftate with
whatever was requifite during their expedition. In
their provinces they were both attended by the 12 lie-
tors; and equally invefted with regal authority. They
were not permitted to return to Rome without the
fpecial command of the fenate ; and they always re¬
mained in the province till the arrival of their iuccef-
for. At their return they harangued the people, and
folemnly protefted that they had done nothing againft
the laws or intereft of their country, but had faith¬
fully and diligently endeavoured to promote the great-
nefs and welfare of the ftate. No man could be con¬
ful two following years ; yet this inftitution was fome¬
times broken, and w'e find Marius re-ele£ted conful
after the expiration of his office during the Cimbrian
war. The office of Conful, fo dignified during’the
times of the commonwealth, became a mere title un¬
der the emperors, and retained nothing of its authority
but the ufelefs enfigna of original dignity. Even the
duration of the office, which was originally annual, was
reduced to two or three months by J. Caefar ; but they
who were admitted on the firft of January denomina¬
ted the year, and were called ordinarii. Their fuccef-
fors during the year were diftinguiftied by the name of
fujfeSi. Tiberius and Claudius abridged the time of
the confullhip ; and the emperor Cbmmodus made no
lefs than 25 confuls in one year. Conftantine the
Great renewed the original inftitution, and permitted
them to be a wdiole year in office.
Consul, at prefent, is an officer eftablilhed by vir¬
tue of a commiffion from the king and other princes,
in all foreign countries of any confiderable trade, to
facilitate and difpatch bufinefs, and protedl the mer¬
chants of the nation. The confuls are to keep up a
correfpondence with the minifters of England reliding
in the courts whereon their confulate depends. They
are to fupport the commerce and the intereft of the
nation ; to difpofe of the fums given and the prefents
made to the lords and principals of places, to obtain
their prote&ion, and prevent the infults of the natives
on the merchants of the nation.
CONSUMMATION, the end, period, or comple¬
tion of any work. Thus, we fay, the confummatlon of
all things, meaning the end of the world. By the in¬
carnation, all the prophecies are faid to be confammated.
See Prophecy, and Accomplishment.
_ Consummation of Marriage, denotes the laft a<?t of
marriage, which makes its accomplilhment ; or the
molt intimate union between the married pair, &c.
CONSUMPTION, in medicine, a word of very
extenfive fignification, implies all diforders that bring
any decay or wafte upon the conftitution ; but is moil
commonly ufed for the phthifis puhnonalis. See Medi¬
ci n n- Index.
Consumption, in farriery. See Farriery, $ viii.
CONSUS, the pagan god of counfel. He had an
altar under ground in the great circus at Rome, to
Ihow that counfel ought to be kept fecret. See Con-
sualia.
CONTACT, is when one line, plane, or body, is
made to touch another; and the parts that do thus
touch are called the paints or places of contain.
CONTAGION, in phyfic, the communicating a
difeafe from one body to another. In fome difeafes
it is only effe£ted by an immediate contact or touch,
as the venom of the pox ; in others it is conveyed by
infe&ed clothes, as the itch ; and in others it is fup*
pofed to be tranfmitted through the air at a confider¬
able diftance, by means of fleams or effluvia exfpiring
from the fick, as in the plague and other pellilential
diforders, in which cafe the air is faid to be contagious,
though this has been difputed.
Conful
II
Contagion,
CON-
Livy, V'al.
jWaximus,
CON [ 380 ] CON'
CONTEMPLATION, an aft of the mind, where- pital of the Carthaginian empire in Spain. Hig mea- Continencei
by it applies itfelf to confider and refleft upon the fures were fo judieioufly concerted, and with fo much —'-v—'
works of God, nature, &c. courage and intrepidity purfued, both by fea and land,
CONTEMPORARY, or Cotemporary, a per- that notwithftanding a bold and vigorous defence, the
fon or thing that exifted in the fame age with another, capital was taken by ftorm. The plunder was im-
Thus, Socrates, Plato, and Ariftophanes, were con- menfe. Ten thoufand free-men were made prifoners;
temporaries and above 300 more, of both fexes, were received as
CONTEMPT, in a general fenfe, the aft of de- hoftages One of the latter, a very ancient lady, the
fpifing, or the ftate of being defpifed. wife of Mandonius, brother of Indibilis king of the
Contempt, in law, is a difobedience to the rules Ilergetes, watching her opportunity, came out of the
and orders of a court, which hath power to punifh fuch crowd, and, throwing herfelf at the conqueror’s feet,
offence ; and as this is fometimes a greater, and fome- conjured him, with tears in her eyes, to recommend
times a leffer offence, fo it is punifhed with greater to thofe who had the ladies in their keeping to have
or lefs punifhment, by fine, and fometimes by impri- regard to their fex and birth. Scipio, who did not
fonment. underftand her meaning at firft, aflured her that he
CONTENT,, in geometry, the area or quantity of had given orders that they fhould not want for any
matter or fpace included in certain bounds. thing. But the lady replied, “ Thofe conveniences
CONTESSA, a port-town of Turkey in Europe, are not what affeft us. In the condition to which for-
in the province of Macedonia, fuuated on a bay of the tune hath reduced us, with what ought we not to be
Archipelago, about . 00 miles weft of Conftantinople. contented ? I have many other apprehenfions, when I
E. Long. 25 o. N. L^t. 41.0. confider, on one fide, the licentioufngfs of war; and,
CONTEXT, among divines and critics, that part on the other, the youth and beauty of the princeffes
of feripture or other writing which lies about the text, which you fee here before us; for as as to me, my age
before or after it, or both. To take the full and ge- protefts me from all fear in this refpeft.” She had
nuine fenfe of the text, the context fhould be regard- with her the daughters of Indibilis, and feveral other
ed. ladies of high rank, all in the flower of youth, who
CONTEXTURE, a word frequently ufed in fpeak- confidered her as their mother. Scipio then compre-
ing both of the works of nature and art ; and deno- bending what the fubjeft of her fear was, “ My own
ting the difpofition and union of the conftituent parts glory (fays he), and that of the Roman people, are
with refpeft to one another. concerned in not fuffering that virtue, which ought
CONTI, a town of Picardy in France, with the always to be refpefted wherever we find it, fhould be
title of a principality. It is feated on the river Seille, expofed in my camp to a treatment unworthy of it.
in E. Long. 2. 17. N. Lat. 49. 54. But you give me a new motive for being more ftrift
CONTIGUITY, in geometry, is when the furface in my care of it; in the virtuous folicitude you fhow
of one body touches that of another. in thinking only of the prefervation of your honour,.
CONTIGUOUS, a relative term underftood of in the midft of fo many other objefts of fear.” After
things difpofed fo near each other, that they join their this converfation, he committed the care of the ladies
furfaces or touch. The houfes in ancient Rome were to fome officers of experienced prudence, ftriftly com-
not contiguous.as ours are, but all infulated. manding that they fhould treat them with all ihe re-
CONTINENCE, in ethics, a moral virtue, by fpeft they could pay to the mothers, wives, and daugh-
which we refill concupifcence. It fhould feem that ters, of their allies and particular friends. It was not
there is this diftinftion between chaftity and continence, long before Scipio’s integrity and virtue were put 10 the
in that it requires no effort to be chatle, which refults trial. Being retired in his camp, fome of his officers
from conftitution ; whereas continence appears to be brought him a young virgin of fuch exquifite beauty,
the confequence of a viftory gained over ourfelves. that fhe drew upon her the eyes and admiration of every
The verb continere, in the Latin, fignifies “ to re- body. The young conqueror flatted from his feat
flrain.” The term, however, is moft ufually applied with confufion and furprize; and, like one thunder-
to men ; as cheiflity is to women. See Chastity. ftruck, feemed to be robbed of that prefence of mind
Continence is a virtue that makes but an inconfider- and felf poffeffion fo neceffary in a general, and for
able figure in our days. However, we ought not to which Scipio was remarkably famous. In a few mo-
lofe our ideas of things, though we have debauched ments, having rallied his ftraggling fpirits, he inquired-
our true relifh in our praftice : for, after all, folid vir- of the beautiful captive, in the moft civil' and polite
tue will keep its place in the opinion of the wife and manner, concerning her country, birth, and connec-
fenfible part of mankind. And though cuftom has tions; and finding that fhe was betrothed to a Celti-
not made it fo fcandalous as it ought to be to infnare berian prince named Allucius, he ordered both him
innocent women, and triumph in the falfehood ; fuch and the captive’s parents to be fent for. The Spanifh
aftions as we fhall relate mull be accounted true gal- prince no fconer appeared in his prefence, than, even
lantry, and rife higher in our efteem the farther they before he fpoke to the father and mother, he took him
are removed from our imitation. afide ; and, to remove the anxiety he might be in on
1. Scipio the Younger, when only 24 years of age, account of the young lady, he addreffed him in thefe
was appointed by the Roman republic to the command words: “ You and I are young, which admits of my
of the army againft the Spaniards. His wifdom and fpeaking to you with more liberty. Thofe who brought
valour would have done honour to the moft experienced me your future fpoufe, allured me, at the fame tune,
general. Determined to ftrike an important blow, he that you loved her with extreme tendernefs ; and her
forms-a defign of befieging Carthagena, then the ca- beapty left, me no room to doubt it. Upon which
CON
Continence, reflecting, that if, like you, I had thought on making
an engagement, and were not wholly engrofled with
the affairs of my country, I fhould defire that fo ho¬
nourable and legitimate a paffion fhould find favour,
I think myfelf happy in the prefent conjuncture to do
you this fervice. Though the fortune of war has made
me your mafter, I defire to be your friend. Here is
your wife : take her, and may the gods blefs you with
her. One thing, however, I would have'you be fully
afiured of, that fhe has been amongft us as fhe would
have been in the houfe of her father and mother. Far
be ii from Scipio to purchafe a loofe and momentary
pleafure at the expence of virtue, honour, and the
happinefs of an honeft man. No: I have kept her
for you, in order to make you a prefent worthy of
you and of me. The only gratitude I require of you
fpr this ineflimable gift is, that you would be a friend
to the Roman people.” Allucius’s heart was too full
to make him any anfwer : but throwing himfelf at the
general’s feet, he wept aloud. The captive lady fell
into the fame poflure ; and remained fo, till the father
burft out into the following words : “ Oh! divine
Scipio ! the gods have given you more than human
virtue ! Oh ! glorious leader ! Oh ! wondrous youth !
does not that obliged virgin give you, while fhe prays
to the gods for your profperity, raptures above all the
tranfports you could have reaped from the poffeffion of
her injured perfon ?”
The relations of the young lady had brought with
them a very confiderable fum for her ranfom : but
when they faw that fhe was reftored to them in fo ge¬
nerous and godlike a manner, they intreated the con¬
queror, with great earneftnefs, to accept that fum as
a prefent ; and declared, by his complying, that new
favour would complete their joy and gratitude. Scipio,
not being able to refill fuch warm and earned felicita¬
tions, told them that he accepted the gift, and order¬
ed it to be laid at his feet: then addrefling himfelf to
Allucius, “ I add (fays he) to the portion which you
are to receive from your father-in-law this fum; which
I defire you to accept as a marriage-prefent.”
If we confider that Scipio was at this time in the
prime of life, unmarried, and under no reflraint, we
cannot but acknowledge, that the conquefl he made
of himfelf was far more glorious than that of the Car¬
thaginian empire: and though his treatment of this
captive prince was not more delicate and generous than
what might juflly be expetted from a perfon endowed
with reafon and reflexion ; yet confidering how few
there are in his -circumftances who would have adted
as he did, we cannot but applaud his condudt, and
propofe him as a fuitable example to future ages. Nor
was his virtue unrewarded. The young prince, charm¬
ed with the liberality and politenefs of Scipio, went
into his country to publifh the praifes of fo generous
a vidlor. He cried out, in the tranfports of his gra¬
titude, “ That there was come into Spain a young
hero like the gods ; who conquered all things lefs by
the force of his arms than the charms of his virtue
and the greatnefs of his beneficence.” Upon this re-
pott all Celtiberia fubmitted to the Romans; and Al¬
lucius returned in a fhout to Scipio, at the head of
1400 chofen horfe, to facilitate his future conquells.
To render the marks of his gratitude flill more durable,
Allucius caufed the adtiou we have juft related to be
CON
engraven on a filver fhield, which he prefented to Scipio ; Continence,
a prefent infinitely more eftimable and glorious than all t--"-
his treafures and triunq hs. This buckler, which Scipio
carried with him when he returned to Rome, was loft,
in palling the Rhone, with part of the baggage. It
continued in that river till the year 1665, when fome
filhermen found it. It is now in the king of France’s
cabinet.
2. The circumftance which raifes Alexander the
Great above many conquerors, and, as it were, above
himfelf, is the ufe he made of his viftory after the
battle of Iffus. This is the moft beautiful incident in
his life. It is the point of view’ in which it is his in-
tereft to be confidered ; and it is impoflible for him
not to appear truly great in that view’. By the vi&o-
ry of Iflus he became poflefled of the whole Perfian
empire; not only Syfigambis, Darius’s mother, was
his captive, but alfo his wife and daughters, princefles
whofe beauty was not to be equalled in all Alia. A-
lexander, like Scipio, was in the bloom of life, a con¬
queror, free, and not yet engaged in matrimony : ne-
verthelefs, his camp was to thofc princefles a facred
.afylum, or rather a temple, in which their chaftity
was fecured as under the guard of virtue itfelf; and
fo highly revered, that Darius, in his expiring mo¬
ments, hearing the kind treatment they had met with,
could not help lifting up his dying hands towards hea¬
ven,and wilhingfuccefstofo wife andgenerousa conquer¬
or, who could govern his paffions at fo critical a time.
Plutarch informs us more particularly, that the prin¬
cefles lived fo retired in the camp, according to their
own defire, that they were not feen by any perfon ex¬
cept their own attendants ; nor did any other perfon
dare to approach their apartments. After the firft vi-
fit, which was a refpedfiul and ceremonious one, A-
lexander, to avoid expofing himfelf to the dangers of
human frailty, made a folemn reiolution never to vifit
Darius’s queen any more. He himfelf informs us of
this memorable circumftance, in a letter written by him
to Parmenio, in which he commanded him to put toA/rfarriSi
death certain Macedonians who had forced the wives
of fome foreign foldiers. In this letter was the fol¬
lowing paragraph : “ For as to myfelf, it will be found
that I neither faw nor would fee the wife of Darius;
and did not fuffer any one to fpeak of her beauty be¬
fore me.”
3. Ifpcrates informs us, that Nicocles, king of Sa-
lamin, gloried in never having known any woman be-
fides his wife ; and was amazed that all other contrails
of civil fociety fhould be treated with due regard, whilft
that of marriage, the moft facred and inviolable of
obligations, was broken through with impunity; and
that men fhould not blufh to commit an infidelity with
refpeil to their wives, of which, fhould their wives be
guilty, it would throw them into the utmofl anguifh
and fury.
4. Henry VI. king of England, though unhappy in
his family and government, was neverthelefs poflefled
of many virtueHe was fo remarkable for his cha-
flity, that before his marriage he would not allow any
lady of a fufpicious charadler and unguarded conduft
to frequent the court: and having obferved one day
fome ladies with their bofoms uncovered, he turned
away his eyes from the indecent objeil, and reprimand*
ed them fmartly in the Ample dialed of the times;
" Eft .
[ 381 ]
Continence** Fy, fy (faid hi), for fhame ;
blame.’r
CON
i, fo much money, and munition, for his con- Continued
CON [ 382 ]
forfooth ye be to manymer
_ mams. tinj^ent. n
contingent. $ In the x^n ^ k;ng Charles !£, when J^entiouf- CONTINUED, or Continual, in a general fenfe,
nefs was at its height in Britain, a yeoman of the means inceffant, or proceeding without interruption,
guards refufed the uuilrefs of a king. The lady, who Continued Fever, is fuch a one as fometimes re-
was dilfatisfied with her noble lover, had fixed her eyes mits, but never intermits or goes entirety off till its
upon this man, and thought fhe had no more to do period.
than fpeak her pleafure. He got out of her way. Continued Bqfs, In mufic, thus called, fays Rouf-
Hc refufed to underftand her; and when fire prefled
him further, he faid, “ I am married.” The ftory
feau, becaufe it is continued through the whole piece.
Its principal ufe, befides that of regulating the harmo-
reached the king, with all its circumflances; but they ny, is to fupport the voice and preferve the tone,
who cxpefted an extravagant laugh upon the occafion They pretend that it was one Ludovico Fiona, of whom
were difappointed. He fent for the perfon: he found a treatife ftill remains, who towards the end of the
him a gentleman, though reduced to that mean ltd- lad century firfl: put the continued bafs in prac-
tion ; and “ Odds fifh, man‘(fays he), though I am tice.
not honed enough to be virtuous myfelf, I value them Continued Proportion, in arithmetic, is that where
that are.” He gave him an appointment, and refpe6t- the confequent of the firfl ratio is the fame with the
ed him for life. antecedent of the fecond ; as 4 : 8 :: 8 : 16 ; in con-
6. The extreme parts of Scotland, whofe people tradiilin&ion to difcrete proportion,
we defpife for their poverty, are honed in this refpeft CONTINUITY, is defined by fome fchoolmen the
to a wonder; and in the Swede’s dominion, towards immediate cohefion of parts in the fame quantum ; by
the pole, there is no name for adultery. They thought others, a mode of body, whereby its extremities be¬
lt an offence man could not commit again!! man ; and , come one; and by others, a ftate of body refulting
have no word to exprefs it in their language. The from the mutual implication of its parts. There are
unpolifhed Lapland peafant, with thefe thoughts, is, two kinds of continuity, mathematical and phyfical.
as a human creature, much more refpe&able than the The firfl is merely imaginary, fince it fuppoies real or
gay Briton, whofe heart is ftained with vices, and e- phyfical parts where there are none. The other, or phy-
flranged from natural affedlion ; and he is happier, fical continuity, is that ftate of two or more particles,
The perfedt confidence mutually repofed between him in which their parts are fo mutually implicated as to
and the honeft partner of his breaft, entails a fatisfac- conftitute one uninterrupted quantity or continuum,
tion even in the loweft poverty. It gilds the humble CONTINUO, in mufic, fignifies the thorough bafs,
heart, and lights the cabin ; their homely meal is a as baffo cotttinuo is the continual or thorough bafs,
facrifice of thanks, and every breath of fmoke arifes which is fometimes marked in mufic-books by the let-
in incenfe. If hand be laid upon hand, it is fure af- ters B. C.
fedtion ; and if fome infant plays about their knees, CONTOBABDITES, a fed! in the fixth century,
they look upon him and upon each other with a de- Their firft leader was Severus of Antioch ; who was
light that greatnefs feldom knows, becaufe it feels fucceeded by John the grammarian furnamed Philo-
diftruft. ponus, and one Theodofius whofe followers were alfo
CONTINENT, in general, an appellation given to called Fheodofians. Part of them, who were willing to
things continued without interruption ; in which fenfe receive a book compofed by Theodofius on the Tri-
we fay, continent fever, &c. nity, made a feparate body, and were called Canto*
Continent, in geography, a great extent of land from fome place, \vhich Nicephorus does not
not interrupted by fleas, in eontradiftindlion to ifland mention, but which mull apparently have been the
and peninfula, &c. See Geography. — Sicily is faid place where they held their aflemblies. The Conto-
to have been anciently torn from the continent of Ita- babdites allowed of no biftrops ; which is the only cir-
ly ; and it is an old tradition, which fome of our an- cumflance given us concerning them,
tiquarics ftill have a regard to, that Britain wras for- CONTOR, Condor, or Cundur, the American
merly a part of the continent of France. name of a fpecies of Vultur.
The world is ufually divided into two great con- CONTORSION, in general, fignifies the acfion of
tinenls, the old and the new. Whether there exifts twilling or wrefting a member of the body out of
in the foutbern hemifphere another continent, or the its natural fituation. Rope-dancers accuftom themfelvea
whole he only an immenfe watery region, is a quef- to contorfions of their limbs from their youth, to render
tion that for near three centuries has engaged the at- the fibres of their articulations lax, and fupple to all
tention of the learned as well as the commercial kinds of poftures.
world, and given rife to many interefting voyages Contorsion, in medicine, has many fignifications.
and difcoveries ; concerning which, fee the article 1. It denotes the iliac palfion. 2. An incomplete dif-
South Sea. location, when a bone is in part, but not entirely, for-
CONTINGENT, fomething cafual or unufual. ced from its articulation. 3. A diflocation of the ver-
Hence future contingent, denotes a conditional event tebrce of the back fide-ways, or a crookednefs of thefe
which may or may not happen, according as circum- vertebras. And, 4. A diforder of the head, in which
fiances fall out. it is drawn towards one fide, either by a fpafmodic con-
Contingent, is alfo a term of relation for the traftion of the mufcles on the fame fide, or a palfy of
quota that falls to any perfon upon a divifion. Thus the antagqnill mufcles on the other,
each prince of Germany in time of war is to furnifti fo CONTORTiE, the name of the 30th order in Lin-
nseus’a
CON [ 383 ] CON
Contour nanis’s Fragments of a natural method, confiding of
II plants which have a Angle petal that is twifted or
1Con^ra bent to one fide. This order contains the following
genera, viz. echites, cerbera, gardenia, genipa, mi-
crocnemum, nerium, periploca, rawolfia, taberniemon-
tana, vinca, apocyrmm, afclepias, comeraria, ceropegia,
cynanchum, plumeria, ftapelia.
CONTOUR, in painting, the outline, or that which
defines a figure.
A great part of the (kill of the painter lies in mana¬
ging the contours well. Contour, with the Italian
painters, fignifics the lineaments of the face.
CONTOURNE, in heraldry, is ufed when a bead is
reprefented Handing or running with its face to the fi-
niller fide of the efcutcheon, they being always fuppofed
to !ook to the rieht, if not othervvife exprefled.
CONTOURNIATED, a term among antiquaries
applied to medals, the edges of which appear as if turn¬
ed in a lath. This fort of work feems to have had its
origin in Greece ; and to have been defigned to perpe¬
tuate the memories of great men, paiticularly thofe
who had here away the prize at the.folemn games.
Such are thofe remaining of Homer, Solon, Euclid,
Pythag-oras, Socrates, and feveral athletae.
CONTRABAND, in commerce, a prohibited com¬
modity, or merchandife bought or fold, imported or
exported, in prejudice to the laws and ordinances of a
date, or the public prohibitions of the fovereign. Con¬
traband goods ai£ not only liable to confifcation them-
felves, but alfo fubjeft all other allc&ved merchandife
found with them in the fame box, bale, or parcel, to¬
gether with the horfes, waggons, &c. which condu&
them. There are contrabands likewife, which, befides,
the forfeiture of the goods, are attended with feveral
penalties and difabilities.
CONTRACT, in a general fenfe, a mutual confent
of two or more parties, who voluntarily promife and
oblige themfelves to do fomething ; pay a certain fum,
or the like. All donations, exchanges, leafes, &c. are
fo many dififerent contrails.
Contr4j:t is pa’-ticulaily ufed in common law, for
an agreement or covenant between two, with a law¬
ful confideration or caufe. As, if I fell my horfe for
money; or covenant, in confideration of L. 20, to
make you a leafe of a farm ; thefe are good contrails,
becaufe there is quid pro quo.
Ufurious Contkjct, is a contrail to pay more in-
tereit for money than the laws allow. See Usury.
Thofe contrails are faid to be null which the law
prohibits the making of; fuch are all contrails be¬
tween perfons incapable of contrailing, as minors,
religious, lunatics, wives without confent of their huf-
bands, &c.
Contract is alfo ufed for the inftrument in writing,
which ferves as a proof of the confent granted, and the
obligation paffed between the paities.
Among the ancient Romans, contrails, and all vo¬
luntary aits, were wmitten, either by the parties them¬
felves, or by one of the witneffes, or by a domeftic
fecretary of one of the parties, whom they called a
notary, but who was no public perfon as among us.
Tne contrail, when finifhed, was carried to the
magiftrate, who gave it a public authority by receiv¬
ing it inter aSta, into the number of ails under his ju-
rifdiilion ; giving each of the parties a copy thereof,
tranferibed by his clerks or domeftic regiiters, and
fealed with his feal. Which prailice pafted into
France, where it obtained a long titne.
CONTRACTILE force, that property or power
inherent in certain bodies, whereby, when extended,
they are enabled to draw themfelves up again to their
former dimenfions.
CONTRACTION, in phyfics, the diminirtiing
the extent or dimenfions of a body, or the caufing its
parts to approach nearer to each other ; in which
fenfe it Hands oppofed to dilatation or expanfion.
Contraction is frequently ufed, by anatomical
writers, to exprefs the fhrinking up of a fibre, or an
affemblage of fibres, when extended.
Convullions and fpafms proceed from a preternatural
contraftion of the fibres of the mufcles of the partcon-
vulfed. On'the contrary, paralytic diforders generally
proceed from a too great laxncfs of the fibres of the
parts affe£led; or from the want of that degree of
contradlion neceflary to perform the natural motion or
adlion of the part. In the firft, therefore, the animal
fpirits are fuppofed to flow, either in too great a quan¬
tity, or irregularly ; and, in the laft, the animal fpirits
are either denied a free paflage into the part affedled,
or the tenfion of the fibrillae is fuppofed infufficient to
promote the circulation.
Contraction, in grammar, is the reducing of
two fyllables into one, as can’t for cannot, Jhould'Jl for
jbouldejl, &c.
CONTRADICTION, a fpecies of direfl oppoft-
tion, wherein one thing is found diametrically oppo-
fite to another.
CONTRADICTORY propositions, are oppo-
fites, one of which imports a mere and naked denial
of the other.
Seeming contradidlories is when the members of a
period quite difagree in appearance and found, but
pcrfedlly agree and are confiftent in fenfe : thus,
“ Cowards die many times before their death;
“ The valiant never tafte of death but once.”
Shakespeare.
CONTRAFISSURE, in furgery, a kind of frac¬
ture, or fiffure, in the cranium, which fometimes hap¬
pens on the fide oppofite to that which received the
blow, or, at leaft, at fome diftance from it.
CONTRAINDICATION, in medicine, is an in¬
dication which forbids that to'be done which the main
fcope of a difeafe points out.
Suppofe, e. gr. in the cure of a difeafe a vomit
were judged proper ; if the patient be fubjedl to a vo¬
miting of blood, it is a fufficient contraindication as to
its exhibition.
CONTRARIETY, an oppofttion between two
things, which imports their being contrary to one
another; and confifts in this, that one of the terms
implies a negation of the other, either mediately or
immediately ; fo that contrariety may be faid to be
the contrail, or oppofition of two things, one of
which imports the abfence of the other, as love
and hatred.
CONTRAST; oppofition or diffimilitude of figures,
by which one contributes to the vifibility or effeft of
the others. See Resemblance.*
5 Contrast,
ihi
CON [38
Contraft Contrast, in painting and fculpture, exprefies an
Controller 0PP°®^0n or difference of pofition, attitude, &c. of
. ’ ' two or more figures^ contrived to make variety in a
painting, £sV. as where, in a groupe of three figures,
one is Ihown before, another behind, and another fide-
ways, they are faid to be in contrail.
The contrail is not only to be obferved in the pofi¬
tion of feveral figures, but alfo in that of the feveral
members of the fame figure : thus, if the right arm
advance fartheft, the right leg is to be hindermoft; if
the eye be dire&ed one way, the arm to go the con¬
trary way, &c. The contrail mull be purfued even in
the drapery.
Contrast, in archite&ure, is to avoid the repe¬
tition of the fame thing, in order to pleafe by va¬
riety.
CONTRATE wheel, in watch-work, that next
to the crown, the teeth and hoop whereof lie contrary
to thofe of the other wheels, from whence it takes its
name. See Watc h - Making.
CONTRAVALLATION, or the Line Contaa-
v A l l at ion, in fortification, a trench guarded with
a parapet, and ufually cut round about a place by the
befiegers, to fecure themfelves on that fide, and to
flop the fallies of the garrifon* See Fortifica¬
tion.
CONTRAVENTION, inlaw, a man’s failing to
difcharge his word, obligation, duty, or the laws or
cuftoms of the place.
CONTRAYERVA, in botany. See Dorstenia.
CONTRE, in heraldry, an appellation given to fe¬
veral bearings, on account of their cutting the ihield
contrary and oppofite ways: thus we meet with con-
tre-bend, contre-chevron, contre-pale, £5V. when there
are two ordinaries of the fame nature oppofite to each
other, fo as colour may be oppofed to metal, and me¬
tal to colour.
CONTRIBUTION, the payment of each perfon’s
quota of the part he is to bear in fome impofition, or
common expence. See Contingent, &c.—Contri¬
butions are ’ either involuntary, as thofe of taxes and
impolls ; or voluntary, as thofe of expences for carry¬
ing on fome undertaking for the intereft of the com¬
munity.
Contributions, in a military fenfe, are impofi-
tions paid by frontier countries to fecure themfelves
from being plundered, and ruined by the enemy’s
army. The peafants till their ground under the faith
of contributions, as fecurely as in time of profound
peace.
CONTRITION, in theology, a forrow for our
fine, refulting from the refledlion of having offended
God, from the foie confideration of his goodnefs, with¬
out any regard to the punilhment due to the trefpafs,
and attended with a fincere refolution of reforming
them. The word is derived from the Latin conterere, to
break or bruife.
CONTROL is properly a double regifter kept of
adls, iffues, &c. of the officers or commiffioners in the
revenue, army, &c. in order to perceive the true Rate
thereof, and to certify the truth, and the due keeping
of the a£ls fubjedl to the enregifterment.
CONTROLLER, an officer appointed to control
or overfee the accounts of other officers ; and, on oc-
N0 90. 1
]
CON
cafion, to certify whether or no things have been con- Controller
trolled or examined. I!
In Britain we have feveral officers of this name ;
as controller of the king’s houfe, controller of the / ’ .
navy, controller of the cufloms, controller of the
mint, &c.
Controller of the Hanaper, an officer that attends
the lord chancellor daily, in term and in feal-time, to
take all things fealed in leathern bags from the clerks
of the hanaper, and to make the number and effeCl
thereof, and enter them in a book, with all the du¬
ties belonging to the king and oth. officers for the
fame, and fo charge the clerk of tnc hanaper with
them.
Controller of the Houfehold, the fecond officer un¬
der the lord Reward. The name of his office comes
from the French word contrerouler. His office is to
control the accounts and reckonings of the Green
Cloth, of which board he is always a member. He
canies a white Raff, and is always one of the privy-
council. He has L. 107: 17:6 a-year wages, and
L. 1092 : 2 ; 6 board-wages.
Controller of the Pipe, an officer of the exchequer,
that makes out a fummons twice every year, to levy
the farms and debts of the pipe. See Pipe and Ex¬
chequer.
Controllers.of the Pells, two officers of the exche¬
quer, who are the chamberlain’s clerks, and keep a
control of the pell of receipts, and goings out.
CONTUMACY, in law, a refufal to appear in court
when legally fummoned, or the difobedience to the
rules and orders of a court having power to puniRi
fuch offence.
CONTUSION, in medicine and furgery, any hurt
of the body that is inflicted by a blunt infirument.
See Surgery.
CONVALESCENCE, in medicine, the infenfible
recovery of health ; or that Rate in which, after the
cure of a diforder, the body which has been reduced,
has not yet regained its vigour, but begins to refume
its powers. Proper aliments conduce to the re-eRa-
bliffiment of the languid faculties ; but as the tone of
the bowels is weakened, the digeRive faculty is not
equal to its office, which is Riown by light fweats over
the whole body ; and the fmallefi excefs in this re-
fpe£t is oftentimes the occafion of dangerous relapfes.
A perfon in this Rate is like a taper relumined, which
the leafi degree of wind is fufficient to extinguifli.
CONV ALLARIA, or Lily of the Valley, in bo¬
tany, a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to
the hexandria clafs of plants; and in the natural
method ranking under Sarmentaceee, or nth order.
The corolla is fexfid ; the berry fpotted and trilocu-
lar. The fpecies are eight, three of which are natives
of Britain, viz. the maialis, or may-lily; the multi-
flora, or folomon’s-feal j and the polygonatum, or
fweet-fmelling folomon’s-feal. They are plants of con-
fiderable beauty, and may eafily be propagated by their
creeping roots.
CONVENARUM urbs, or Lugclunum, (anc.
geog.) a town of the Convenae, a people of Gallia
Narbonenfis, at the foot of the Pyrenees. Its origin
was owing to the Sertorian war, Pompey compelling
the robbers of the Pyrenees and fugitive Raves to fet;-
4e
CON C 385 ] CON
Conven- tie there, (Pliny). It ftood near the head of the Ga- or in pofleflion of benefices depending on the houfe. Conventus
ti^e . ronne. Now St Bertrand, in Gafcony. E. Long. 30', See Monk. _ ^ r
Conven- 43° 15'- CONVENTUS juridici, were courts of juftice
tail. CONVENTICLE, a diminutive of convent; de- tftabliflied in the Roman provinces; with a refort or J
noting, properly, a cabal, or fecret affembly, of a part extent of jurifdi&ion, circumfcribed and confined
of the monks of a convent, to make a brigue or party within certain limits of diftrid, whither all who were
in the ele&ion of an abbot. From the ill ufe of thefe of the refort were to repair for juitice The unfea-
affemblies, the word is come info difrepute ; and now fonable affedtalien of changing forms of war into forms
ftands for any mifehievous, feditious, or irregular af- of civil courts, proved the ruin of Varus and of three
fembly. F. Doucine obferves, the occidentals always legions in Germany, (Florus). Convention agere, is to
efteemed the fifth general council an unlawful conven- hold a court of jutlice.
tide. CONVERGING or Convergent Lines, in geo-
The term conventicle is faid, by fome, to have been metry, are fuch as continually approach neater one
firft applied in England to the Ichools of Wickliff,~and another, or whofe diftances become ftill lefs and lefs.
has been fince ufed to fignify the religious affemblies Thefe are oppofed to divergent lines, the difiances of
of all in that country who do not conform to the efta- which become continually greater: thofe lines which
blilhed do&rines and worlhip of the church of Eng- converge one way, diverge the other,
land. - Converging Rays, in optics, thofe rays that, iffuing
By 22 Car. II. cap. 1. it is enaded, That if any from divers points of an objedt, incline towards ano-
perfons of the age of x 6 years, fubjedts of this king- ther, till at lafi they meet and crofs, and then be-
dom, (hall be prefent at any conventicle, where there come diverging rays.
are five or more affembled, they (hall be fined 5 s. for CONVERSATION, or discourse, fignifies an
the firft offence, and 10 s. for the fecond ; and per- interlocution between two, or among more perfons 5
fons preaching incur a penalty of L. 20. Alfo fuffer- _ with this diftindtion, that converfation is ufed for any
ing a meeting to be held in a houfe, &c. is liable to general intercourfe of fentiments whatever, whereas a
L. 20 penalty. Juftices of peace have, power to enter diicourfe means a converfation limited to fome parti-
fuch houfes, and feize perfons affembled, &c. And if cular fubjedt.
they negledf their duty, they (hall forfeit L. 100. And There is no part, perhaps, of facial life which af-
if any conftable, &c. know of fuch meetings, and do fords more real fatisfadfion' than thofe hours which
not inform a juftice of peace, or chief magiftrate, &c. one paffes in rational and unreferved converfation.
he (hall forfeit L.5. But the xft W. and, M. cap 18. That converfation, however, may anfwer the ends for
ordains, that proteftant diffenters (hall be exempt from which it was defigned, the parties who are to join in
penalties: though,if they meet in a houfe with the it muft come together with a determined refolution to
doors locked, barred, or bolted, fuch diffenters (hall pleafe, and to be pleafed.
have no benefit from 1 Wt and M. Officers of the In the condudf of it, be not eager to interrupt o-
government, &c. prefent at any conventicle, at which thers, or uneafy at being yourfelf interrupted; fince
there (hall be ten perfons, if the royal family be not you (peak either to amufe or inftrudt the company, or
prayed for in exprefs words, (hall forfeit L.40 and be to receive thofe benefits from it. Give all, therefore,
difabled ; (Stat. 10 Anne, cap. 2.) leave to fpeak in turn. Hear with patience, and an-
CONVENTION, a treaty, contract, or agreement fwer with precifion. Inattention is ill manners; it
, between two or more parties. (hows contempt; and contempt is never forgiven.
Convention is alfo a name given to an extraordi- Trouble not the company with your own private
nary affembly of parliament, or the eilates of the realm, concerns, as you do not love to be troubled with thofe
held without the king’s writ Of this kind was the of others. Yours are as little to them as theirs are to
convention parliament which reftored Charles II. This you. You will need no other rule whereby to judge
parliament met above a month before his return, and of this matter.
fat full feven months after his reftoration, and ena&ed Contrive, but with dexterity and propriety, that
feveral laws ftill in force, which were confirmed by each perfon may have an opportunity of difcourling
flat. 13 Car. II. c. 7. and c. 14. Such alfo was the on the fubjeft with which he is bed acquainted. He
convention of eftates in 1688, who, upon the retreat will be pleafed, and you will be informed. By obfer-
of king James II. came to a conclufion that he had ving this rule, every one has it in his power to affift
•abdicated the throne, and that the right of fucctffion in rendering converfation agreeable; fince, though he
• devolved to king William and queen Mary ; where- may not choofe, or be qualified, to fay much himfelf,
upon their affembly expired as a convention, and was he can propofe queftions to thofe who are able to an-
converted into a parliament. fwer them.
Convention of Ejlates, in Scotland, was partly of Avoid (lories, unlefs (hort, pointed, and quite a-pro-
the nature of a parliament; but differing in this, that pos. He who deals in them, fays Swift, muft either
the former could only lay on taxes, while parliament have a very large (lock, or a good memory, or muft
could-both impofe taxes and make laws. often change his company. Some have a fet of them
CONVENTUAL, fomething belonging to a con- ftrung together like onions; they take poffelfion of
vent or monaftery. See Monastery, and Coeno- the converfation by an early introdu&ion of one, and
bite. then you muft have the whole rope ; and there is an
Conventual is particularly ufed for a religious end of every thing elfe, perhaps, for that meeting,
who actually refides in a convent; in contradiftinotion though you may have heard all twenty times before,
to thofe who are only guefts, or are entertained there, Talk often, but not long. The talent of harangu-
Vol. V. Tart I. 3 C ing
CON [ 386 I CON
Converfa- lng private company is infupportable. Senators and
tI”n barrifters are apt to be guilty of this fault; and mem-
Convert. ^ers w^° never harangue in the houfe, will often do
v.— it out of the houfe. If the majority of the company
be naturally filent, or cautious, the converfation will
flag, unlefs it be often renewed by one among them
who can ftart new fubje&s. Forbear, however, if pof-
fible,-to broach a fecond before the firfl: is out, left
your ftock ftiould not laft,_and you fliould be obliged
to come back to the old barrel. There are thofe who
will repeatedly crofs upon and break into the conver¬
fation with a frelh topic, till they have touched upon
all, and exhauftednone. Economy here is neceflary for
moft people.
Laugh not at your own wit and humour ; leave that
to the company.
When the converfation is flowing in a ferrous and
ufeful channel, never interrupt it by an ill-timed jeft.
The ftream is fcattered, and cannot be again colleift-
ed.
Difcourfe not in a whifper, or half-voice, to your
next neighbour. It is ill-breeding, and, in fome de¬
gree, a fraud; converfation-ftock being, as one has
well obferved, a joint and common property.
In reflexions on abfent people, go no farther than
you would go if they were prefent. “ I refolve (fays
bilhop Beveridge) never to fpeak of a man’s virtues to
his face, nor of his faults behind his back —A gol¬
den rule ! the obferyation of which would, at one
ftroke, banifh flattery and defamation from the
earth.
CONVERSE, in mathematics. One propofition is
called the converje of another, when, after a conclu-
fion is drawn from fomething fuppofed in the converfe
propofition, that conclufion is fuppofed ; and then,
that which in the other was fuppofed, is now drawn
as a conclufion from it: thus, when two fides of a tri¬
angle are equal, the angles under thefe fides are equal;
and, on the converfe, if thefe angles are equal, the two
fides are equal.
CONVERSION, in a moral fenfe, implies a re¬
pentance for a temper and conduft unwo»thy our na¬
ture, and unbecoming our obligations to its Author,
and a refolution to aX a wifer and a better part for
the future.
Conversion, in war, a military motion, whereby
the front of a battalion is turned where the flank was,
in cafe the battalion is attacked in the flank.
Conversion of Equations, the fame with reduXion
of equations by multiplication. See Algebra.
CONVERT, a perfon who has undergone a con-
verfion.
Convert is chiefly ufed in refpeX of changes from
one religion, or religious feX, to another. Converts
with relation to the religion turned to, are denominated
apojiates with regard to that they have relinquiflred.
The Jews formerly converted to Chriftianity in Eng¬
land, were called converfos. Henry III. built them a
houfe in London, and allowed them a competent fub-
fiftence for their lives ; which houfe was called domus
converforum. But the number afterwards increafing,
they grew a burden to the crown ; upon which they
' were diftributed among the monafteries : and after the
expulfion of the Jews under Edward III. the domus
tenverfcrum was given for keeping of the rolls..
Converts,, in a monaftic fenfe, are lay-friars, or Converta
brothers, admitted for the fervice of the houfe ; with- P
out orders, and not allowed to fing in the choir. TillConv* 1001
the eleventh century, the word was ufed for perfons
who embraced the monkifli life at the age of difcre-
tion ; by which they were diftinguilhed from thofe de¬
voted in their childhood by their parents, called oUati.
But in the eleventh century, when they began to re¬
ceive into monafteries illiterate perfons, incapable of
being clerks, and only deftined for bodily labour, the
fignification of the word was neceflarily changed.
F. Mabillon obferves, that it was John firft abbot of
Vallombrofa who firft introduced thefe brother-con¬
verts, diftinguiftied by their ftate from the monks of
the choir, who were then either clerks or capable of
becoming fo.
CONVEX, an appellation given to the exterior fur-
face of gibbous or globular, bodies; in oppofition to
the hollow inner furface of fuch bodies, which is called
concave: thus we fay, a convex frieze, lens, mirror,
fuperficies, &c.
CONVEXITY, the exterior furface of a convex,
i. e. gibbous and globular thing ; in oppofition to con¬
cavity, or the inner furface, which is hollow or de-
prefled. See Concave.
The word is of particular import in catoptrics and
dioptrics; where it is applied to mirrors and leufes.
A convex mirror reprefents its images fmaller than
the objeXs; as a concave one reprefents them larger:
a convex mirror refleXs the rays from it, diverging}
and therefore difperfes and weakens their effeX : as
a concave one refleXs them converging, fo as they
concur in a point, and have their effeX increafed: and
by. how much the mirror is a portion of a fmaller
fphere, by fo much does it diminifti the objeXs, and
difperfe the rays the more. See Mirror.
A convex lens is either convex on both fides, called
a convexo-convex; or it is plain on one fide and con¬
vex on the other, called a plano-convex; or concave
on one fide and convex on the other, called a con¬
vexo-concave, or concavo-convex, as the one or the
other fuface prevails, i. e. as this or that is a por¬
tion of a fmaller fphere. All convex lenfes infleX the
rays of light in their paffage, i. e. fend them out from
their convex furface converging, fo as that they con¬
cur in a point or focus. Hence all convex lenfes mag¬
nify, i. e. reprefent their images larger than their ob-
jeXs; and this the more as they are portions of fmal¬
ler fpheres.
CONVEYANCE, in law, a deed or inftrument that
paffes land, &c. from one perfon to another.
CONVICT, in common law, a perfon that is found;
guilty of an offence by the verdiX of a jury. See.
the following article.
CONVICTION, in law. When a jury has given a
verdiX upon trial, finding the prifoner guilty, he is
faid to be conviBed of the crime whereof he Hands in-
diXed. See Trial.
When the offender is thus conviXed, there are two,
collateral circumftances that immediately arife. 1. On
a conviXion in general for any felony, the reafonable-
expences of profecution are by ftatute 25 Geo. II. c. 361
to be allowed the profecutor out of the county-ftock,
if he petitions the judge for that purpofe; and by
ftatute 27 Geo. II. c. 3. poor perfons, bound over
3. to
CON L 3S7 1 CON
ConviAion. to give evidence, are likewife intitled to be paid their
'-—“V—J charges, as well without convi&ion as with it. 2. On
a conviction of larciny in particular, the profecutor
fhall have reftitution of his goods by virtue of the
fta'tute 21 Hen. VIII. c. it. For by the common law
there was no reftitution of goods upon an indidtment;
becaufe it is at the fuit of the king only; and there¬
fore the party was enforced to bring an appeal of
robbery, in order to have his goods again. But, it
being confidered that the party profecuting the offen¬
der by indiftment, defetves to the full as much en¬
couragement as he who profecutes by appeal, this fta-
tute was made, which >aa(3:s, that if any perfon be
convicted of larciny by the evidence of the party rob¬
bed, he (hall have full reftitution of his money, goods,
and chattels, or the value of them out of the offend¬
er’s goods, if he has any, by a writ to be granted by
the juftices. And the.conftrudtion of this aft having
been in great meafure conformable to the law of ap¬
peals, it has therefore in praftice fuperfeded the ufe
of appeals of larciny. For inftance, as formerly up¬
on appeals, fo now upon indiftments of larciny, this
writ of reftitution (hall reach the goods fo ftolen, not-
withftanding the property of them is endeavoured to
be altered by fale in market overt. And though this
may feem fomewhat hard upon the buyer, yet the
rule of law is, that fpoliatus debet ante omnia rejlitui,
efpecially when he has ufed all the diligence in his
power to cpnvift the felon. And, (ince the cafe is
reduced to this hard neceffity, that either the owner
or the buyer muft fuffer; the law prefers the right
of the owner, who has done a meritorious aft by pur-
fuing a felon to condign punifliment, to the right of
the buyer, whofe merit is only negative, that he has
been guilty of no unfair tranfaftion. And it is now
ufual for the court, upon the conviftion*of a felon, to
order, without any writ, immediate reftitution of fuch
goods as are brought into court, to be made to the
feveral profecutors. Or elfe, fecondly, without fuch
writ of reftitution, the party may peaceably retake his
goods wherever he happens to find them, unlefs a new
property be fairly acquired therein. Or, laftly, if the
felon be convifted and pardoned, or be allowed his
clergy, the party robbed may bring his aftion of tro¬
ver againft him for his goods, and recover a fatisfac-
tion in damages. But fuch aftion lies not before pro-
fecution; for fo felonies would be made up and healed:
and alfo recaption is unlawful, if it be done with in¬
tention to fmother and compound the larciny; it then
becoming the heinous offence of theft-bote.
It is not uncommon, when a perfon is convifted of
a mifdemeanour, which principally and more immedi¬
ately affefts fome individual, as a battery, imprifon-
ment, or the like, for the court to permit the defen¬
dant to /peak with the profecutor, before any judge¬
ment is pronounced; and if the profecutor declares
himfelf fatisfied, to inflift but a trivial puniftiment.
This is done to reimburfe the profecutor his expences,
and make him fome private amends, without the
trouble and circuity of a civil aftion. But it is fur^Jy
a dangerous praftice : and, though it may be entruft-
ed to the prudence and difcretion of the judges in the
fuperior courts of record, it ought never to be allow¬
ed in local or inferior jurifdiftions, fuch as the quar-
ter-feffions: where profecutions for affaults are by
this means too frequently commenced, rather for pri- Convl&io*
vate lucre than for the great ends of public juftice. _ H,
Above all, it (hould never be fuffered, where the te- C°t”o»
ftimony of the profecutor himfelf is neceffary to con- /
vift the defendant: for by this means the rules of evi¬
dence are entirely fubverted; the profecutor becomes
in effeft a plaintiff, and yet is fuffered to bear witnefs
for himfelf. Nay, even a voluntary forgivenefs by the
party injured, ought not, in true policy, to intercept
the ftroke of juftice. “ This (fays an elegant writer
who pleads with equal ftrength for the certainty, as
for the lenity of punilhment), may be an aft of good
nature and humanity, but it is contrary to the good of
the public. For although a private citizen may dif-
penfe with fatisfaftion for his private injury, he can¬
not remove the neceffity of public example. The
right of puniftiing belongs not to any one individual
in particular, but to the fociety in general, or to the
fovereign who reprefents that fociety; and a man
may renounce his own portion of this right, but he
cannot give up that of others.”
Conviction, in theology, expreffes the firft de¬
gree of repentance, wherein the (inner becomes fen-
fible of his guilt, of the evil nature of fin, and of the
danger of his own ways.
CONVOCATION, an affembly of the clergy of
England, by their reprefentatives, to confult of eccle-
fiaftical matters. It is held during the fefiion of par¬
liament, and confifts of an upper and a lower houfe.
In the upper fit the biftiops, and in the lower the in¬
ferior clergy, who are reprefented by their proftors;
confiding of all the deans and archdeacons, of one
proftor for every chapter, and two for the clergy of
every diocefe, in all 143 divines; wz. 22 deans, 53
archdeacons, 24 prebendaries, and 44 proftors of the
dioceiian clergy. The lower houfe choofes its prolo¬
cutor ; whofe bufinefs it is to take care that the mem¬
bers attend, to colleft their debates and votes, and to
carry their refolutions to the upper houfe. The con-
vocation is fummoned by the king’s writ, direfted to
the archbiftiop of each province, requiring him to fum-
mon all biftiops, deans, archdeacons, &c.
The power of the convocation is limited by a fta-
tute of Henry VIII. They are not to make'any ca¬
nons or ecclefiaftical laws without the king’s licence ;
nor, when permitted to make any, can they put them
in execution, but under feveral reftriftions. They have
the examining and cenfuring all heretical and fchifma-
tical books and perfons, &c. but there lies an appeal to
the king in chancery, or to his delegates. The clergy
in convocation, and their fervants, have the fame pri¬
vileges as members of parliament.
Since the year 1665, when the convocation of the
clergy gave up the privilege of taxing themfelves to
the houfe of commons, they feldom have been allowed
to do any bufinefs; and are generally prorogued from
time to time till diffolved, a new one being generally
called along with a new parliament. The only equi¬
valent for gi ving up the privilege of taxing themfelves,
was their being allowed to vote at eleftions for mem¬
bers to the houfe of commons, which they had not
before.
CONVOLUTION, a winding motion, proper to *
the trunks of fome plants, as the convolvulus, or bind¬
weed j the clafpers of vines, bryony, &c.
3 C 2
CON-
CON [ 38S 1 CON
Convolrtv CONVOLVULUS, bind-weed: A genus of the
U8 pentandria order, belonging to the monogynia clafs of
v plants 5 and in the natural method ranking under the
29th order, Campanacea. The corolla is campanulated
and plaited ; there are two ftigmata ; the capfule is
bilocular, and the cells are difpermous. Of this genus
there is a great number of fpecies, the mod remarkable
of which are the following.
1. The fepium, or large white bind-weed, is often
a troublefome weed in gardens, when its roots are in¬
terwoven- with thofe of trees and Ihrubs, or under
hedges, as every fmall piece of root is apt to grow.
It flourifhes under moift hedges, and hath white or
purplilh bloffoms. 2. The fcammonia, or Syrian bind¬
weed, grows naturally in Syria. The roots are thick,
run deep into the ground, and are covered with a
dark bark. The branches extend on every fide to
the diftance of 10 or 12 feet; they are flender, and
trail on the ground, and are garnilhed with narrow,
arrow-pointed leaves. The flowers are of a pale
yellow, and come out from the fide of the branches,
two fitting upon each long footftalk: thefe are fuc-
ceeded by roundilh feed-veflels, having three cells fil¬
led with feeds. 3. The purpureus, or convolvulus
major, is an annual plant growing naturally in Alia
and America, but has been long cultivated in the Bri-
tilh gardens. If thefe plants are properly fupported,
they will rife 10 or 12 feet high in warm fummers.
There are three or four lafting varieties: the moil
common hath a purple flower; the others have a
white, a red, or a whitilh-blue flower, which lafl. hath
white feeds. They flower in June, July, and Auguft,
and their feeds ripen in autumn. 4. The nil, or blue
bind-weed, rifes with a twining ftalk 8 or 10 feet high,
garniftied with heart-flraped- leaves; divided into three
lobes, which end in fliarp points. Thefe are woolly, and
Hand upon long foot-llalks. The flowers alfo come out
on long foot-ftalks, each fuftaining two flowers of a very
deep blue colour, whence their name of anil or indigo.
This is one of the moll beautiful plants of the genus :
it flowers all the latter part of the fummer : and in
good feafons the feeds ripen very well in the open air.
5. The battatas, or Spanilh potatoes, hath efculent
roots, which are annually imported from Spain and
Portugal, where they are greatly cultivated for the
table ; but they are too tender to thrive in the open
air in Britain. Their roots are like the common, po¬
tato, but require' much more room : for they fend out
many trailing llalks, which extend fix or eight feet
every way ; and at their joints fend out roots which
in warm countries grow to be very large bulbs; fo that
from a Angle root planted 40 or 50 large potatoes are
produced. 6. The canarienfis, with foft woolly leaves,
is a native of the Canaries; but hath long been pre-
ferved.in the Britilh gardens. It hath a ftrong fibrous
root, from whence arife feveral twining woody llalks,
which, where they have fupport, will grow more than
20 feet high, garnilhed with oblong heart-lhaped
leaves, which are foft and hairy. The flowers are pro¬
duced from the wings of the leaves, feveral Handing
upon one footftalk. They are for the moll part of a
pale blue; but there is a variety with white flowers.
They appear in June, July, and Auguft, and fome-
times ripen feeds here. 7. The tricolor, or convolvu¬
lus minor,, is a native of Portugal; but hath long been
cultivated in the gardens of this country. It is an an- Convolvu*
nual plant, which hath feveral thick herbaceous ftalks
growing about two feet long, which do not twine like
the other forts, but decline toward-the ground, upon
which many of the lower branches lie pro I rate ; they
are garniftied with fpear-lhaped leaves, which fit clofe
to the branches: the footftalks of the flowers come
out juft above the leaves of the fame joint, and at tbe-
lame fide of the ftalks. They are about two inches
dong, each fullaining one large open bell-lhaped flower,
which in fome is of a fine blue uolour with a white
bottom ; in others they are pure white, and fome are
beautifully variegated with Loth colours. The white
flowers are fucceeded by white feeds, and the blue
by dark-coloured feeds; which difference is pretty
conftant. 8. The foldanella, or fea-bindweed, ftyled
alfo IraJJka marina, grows naturally on the fea-beacheSc
in many parts of England, but cannot be long pre¬
ferred in gardens. It hath many fmall white ftringy
roots, which fpread wide and fend out feveral weak
trailing branches. Thefe twine about the neighbour¬
ing plants like thofe of the common bindweed, gar¬
nilhed with kidney-fliaped leaves like thofe of the lef-
fer celandine. The flowers are produced on the fide
of the branches at each joint. They are of a reddiih
purple colour, and appear in July. They are fuc¬
ceeded by round capfules, having three cells, each con.
tainingone black feed. 9. The turpethum is a native
of the illand of Ceylon. This hath fleftty thick roots
which fpread far in the ground, and abound with a
milky juice that flows out when the roots are broken
or wounded, and foon hardens into a refinous fubftance
when expofed to the fun and air. From the root flioot
forth many twining branches, which twill about each,
other, or the neighbouring plants, like the common
bindweed. They are garnilhed with heart-lhaped
leaves that are foft to the touch, like thofe of the
marlhmallow. The flowers are produced at the joints
on the fide of the llalks, feveral Handing together on
the fame footftalk : they are white, and lhaped like
thofe of the common great bindweed, and are fucceed¬
ed by round capfules, having three cells containing
two feeds each. 10. The jalappa, or jalap, ufed in
medicine, is a native of Haleppo in Spanilh America,
fituated between La Vera Cruz and Mexico. It hath,
a large root of an oval form, which is full of a milky
juice; from which come out many herbaceous twining
ftalks riling eight or ten feet high, garnilhed with va¬
riable leaves ; fome of them bring heart-lhaped,{others
angular, and fome oblong and pointed. They arc
fmooth, and Hand upon long footftalks : the flowers
are ftiaped like thofe of the common greater bindweed,,
each footftalk fupporting only one flower.
Culture. The flrfl; and'fecond forts are propagated
by feeds, which muft be fown on a border of light
earth. The fecond fort muft have fome talk flakes
placed near them for their branches to twine about,,
otherwife they will fpread on the ground and make a
bad appearance. The third fort is annual, and mull
be» propagated by feeds fown on a hot-bed in the
fpring, and towards the end of May they fhould be
planted out in warm borders, and treated in the fame
manner with the former. The fourth fpecies is fome-
times propagated in this country. The roots muft be
planted on a hot-bed in the fpring; and if the plants,
arc
COO t 389 1 coo
Convolru- are covered in bad weather with gUfTes, they willpro-
duce Rowers and fome fmall bulbs from the joints of
C0ok. t^ie ftalhs: but if they are expofed to the open air, they
U-— feldom grow to any fize. The fifth is propagated by
laying down the young (hoots in the fpring, which
generally put out roots in three or four months : they
may then be taken from the old plants, and each pla¬
ced in a feparate pot, which is to be fet in the {hade
till they have taken new root; after which they may
be placed with other hardy green-houfe plants till au¬
tumn, when they ihould be removed into the green-
houfe, and afterwards treated in the fame manner as
myrtles and other green-houfe plants. The turbith
and jalap are too tender to live in this country, unlefs
they are conftantly kept in a ftove. The other fpe-
cies require no particular directions for thefr cultiva¬
tion.
Ufes. The root of the firft fort is a very acrid pur¬
gative to the human race, but is eaten by hogs in large
quantities without any detriment. The infpiffated juice
of the fecond fpecits is ufed in medicine as a llrong
purgative ; as are alfo the roots of the jalappa and
turpethum. The foldaneila has likewife been ufed
with the fame intention. Half an ounce of the juice,
or a drachm of the powder, is an acrid purge. The
leaves applied externally are faid to diminhh dropfical
fwellings of the feet. See Sca'mmonv, Jalap, and
Turpeth.
CONVOY, in naval affairs, one of more (hips 0/
war, employed to accompany and protect merchant
fhips, and prevent their being infulted by pirates, or
the enemies of the ftate in time of war.
Convoy, in military matters, a body of men that
guard any fupply of men, money, ammunition, or pro-
vifions, conveyed by land into a town, army, or the
like, in time of war.
CONUS, a cone, in botany : a fpecies of fruit or
fcaly feed-veffel, fo termed by Tournefort and other
botanifts. Linnaeus has fubftituted strobilus in its
place.
CONVULSION, a preternatural and violent con-
traclion of the membranous and mufcular parts of
the body. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
CONWAY, a market-town of Caernarvonfiiire in
North Wales, fituated near the mouth of a river of
the fame name, 15 miles weft of St Afaph. W. Long.
3. 50. N. Lat. 53. 20.
CONYZA, fleabane ; a genus of the polyga-
mia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Compofita. The pappus is fimple, the
calyx imbricated and roundifh, the corollulae of the
radius trifid. There are 19 fpecies, none of which me¬
rit any particular defcription.
CONZA, a town of the kingdom of Naples in I-
taly, fituated on the farther principate, on the river
Offanto, 50 miles fouth-eaft of the city of Naples.
E. Long. 16.0. N. Lat. 41. o. It is the fee of an
archbiftiop.
COOK (Sir Anthony), defcended from Sir Tho¬
mas Cook lord mayor of London, was born in 1506,
and fuppofed to have been educated at Cambridge. He
was fo eminent for his learning, piety, and prudence,
that the guaVdians of king Edward VI. appointed him
to be his chief inftru&or in learning, and to form bis
manners. He had four daughters; and being refol-
ved to have fons by education, left he ftiould have
none by birth, he taught his daughters thofe leflbns by
night that he had inftilled into the prince by day : he
was happy in his endeavours, as they proved learned
in Greek and Latin, and equally diftinguifhed by vir¬
tue, piety, and good fortune. Mildred was married
to the great lord Burleigh ; Ann to Sir Nicholas Ba¬
con, lord keeper of the great feal ;• Elifabeth to Sir
John Ruflel, Ion and Heir of Francis earl of Bedford }•
and Catharine to Sir Henry KiHigrew. He lived in
exile during the Marian perfecution ; and returning
on the acceffion of queen Elizabeth, fpent the reft of
his days in peace and honour, dying in 1576.
COOK (Captain James), one of the moft celebra¬
ted navigators ever produced by Britain or any other
country, was the fon of James Cook, fuppofed to have
been a native of the county of Northumberland. His
ftation was no higher than that of a fervant in hufban-
dry, and he was maipried to a woman in his own fphere
of life at Morton, a village in the North riding of
Yorklhire. From this place they removed to another
village in the fame riding named Marion, where Cap¬
tain Cook was born on the 27th of October 1728.
He was one of nine children, all of whom are now
dead except a daughter, who married a fifherman of
Redcar. He received the firft rudiments of educa¬
tion from the fchoolmiftrefs of the village ; and after-
terwards, on his fathers removal to Great Ayton, he
was put to a day fchool, at the expence of Mr Skot-
tow, his father’s employer, where he was inftrufted in
writing and in a few of the fitft rules of arithmetic-
Before the age of thirteen he was bound apprentice to
Mr W. Sanderfon, a haberdafher or fhopkeeper at
Straiths, about ten miles from Whitby : but fome
difagreement taking place between him and his mafter*
he indulged his own inclination in binding himfelf ap-.
prentice to Meffrs Walkers of Whitby, who had fe-
veral veffels in the coal trade ; and after ferving a few
years longer in the lituation of a common failor, he
was at length raifed to be mate of one of Mr Walker’s
(hips. During all this period it is not recolkfted that
he exhibited any thing peculiar either in his abilities,
or conduift.
Early in the year 1755, when hoftilities broke out
between France and England, -Cook entered on board
the Eagle of fixty guns, to which veflel Sir Hugh Pal-
lifer was foon after appointed, who foon diftinguiflied
him as an adtive and diligent feaman; and his promo¬
tion was forwarded by a letter of recommendation
which was written by Mr Ofbaldefton, member for Scar¬
borough, at the requeft of feveral neighbours, in Mr
Cook’s favour. On the 15th of May 1739, he was
appointed mafter of the Mercury, which foon after
failed to America, and joined the fleet under Sir
Charles Saunders at the memorable fiege of Quebec.
His intereft with the admiralty appears even tKen to
have been very ftrong; for on Mr Olbaldefton’s letter
he was appointed mafter of the Grampus floop ; but
the proper mafter having unexpectedly returned to.
her, the appointment did not take place. Four days
after he was made mafter of the Garland ; when upon
inquiry it was found that he could not join her, as the-
veffeli
Cook.
COO [ 390 ] coo
vefiel had already failed; and the next day, May 15th
1759, he was made mailer of the Mercury. On this
occafion he was recommended by Captain Pallifer to a
difficult and dangerous fervice, •viz. to take the found¬
ings of the river St Lawrence, between the illand of
Orleans and the north Ihore, which he performed in the
moll complete manner; and foon afterwards he was
employed to furvey the moil dangerous parts of the
river below Quebec : thefc were his firll efforts with
the pencil. After this expedition he, was appointed,
on the 22d of September, mailer of the Northumber¬
land, llationed at Halifax, where he firil read Euclid,
and applied to ailronomy and other branches of
fcience. In the year 1762 he was with the Nor¬
thumberland, affifting at the recapture of Newfound¬
land ; and in the latter end of the fame year he rer
•turned to England, and married, at Barking in Ef-
fex, Mifs Elizabeth Batts. Early in 1763, when ad¬
miral (then Captain) Greaves was appointed governor
of Newfoundland, Mr Cook went out with him to
furvey the cpafts of that illand. At the end of the
feafon he returned to England ; but in the beginning
of 1764, Sir Hugh Pallifer being appointed governor
of Newfoundland and Labradore, Mr Cook accom¬
panied him in the fame capacity of furveyor, and had
the Grenville fchooner to attend him on that bufinefs;
in this fituation he continued till 1767.
While Mr Cook remained on this llation, he had an
opportunity of exhibiting publicly a fpecimen of his
progfefs in the lludy of ailronomy, by a Ihort paper
printed in the 57th volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
adlions,^ inti tied “ An obfervation of an eclipfe of the
fun at the ifland of Newfoundland, Augull 5. 1766,
with the longitude of the place of obfervation de¬
duced from it.” Mr Cook’s obfervation was made at
one of the Burgeo illands near Cape Ray, in N. Lat.
470 56' 19", and by the comparifons of it made by
Mr Mitchel with an obfervation of Dr Hornlby at
Oxford, it appeared to have been accurately done :
and Mr Cook at that time obtained the charadler of
an able altronomer.
In the mean time a fpirit for geographical difco-
veries, which had gradually declined fince the begin¬
ning of the 17th century, began to difcover itfelf anew.
Two voyages of this kind had been performed in the
reign of George II. the one under Captain Middleton,
the other by Captains Moore and Smyth, with a view
to difcover a northwell paffage through Hudfon’s Bay
to the Eall Indies. Two others, under Captains By¬
ron, Wallis, and Carteret, had been undertaken foon
after the conclufion of the peace in 1763 by order of
his prefent Majefty ; and before the return ofthefe na¬
vigators, who were ordered to fail round the world,
•another voyage was refolved upon for allronomical pur-
pofes. It having been calculated that a tranfit of Ve¬
nus over the fun’s difk would happen in 1769, a long
memorial to his Majedy was prefented by the Royal
Society ; in which they fet forth the great importance
of making proper obfervations on this phenomenon, the
regard that had been paid to it by the different courts
of Europe ; and intreating, among other things, that a
veffel might be fitted out, at the expence of government,
for conveying proper perfons to fome of the Friendly
Illands, in order to make the neceffary obfervations.
This being complied with on the part of his Majelty,
Alexander Dalrympie, Efq; an eminent member of the
Royal Society, was appointed to take the command '
of the bark appropriated for the purpofe. In the ex¬
ecution of the projefl, however, an unexpected diffi¬
culty occurred. Mr Dalrympie, fenfible of the im-
poffibility of guiding a veffel through unknown and
dangerous feas without any proper command over the
cre w, demanded a brevet commiffion as captain of the
veffel, in the fame manner as had formerly been grant¬
ed to Dr Halley in a voyage of difeovery made by
him. This commiffion Sir Edward Hawke abfo-
lutely refufed to fign ; declaring, when preffed upon
the lubjedt, that he would rather fuffer his right hand
to be cut off than trull any of his Majefty’s Ihips to a
perfon who had not been properly bred to the fervice :
and in this proceeding he feemed to be jullified by the
mutinous behaviour of Dr Halley’s crew ; who, deny¬
ing the legality of his authority over them, had in¬
volved him in a very difagreeable difpute, and which
was attended with pernicious confequences. Mr Dal-
rymple, on the other hand, being equally determined
in his refufal to proceed without the authority in que-
llion, there was a neceffity for finding out fome per¬
fon of feienee who might alfo be free from the ob¬
jection made by Sir Edward Hawke. Mr Cook there¬
fore wras propofed by Mr Stephens; and his recom¬
mendation being fecOnded by Sir Hugh Pallifer, he
was immediately appointed to direCt the expedition;
and on this occafion was promoted to the rank of
lieutenant in his Majelly’s fervice.
Mr Cook’s commiffion as lieutenant was dated May
25. 1 768 ; a veffel of 370 tons, named the Endeavour,
was provided for him ; and while the neceffary pre¬
parations were making for the voyage, Captain Wallis
returned. It having been recommended to this gentle¬
man to fix upon a proper place for making the allrono-
mical obfervations, he had accordingly chofen the ifland
named by him George's IJlancl, but iince known by the
name of Otabeite; j udging alfo that Port Royal harbour in
it would afford an eligible fituation. This propofal being
accepted, directions for the purpofe were accordingly
given to Mr Cook, with whom Mr Charles Green was
joined in the aftronomical pare; the latter having been
affiftant to Dr Bradley in the Royal Obfervatory at
Greenwich, and thus judged to be every way qualified
for the office. The lieutenant was likewife accompa¬
nied by Mr Banks, now Sir Jofeph Banks, Dr So-
lander, &c. The principal defign of the voyage was,
as has already been hinted, to make obfervations on
the tranfit of Venus ; but this being done, Mr Cook
was direCled to make further difeoveries in the Pacific
Ocean ; and on the 30th of July 1768 he fet fail on
his expedition. An account of the voyage, and the
difeoveries made during the time of it, is given in the
next article : here it is fufficient to obferve, that
throughout the whole Mr Cook approved himfelf an
able feaman; and from his behaviour both to his own
people and to the favage nations he occafionally met
with, ftiowed a moll exad regard to the rules both of
juftice and humanity. On his firft arrival at Otaheite,
the following regulations were drawn up for his peo¬
ple, which he took care fhould be punctually obeyed :
1. To endeavour, by every fair means, to cultivate a
friendfliip with the natives, and to treat them with all
imaginable humanity. 2. A proper perfon or perfons
to
COO L 391 ] coo
Cook, to be appointed to treat with the natives for provl-
—V—' lions, fruits, See. and no other perfon belonging to
the fhip to do fo without leave. 3. Every perfon on
Ihore to attend punfitually to his duty, and to pay pro¬
per attention to his tools or arms ; and if loll through
negligence, to have the full value charged againft his
pay, with fuch farther punilhment infli&ed as occa-
fion might require. 4. The fame penalty to be in-
flifted on every one who Ihould embezzle, trade with,
or offer to trade with, any part of the fhips ftores; and,
5. No iron to be given in exchange for any thing but
provifions. His rigid adherence to thefe rules was
manifefted in feveral inftances, particularly by feverely
punilhing the fhip’s butcher, who had threatened the
life of a woman, wife to one of the chiefs of the
illand, for refufing a (tone hatchet on the terms he
propofed. On erecting their obfervatory, in wider to
go through the aftronomical operations, an accident
happened which had like to have difconcerted the
whole fcheme. This was the lofs of their quadrant,
which had been ftolen by fome of the natives ; but,
chiefly through the exertions of Mr Banks, it was re¬
covered, and the ebfervations made accordingly.
Scarce was this accomplifhed, however, before ano¬
ther theft of the natives demanded the moll ferious
confideration of the commander. Some of them ta¬
king advantage of the attention of the officers being
othervvife engaged, took the opportunity of breaking
into one of the llore-rooms, and Healing from thence
a bag of fpike nails of no lefs than an hundred weight.
This was a moll important affair; for as thofe nails
were of great eftimation among the Indians, the pof-
feffion of fuch quantity mull undoubtedly have much
leffened their value, and thus rendered provilions of
every kind greatly dearer on the illand than before.
One of the thieves therefore being difeovered, was pu»
nifhed with 200 lalhes: notwithllanding which he ob-
ftinately refufed to difeover any of his accomplices.
Repeated thefts committed afterwards required all the
wifdom and refolution of Mr Cook to condudl him-
felf in a proper manner. After due conlideration, he
judged it to be a matter of importance to put an end
to thefe practices at once, by doing fomething which
might engage the natives themfelves to prevent. them
for their common interell. This, however, he was
not at prefent able to accomplilh ; nor indeed did it
feem poffible to prevent them without ufing fire¬
arms, which from motives of humanity he Hill deter¬
mined to avoid. At lall, after a flay of three months,
when preparing to take his leave, the moll difagree-
able adventure took place that he had hitherto met
with. This was the defertion of two of his people,
who having married young women of the country, de¬
termined to take up their refidence in it. Mr Cook
was now obliged to feize fome of the chiefs, and to in¬
form them that they could not obtain their liberty un-
lefs the deferters were recovered. This at laft produ¬
ced the defired effeft; the deferters were given up,
and Mr Cook fet fail, along with Tupia (who had
formerly been the prime minifter to Oberea, a princefs
of the illand) and a boy of 13 years of age, both
of whom were delirous of accompanying him to Eng¬
land.
While Mr Cook proceeded to vifit others of the
South Sea Iflands, Tupia oocafionally ferved as an in¬
terpreter. On his arrival in New Zealand, Mr Cook Cook,
found the people extremely hoftile and infolent. At v~“"
their very firfl meeting, one of the natives having
threatened to dart his lance into the boat, was Ihot
dead. Another, having carried off Mr Green’s hanger,
was fired at with fmall Ihot, and upon his Hill refufing
to reflore it, was fired at with ball and killed. This,
however, produced very little effedl on the reft, who
offered to make an attack upon them, till feveral muf-
kets were fired with fmall Ihot, which wounded three
or four more. Next day the commander, having de¬
termined to force fome of the natives on board, in or¬
der to conciliate their affe&ions by kind treatment,,
direfted his men to follow two canoes whom he per¬
ceived under way before him: One made her efcape,
but the other, not obferving the boats in purfuit, was
overtaken ; on which the favages plied their oars fo
brilkly, that the drip’s boats were not able to keep up
with them. Tupia, whofe language the New Zealan¬
ders underflood, called to them to return, with affu-
rances that no hurt flrould be done them ; but they con¬
tinued their flight without minding him. A mufleet
wras then fired over their heads with a view to intimidate
them, but upon this they prepared to fight ; and on.
the coming up of the boats began the attack with fo
much vigour, that the lieutenant’s people were obli¬
ged to fire upon them with ball, b'y which four out of
feven that were in the boat were killed, and the other
three jumped into the water, and were taken ,orv
board.
This part of Mr Cook’s conduft feems inconfiftent
with that humanity for which he was in general fo
eminently diftinguilhed ; lie wras aware of the cenfure,
and makes the following apology. “ Thefe people
certainly did not deferve death for notchoofingto con¬
fide in my promifes, or not confenting to come on
board my boat, even if they had apprehended no dan¬
ger : but the nature of my fervice required me to ob¬
tain a knowledge of their country, w’hich I could no
otherwife obtain but by forcing into it in an hoftile
manner, or gaining admiffion through the confidence
and good will of the people. I had already tried the
power of prefents without effeft ; and 1 was now-
prompted by my defire to avoid farther hoftilities, to
attempt to get fome of them on board ; the only me¬
thod we had left of convincing them that we intended
them no harm, and had it in our power to contribute
to their gratification and convenience. Thus far my
intentions certainly were not criminal ; and tho’in the
conteft, which I had not the leaft reafon to expe£l, our
victory- might have been complete without fo great an
cxpence of life ; yet in fuch fituations, when the com¬
mand to fire has once been given, no man can pretend
to reftrain its excefs, or preferibe its effedl.”
Notwith (landing the difafter juft mentioned,to which
the three New Zealanders, who were taken on board,
had been witneffes, they were foon conciliated, and
began to fing with a degree of talle that furprifed the
Englifli gentlemen. They were boys, the oldeft about-
19 and the youngeft about 11 ; but no kindnefs
which could be (hown them was in any degree effec¬
tual to bring about a reconciliation with the reft. On
the contrary, having perceived the (hip in fome di-
ftrefs, they inftantly (bowed a difpofition to make an-
attack} and from this they were only prevented by
the
COO L 392 ] COO
Cook, the firing of a four-pounder charged with grape (hot.
^ Even this did not produce any permanent effedl; ano¬
ther attack was determined upon, and would undoubt¬
edly have been made, had not Tupia informed them,
that if they perfifted in the attempt, the arms of their
adverfaries, like thunder, would deftroy every one of
them. This was enforced by the fire of another four-
pounder with grape (hot, which fpreading wide iu the
water, terrified them to fuch a degree that they be¬
gan to paddle away as fall as pofiible. Notwithftand-
ing this, however, fome intercourfe began to take
place ; but in every inftance the New Zealanders ma-
nifdled their hoftility and treachery in fuch a manner
as (howed that they were not to be gained by fair
means. At lad an attempt to carry off Tayeto, Tu-
pia’s boy, rendered it abfolutely neceffary to fire upon
them in order to refcue him from certain deftru&ion,
fome of the favages having got him into a canoe,
where they held him down by violence. In confe-
■quence of this one of the favages was killed on the
fpot, and feveral more wounded, by the difcharge of
mulkets from the boats ; Tayeto recovered his liberty,
jumped into the water,, and fwam to the (hip. Some
partial intercourfe again took place : but (till it ap¬
peared that jhe innate rancour of thefe favages was
neither to be fubdued by fair means nor foul; and it
was only by the powerful arguments' of cannon and
mufketry that they could be kept from attempting to
do mifchief.
From the -account of this voyage publilhed by Dr
Hawkefworth, indeed, it appears, that a confiderable
number of favages peri (lied in a manner fimilar to that
above mentioned, and they feem to have manifeffed a
more hoftile behaviour than afterwards : on thofe me¬
lancholy occafions, however, it is obferved to the ho¬
nour of Mr Cook, that his humanity was eminently
confpicuous beyond that of the common people, who
all along (bowed as much inclination to deftroy the
Indians as a fportfman does to kill the game he pur-
fues.
While Mr Cook coafted the iflands of New Zealand,
he was fometimes in the mod imminent danger of be¬
ing (hipwrecked. In the latitude of 35° fouth, and
in the midft of fummer in that climate, he met w-ith
fuch a gale of wind as he fcarce ever experienced be¬
fore ; fo that he was no lets than three weeks in get¬
ting ten leagues to the weftward, and two more before
he could get 30 leagues farther. Fortunately, how¬
ever, they were all this time a confiderable way from
land, otherw-ife it is probable that the ftorm muft have
proved fatal.
Mr Cook having fpent fix months in circumnaviga¬
ting and fully exploring the iflands of New Zealand, he
failed from thence on the 3 xft of March 1770. It muft
be obfevved, however, that the extreme hoftility ma-
nifefted by the inhabitants in that part of the illand
where he firft arrived, was not univerfally diffufed, but
that a friendly intercourfe was for a long time main¬
tained with thofe about Queen Charlotte’s Sound. From
New Zealand he proceeded to New Holland, and on
the 28th of April came in fight of Botany Bay. Here
all their endeavours to induce the natives to have any
intercouvfe with them proved ineffectual, tho’ happily
there was no blood fpilt in any quarrel.
During their navigation round New Holland, the
N° 90. 2
coafts of which are full of dangerous rocks and (hoals,
our navigators were brought into a more perilous fitua-
tion than ever ; and from which the efcape was fo ex¬
traordinary, that it deferves a particular relation.
This happened on the 10th of June 1770, as they
purfued their courfe from Trinity Bay, and nearly in
the latitude affigned to the iflands ^iifcovered by Qui¬
res. At that time they had the advantage of a fine
breeze and a clear moonlight; and in (landing off
from fix till near nine o’clock, the (hip had deepened
her water from 1410 21 fathoms; but while the na¬
vigators were at fupper, it fuddenly (hoaled to 12, 10,
and 8 fathoms, in the fpace of a few minutes. Every
thing was then ready for putting the (hip about, when
they fuddenly got into deep water again, and continued
in 20 and 21 fathoms for fome time, fo that the gentle¬
men went to bed in perfedl fecurity. A little before
eleven, however, the water (hoaled at once from 20 to
17 fathoms; and before the lead could be heaved again,
the (hip (truck, and remained immoveable, excepting
as far >as (he was heaved up and down and dafhed
againft the rocks by the furge. The alarm was now
univerfal, and not indeed without the greateft reafon.
It appeared that the vtffel had been lifted over the
ledge of a rock, and lay in a hollow within it, where,
there were in fome places from three to four fathoms
water, and in others fcarce as many feet: the fheath-
ing boards were-disjoined, and floating round the (hip
in great numbers ; and at lad the falfe keel alfo was
deftroyed, while the rock kept grating her bottom
with fuch force as to be heard in the fore (tore-room. It
was now neceffary to lighten the (hip as much as pof-
fible ; and this was done with all expedition to the
amount of more than 50 tons. In the morning of the
1 ith of June they difeovered the land at about eight
leagues diftance, without any ifland between, on which
they could have been fent aihore in the event of the
(hip going to pieces, that fo they might have been car¬
ried to the main land by turns. To add to their dif-
trefs, the (hip drew fo much water, that it could fcarce
be kept under by three pumps. JLaftly, it appeared,
that even the rifing of the tide, on which they had
utltimately depended for relief, was infufixeient to
anfvver the purpofe, as the day tide fell confiderably
(hoft of that in the night-time. Having therefore
lightened the (hip dill farther, by throwing out every
thing that could polfibly be fpared, they waited with
patience for the next tide; when, after incredible ex¬
ertion, the (hip righted, and the^ got her over the
ledge of the rock into deep water. By continual la¬
bour, however, the men were at lad fo much exhaufted,
that they could not (land to the pumps more than five
or fix minutes at a time; after which they threw
themfelves flat on the deck, though a dream of wa¬
ter between three and four inches deep ran over it ;
and in this fituation they lay till others, exhaufted
as well as themfelves, took their places, on which they
darted up again, and renewed their exertions. In
this dreadful extremity Mr Monkhoufe, a midlhipman,
propofed the expedient of fothering the (hip, as it is
called, by which means he faid that he had feen a mer¬
chant (hip brought from Virginia to London after (he
had fprung a leak that admitted more than four feet
water in an hour. The expedient being approved of,
it was put in execution in the following manner. He
took
COO [ 393 1 COO
Cook, took a lower ftudding-fail, and having mixed a large
  quantity of oakum and wool together, ftitched them
down,by handfuls as lightly as poffible; the whole be¬
ing afterwards fpread over with the dung of the (beep
and other filth. The fail was then hauled under the
rtiip’s bottom by means of ropes which kept it ex¬
tended. When it came under the leak, the wool and
oakum, with part of the fail, were forced inwards by
the preffure of the water, which thus prevented its
own ingrefs in fuch an effe&ual manner, that one
pump, inftead of three, was 'now fufficient to keep it
under. Thus they got the fliip into a convenient port
on the coaft of New Holland, where there was an op¬
portunity of fully repairing her defedls. Here they
difcovered that their prefervation had not been owing
entirely to the expedient above mentioned ; for one of
the holes was in a great meafure filled up by a piece
of rock which had broken off and ftuck in it; and
this hole was fo large, that had it not been filled up
in the manner juft mentioned, they muft undoubtedly
v have periihed notwithftandirrg all the afiiftance that
could have been derived from the pumps.
The dangers they fuftained in navigating this coaft
were innumerable, infomuch that for very near three
months they were obliged to have a man conftantly
in the chains heaving the lead. They were always
entangled among rocks and ftioals, which could not
have failed to deftroy a lefs experienced navigator; and
even Mr Cook, with all his fagacity, could not fome-
times have extricated himfelf, had it not bet n for the
favourable interpofition of fome natural events, which
no human penetration could forefee or have the leaft
dependence upon. Of this we Ihall o; ly ^ive the fol¬
lowing inftance. Having at laft, as tliey thought,
got fafely over the vaft recefs of funk rocks with
which the coaft of New Holland is furrounded, they
-flattered themfelves that all danger was paffed, and
the vaft fwell of the water convinced them that they
were now in the open ocean. The remembrance of
former dangers, however, induced them frequently to
take the precaution of founding; notwithftanding
which, in the latitude of about 14-I-0 S. they found
themfelves one morning only about a mile dillant from
the moft hideous breakers, though the fea all around
was unfathomable. Their fituation was rendered the
more dreadful by its being a dead calm, at the fame
time that they were carried towards the rock with
fuch rapidity, that by the time they had got the Ihip’s
head turned-by means of the boats, (he was fcarcely
100 yards diftant from it. Their only refource then
was to tow the ftiip, if poflible, by means of the boats
and pinnace, out of a fituation fo very perilous; but
all their efforts would have been unfuectfsful, had not
a breeze of wind fprung up, which, though too light
to have been noticed at any other time, was found to
fecond their efforts-fo effeftually, that the Ihip began
to move perceptibly from the reef in an oblique di-
.reftion: during the time that this breeze lafted,
which was not more than ten minutes, they had made
a confidtrable way. A dead calm fucceeding, they
began to lofe ground, and in a little time were dri¬
ven within 200 yards of the rocks : but fortunate¬
ly the breeze returned, and lafted ten minutes more ;
.during which time a fmall opening was perceived in
the reef at the diftance of about a quarter of a
Vol. V. Part I. 4
mile. The mate being fent out to examine this
opening, reported that it was not more than the
length of the ftiip in breadth, but that there was
fmooth water within. On this it was determined
to pufti into it by all means. The attempt fail¬
ed of fuccefs; as, juft when they had brought the
Ihip with great labour to the mouth of the opening,
they found a current fetting out from it bv reafon of
the tide now beginning to ebb. But though their
hopes' were difappointed in getting through the open¬
ing, they were, by the current fetting out from it, dri¬
ven in a very fhort time to the diftance of a quarter of
a mile from the rocks; and by dint of towing and other
exertions, they were got by noon to the diftance of
two miles. This temporary deliverance, however,
afforded but fmall profpedi of being ultimately re¬
lieved. They had ftill no other expe&ation than
of being forced back into their former fituation by
the return of the tide; but happily they now per¬
ceived another opening about a mile to the weft-
ward. Mr Hicks the lieutenant being fent to exa¬
mine this opening, returned with an account of its be¬
ing narrow and hazardous, but capable of being paf¬
fed. To this place therefore the {hip was directed by
every poffible means; and a light breeze happening to
fpring up, they fortunately reached it, and were in-
ftantly hurried through with great rapidity by the cur¬
rent of the returning tide; which, had it not been for
this opening, would undoubtedly have dallied them to
pieces againft the rocks. ,
From the time they quitted the coaft of New Hol¬
land till their arrival at Batavia in the ifland of Java,
our navigators met with no other danger but what is
common in fea-voyages. They were obliged to ftay
for fome time at this place to repair their damages;
and on viewing the condition of the ftiip, found they
had more reafon than ever to admire the manner in
which they had been preferved. Both the falfe-keel
and main-keel were greatly injured ; great part of the
flieathing was torn off; feveral of the planks were much
damaged, and among thefe there were two, and half of
another, which for fix feet in length were not above
the eighth part of an inch in thicknefs, befides being
penetrated with worms quite to the timbers. Here
the crew were exceffively annoyed by ficknefs, which
obliged them to remain much longer than they would
otherwife have done : and it is worthy of notice, that
every one of the crew was ill excepting the fail-maker,
an old man between 70 and 80 years of age, and who
was drunk every night. Poor Tupia, with his boy
Tayeto, fell facrifices to the unhealthinefs of the cli¬
mate, as well as the furgeon, three feamen, and Mr
Green’s fervant. Nor did the evil flop here ; for on
their fetting out from Batavia, the feeds of difeafe
which had been received there broke out in the moft:
violent and fatal manner, infomuch that in the courfe
of about fix weeks there died one of Mr Banks’s af-
fiftants, by name Mr Sporing, Mr Parkingfon his na¬
tural hiftory painter, Mr Green the aftronomer, the
boatfwain, carpenter, and mate ; Mr Monkhoufe the
midftiipman, the corporal of the marines, two of the
carpenter’s crew, and nine feamen. Even the jolly old
faii maker could now hold out no longer; but whe¬
ther his death might not in fome meafure be attributed
to his beift^ lefs plentifully fupplied with liquors than
3 D formerly.
0 GO [ 394 ] GOO
formerly, might have deferved inquiry. Thefe unfor¬
tunate events probably made a conliderable impreffion
on Mr Cook’s mind; and perhaps induced him to
direct his attention to thofe methods of preferving the
health of feamen which he afterwards put in execu¬
tion with fo much fuccefs. After touching at St
Helena, they continued their voyage for England,
where they arrived on the iithof June 1771; and
on the 29th of Auguft the fame year, his Majeity
teftified his approbation of Mr Cook’s conduct by ap¬
pointing him a captain in the navy. On this occafion
Mr Cook wiihed to have been advanced to the rank of
poft-captain, which, though not more profitable than
the other, is more honourable ; but this being incon-
fiftent with the rules of preferment in the navy, the
earl of Sandwich, at that time at the head of the ad¬
miralty, could not agree to it.
Captain Cook was not allowed to remain long in-
aftive. The idea of a fouthern continent had long
been entertained, and Mr Dalrymple had renewed the
•attention of the public towards the queftion, by his
hiftorical colle&ion of voyages to the Pacific Ocean,
publifhed in two quarto volumes, one in 1770, the
other in 1771. To determine the matter finally, Cap¬
tain Cook was again fent out: and the objeft of this
-voyage was not merely to fettle the queftion juft men¬
tioned, but to extend the geography of the globe to
its utmoft limits. That the undertaking might be
carried on with the greater advantage, it was deter¬
mined to employ two ftiips, on the choice and equip¬
ment of which the utmoft attention was beftowed.
The fuccefsful voyage which had already been made
in the Endeavour, fuggefted the idea of that ftrip be¬
ing a proper model for the two which were to be fent
out; and the opinion of Lord Sandwich concurring
with the general idea, two veffels, conftm&ed by the
fame perfon who had built the Endeavour, were pur-
chafed for the voyage. Thefe were about 14 or 16
months old at the time they were purchafed ; and in
the opinion of Captain Cook, were as fit for the pur-
pofe as if they had been but newly built. The larger
of the two, of 462 tons burden, was named the Refo-
Intion ; the fmaller, of 336 tons, had the name of the
Adventure: the complement of men on board the
former, of which Captain Cook was commander, be¬
ing 112; on the latter, commanded by Mr Tobias Fur-
neaux, 81. In their equipment, every article that
could be fuppofed neceffary, however much out of the
common line, wuis procured, and every circumftance
that could be fuppofed to contribute to the fuccefs of
the voyage was attended to in the moft fcrupulous
manner. Befides the ufual ftores and provifions, all
of which were of the heft kinds, the Ihips were fur-
niihed with malt, four-krout, faked cabbage, portable
foup, falop, muftard, marmalade of carrots, beer, and
infpiffated wort. Mr Hodges, an excellent landfcape
painter, was engaged to make drawings and paintings
of fuch objects as required them. Mr John Reinhold
Forfter, with his fon, were both engaged, in order to
explore and eolleft the natural hiftory of the countries
through which they palled; and laftly, that nothing
might be wanting to render the voyage as complete as
poffible, Mr William Wales and Mr William Bayley
were engaged by the board of longitude to make ce-
leftial obfervations. They were furnilhed with the
beft inftruments of every kind, and among the reft
with four time-pieces; three conftrufted by Mr
Arnold, and one by Mr Kendal on Mr Harrifon’s
principles.
At Plymouth Captain Cook received his inftruc-
tions; which were not only to fail round the globe,
but to fail round it in high fouthern latitudes, and to
make fuch traverfes as might finally refolve the queftion
concerning the fouthern continent. In purfuance of
thefe inftruftions he fet fail on the 13th of July 17724
and on the 29th of the fame month reached the Ma-
deiras. As he proceeded afterwards in his voyage, he
made three puncheons of beer from the.infpiflated wort
carried out along with him, and found it excellently
to anfwer the purpofe, provided the material could
have been kept without fermentation in its infpiffated
ftate ; but as this was found impofiible, the expedient
feems to have failed. In this voyage, however, the
Captain ufed with the greateft fuccefs fuch methods as
appeared likely to contribute to the prefervation of the
health of his men. In rainy weather, he took care
that the fliip ftiould be aired and dried by means of
fires made between the decks, the damp places were
fmoked, and the people were ordered to air their bed¬
ding, and wafti and dry their clothes, whenever an op¬
portunity offered. Thus he reached the Cape of Good
Hope without having a fingle man fick. Having left
it, and kept on his courfe to the fouthward, he foou
began to meet with cold and ftormy weather, by which
he loft almoft the whole of his live ftock of ftieep, hogs,
and geefe. The bad effefts of this ftormy weather up¬
on the men were guarded againfl: by an addition to
their clothing, and giving them a dram on particular
occafions. On the fixth of December, being in the
latitude of 50° 40', he fell in with iflands of ice, and
continued among them in various latitudes till the
17th of January 1773 ; when he fet fail for New Zea¬
land, which he reached on the 27th.
The reception of our navigator by the New Zealan¬
ders was now much more friendly than in the former
voyage, fo that there were no contefts with the na¬
tives ; nor did Captain Cook obferve any one of thofe
whom he had feen before, neither was there the fmah
left remembrance of former hoftilities. Having ftaid
in this country till the 7th of June, our navigators fet
fail for Otaheite ; but during the voyage the crews of
both ihips were attacked by the feurvy. Thofe of the
Adventure were in a very fickly ftate ; the cook was-
dead, and 20 of her beft men incapable of duty. Oa
board the Refolution matters were much better; and
the only reafon that could be conjeftured for the dif¬
ference was, that the people of the Adventure had
been in an habit of body more inclined to the feurvy
than thofe of the Refolution, and had eat fewer vege¬
tables. Here it was obferved, that the averfion of fea¬
men to a change of diet is fo great, that it can only
be overcome by the Heady and perfevering example of
a commander. While he remained at New Zealand^
the Captain had difeovered a tree which greatly re-
fembled the American black fpiuce. Perfuaded,
therefore, that it would be attended with eft efts
equally falutary on the health of the people, he em¬
ployed them in brewing beer from it. This was
done while they continued at Dufky Bay, in order to
fupply the want of vegetables, which were not to be
5 procured
COO [ 39? 3 COO
Cook procured there ; but on removing to Queen Charlotte’s
Sound, they were more fortunate. Captain Cook
himfelf went to look out for antifcorbutic vegetables ;
and returned in a very fhort time with a boat-load of
fcurvy-grafs, celery, &c. Thefe were boiled with the
peas and wheat; and though fome of the people dif-
liked them at firft, they foon became fo fenfible of
their good effects, that they cheerfully followed the
example of the reft ; and the freedom of the crew from
the fcurvy and other diftempers was by every one at¬
tributed to the New Zealand fpruce beer and vege¬
tables. From this time forward the Captain had fcarce
occafion to give orders for gathering vegetables when
they came to any land.
During this voyage Captain Cook experienced ano¬
ther narrow efcape from fhipwreck. Being becalmed
at the diftance of half a league from a reef of rocks
near Ofnaburg Ifland, it was found neceffary to order
out the boats to tow off the ftiips ; but this was found
impoffible. The calm continuing, and the fituation
of our navigators becoming every moment more dan¬
gerous, the Captain attempted to get through an
opening in the reef -which he had judged practicable:
but on approaching it, found that there was not fuf-
ficient depth of water; at the fame time that the
draught of the tide through it forced the (hip thither in
a manner fcarce to be relifted. One of the warping ma¬
chines, with about 400 fathoms of rope, was then or¬
dered out, but did not produce any effeft. They were
within two cables length of the breakers, and no bot¬
tom could be found for calling anchor. Having no
other refource, however, they did drop an anchor ;
but before it took hold, the Refolution was in lefs
than three fathoms water, and ftruck at every fall of
the fea, which broke violently clofe under hp'_lLern,
threatening deftru&ion to every one on board. At
lall the tide ceafmg to a£t in the fame direction, the
boats were ordered to try to tow off the veffel; in
which being affifted by the land-breeze, which fortu¬
nately fprung up at that inftant, they with much labour
fucceeded.
Having fpent a confiderable time in the South Sea
illands, Captain Cook returned to New Zealand, and
from thence fet fail for the fouthern part of the conti¬
nent of America. Here he explored all the illands in
the neighbourhood, and then returned to England,
where he arrived in fafety on the 30th of July 1774,
having been abfent three years and 18 days ; and in all
that time loft only one man, who died of a confump-
tion probably begun before he fet out on the voy-
age-
The reception our navigator now met with was fuit-
ed to his merit. He was immediately raifed to the
rank of poll-captain, and foon after unanimoully elec¬
ted a member of the Royal Society ; from whom he
received the prize of the gold medal for the bell expe¬
rimental paper .that had appeared throughout the year.
It was the cuftom of Sir John Pringle, at the delivery
of this medal, annually to make an elaborate difeourfe,
containing the hiftory of that part of fcience for which
the medal was given; and as the fubje<Ul of Captain
Cook’s paper (the means of preferving the health of
feamen) was analogous to the profeffion of Sir John
Pringle himfelf as a phyfician, he had the greater op¬
portunity of difplaying his eloquence on the occafion.
The fpecch he made was in the highelt degree honour- Cook,
able to Captain Cook. He remarked, that the Society -v—
had never more meritorioully bellowed the medal than
on the perfon who now received it. “ If (fays he)
Rome decreed the civic crown to him who laved the
life of a Angle citizen, what wreaths are due to the
man who, having himfelf faved many, perpetuates is
your Tranfa&ions the means by which Britain may
now, on the moll diftant voyages, preferve numbers of
her intrepid fons, her mariners ; who, braving every
danger, have fo liberally contributed to the fame, to
the opulence, and to the maritime empire of the coun¬
try ?” Thefe honourable teftimonies of the public re¬
gard, however, Captain Cook did not receive, being
already embarked on another voyage, from which he
never returned.
The third voyage of this celebrated navigator was
not undertaken by any exprefs command of his Ma-
jefty. Captain Cook had already done fo much, that
it was thought but reafonable he Ihould now fpend the
remainder of his life in quiet; and in order to enable
him to do this in the more comfortable manner, befides
his rank of poll-captain in the navy, he was alfo made
a captain in Greenwich. Still, however, there were
fome points in the fcience of geography which had very
much engaged the attention of the public, and were in¬
deed of fuch importance as to become a national concern.
Thefe were to difeover the connexion between Alia and
America, and to determine whether there was not a pof-
iibility of Ihortening the paffage to the Eaft Indies by
failing round the northern parts of the continents of
Europe and Afia. Many attempts, indeed, had already
been made by various navigators of different nations ;
but all of them had failed, and, what was worfe, had
left the point Hill undetermined. An aft of parlia¬
ment had been paffed in 1745, by which a reward of
E. 20,000 was held out to the drips of any of his Ma-
jefty’s fubjefts for accomplilhing this important voy¬
age, but without mentioning any thing of thofe be¬
longing to his Majefty; and this reward was further
conlined to the hading out of the north-weft paffage
to the Eaft Indies through Hudfon’s Bay. In the
year 1776, however, both the errors juft mentioned
were correfted. It was now enafted, “ That if any
(hip belonging to any of his Majefty’s fubjefts, or to
his Majefty, (hall ftnd out, and fail through, any paf¬
fage by fea between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans,
in any direftion or parallel of the northern hemifphere,
to the northward of the 52d degree of northern lati¬
tude ; the owners of fuch ftiips, if belonging to any
of his Majefty’s fubjefts, or the commanders, officers,
and feamen, of fuch Ihip belonging to his Majefty,
lhall receive, as a reward for fuch difeovery, the fum
of L. 20,000.
It was not, as has already been hinted, now deem¬
ed proper to folicit Captain Cook to undergo frelh
dangers by undertaking a voyage of this kind; ne-
verthelefs, as he was univerfally looked upon to be
the fitted perfon in the kingdom for the purpofe, the
eyes of every perfon were tacitly fixed upon him: he
was confulted on every thing relating to itj and foli-
cited to name the perfon whom he judged moll proper
to conduft it. To determine this point, Captain Cook,
Sir Hugh Pallifer, and Mr Stephens, were invited to
the houk of Lord Sandwich to dinner; Where, befides
3 D a the
COO [ 396 1 coo
Cook, the confideration of the proper officer for conducing
the expedition, many things were faid concerning the
nature of the defign. They enlarged upon its gran¬
deur and dignity, its ccnfequences to navigation and
fcience, and the completenefs it would give to the
whole fyftem of difcoveries; until at laft Captain Cook
was fo much inflamed by the reprefentation of the im¬
portance of the voyage, that he ftarted up, and declared
that he would conduft it himfelf. This was what the
parties prefent had defired, and probably expefted;
his offer was therefore inftantly laid before the king,
and Captain Cook appointed commander of the Ex¬
pedition by the 10th of February 1776. At the fame
time it was agreed, that on his return from the voyage
he (hould be reftored to his place at Greenwich ; and
if no vacancy occurred .during the interval, the officer
who fucceeded him was to refign in his favour. The
inftru&ions he now received were, that he Ihould at¬
tempt the high latitudes between the continents of
Afia and America, and if poffible return to England
along the northern coafts of Afia and Europe. This
was moll probably the refult of the Captain’s own de¬
liberations, and what had been fuggefted by him to Lord
Sandwich and other people in power. He was par¬
ticularly defired to fail lirft into the Pacific Ocean thro’
the chain of newly difcovered iflands which he had
lately vifited. After having croffed the equator, and
paffed into the northern parts of the ocean juft men¬
tioned, he was then to hold fuch a courfe as might
tend to fettle many interefting points of geography,
and produce fome intermediate difcoveries, before he
arrived at the main fcene of operation. With regard
to this principal objeft, he was ordered, immediately
on his arrival on the coaft of New Albion, to proceed
northward as far as the latitude of 65 degrees, without
lofing any time in exploring creeks or rivers previous
to his arrival in that latitude : and for his further en¬
couragement, the aft of 1745, offering a premium for
the difcovery of the paffage, was amended in the man¬
ner above mentioned. That nothing might be want¬
ing which could promote the fuccefs of the grand ex¬
pedition, Lieutenant Pickerfgill was fentout, in 1776,
with direftions to explore the coafts of Baffin’s Bay ;
and the next year Lieutenant Young was commiffioned
not only to examine the weftern parts of that bay, but
to endeavour to find a paffage on that fide from the
Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Nothing, however, was
performed by either of thefe gentlemen which in the
leaft could promote Captain Cook’s fuccefs. Two
veffels were provided as in the former voyage, viz. the
Refolution and the Difcovery ; the command of the
former being given to Captain Cook, and of the latter
to Captain Charles Clerke. The only thing in which
the appointment of the Dffcovery differed from that
©f the Refolution was, that the former had no marine
officer on board. Every degree of attention was be¬
llowed, as in the former voyage, upon the proper
victualling and other neceffaries for the two fliips ;
and that the inhabitants of thofe countries which our
navigator intended to vifit might derive fome perma¬
nent benefit from the intercourfe they had with him,
it was detemined to fend abroad a breed of domeftic
animals, and likewife a quantity of ufeful feeds, to be
left in proper places. With this view, a hull, two
cows with their calves, and feveral lheep, with hay and
corn for their fubfiftence, were taken on board; and Cook.
it was likewife purpofed to take in others at the Cape  v—
of Good Hope. A large affortment of iron tools and
trinkets was alfo fent out ; and, in fttort, every thino-
that could be judged proper either to conciliate the
good will of the natives or to prove ferviceable to
them, was provided for the voyage, as weH as every
convenience for the Ihips companies. In the former
voyage Captain Cook had brought along with him a
native of one of the South Sea iflands, named Omai,
who refided in England during the interval between
the fecond and third voyages, and was now happy at
getting an opportunity of returning to his ovvn* coun¬
try. Though he could by no means complain of the
entertainment he had met with in England, the idea
of returning home' loaded with treafure, which might
enable him to make a figure among his countrymen,
foon overcame all uneafy fenfations which the leaving
of his Englifh friends might excite. His majefty had
taken care to furnilh him with every thing that could
poffibly be of ufe when he came to his native country;
and he had befides received feveral valuable prefents
from Lord Sandwich, Sir Jofeph Banks and feveral
ladies and gentlemen of his acquaintance ; fo that
nothing was omitted which could poffibly be done to
convey, by his means, to the inhabitants of the South
Sea Iflands an idea of the Britilh power and great-
nefs.
Every thing being prepared for the voyage, our na¬
vigator fet fail from the Nore on the 25th of June
1776; but by reafon of fome delay in receiving his in-
ftruftions, did not leave Plymouth till the x 2th of July.
He had not been long at fea before he began his
operations for preferving the health of his people ;
-which were found equally efficacious in this as in the
former voyage. Finding his ftock of provender for
the animals on board likely to run fliort, he touched
at Teneriffe, in order to procure a fupply, having
judged that to be a more proper place than Madeira
for the purpofe. On failing from thence he ran a
great rilk of running upon fame funk rocks on the
ifland of Bonavifta; but in this, as well as on other
occafions of danger, he behaved with the fame judge¬
ment, coolnefs, and prefence of mind, that diftinguiflred
him throughout the whole courfe of his life. On the
12th of Auguft he arrived before Port Praya, in one
of the Gape de Verde iflands named St Jago ; but not
finding it neceffary to go in there, he continued his
voyage to the fouthward. The weather now be¬
coming gloomy and rainy, required a continuance of .
the methods he had already praftifed for preferving
the health of his people ; and, as formerly, they were
attended with the greateft fuccefs. In this voyage,
the effeft of thefe precautions was the more remark¬
able, as at this time the feamsof the veffel were opened
to fuch a degree as to admit the rain, fo that fcarce
any perfon on board could lie dry in his bed; and all
the officers in the gun-room were driven out of their
cabbins by the water which came through the fides.
Such was the humanity of the commander, however,
that while the fliips continued at fea, he would not
truft the workmen over their fides to repair the de-
fefts, though caulkers were employed in the infide as
foon as fettled weather returned. On the xft of
September our navigators croffed the equator, and on
coo
Cook, the 18th of Oftober anchored in Table Bay at the
■—v  Cape of Good Hope. Here they met with a violent
tempeft, the effe&s of which were felt both on fea and
land. It lafted three days, and the Refolution was
the only (hip in the bay that rode out the ftorm with¬
out dragging her anchors. On flrore the tents and
obfervatory were deftroyed, and the aftronomical qua¬
drant narrowly efcaped irreparable damage. The Dif-
covery, which had been fome time later in failing
from England, was driven off the coaft, and did not
arrive till the i oth of November.
While they remained in this place, a difafter happen¬
ed which threatened the lofs of moft of their live dock.
The bull and two cows had been put alhore to graze
among other cattle ; but Captain Cook had been advi-
fed to keep the (heep, 16 in number, near the tents,
where they were penned in every night. Some dogs
having got in among them in the night-time, killed
four, and difperfed the reft. Six of them were reco¬
vered the next day, but the two rams and two of the fi-
neft ewes in the flock were miffing. The captain applied
to Baron Plettenburg the governor; but all his endea¬
vours were unfuccefsful, until he employed fome of the
meaneft and loweft of the people, fellows whofe cha-
raHer was, that for a ducatoon they would cut their
mailer’s throat, burn the houfe over his head, and bury
him and his whole family in aihes.- This is mentioned as
an inftance how far the boafted policy of the Dutch go¬
vernment at the Cape of Good Hope falls ihort of its
alleged perfection. After all, two of the tineft ewes
in the flock were miffing, and never could be recover¬
ed. The captain, therefore, to repair this lofs, and
to make an addition to his original ftock,-purchafed
two young bulls, two ftone horfes, two mares, two.
heifers, two rams, feveral ewes and goats, with fome
rabbits and poultry ; when, having finiffied all his bu-
finefs, he fet fail on the 30th of November, though it
was not till the 3d of December that he got clear of
land. Soon after his. putting to fea, he had the mif-
fortune to lofe feveral of the goats, efpecially the males,
together with fome ftieep ; and it was with the utmoft
difficulty that the reft of the cattle were preferved, by
reafon of the ftu’p toffing and tumbling about in a very
heavy fea. Havingexploi-ed fome defolate illands in the
fouthern leas, Captain Cook fet fail for New Zealand.
During this part of the voyage, our navigators were
involved in fo thick a fog, that, according to the au¬
thors of Captain Cook’s life, “ they failed 300 leagues
in the dark.” The hril land they afterwards reached
was New Holland; where, having remained till the 30th
of January 1777, they fet fail for New Zealand, and on
the 12 th of February they anchored in Queen Charlotte’s
Sound.. Here the people were ftiy an3 timorous, on
account of their having formerly deftroyed 10 of Cap¬
tain Furneaux’s people, who had been fent affiore to
gather vegetables. The caufe of the quarrel could not
be known, as none of the party were left alive to tell
the news. Lieutenant Burney, who went afhore -in
quell of them, found only fome fragments of their bo¬
dies ; from which it appeared that they had been kill¬
ed and eaten by the favages. It was not the intention
of Captain Cook, at thisdiftance of time, to refentthe
injury ; he even refufed to put to death a chief named
Kahoora, who, as he was informed by the natives them-
felves, had killed Mr Rowe the commander of the par-
c o o
He was, however, particularly careful that no
opportunity ffiould now be given the favages of com¬
mitting fueh an adtion with impunity; and with this
view a boat was never fent on Ihore without being well
armed, and the men under the command of fuch offi¬
cers as could be depended upon. The New Zealanders
were no fooner allured of Captain Cook’s pacific dif-
polition, than they threw afide tlftir fears and fufpi-
cions, and entered into a commercial intercourfe with
the people. It would have been the lefs excufable in
Captain Cook to have revenged at this time the maf-
facre of Mr Rowe’s party, as he was allured that the
quarrel originated from fome petty thefts of the favages,
which were too haftily refented on the part of the Bri-
tifh ; and had it not been for this, no mifchief would
have happened.
On the 25th of February our navigator left New
Zealand, taking with him, at the requeft of Omai,
two boys, the eldeft about 18 and the youngeft about
10. Thefe were foon cured of their patfion for tra¬
velling, being both violently fea-fick : but as it was
then too late to repent, they exprelfed their grief in
loud and almoft continual lamentation ; and this in a
kind of fong which feemed to confift of the praifes of
thei native country, whence they were now to be fe-
parated for ever. By degrees, however, the fea-fick-
nefs abated, their lamentations became lefs frequent,
and at lalt ceafed entirely ; their native country was
forgotten, and they appeared to be as firmly attached
to their new friends the Englilh as if they had been
born among them.
So much time wasnow fpent in failing up and down
in the Pacific Ocean, where feveral new illands were
difcovered, that Captain Cook judged it impoffible to
accomplilh any thing for this year in the high northern
latitudes ; for which reafon he determined to bear a-
way for the Friendly Illands, in order to fupply him-
felf with thofe necelfaries which he had found impof¬
fible to be got at any of the illands which he had juft
difcovered. In his run thither feveral new'illands were
vifited ; and in profecuting thefe difcoveries our navi¬
gator once more narrowly efcaped being Ihipwrecked.
The danger at this time arofe from a low fandy
ifiand, which the Refolution was very near runningupon.
From this Ihe was only faved by the circumftance of
all the men having been accidentally called upon deck
to put the velfel about, and moll of them being at
their ftations when the danger was difcovered. Soon
after this both Ihips ftruck upon fome funk coral
rocks, but happily were got off without damage.
Aft<;r a ftay of between two and three months,-
Captain Cook took leave of the Friendly Illands on the:
13th of July 1777; and on the 12th of Auguft
reached Otaheite, where he introduced Omai to his
country people, and whofe reception by them is par¬
ticularly related under the next article. Here the
Captain found the people of Otaheite ready to engage
in a war with thofe of Eimeo ; but though ftrongly-
folicited by the former to affift them in an expedition,
againft their enemies, he refufed to take any concern
in the affair, alleging, by way of excufe, that the
people of Eimeo had never offended him. This feemed
to fatisfy moll of the chiefs; but one, named Toioha,.
was fo much difpleafed, that Captain Cook could ne¬
ver regain his favour. He even threatened, that as
' £oqh
[ 397 I
ty-
COO [ 398 ] COO
foofl as tlie Captain fliould be gone, he would make his circumnavigation of the illand, and call anchor Cook,
war upon Otoo, one of the princes of thefe illands whom in a bay called Karalakooa, matters were greatly al- '—e——
he knew to be in ftricl fnendihip with him; but from tered. An univerfal difpofition to theft and plunder
this he was deterred by the Captain’s threatening to had now taken place; and in this it was evident that
return and chailife him if he made any fuch attempt, the common people were encouraged by their chiefs,
Asa mark of Otoo’s friendfiiip, he gave our naviga- who fhared the booty with them. Still, however, no
tor a canoe, which he defired him to carry to the king hoftilities were commenced: the greateft honours were
of Britain, having nothing elfe, as he faid,’ worth his paid to the commander ; and, on his going afhore, he
acceptance. was received with ceremonies little ihort of adoration.
From Otaheke Captain Cook proceeded to Eimeo, A vaft quantity of hogs and other provifions were
where, on account of fome thefts committed by the procured for the fliips; and on the 4th of February
natives, he was obliged to commence hoftilities, by 1779, they left the ifland, not without molt magni-
burning a number of their war canoes and even fome ficent prefents from the chiefs, and fuch as they had
houfes. Thefe tranfadlions gave him much concern ; never before received in airy part of the world. Un-
and the more that he had been fo much folicited to luckily they met with a ftorm on the fixth and feventh
make war on thefe people by his friends at Otaheite, of the fame month; during which the Refolution
to whofe entreaties he had refufed to liften. From fprung the head of her foremaft in fuch a manner that
Eimeo he proceeded to Huaheine, where he faw Omai they were obliged to return to Karakakoa bay to ,
finally fettled, and left with him the two New Zealand have it repaired. As they returned, Captain Cook
youths already mentioned. The youngeft of thefe was had an opportunity of blowing his humanity to the
fo much attached to the Englifh, that it was ncceffary people by the relief he afforded to fome of their canoes
to carry him out of the blip and put him abiore by which had fuffered in the ftoriri. The fame friendly
force. During his ttay on this iband, the Captain was intercourfe which had formerly been held with the na-
obliged to punibr a thief with greater feverity than he tives now commenced, and Captain Cook was treated
had ever done before, viz. by caubng his head and with the ufual honours; but on the 13th of this month
beard to be biaved, and his ears cut off. Some other it was unhappily broken off on the following account,
difagreeable tranfactions took place, particulary the One of the natives being detected in ftealing the
defertion of two of his people, who were not recovered tongs from the armourer’s forge in the Difcovery, was
without the greateft difficulty. In the courfe of his difmiffed with a pretty fevere bogging; but this example
exertions for their recovery, he found it neceffary to was fo far from being attended with any good effect,
-detain the fon, daughter, and fon-in-law, of the chief that in the afternoon another, having fnatched up the-
of an iband named Otaha. This had almoft produced tongs and a chiffel, jumped overboard with them and
very ferious confequences, the natives having formed fwam for the biore. The mafter and midfhipman were
a plot for cairying off Captain Cook himfelf, as well inbantly difpatchedin purfuit ofhim; but he efcaped on
as Captain Clerke and Mr Gore. With regard to the board a canoe, which paddled away fo quickly that the
commander, they were difappointed by his own can- cutter could not come near it. A chief named Pareah,'
tion and vigilance ; but Meffrs Clerke and Gore were who was at this time on board the Refolution, under¬
in particular danger : and it was only owing to the ftanding what had happened, promifed to go abiore
circumftance of one of them having a piftol in his hand, and get back the ftolen goods ; but before this could
as they walked together on biore, that they were not be done the thief had made his efcape into the coun-
feized. try. Captain Cook, who was at that time abiore.
Having left the Society Ibands, and difeover- had endeavoured to intercept the canoe when it land¬
ed a new group, which, in honour of his patron ed, but was led out of the way by fome of the na-
tlie Earl of Sandwich, our commander named the tives who pretended to be his guides. The tongs and
Sandwich IJles, he fet out on the zd of January 1778 chiffel, however, were brought back to the mafter as
on his voyage northward. In this he was very fuc- he advanced, to the landing place; but he being now
cefsful, afeertaining the vicinity of the continents of joined by fome of the reft of the people in the pin-
Aba and America, which had never been done, or but nace, could not be fatisbed with the recovery of the
very imperfectly, before. From thefe defolate regions ftolen goods, but inbfted upon having the thief or the
he returned to the iband of Oonalabika; whence ha- canoe which carried him by way of reprifal. On
ving refitted and taken in provifions, he returned to his preparing to launch this laft into the water, he was
tfie fouthward, and on the 26th of November reached interrupted by Pareah, who infiiled chat it was his
the Sandwich Ibands, where he difeovered a new one property, and that he biould not fake it away. As
named Mowee, and on the 30th of the fame month the officer paid no regard to his remonftrances, Pa-
another of much larger extent, named O-wJy-hee. Se- reah, who feems to have been a very ftrong man, fei-
ven weeks w^ere fpent in exploring the coafts of this zed him, pinioned his arms behind., and held him
iband ; and during all this time he continued to have faft by the hair of the head. On this one of the failors
the moft friendly intercourfe with the people, who, ftruck the chief with an oar, on which, quitting the
however, appeared to be much more numerous and officer, he inbantly fnatched the oar out of the man’s
powerful than thofe of any iband our navigators had hand, and broke it in two acrofs his knee. The In-
yet touched at. Several of the chiefs and principal dians then attacked the failors with ftones, and foon
people had attached themfelves greatly to the com- drove them to their boats, to which they were forced
mander, and in general the people appeared to be to fwim, as they lay at fome diftance from the biore.
much more honeit in their difpofitions than any whom The officers who could not fwim retired to a fmall
fee had ever vifited. But by the time he had finibied rock, where they were clofely purfued by the Indians;
COO [ 399 T COO
Cook, and here the mailer narrowly efcaped with his life,
w—v—- till Pareah returned and obliged the Indians to give
over their attacks. -The gentlemen, fenfible that Pa-
reah’s prefence alone could protect them, entreated
him to remain with them till they could be brought
off in the boats. On his refufal, the mailer fet out to
the place where the obfervatories had been erefted, for
farther affillance; but Pareah, who met him, and fuf-
pefted his errand, obliged him to return. In the
mean time the multitude had begun to break in pieces
the pinnace, after having taken every thing out of her
that was loofe : on the return of Pareah, however,
they were again difperfed, and fome of the oars re-
ftored, after which the gentlemen were glad to get off
in fafety. Before they reached the Ihip Pareah over¬
took them in a canoe, and delivered the midlhipman’s
cap which had been taken from him in the fcuffie ; he
alfo joined nofes with them in token of friendlhip, and
deiired to know whether Captain Cook would kill him
on account of what had happened. They allured
him that he would not, and made figns of reconcilia¬
tion on their part. On this he left them, and pad-
died over to the town of Kavaroah ; and that was the
lull time that he was feen by the Englilh. In the night¬
time the fentinels were much alarmed by Ihrill and
melancholy founds from the adjacent villages, which
they took to be the lamentations of the women. Next
day it was found that the large cutter of the Difco-
very had been carried off in the night-time ; on which
Captain Cook ordered the launch and fmall cutter to
o-o under the command of the fe'cond lieutenant, and
to ly off the call point of the bay in order to intercept
all the canoes that might attempt to get out, and if
necelfary to fire upon them. The third lieutenant of
the Refolution was difpatched to the wellern part of
the bay on the fame fervice ; while the mailer was
lent in purfuit of a large double, canoe already under
fail, and making the bell of her way out of the har¬
bour. He foon came up with her, and by firing a
few Ihots, obliged her to run on Ihore, and the In¬
dians to leave her. This was the canoe belonging to
a chief named Omea, whofe perfon was reckoned e-
qually facred with that of the king, and to the ne-
* glett of fecuring him we may attribute the fucceeding
difaller. Captain Cook now formed the refolution of
going in perfon to feize the king himfelf in his capi¬
tal of Kavaroah ; and as there was reafon to fuppofe
that he had fled, it was his defign to fecure the large
canoes, which on that account he caufed to be hauled
up on the beach. With this view he left the Ihip a-
bout feven o’clock in the morning of Sunday the 14th
of February, being attended by the lieutenant of ma¬
rines, a ferjeant, corporal, and feven private men.
The crew of the pinnace, under the command of Mr
Roberts, were alfo armed; and as they rowed towards
the Ihore, the captain ordered the launch to leave her
ftation at the oppofite point of the bay, in order to
affill his own boat. Having landed with the marines
at the upjper end of the town, the Indians flocked
round him, and prollrated themfelves before him. No
fign of hollility, nor even much alarm, appeared ; the
king’s forts waited on the commander as foon as he
fent for them, and by their means he was introduced
to the king, who readily confented to go on board ;
but in a little time the Indians began to arm
themfelves with long fpears, clubs, and daggers, Co. k,
and to put on thick mats which they ufe as defen-
five armour. This hollile appearance was greatly
augmented by an unlucky piece of news which was
jult now brought by a canoe, viz. that one of the In¬
dian chiefs had been killed by the people in the Dif-
covery’s boats. On this the women, who had hitherto
fat on the beach converfing familiarly, and taking
their breakfafts, removed, and a confufed murmur ran
through the crowd. An old prieil now appeared with
a cocoa-nut in his hand, which he held out as a pre-
fent to Captain Cook, finging all the while, and ma¬
king a mofl troublefome noife as if he meant to divert
the attention of the Captain and his people from ob-
ferving the motions of the Indians, who were now e-
very where putting on their armour. Captain Cook
beginning to think his fituation dangerous, ordered
the lieutenant of the marines to march towards the
fhore, as he himfelf did, having all the while hold of
the king’s hand, who very readily accompanied him,
attended by his wife, two fons, and feveral chiefs.
The Indians made a lane for them to pafs; and as the
diftance they had to go was only about 50 or 60
yards, and the boats lay at no more than five or fix
yards diflance from land, there was not the lead appre-
heniion of the cataflrophe which enfued. The king’s
youngefl fon Keowa went on board the pinnace with¬
out the lead hefitation, and the king was about to
follow, when his wife thi-ew her arms about his neck,
and, with the affidance of two chiefs, forced him to
fit down. The Captain might now have fafely got
aboard, but did not immediately relinquidi the defign
of taking the king along with him. Finding at lad,
however, that this could not be accompliflied with¬
out a great deal of blbodfhed, he was on the point of
giving orders for the people to reimbark, when one
of the Indians threw a done at him. This infult was
returned by the Captain, who had a double barrelled
piece, by a difcharge of fmall fliot from one of the bar¬
rels. This had little effect, as the man had a thick
mat before him ; and as he now brandifhed his fpear,
the Captain knocked him down with his mufket. The
king’s fon, Keowa, dill remained in the pinnace, and
the detaining him would have been a great check up¬
on the Indians; but unluckily Mr Roberts, who Com¬
manded the pinnace, fet him afliore at his own re-
qued foon after the ftrd fire. In the mean time ano¬
ther Indian was obferved in the aft of brandifhing his
fpear at the commander ;, who thereupon was obliged
to fire Tupon him in his own defence. Miffing his
aim, however, he killed one clofe by his fide ; upon
which the ferjeant obferving that he had miffed the
man he aimed at, received orders to fire alfo, which
he did, and killed him on the fpot. This repreffed
the foremod of the Indians, and made them fall back
in a body; but they were urged on again by thofe be¬
hind, and difcharged a volley of dones among the ma¬
rines, who immediately returned it by a general dif¬
charge of their mulkets; and this was indantly follow¬
ed by a fire from the boats. Captain Cook expreffed
his aftonifliment at their firing, waved his hand to
them to ceafe, and called to the people in the boats
to come nearer to receive the marines. This order
was obeyed by Mr Roberts ; but the lieutenant who-
commanded the launch, indead- of coming nearer, put
COO L 400 ] coo
Cook. off to a greater di(lance; and by this prepofterous
condudl deprived the unfortunate commander of the
only chance he had for his life: for now the Indians,
exafperated by the fire of the marines, rufhed in upon
them and drove them into the water, leaving the Cap¬
tain alone upon the rock. A fire indeed was kept up
by both boats; but the one was too far off, and the
other crowded with the marines, fo that theyfcould
not diredl their fire with proper effedl. Captain Cook
was then obferved making for the pinnace, carrying
his mufket under his arm, and holding his other hand
on the -back-part of his head to guard it from the
Hones. An Indian was feen following him, but with
marks of fear, as he Hopped once or twice feemingly
undetermined to proceed. At lail he Hruck the Cap¬
tain on the back of the head with a club, and then
precipitately retreated. The latter daggered a fewpaces,
and then fell on his hand and one knee, and dropped his
mufket. Before he could recover himfelf another In¬
dian dabbed him with a dagger in the neck, though
Hill without putting an end to his life. He then fell into
a pool of water knee-deep, where others crowded up¬
on him ; but dill he druggled violently with them,
got up his head, and looked towards the ‘pinnace as
if foliciting affidance. The boat was not above five
or fix yards didance; but fuch was the confufed and
crowded date of the crew, that no affidance could be
given him. The Indians then got him under again,
but in deeper water, though he Hill continued to drug¬
gie, and once more got his head up ; but being quite
fpent, he turned towards the rock as if to fupport
himfelf by it, when a favage Hruck him with a club,
which probably put an end to his life, as he was never
feen to druggie any more. The favages hauled his
lifelefs body up on the rocks, and ufed it in the mod
barbarous manner, fnatching the daggers out of one
anothers hands, in order to have the pleafure of
mangling it. If any thing could add to the misfor¬
tune of this celebrated navigator’s death, it was, that
even his mangled remains were not faved from the
hands of the barbarians. The lieutenant already
mentioned, who, by his removing to a cMance when
he ought to have come on fhbre, feemed to have been
the occafion of his death, returned on board without
making any attempt to recover his body ; though it
appeared from the tedimonies of four or five midlhip-
men who arrived foon after at the fatal fpot, that
the beach was almod deferted by the Indians, they
having at lad yielded to the continual fire from the
boats. The officer alleged in^ his own excufe for re-
moving at fird from the fhore, that he midook the
fignals ; but be this as it will, the complaints againd
him were fo many and fo great, that Captain Clerke
w obliged publicly to take notice of them, and to
take the depofitions of his accufers in writing. - Thefe
papers, however, were not found, and it is fuppofed
that the Captain’s bad date of health had induced him
to dedroy them. After all we are informed, that,
in the opinion of Captain Philips, who commanded
the marines, it is very doubtful whether any effe&ual
Telief could have been given to the commander, even
if no midake had been committed on the part of the
lieutenant. The author of all the mifehief was Pa-
reah, the chief already mentioned, who had employ¬
ed people to deal the boat in the night-time. The
N° 90.
king was entirely innocent both of the theft and the
murder of Captain Cook ; but the latter was perpe¬
trated by fome chiefs who were his near relations.
The chief who fird Hruck him with a club was na¬
med Karimans raha, and he who dabbed him with the
dagger was called Nooah. The latter, Mr Samwell,
from whofe narrative this account is taken, obferves,
was dout and tad, had a fierce look and demeanour,
and united in his perfon the two properties of drength
and agility more than he had ever obferved in any o-
ther perfon.—Both of them were held in great e(li-
mation by- their countrymen on account of the hand
they had in his death.
By reafon of the barbarous difpofition of the Indians,
it was found impoffible to recover Captain Cook’s body
after the fird opportunity already mentioned was lod. By
dint of threats and negociations, however, fome of the
principal parts were procured with great difficulty; by
which means the navigators were enabled to perform
the lad offices to their much refpedled commander.
Thefe being put into a coffin, and the fervice read o-
vtr them, were committed to the deep with the ufual
military honours on the 2id of February 1779. Soon
after his death a letter was-iffued by M. de Sartine,
fecretary to the marine department of France, and fent
to all the commanders of French (hips, importing,
that Captain Cook firouldbe treated as the commander
of a neutral and allied power; and that all captains
of armed veffels who might meet with him, fhould
make him acquainted with the king’s orders, but at
the fame time let him know, that, on his part, he
mud refrain from hoftilities.* This humane and gene¬
rous proceeding, with regard to France, originated
from M. Turgot; but the thought feems drd to have
druck Dr Franklin. Thus much at lead is certain,
that the dodlor, while ambaflador from the United
States, wrote a' circular letter to the American naval
commanders fomething to the purport of that already
meraioned : but in this he was not iupported by Con-
grefa ; for an edidl was indantly iffued, that fpecial care
fhould be taken to feize Captain Cook if an oppor¬
tunity of doing it occurred. The Spaniards proceed¬
ed in the fame manner, and both adled on a princi¬
ple equally mean and abfurd, that the obtaining a
knowledge of the wedern coad of America, or of a
northern paffage into the Pacific Ocean, might be at¬
tended with fome bad confequence to their refpe&ive
dates.
Captain Cook was a man of plain addrefs and ap¬
pearance, but well looked, and upwards of fix feet
high. His head was fmall, and he wore his hair,
which was brown, tied behind. His face was full of
expreffion ; his nofe exceedingly well draped ; his eves,
which were fmall and of a brown cad, were quick
and piercing ; his eye-brows prominent, which gave
his countenance altogether an air of auderity. Not-
withdanding this, it was impoffible for any one to ex¬
cel him in humanity, as is evident from the whole te¬
nor of his behaviour both to his own people and the
many favage nations with whom he had occafion to in¬
terfere. This amiable property difeovered itfelf even in
the final catadrophe of his life ; his utmod care being
dire&ed to the prefervation of his people, and the pro¬
curing them a f ife retreat to their boats. And it can¬
not be enough lamented, that he who took fo much
care
Cook
COO [ 401 ] coo
Cook- care of others, fhould have perifhed in fuch a miferable
■—v——' manner for want of being properly fupported by them.
The perfeverance with which he purfued every objeft
which happened to be pointed out as his July was un¬
equalled. Nothing ever could divert him from what
he had once undertaken; and he perfevered in the
midil of dangers and difficulties which would have dif-
heartened perfons of very confiderable ftrength and
firmnefs of mind. For this he was adapted by nature,
having a ftrong conftitution, inured to labour, and ca¬
pable of undergoing the greateft hardffifps. His fto-
mach bore without difficulty the coarfeft and moft
ungrateful food; and he fubmitted to every kind of
felf-denial with the greateft indifference. To this
ftrength of conftitution he joined an invincible forti¬
tude of mind, of which the circumnavigation of New
Holland, and his voyage towards the South Pole,
furnifh innumerable inftances. He was mafter of him-
felf on every trying occafion; and the greater the e-
mergency, the greater always appeared his calmnefs
and recoile&on ; fo that in the moft' dangerous fitua-
tions, after giving proper direftions to his people, he
could deep foundly the hours that he had allotted to
himfelf. That he poffeffed genius in an eminent de¬
gree cannot be queftioned: his invention was ready,
^nd capable not only of'fuggefting the moft noble ob-
je&s of purfuit, but the moft proper methods of at¬
taining them. His knowledge of his own profeffion
was unequalled ; and to this he added a vejy confide¬
rable proficiency in other fciences. In aftrqnomy, he
became fo eminent, that he was at length enabled to
take the lead in making the aftronomical obfervations
during the courfe of his voyages. In general learning
he likewife attained to fuch a proficiency as to be able
to exprefs himfelf with cleatnefs and propriety ; and
thus became refpectable as the narrator, as well as the
performer, of great aftions. He was an excellent
hufband and father, fincere and fteady in his friendlhip,
and poffeffed of a general fobriety and virtue of characler.
In converfation he wasunaffedtedandunaffuming; rather
backward in puftiing difcourfe, but obliging and com¬
municative to thofe who wiffied for information; and he
was diftinguifhed by a fimplicity of manners almoft uni-
verfally the attendant of truly great men. With all thefe
amiable qualities, the Captain was occafionally fubjeft to
an haftinefs of temper, which has been fet forth in its
utmoft extent, if not exaggerated by fome, though but
few, who are not his friends : but even thefe, as well
as others, when taking a general view of his charac¬
ter, are obliged to acknowledge that he was undoubt¬
edly one of the greateft men of his age.
Captain Cook is diftinguiffied as an author by an account
of his fecond voyage written by himfelf. His firft voy¬
age, aS well as that offeveral other navigators, had been
recorded by Dr Hawkefworth ; but on the prefent oc¬
cafion it was not judged neceffary to have recourfe to
any other than the pen of the author himfelf; and his
journal, with a few occafional alterations, and being
divided into chapters, was fufficient for the purpofe.
The ftyle is clear, natural, and manly ; and it is not im¬
probable that even a pen of more ftudied elegance
could not have made it appear to more advantage.
When it appeared, which was not till fome time after
the author had left England, the book was recommend-
Vol. V. Part II.
ed by the accuracy and excellency of its charts, and
by a numerous collerftion of fine engravings done from
the original drawings of Mr Hodges.
We cannot conclude this article without taking fome
notice of the honours paid to our celebrated navigator
after his death, both by his own countrymen and thofe
of other nations. Perhaps indeed it may be faid with
juftice, that foreigners hold his memory in an eftima-
tion unequalled even in this country ; a remarkable
proof of which occurs in the eulogy upon him by Mi¬
chael Angelo Gianetti, read in the Florentine acade¬
my on the 9th of June 1785, and publiflied at Flo¬
rence the fame year. It is faid alfo, that one of .the
French literary academies propofed a prize for the belt
eulogium on Captain Cook ; and many poetical tefti-
monies of his merit appeared in our own language.
The Royal Society of London refolved to teftify their
refpedt to him by a medal, for which purpofe a volun¬
tary fubfcription was opened. A gold medal was gi¬
ven to fuch of the fellows as fubfcribed 20 guineas,
and a filver one for thofe who fubfcribed fmallerfums;
and each of the other members received one of bronze,
Thofe who fubfcribed 20 guineas were, Sir Jofeph
Banks prefident, the Prince of Anfpach, the Duke
of Montague, Lord Mulgrave, and Meffrs Cavendifti,
Peachey, Perrin, Poli, and Shuttleworth. Many de-
figns were propofed on the occafion ; but the following
was that which was a&ually ftruck. On one fide was
the head of Captain Cook in profile, with this infcrip-
tion round it, Jac. Cook oceani investigator a-
cerrimus ; and on the exergue, Reg. Soc. Lond.
socio suo. On the reverfe is a reprefentation of Bri¬
tannia holding a globe, with this infcription round her,
Nil intentatum nostri liquere ; and on the ex¬
ergue, Auspiciis Georgii III. One of the gold
medals ftruck on this occafion was prefented to the
king, another to the queen, and a third to the prince
of Wales. Another was fent to the French king on
account of the prote&ion he had granted to the ffiips;
and a fecond to the emprefs of Ruffia, in whofe domi¬
nions they had been treated with every expreffion of
friendihip and kindnefs. Both thefe great perfonages
condefcended to accept of the prefent with marks of
fatisfaftion. The French king wrote a handfome let¬
ter to the Society, figned by himfelf, and underfigned
by the Marquis de Vergennes ; and the Emprefs of
Ruffia commiffioned Count Ofterman to fignify to Mr
Fitzherbert the fenfe fhe had of the value of the pre¬
fent, and that fhe had caufed it to be depofited in the
mufeum of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. As a
further teftimony of the pleafure fhe derived from it,
the emprefs prefented to the Royal Society a large
and beautiful gold medal, containing on one fide the
effigies of herfelf, and on the other a reprefentation of
the ftatue of Peter the Great. After the general af-
fignment of the medals, which took place in 1784,
there being a furplns of money ftill remaining, it was
refolved by the prefident and council, that an addition¬
al number of medals fhould be thrown off, to be dif-
pofed of in prefents to Mrs Cook, the Earl of Sand¬
wich, Dr Benjamin Franklin, Dr Cooke provoff of
King’s College Cambridge, and Mr Planta. At the
fame time it was agreed that Mr Aubert fhould be al¬
lowed to have a gold medal of Captain Cook on his
3 E paying
COO [ 402 ] coo
paying for the gold and the expence of finking it, in
confideration of his intention to prefent it to the King
of Poland.
During the two vifits of the fhips at Kamtfchatka,
Colonel Behm, the commandant of that province, had
beftowed, in the moft liberal manner, every kind of
afiiftanee which it was in his power to beftow ; and
fuch was the fenfe entertained by the lords of the ad¬
miralty of the kindnefs he had fhowed, that they de¬
termined to make him a prefent of a magnificent piece
of plate, with an infcription expreffive of his humane
and generous condudt. The infcription was drawn up
by Dr Cooke, and afterwards fubmitted to the opi¬
nion and correction of fome gentlemen of the firft emi¬
nence in claffical tafle.
Sir Hugh Pallifer, who had all along difplayed afi
uncommon refpeCt and kindnefs,for Captain Cook, like-
wife difplayed his regard for his memory in a moil emi¬
nent manner. On his eilate in Buckinghamfhire he
conftrutled a fmall building with a pillar, containing
the character of Captain Cook, which is given at the
end of the introduction to the lail voyage. This was
drawn up by the Honourable Admiral Forbes, admi¬
ral of the fleet and general of the marines, to whom
Captain Cook was known only by his merit and extra¬
ordinary aCtions.
Amidfl all thefe expreffions of unavailing praife, it
was not forgotten to Ihow fom^ eflential fervice to the
widow and family of our celebrated navigator. A
memorial for a penfion of L..200 per annum was given
in to the king from the commiffioners of the admiralty,
and figned by the Earl of Sandwich, Mr Butler, the
Earl of Lifburne, Mr Penton, Lord Mulgrave, and
Mr Mann. His Majefty complied with the requeft of
the memorial, and the grant was palled through the
ufual forms with all poffible fpeed. By this L. 200
per annum were fettled on the widow during life ; and
E. 25 a-year on each of her three fons. After her
death the L.200 was to be divided between her chil¬
dren ; a fourth was allotted to Captain King, and the
remaining fourth to Mr Bligh and the reprefentatives
of Captain Clerke.
The laft honour paid to the memory of Captain
Cook was the granting a coat of arms to the family,
which was done by patent on the 3d of September
1785 ; and of this we have the following defcription.
Azure, between the two polar liars : Or, a fphere on
the plane of the meridian, north pole elevated, circles
of latitude for every ten degrees, and of longitude for
every 15 ; Ihowing the Pacific Ocean between 6o° and
240° well, bounded on one fide by America and on
the other by Alia and New Holland ; in memory of
the difcoveries made by him in that ocean, fo very far
beyond all former navigators. His track thereon is
marked with red lines; and for creft, in a wreath of
the colour is an arm imbowed, veiled in the uniform of
a captain of the Royal Navy. In the hand i^ the
Union Jack, on a Half proper. The arm is encircled
by a wreath of palm and laurel.
Cook’s Difcoveries. The number of countries dif-
covered by Captain Cook, and which had never before
been vifited by any European, is very confiderable;
but it was a remarkable property of our celebrated na¬
vigator, that, wherever he touched, every thing relative
to the place was determined with fuch accuracy and
precifion, that all former accounts fecmed to go for Cook’*
nothing, and the difcovery to belong entirely to Cap- Difcove-
tain Cook. Thus it was not unufual with him to make , nes’ .
difcoveries in places already well known ; and thus his k ^
voyages have conveyed a vail fund of knowledge per¬
fectly original. Though the accounts of the different
places, therefore, at which he touched, are particular¬
ly given under their names in the order of the alpha'
bet, we lhall in this article endeavour to join the whole
together in fuch a manner as to give the reader fome
idea of the benefit which has accrued to fcience from
voyages attended not only with much expence and la¬
bour, but even with the lofs of the celebrated navi¬
gator’s life. j
When he fet out in the Endeavour in the year 1768, Madiera, a
the firft place touched at was Madeira. Here Mryolcanic
Banks and Dr Solander, befides fome additions to thelflaI!d*
fcience of botany, difeovered undoubted marks of the
ifland having a volcanic origin. On leaving this place
they found it neceffary to touch at Rio de Janeiro for
provifions ; and during the run thither the commander
had an opportunity of determining the caufe of the z
luminous appearance of the fea. On the 29th of Oc- Luminous
lober they obferved that the water frequently emitted appearance
flaihes like lightning, though much fmaller ; but fuch ^
was their frequency, that eight or ten of them were Ky^nimaU,
vifible almoft at the fame moment. This appearance
they found, both at this time and afterwards, to arife
from a fmall kind of animal with which the water a-
bounded. While Haying at Rio de Janeiro, a melan¬
choly obfervation was made of the prodigious wafte of
human lives with which the working of the Portu- 3
guefe gold mines was attended, no fewer than 40,000 Vaft num-
negroes being annually imported for this purpofe, none her of ne-
of whom, it feems, furvive the labour of the year ; ^roes ‘?e*
and our navigator was informed, that in 1766 this work-
number was fo far ftiort, that they were obliged to ingthegold!
draught 20,000 more from the town of Rio itfelf. Pro-mines,
ceedingfrom thence to the fouthern coafts of America,
be had an opportunity of determining a queftion of 4
great importance to navigation, viz. whether, in fail- Beft paf-
ing to the Pacific Ocean, it is better to pafs through %e'nt?
the ftraits of Magellan, or to double Cape Horn and ocean0 C
fail through thofe of Ee Maire ? From Captain Cook’s through the
voyage it appears, contrary to the opinion of former .vr .its ie
navigators, that the latter is the preferable paffage. ^aire*
Through this he was only 33 days in coming round the.
land of Terra del Fuego from the eaft entrance of the
ftrait of Le Matre till he had advanced about 12 de¬
grees to the weftward, and three and a half to the
northward, of Magellan’s llraits. During all this
time the fhip fcarcely received any damage, though if
he had paffed the other way he could not have accora-
pliflied his paffage in lefs than three months, befides
immenfe fatigue to his people and damage to the fliip. g
In thefe ftormy regions, however, he experienced theExcefiive
fame inconveniences felt by other navigators ; fuch a ft‘>rnis and
fea being met with off Cape Diego, that the fhip fre fo^emre-
quently pitched her bowfprit under water. Here alfog;onj>
the exceffive cold and mutability of weather in thefe
fouthern regions was experienced in fuch a manner as
had nearly proved fatal to fome of the gentlemen who
failed along with him. Dr Solander, Mr Banks, Mr
Monkhoufe the furgeon, and Mr Green the aftronomer,
with their attendants and feivants, fet out on a botani-
COO [ 403 ] coo
Cook's cal expedition while the Ihip lay at anchor in the bay
Difcove- 0f Good Succefs. It was then the middle of fummer,
, r^5' and the morning on which they fet out was as mild
and warm as it ufually is in the month of May in Eng-
land : but having afeended a mountain for the purpofe
of botanizing, they were furprifed by fuch ftorms of
fnow and hail that they could not get back that night.
Dr Solander, who warned them of their danger, that
people when about to perilh with cold were feized with
a violent inclination to deep, was the firll who feemed
likely to.fall a vi&im to it; and it was not in the pow¬
er of his companions to keep him from iitting down
for that purpofe. He was awaked in a few minutes;
but during this fhort interval his feet had become fo
much dimtnilhed by the contraftion of the veffels, that
. his fhoes fell off from them when he was again made
to rife. Even thefe dreary regions, however, are not
^ without inhabitants, whom our voyagers juftly conclu-
Miferable ded to be the lowed of the human fpecies. Indeed,
ftate of the confidering the little convenience they have, it is won-
natives. derful how they can refill the feverity of the climate,
for they are aimoft. without clothing; they dwell in
miferable hovels, which admit both the wind and fnow
or rain ; and they have not any utenfil for dieffing their
food. Neverthelefs, thefe miferable creatures, as they
appeared to our navigators, feemed to have no wilh to
poffefs more than they enjoyed; and they were abfo-
lutely indifferent about every thing that was offered
them, except large beads which they would take as
ornaments. Hence Dr Hawkefworth, who wrote
the account of the voyage, concludes, that thefe peo¬
ple may be on a level with ourfelves with refpedt to
^ the real happinefs they enjoy. ■
'Iflancb dif- On the 26th of January 17,69 our navigators left
covered be- Cape Horn ; and from that time to the firft of March,
tween Cape during which they run no lefs than 660 leagues, met
Otaheite W't^1 no currt>nt bf which the fhip was affected. Hence
it is probable, that during all this time they had never
been near any land, the currents of the ocean bein^
ufually met with in the neighbourhood of iflands. Se¬
veral iflands, however, were difeovered before they
reached Otaheite, on which they bellowed the names
of Lagoon Ifland, Thrumb-cap, Bow Ifland, the
Groups, Bird Ifland, and Chain Ifland. All thefe
feemed to be inhabited, and were covered with a moll
delightful verdure ; which appeared to the greater ad¬
vantage, as our navigators had for a lon£ time feen no
g land but the dreary hills and wafles of Terra del Fue-
Tranfit of Having arrived at Otaheite, they fet about ob-
Venus ob- ferving the tranfit of Venus over the fun, which indeed
ferved. was the main purpofe for which the voyage had been
undertaken. The anxiety which they underwent when
the time of the expedled phenomenon approached may
eafily be imagined, as the whole depended on the cir-
cumflance of a clear Iky, which though more readily to
be expe&ed in that climate than one more to the north¬
ward, was Hill a matter of uncertainty. In confequence
of fome hints which had been given by the Earl of
Morton, Captain Cook determined to fend out two par-
' ties to different places to maketheobfervations; by which
means there would be a chance of fuccefs, even if thofe
at Otaheite fhould fail. For this purpofe he fent Mr
Gore in the long-boat to Eimeo, a neighbouring ifland,
along with Mr Monkhouie, Mr Banks, and Mr Spo-
ring, who were furnifhed with proper inftruments by-
Mr Green the aftronomer. Meffrs Hicks, Clerka, Cook’s
Fickerfgill, and Saunders, were fent in the pinnace to ^-f?ovc'
a convenient fpot to the eaflward( of the main obferva- .
tory, where they were likewife ordered to make obfer-
vations with fuch inftruments as they had. The day
on which the tranfit happened was the 3d of June
1769, when they had the fatisfadlion to fere the fun
rife without a cloud ; and as the weather continued
equally clear throughout the day, there was the beft
opportunity of making the obfervations in a proper
manner. All of them faw an atmofphere or duiky
cloud round the planet, which diflurbed their obferva-
tion, and probably qaufed them to differ from each
other more confiderably than they would otherwife
have done. According to Mr Green, the times of
ingrefs and egrefs of the planet were as follow :
Morning. h. min. fee.
Firft external contafl, - - 9 25 42
Firfl internal contadl, or total immerfion, 9 44 4
Afternoon.
Second internal contaft, - 3148
Second external contafl, or end of the
tranfit, - - - 3 32 10
From thefe obfervations the latitude of the obfer-
vatory was found to be 170 29' 15'' S. and the longi¬
tude 1490 32' 30" W. of Greenwich. Several curious
remarks were made both on the country itfelf and on r sj
the inhabitants. Mr Banks, in an excurfion up the Otaheite
country, difeovered many traces of volcanic fire ; the a volcanic
ftones, like thofe of Madeira, had evidently the ap-lflant1'
pearance of being burnt, and the very clay on the hills ^
had the fame appearance. The natives, though ad- Account of
diited to thieving, appeared in general harmlefs and the natives,
friendly, and very ready to fupply the fhip with ne-
ceffaries in exchange for fuch things as they wanted.
The articles on which they fet the 3 -eatefl value were
hatchets, axes, large nails, fpikes, looking glaffes, and
beads. They were alfo fond of fine linen, whether
white or printed ; but an axe of the value of half a
crown would buy more provilions than a piece of cloth
of the value of 20 {hillings. They are very fickle and
inattentive ; fo that it was not pqilible to engage them
to pay any regard to the worfhip of the Deity which
they faw performed before them ; nor would they at¬
tend to any explanation of it that was given them.
They are not, however, deftitute of a religion of their
own ; and are particularly careful of the repofitories
of the dead, which they will not allow to be violated
on any account. Of this Captain Cook had an in-
ftance, when fome of his people offered to take down
an inclofure of one of thefe repofitories. They were
violently oppofed by the natives, who fent a meffenger
to acquaint them that they would never fuffer any fucli
thing ; and the only infult that ever was offered to an
Englifhman by the people of this ifland was on a fimi-
lar account. From Otaheite our navigators carried
with them Tupia, formerly high-priefl of the country
and prime minifter to Qmien Oberea. From his prac¬
tice it appeared that the priefls of Otaheite, as well as
elfewhere, take care to place themfelves a fltp nearer
the Deity than the common people, and to ufe the de¬
ceptions too frequently put in pradlice by fuch media¬
tors. While on board the Endeavour, he frequently
prayed to his god 7W for a wind j aad according to
3 E 2 his
COO [ 404 ] coo
Cook’s h;g own account never failed of fuccefs. This, how-
®ifcove- evcrj ^ tQOjc care t(j enfure . for he never began his
■ y , prayers till he perceived the breeze already on the wa¬
ter, and fo near that it muft reach the (hip before they
could well be ended. It was obferved likewife of the
people of Otaheite, that they had their bards or min-
llrels, who went about the country with mufical
inftruments. The band whom they faw at this time
,0 confided of two players on flutes and three drummers;
Society the latter accompanying the flutes with their voices.
I (lands dif- Their fongs were made extempore, and the Englifli
covered, themfelves were generally the fubjedt.
From Otaheite our navigators failed towards a neigh¬
bouring ifland named Tethuroa ; but finding it fmall,
low, and without any fettled inhabitants, the Captain
chofe rather to direct his courfe towards Huaheine and
Ulietea, which he was informed were well inhabited.
Thefe had never been vifited by any European (hip :
but the inhabitants, though peaceable and friendly,
were very (low and cautious in trading, fo that the
Captain was obliged to bring out his hatchets to market;
a commodity which he had hoped might have been
concealed from thofe who had never feen an European
(hip before. On his arrival at Ulietea he found, by
the difeourfe of Tupia, that the inhabitants of a
neighbouring ifland named Bolalola were of fuch a
martial difpofition as to be the terror of thofe of Hua¬
heine, Ulietea, an<J others, infomuch that he appre¬
hended great danger to our navigators (hould they
touch at an ifland which the Bolabola men had lately
conquered. This, however, had fo little effeft upon
Captain Cook, that he not only landed on the ifland
already mentioned, but took poflefiion, in his Majefty’s
name, of Bolabola itfelf, together with Ulietea, Hua-
11 heine, and another named Otaha, which were all vi-
Wretched fible at once. During their (lay here they paid a vifit
appearance tQ Qpoony, the formidable monarch of Bolabola;
of Bolabo-gwhom, to t^eir furprife, they found a feeble wretch,
la. withered and deertpid, half blind with age, and fo
ftupid that he feemed fcarce to be poffefled of a com¬
mon degree of underftanding. About thefe iflands
they fpe.nt fix weeks, bellowing upon them the name
of the Society IJles, on account of their being fo near
to each other. They are fix in number, Ulietea, Hua¬
heine, Bolabola, Otaha, Tubai, and Maurna. The
rt (mailer ones in their neighbourhood are Tethuroa, Ei-
meo, Tapoamanao, Oatara, Opumru, Tamou, Toa-
ia hoatu, and Whennuaia.
Ohetcroa Leaving the Society Iflands, which are fituated be-
ifiand dif- tvveen Lat. 16. 10. and 16. 55. S. and between 150.
covered. ^ an(j j^2 w. from the meridian of Greenwich,
they fell in with the ifland of Oheteroa, fituated in
S. Lat. 22. 27. and W. Long. 150. 47. ; but this
was found to be deftitute of any harbour or fafe an¬
chorage, and the difpofition of the inhabitants fo ho-
ftile that they could not by any means be conciliated,
fo thaf no attempts were made to land. From Tupia
Captain Cook learned that there were feveral iflands
in the neighbourhood, which our navigator conje&ured
to be Bofcawen and Keppel’s Iflands, difeovered by
Captain Wallis ; but without fpending more time in
exploring thefe, he fet fail to the fouthward in fearch
” of a continent.
Our voyagers left Oheteroa on the 15th of Auguft
J769, and on the 30th had a view of the comet which
Comet of
1769 ob¬
ferved.
appeared that year ; its tail fubtending on an angle of Cock’*
42 degrees. This proved a new fource of apprehen- r,iicov«'
(ion to Tupia, who inftantly cried out, that as foon as , u^s' .
it was feen at Bolabola, the people of that country
would attack thofe of Ulietea, who would undoubtedly
be obliged to fly with precipitation to the mountains
to fave their lives. On the 6th of Oftober they dif-
ccvered land, which from its fize, and the enormous
mountains obfervable on it, wa? fuppofed by the gen¬
tlemen on board to be part of Terra Aujlralh incognita-, l4
but on farther examination it was found to be part of They ar-
New Zealand. Flere the inhabitants were found tor‘veatNew
fpeak a dialed! of the language of Otaheite, fo that Zea^au^*
they could underdand Tupia, and he them ; yet fo
extremely hoftile were their difpofitions, that not the
fmalkft intercourfe could be held with them ; nor
could any thing neceflary for the (hips be procured
excepting wood : fo that the name Captain Cook
thought proper to beftow on this part of the country
was Poverty-Bay. By the natives it is called Taoneroa,
and lies in S. Lat. 38. 42. and W. Long. 181. 36.
During the time of his (lay in this part of the world
the Captain circumnavigated almoft the whole country
of New Zealand, which he found to confift of two
iflands feparated from each other by a narrow (trait,
which, from its difeoverer, has obtained the name of
Cook’s Strait. In fome places the difpofition of the in¬
habitants was as favourable as could be wilhed; fo that
Dr Solander, Mr Banks, and other gentlemen, had an
opportunity of exploring the country in fome degree, 15
with a view to difeover its natural produftions. In Rock of an
one of their excurfions, as they pafied through a val- exlra°l’d'~
ley, the hills on each fide of which were very fteep,nar^ ia^e*
they were fuddenly (truck with the fight of a very ex¬
traordinary natural curiofity. It was a rock perfora¬
ted through its whole fubdance, fo as to form a rude
but (lupendous arch or cavern, opening diredtly to the
fea. This aperture was 75 feet long, 27 broad, and
45 in height, commanding a view of the bay and the
hills on the other fide, which were feen through it;
and opening at once on the view, produced an eflFedl jg
far fuperior to any of the contrivances of art. On Natural
that part of the coaft, which, from having obferved aProdu&sof
tranfit of Mercury, they named Mercury bay, oyllers^0 coun’
were found in fuch plenty, that they might have load-tr^‘
ed not only their boats but even their (hip with them.
They-were about the fame fize with thofe met with in
this country ; and on account of their being found in
fuch plenty, and likewife that the adjacent country
abounds with conveniences, Captain Cook was at great
pains to point out the fituation of the place. By his
obfervations, the latitude of Mercury bay is 36° 48'
28" s;
Leaving this bay our commander proceeded to ex¬
plore other parts of the country, which by their ac¬
count feems to abound with rivers. Two large ones
were met with in Mercury bay; one of which, from
the abundance of oyfters found at its mouth, was cal¬
led Oyjler river; the other they named Mangrove ri¬
ver, from the number of mangrove trees growing there.
A third, which they called Thames, was met with in
that part called the Bay of Iflands, up which they fail¬
ed 14 miles. Its banks were every where adorned
with lofty trees, which they had likewife obferved in
other parts of the country. They were, too heavy for
naafisj.
coo [ 405 3 coo
Cook's irafts, but would make the fineft planks imaginable ;
Difcove- an(j as they refembled the pitch pine, the timber of
, rie8~ , which is lightened bp tapping, the carpenter was of
opinion that they might thus be rendered more pro¬
per for mafts than any European timber. One of
thefe trees meafured 19 feet 8 inches in circumference
a£ the height of fix. feet from the ground, and was no
lefs than 89, with very little taper, to the branches ;
fo that the lieutenant fuppofed it muft contain 356
feet of folid timber. In Queen Charlotte’s Sound,
the country was little other than one vail foreft, with
plenty of excellent water, and the coaft abounding
with fifh. As the fhip lay at the diftance of only a
quarter of a mile from the fhore, they were agreeably
entertained with the fmging of an infinite number of
fmall birds, which formed a melody greatly fuperior to
any thing they had ever heard before. The mufic of
thefe little chorifters feemed to be like fmall bells, moft
exquifitely tuned, though probably the diilance and
intervention of the water had a conliderable effedt in
heightening it. They began to fing about two in the
morning, and continued their fong till fun-rife, after
which they were filent all the day, refembling in this
refpeft the nightingales of our own country.
Genneral time which Capt. Cook fpent in exploring the
deferfption coafts of New Zealand was not lefs than fix months.
ofthecotm-By his refearches it was ihown to confift of two large
iflands, the moft northerly of which is called Eaheino-
mauvue, and the moft foutherly Tovy, or Tavai Poe-
nammoo; though it is not certain whether the whole
fouthern ifland or only a part of it is comprehended un¬
der this name. This ifland leems to be barren and
mountainous, but Eaheinomauwe has a much better ap¬
pearance 5 and it was univerfally believed by the gen¬
tlemen on board, that all kinds of European grain, as
well as garden plants and fruit, would flourifh in the
greateft abundance and perfedtion ; and from the ve¬
getables found here it was concluded that the winters
are not more fevere than thofe of England, and it was
known by experience, that the fummer was not hotter,
though the heat was more equal than in this country.
Here are no quadrupeds except dogs and rats; and the
latter are fo fcarce, that they efcaped the notice of
many on board. The birds are not numerous, and the
gannet is the only one of the European kind that was
obferved. The infedts are equally fcarce ; but the fea
makes abundant recompence for this fcarcity of land
animals; every creek fwarms with fifh, equally deli¬
cious with thofe in this country. -The fore Its are of
vaft extent, and filled with excellent timber trees, the
largeft, ftraighteft, and cleaneft that Mr Cook had ever
feen. There is here one plant which anfwers the pur-
pofes of both hemp and flax, and excels all other of
18 the kind that has been met with in other parts of the
Proper world. If the fettling of New Zealand therefore ftiould
place for ever p,e deemed an objedf worthy of the attention of
colony8 a Great Britain, Captain Cook was of opinion, that the
there. beft place for eftablifhing a colony would be either on
the banks of the Thames or in the Bay of Iflands ;
each of thefe places having the advantage of an excel¬
lent harbour. Settlements might be extended, and a
conomunication made with the inland parts of the
country by means of the r?ver ; and veffels eafily con-
ftrudted of the excellent timber with which the coun¬
try every where abounds.
The inhabitants of New Zealand are in a very bar- Cook’s
barous ftate, and have a degree of ferocity unknown f’hcove-
to the inhabitants of the South-Sea iflands, though ri^s~ .
they feem to have the fame origin. During their re-
fidence there, our navigators had the moft convincing Account of
evidences of their being cannibals, and accuftomed totheinhabi-
devour the bodies of ther flain enemies. Notwith-tailts*.
Handing thefe barbarous praftices, however, they
feemed to enjoy a ftate of uninterrupted health. In
all the vifits made to their towns, none was ever per¬
ceived who had the leaft bodily complaint, not even
the flighteft eruption on the ikin. This extraor¬
dinary degree of health was likewife manifefted by the
eafe with which their wounds were healed without the
fmalleft application, as well as by the number of old
men with which the ifland abounded. Many of thefe,
by the lofs of their hair and teeth, feemed to be ex¬
tremely old, but none of them were decrepid ; and
though inferior in ftrength to the young men, they
came not behind them in the leaft with regard to.
cheerfulnefs and vivacity. The univerfal and only
drink of the New Zealanders is water.
Our navigator had now explored three-fourths of that
part of the globe where the fouthern continent was fup¬
pofed to lie, without being able to find it ; and his voy¬
age had demonftrated, that the lands feen by former
navigators could not have been parts of fuch a conti¬
nent, though, as he had never proceeded farther to the
fouthward than 40 degrees, the arguments for it were
not as yet entirely overthrown. Mr Cook, however, Difcove_
did not at this time proceed farther in the fearch ofriesatNew
fuch a continent, but failed from New Zealand to the Holland-,
coafts of New Holland, where he anchored in Botany
Bay on the 20th of April. Here he found a few fa-
vage inhabitants more barbarous and degenerate than
any that had yet been obferved. Their language was
harfti and diffonant, totally unintelligible even to Tu-
pia ; they appeared to have little cufiofity, and fet no
value upon any prefent that could be made them.
The moft remarkable circumftance in this country
feems to be its extreme fcarcity. of water; not a fingle
ftream of any confequence having ever been obferved
by any navigator. Some were of opinion indeed, that
Moreton’s Bay, in S. Lat. 26. 56. and W. Long.
2c6. 28. opens into a river; though the only reafon they
had for this opinion was, that the fea looked paler in
that part than ufual, and the land at the bottom part
of the bay could not be feen. At this time, however,
the matter could not be determined by experiment,
on account of the wind being contrary. The fcarcity
of water here is the more furprifing, on account ofithe
vaft extent of the country, and likevvife its having a-
bundance of tolerable high hills. In this ifland there
were found many curious plants and animals ; and itsl\
was found, that in feveral places the magnetical needle
Vas affected to fuch a degree as to vary its pofition prifmglyaf.
even to 30 degrees. At onetime it varied no lefs fe^ed.
than two points on being removed to the diftance of only
14 feet. Some of the loofe ftones being taken up
and applied to the needle produced no cffeS;; but Mr
Cook was of opinion that the whole phenomenon was
to be aferibed to iron ore in fome of the mountains,
and of which traces had been already met with. This
irregularity continued in fome degree even at fea ; for
when the fhip was clofe under Cape Upftart, the van-
3 ation.
Cork’s
-Difcove-
G 0 0 [ 406 ] C O O
alien of the needle in the evening of the 4th of June temded as a defiance ; for they had no effeft as ofiW Coble*
was 9. Eaft, and next morning only 5. 35. ; and this five weapons, and others were armed with bows and Ddcove-
, was in like manner accounted for from iron ore, or arrows. The country appeared extremely pleafant and n^' f
feme magnetics! matter below the furface of the fertile. The place at which they touched lies in
ground. The great ifland has many other fmall ones IS. Lat. 6. 15.
round it ; feveral of which were vifited by ottr naviga- As the condition of the Endeavour was now very
Birds nrfts tors. One of them named Eagle IJland, feemed to be much {battered by having failed fo long in thefe dan-
of an im- inhabited by a monftrous kind of birds, the neil of gerous feas, the commander determined to make the
monl'efize. one 0f which meafured no lefs than 26 feet in circum- bell of his way for Batavia in order to refit. In this
Terence and two feet eight inches in height; and in the voyage he firil gaffed two unknown iflands without
Philofophical TranfaTions, vol. xx. there is an ac* touching at either of them. They were fuppofed to
■ count of one of thefe nefts ftill larger ; but the bird belong to the Aurora iflands ; but if this be the cafe,
rto which it belonged was not feen. That which our the latter mufl be laid down at too great a diftance
navigators faw was built of flicks, an’d lay upon the from New Guinea. • The Weafel Ifles, laid down by
23 ground. former navigators at about 20 or 25 leagues from the
V.ift extent The country which goes by the name of New Hnl- boa ft of New Holland, were not feen; for which reafon
of die ojw.- ian(i jg jjy far the largefl ifland in the world. Its ea* Mr Cook is of opinion that they are erroneoufly laid
U^‘ ftern part, called New South IVales, now firft explo- down.
red by Captain Cook, extends upwards of 2000 miles Faffing by the iflands of Timor, Timor-lavet, Rot-
in length, if the coaft were reduced to a ftraight line, ta, and Seman, they next arrived at the ifland of Sa-
Though inhabited, as we have already faid, by very vu, where a fettlement had lately been made by the
’barbarous favages, their number appears to bear no Dutch. In this voyage they had the fatisfaclion of
proportion to the extent of their territory. The obferving the aurora auftralis, which here feemed to Aurora Au-
rintercourfe they had with our navigators was fo diffet in fome refpefts from that in the northern he-^h8-
fmall, that they could pick up but a few words of mifphere. It confifted of a dull reddifti light extend-
their language. As a Britiih fettlement, however, is ing about 20 degrees above the horizon ; and though
now made in that country, there is no doubt that much it varied at fome times in extent, it was never lefs
more exa£l and accurate accounts will foon be obtain- than eight or ten degrees. From this general mafsof
ed than even the diligence and attention of Captain light there fometimes iffued rays of a brighter colour,
5,4 Cook could colled on fuch a tranfient vifit. which vaniflied and were renewed like thofe of the au-
Trcparated In this voyage our navigator, befides exploring the rora borealis, but without any of that tumultuous mo-
by ftraits eaftern part of the ifland, which had never been done tion obferved in the aurora bordalis. The body of the
Guinea^ -before> difeovered that it wasfeparated from the ifland light bore S, S. E. from the flap, and continued with-
of New Guinea, to which it had formerly been thought out any diminution of its brightnefs from 10 to 12 at
to join. The two countries are feparated by a ftrait night. 18
to which the commander gave the name of Endeavour The middle part of the ifland of Savu lies in io° Excellent
Strait. The north entrance of this lies in S. Lat. 35' foutli, and 2370 30'weft longitude, and afforded a
10. 39. and W. Long. 218. 36. the paflage is form- moll beautiful profped from the fliip. The people arehltants'ofa*
ed by the main land and a congeries of iflands to the remarkable for the purity of their morals, which aresavu.
north, on which our navigator beftowed the name of faid to be irreproachable, even on the principles of
Prince of Wales's IJlands. Thefe are very different Chriftianity. Though no man is allowed to have more
both in height and extent; and tha Captain was of than one wife, inftances of illicit commerce betwixt
opinion that feveral paffages might be found out among the fexes are fcarce known anping them. Inftan-
■Cocldes of On the coaft of New Holland oppolite to New ces of theft are likewife very rare ; and fo far are they
vaft ilze, Guinea are found cockles of an immenfe fize ; fome of from revenging a fuppofed injury by murder, that
fca feum, them being as much as two men could move, and con- when any differences arife among them, they are im-
taining 20 pounds of good meat. In thefe feas as well mediately and implicitly referred to the determination
as on the coafts of Brazil, our navigators found the of the king. They will not even make it the fubje<T
furface of the water covered with a kind of feum, call- of private debate, left they fhould be provoked to re¬
ed by the failors fea-fpawn. It was examined by Mr fentment and ill-nature ; and the delicacy and cleanli-
Banks and Dr Solander; but they could determine nefs of their perfons are faid to be proportionable to
nothing farther than that it was of vegetable origin. the purity of their morals.
26 The natives of New Guinea were fo hoitile that no On the arrival of the Endeavour at Batavia, our na- Good ef-
difeoveries of any confequence could be made. They vigator had an opportunity of obferving the good ef-f^s <>f ^
thod'nf'the refembled the New Hollanders in ftature, and having feftsof the electrical chains applied to (hips ih fecuring®^”®.^
natives rf fliort cropped hair. Like them too they were abfo- them from the effects of lightning. A dreadful ftorm pvefervmg
Setting off lutely naked, but fomewhat lefs black and dirty. They of thunder happened one evening, during which the in m the
^lres' had a furpriling method of letting off a kind of fires, main-maft of one of the'Dutch Eaft India-men w^s cffe£ls vf
exactly reiembling the flafties of fire-arms, but with- fplit and carried away clofe by the deck, the main
out any explofion. It was not known in what manner top-maft, and top-gallant-maft being fhivered to pie-
this was done, as theyv were never near enough to ces. This fhip lay fo near the Endeavour, that the
make a particular obfervation. Thofe who difeharged latter would probably have fhared the fame fate, had
them had a fhort piece of flick which they fwung fide- it not been for the conducing chain which fortunate-
ways from them, upon which there iffued the fire and ly was juft put up. The explofion {hook her like an
fmoke juft mentioned. This feems to have been in- earthquake, the chain at the fame time appearing like
Cook's
Difcooe-
Death of
Tupia.
P ' 3’
Ifland, a
proper
^iip« to
touch at.
3*
Second
voyage.
COO [ 407 ] coo
a line of fire. The ftroke feemed to have been direft-
ed to the Dutch veffel by an iron fpindle at the mail
head ; which pradtice our commander difcommends,
but ftrorgly advifes the ufe of the eledtrical chain.
On their landing at Batavia, Tupia was confined by
ficknefs, fo that he appeared quite lifelefs and dejedted
when put into the boat; but on his arrival.at land re¬
covered his fpirits furprifingly. The fcene, to himfo
new and extraordinary, feemed to produce an effedt
fimilar to what is afcribed to enchantment. His at¬
tention was particularly engaged by the various dreffes
of the people ; arid being informed that at Batavia e-
very one appeared in the drefs of his own country, he
exprefled a defire of likewife appearing in the garb of
Otaheite. Having therefore been furnifhed with South
Sea cloth from the fhip, he equipped himfelf with
great quicknefs and dexterity. After the firft flow
of fpirits had fubfided, however, be foon began to
feel the fatal effedts of the climate ; and his boy Tay-
eto, whofe fpirits had been ftill more elevated on
his arrival, was attacked with an inflammation of
the lungs, and in a little time fell a vidtim to the dif-
eafe. Tupia himfelf did not long furvivehim, and his
death was not attributed entirely to the unwholefome-
nefs of the climate. Having been accuftomed from
Ins infancy to fubfift chiefly upon vegetable food, and
particularly on ripe fruit, he had foon contradted the
diforders incident to a fea-life, and could fcarce have
been expedled to reach England, even if the un-
wholefome climate of Batavia had been out of the
queilion.
The Endeavour left Batavia on the 27th of De¬
cember 1770, and on the 5th of January 1771 reach¬
ed Prince’s Ifland. This place had been formerly
much frequented by the India (hips, but of late en¬
tirely deferted on account of the fuppofed bad qua¬
lity of the water: but this our navigator has difcover-
ed to be a miftake ; and that though the water near
the fea is brackifli, it may be had of excellent quality
by going a little way up the country. He is of opi¬
nion that this ifland is a more proper place for {hips to
touch at than either North Ifland or New Bay, be-
caufe neither of thefe can afford other refrefliments
which may be had at Prince’s Ifland.
The reft of this voyage affords little interefting
matter. The Cape of Good Hope, which was their
next ftage, has been fo fully defcribed by former na¬
vigators that there was little room for addition. At
St Helena the commander made fome reraarks. on the
rigorous treatment of the flaves, which was reprefent-
ed as worfe than that of the Dutch either at Batavia
or the Cape of Good Hope. In the account of his fe¬
cund voyage, however, this accufation was retraced.
Captain Cook’s fecond voyage was. undertaken in
an efpecial manner to determine finally the queftion
concerning the. exiftence of a fouthern continent. It
commenced in the year 1772 ; and, as in the former,
he proceeded firft to Madeira. From thence he pro¬
ceeded to St Jago, one of the Cape de Verde Iflands;
where an opportunity was taken of delineating and gi¬
ving fuch a defcription of Port Praya, and the fupplies
to be. there obtained, as might be of ufe to future navi¬
gators. On the 8th of September he croffed the line
in 8° weft longitude, and had the fatisfadtion to meet
with good.weather, though he had.been informed that
he had failed at an improper time of the year, in con- C00^’8
fcquence of which he would probably be becalmed. DlfHve'
From his account, however, it appears, that though in '^S.L j
fome years fuch weather may be expected, it is by no _,
means univerfally the cafe. In this part of the o- Calms not
cean he had alfo an opportunity of obferving the caufe always to
of the luminous property of fea-water, which in his1:16 fGa!ec*
former voyage had been attributed to infedts. Mr For-
fter being of a different opinion, the matter was again
particularly inquired into, but the refult was entirely Luminous
conformable to the former determination. Some buc- quality of
kets of water being drawn up from along fide the fhip, fea- wate-*.
were found to be rilled with thofe infedis of a globularluither de’
form, and about the fize of a fmall pin’s head. No tcrrnine<k
life indeed could be perceived in them; but Mr Forfter
was thoroughly convinced of their being living animals
when in their proper element. 35
Proceeding fouthward iu quell of a continent, they Ice iflands*
fell in with Fee Illands in S. Lat. yo. 40. and two
degrees of longitude eaft from the Cape of Good
Hope. One of thefe was fo much concealed by the
bazinefs of the weather, that it could not be feen at
the diftance of more than a mde. Captain Cook judged
it to be about 50 feet in height and half a mile in cir¬
cumference ; its rides rifing in a perpendicular direc¬
tion, and the fea breaking againft them with great vio¬
lence. Two days after, they paffed fix others, fome of'
which were two miles in circumference and 60 feet in
height; yet fuch was the ftrength and violence of the
waves that the fea broke quite over them. On the 14th
they were flopped by a vaft field of low ice, of which
they could perceive no end. In different parts of this
field there were feen iflands or hills of ice like thofe
already defcribed, and fome of the people imagined
that they faw land over them ; but upon a narrow ex¬
amination this was found to be a miftake. On getting
cle3V of the field of ice they again fell in with loofe
iflands; and as it was a general opinion that thefe are
only formed in bays and rivers, our navigators con¬
cluded that they Could not be at a great diftance from
land. They were nowin the latitude ofyy0 40'fouth;
and as they had failed for more than 30 leagues along
the edge of the ice without finding any opening, the
Captain determined to run 30 or 40 leagues farther to
the eaftward, in hopes of then getting to the fouth¬
ward. If in this attempt he met with no land or other
impediment, his defign was to ftretch behind the ice
altogether, and thus determine the matter at once. In
a ftiort time, however, it became evident that the
field of ice along which they had ftHed fo long did.
not join with any land ; and the Captain now Came to:
a refolution of running as far to the weft as the meri¬
dian of Cape Circumcifion. In the profecution of this
defign he met with a very fevere ftorm, which was ren¬
dered the more dangerous by the pieces of loofe ice
among which they were ftill entangled, and a vaft ■
field of which they could not perceive the boundaries,.
about, three miles to the northward. Of this they
could not get clear without receiving fome fevere
ftrokes; and after all, when they arrived at the place
where they ought to have found Cape Circumcifion,.
it could not be difcovered; fo that the Captain con-
eluded that what Bouvet took for land, could have been ,
nothing but ice.
During tins run the .fallacy of the general opinion,
had.]
36
Ice not al¬
ways found
in the vici¬
nity of
land.
COO [ 408 ] COO
Trad been difcovered, that the ice with which the polar is covered with trees, among which is the true fpruce, Cook'*
regions abound has been formed in the vicinity of which was found to be of great ufe. It was remark- D':'c°ve-
ecj, that though a vaft quantity of rain fell during the f1^9'
time of refidence here, it was not attended with any y~—
bad effedts on the health of the people; which furnifhes
an additional argument of the healthinefs of the place.
Dulky Ba^is reckoned by Captain Cook to be the
was the moil expeditious method of watering he had moft proper place in New Zealand for the procuring
land. It was found likewife, that the water produced
from the melting of ice, even though formed in the
ocean, was perfectly fweet and well tailed. Of this
circumftance the Captain took advantage to fupply
hirtifelf with water; and gave it as his opinion, that it
r known. He had likewife an opportunity of de-
tedling another popular error, viz. that penguins, al-
batroffes, and other birds of that kind, never go far
from land. This indeed may be the cafe in open feas,
but in fuch as are covered with ice it is very different;
for they then inhabit the ice i {lands, and float out with
them to fea to a great diitance.
Irregulari¬
ty of the
magnetic
■needle.
When in the latitude of 49. 13. S. fome figns of of fociety or friendflrip.
of refrefhments, though it is attended with fome difa-
greeable circumftances, particularly being infefted with
great numbers of black fand-flies, which were trouble-
fome to an extreme degree. The natives feen at Dulky
Bay were apparently of the fame race with thofe feen
in other parts of the country, and led a wandering life,
without any appearance of being united in the bonds
land were perceived; but as the wind did not admit of
any fearch being made in the diredtion where it was
fuppofed to lie, the Captain proceeded in his voyage
to the eaftward. A very remarkable alteration in the
direction of the needle was now perceived, and which
could not be fuppofed owing to the vicinity of any
magnetic matter, as it happened while the {hips were
far out at fea. The circumftance was, that when the
fun was on the {larboard fide of the ftiip the variation
was leaft, but greateft when on the oppofite fide. An
aurora auftralis was again obferved, which broke out in
fpiral or circular rays, and had a beautiful appearance;
but did not feem to have any particular diredlion, be¬
ing confpicuous at various times in different parts of
the heavens, and diffufing its light over the whole at-
mofphere.
The extreme cold and ftormy weather which now
From Dulky Bay the Captain proceeded to Queen
Charlotte’s Sound, where he met with the Adventure,
which had been feparated from the Refolution for 40
above 14 weeks. In his paffage thither he had an op- Water
portunity of obferving fix water-fpouts, one of which fp01*18’
paffed within 50 yards of the Refolution. It has been
a common opinion, that thefe meteors are diflipated by
the firing of a gun, and the Captain was forry he had
not made the experiment; but he acknowledges, that
though he had a gun ready for the purpofe, and was
near enough, his attention was fo much engaged in
viewing them, that he forgot to give the neceflary
orders.
Having planted another garden in this part of the
country, and left two goats, two breeding fows and a
boar, in as private a fituation as pofiible, that they
might be for fome time out of the reach of the natives,
began to take place, determined Captain Cook not to the Captain fet fail for Otaheite. During the long Difcovcries
38 crofs the antardlic circle a fecond time as he had once abfence of the Adventure, Captain Furneaux had vi-^
Extreme defigned. His obfervations confirmed the accounts of fited the coaft of New Holland, and difcovered that
cold of the f° • - - ■ - - > - • - ..... - --  
fouthern
feas.
3 former navigators, that the cold of the fouthern feas is
much more intenfe than in equal latitudes in the nor¬
thern hemifphere; but at the fame time it {bowed
that this cold cannot be owing to the vicinity of a con¬
tinent, as had formerly been imagined. On the
there was no probability of Van Diemen’s land being
feparated from it by ftraits: he had likewife found
additional proofs that the natives of New Zealand
were accuftomed to eat human flefti. Captain Cook
alfo remarked with concern, that the morals of the
count of
New Zea¬
land.
trary, it was now determined beyond difpute, that if New Zealanders were by no means mended by the
any fuch continent exifted in the eaftern part of the vifit he had formerly paid them. At that time he
fouthern ocean, it muft be confined within the latitude looked upon the women to be more chafte than thofe
of 60 degrees. No farther difeoveries therefore being of moft of the nations he had vifited ; but now they
pra&icable in higher latitudes, as the winter feafon were ready to prollitute themfelves for a fpikenail, and
was approaching, the commander fleered for New the men to force them to fuch an infamous traffic,
Zealand, where he anchored in Dulky Bay on the 25th whether agreeable to the inclinations of the females or
of March, having been at fea 117 days without once not.
o coming in fight of land. Here the time was fpent in
procuring proper refrefhments for the people, and
In the run from New Zealand to Otaheite, our
^ ^ _ commander paffed very near the fituation aifigned by
exploring the fea-coall and country for the benefit of Captain Carteret to Pitcairn’s ifland, difcovered by him
future navigators. Nor was our commander unmind¬
ful of the inhabitants. Here he left the five geefe
767, but without being able to find it, though
a fight of it would have been ufeful for correcting its
which yet remained, choofing for them a place where longitude as well as that of Others in the neighbour-
there were no people at the time to difturb them; and
as they had there great plenty of food, he had no doubt
hood ; but there was not at prefent any time to fpend 4a
in fearching for it. Proceeding farther on in his voy- Newiflands
of their breeding, and in a ftiort time fpreading over age, however, he fell in with a duller of iflands fup- difcovered.
the country. Some days after a piece of ground was pofed to be the fame difcovered by M. Bougainville,
cleared by fetting fire to the topwood, after which it and named by him the Dangerous Archipelago. To
was dug up and fowed with garden feeds. Dulky Bay four of thefe Captain Cook' gave the names of Refo-
is fituated in the weftern ifland of New Zealand, called lution, Doubtful, Furneaux, and Adventure IJlands. Re-
Tavaipoenammoo, which, as has already been faid, is folution Ifland is fituated in S. Lat. 17. 24. W. Long,
lefs fertile than the other. The inland part is full of 141. 39. Doubtful Ifland in S. Lat. 17.20. W. Long.
rugged mountains of a vaft height; but the fea-coaft
N° 91.
18. Furneaux Ifland in S. Lat. 17.5. W. Long.
H3*
COO C 409 ] coo
Conk's T43. 16. and Adventure Ifland in S. Lat, 17. 4, and-
Difeove- W. Long. 144. 30.
rie^ No difeovery of any great confequence was made at
L ^ * the iiland of Otaheite or thofe in its neighbourhood,
Miftake excepting that the Captain had an opportunity of
concerning correcting the opinion which till now had prevailed,
the women of the exceffive diflblutenefs and immodefty of the
ef jlte women of Otaheite ; and which had been enlarged
core e . Up0n by Dr Hawkefworth more than feemed to be
confident with decency. The charge, however, ac¬
cording to the accounts of this fecond voyage, is far
from being indiferiminately true, even of the unmar¬
ried females of the lower clafs. Some additions were
made to the knowledge of the geography of thofe
iflands; and from Huaheine Captain Furneaux took
on board his fhip one of the natives of Ulietea named
Omai, afterwards fo much fpoke of in England. Cap¬
tain Cook at fird appeared difiatisfied with his choice
of this youth, as being inferior in rank to many others,
and having no particular advantage in drape, figure, or
complexion ; however he had afterwards reafon to be
better pleafed. During the Captain’s refidence at
Otaheite, he ufed his utmod endeavours to difeover
whether the venereal difeafe was endemic among them,
or whether it had been imported by Europeans: but in
this he could not meet with any perfectly fatisfaftory
account; though it was univerfally agreed, that if it had
been introduced by Europeans, it mud have been by the
French under M. Bougainville.
Captain Cook having left Ulietea on the 17th of
September 1773, directed his courfe weftward, with
an inclination to the fouth. In this courfe he difeo-
vered land in S. Lat. 19. 8. and W. Long. 158. 54. to
Harvey’s *ie gave the name of Harvey' IJland. From
Ifland dif- thence he proceeded to the ifland of Middleburg, where
covered. he was treated in the mod hofpitable manner poflible.
To fuch an excefs did the people carry their gene-
rofity, that they feemed to be more fond of giving
away their goods than in receiving any thing for them;
infomuch -that many, who had not an opportunity of
coming near the boats, threw over the heads of others
whole bales of cloth, and then retired without either
waiting or a Iking for any thing in return. From
Middleburg he proceeded to Amfterdam Ifland, where
the beauty and cultivation of the ifland afforded the
moft enchanting profpedt. There was not an inch of
wafte ground ; the roads were no wider than what wag
abfolutely neceffary, and the fences not above four
inches thick. Even this was not abfolutely loll; for
many of thefe contained ufeful trees or plants.
South^ea '3 °^ferva^e °f l^e °f Middleburg and Am-
iflands ge- Aerdam, as well as of moft others in the South Sea,
nerally fur- that they are guarded from the waves by a reef of co¬
rounded by ral rocks which extend about one hundred fathoms
coral rocks. from t}ie (hore. Thus they are effectually fecured
from the encroachments of the ocean; by. which they
would probably foon be fwallowed up, as moft of them
are mere points in comparifon of the vaft quantity of
water which furrounds them. Here he left a quantity
of garden vegetable feeds and pulfe, which it was not
doubted would be taken -care of by the induftrious in¬
habitants. In the lart mentioned iflands our naviga¬
tors found no animals but hogs and fowls; the former
being of the fame kind with thofe ufually feen in the
other iflands of the South Sea ; but the latter greatly
Vot. V. Part II.
preferable, equalling thofe of Eurppc in their fize, and Cook's
even preferable in refpedt of the goodnefs of their D‘fcove*
flefh. , r^s‘ .
On the 7th of O&ober Captain Cook left the ifland "
of Amfterdam, with a delign to pay another vifit to
New Zealand, in order to take in wood and water for
his voyage in queft of a fouthem continent. The day
after he left Amfterdam, he fell in with the ifland of
Pilftart, formerly difeovered by Tafman, and fituated
in S. Lat. 26', W.dLong. 1750 59', 32 leagues diftant
from the eaft end of Middleburg. On his arrival at 4*
New Zealand, he exerted himfelf as much as poffible to
leave a proper affortment of vegetables and animals for Zealand.^
the benefit of the inhabitants. One of the firft things
he did, therefore, was to make a prefent to a chief,
who had come off in a canoe, of a quantity of the moll
ufeful garden feeds, fuch as cabbage, turnips, onions,
carrots, parfnips, and yams; together with fome wheat,
French and kidney beans, and peafe. With the fame
perfon he left alfo two boars, two fows, four hens,
and two cocks. This prefent, however valuable in it-
felf, feems to have been but indifferently received ; for
the chief was much-better fatisfied with a fpikenail half
the length of his arm than with all the reft; notwith*
Handing which, he promifed to take care of the feeds,
and not to kill any of the animals. On inquiring
about thofe animals left in the country in the former
part of his voyage, the Captain was informed, that
the boar and one of the fows had been feparated,
but not killed. The other he faw in good condition,
and very tame. The two goats, he was informed,
had been killed by a native of the name of Gau-
biah. The gardens had met with a better fate; all
the articles being in a very flourilhing condition, though
left entirely to nature, excepting the potatoes. Cap¬
tain Cook, however, {till determined to fupply thefe
iflanderswith ufeful animals,put on fhorea boar, a young
fow, two cocks and two hens, which he made a pre¬
fent of to the adjacent inhabitants. Three other fows
and a boar, with two cocks and hens, he ordered to
be left in the country without the knowledge of the
Indians. They were carried a little way into the
woods, and there left with as much food as would
ferve them for 10 or 12 days, in order to prevent them
from coming down to the coaft in queftof it, and thus
being difeovered.
A fecond feparation with the Adventure had now 47
taken place ; notwithftanding which, Captain Cook Voyage in
fet out alone with his veffel in queft of a fouthern con-queft of 1
tinent; and fuch was the confidence put in him by the combent.
failors, that all of them expreffed as much fatisfaclion
and alacrity as if not only the Adventure, but ever fo
many fliips had been in company.
On the 26th of November the Captain fet fail from
New Zealand ; and on the 12th of December began to
fall in with the ice, but confiderably farther to the
fouthward than they had met with it in the former part
of his voyage ; being now in the latitude of 62° 10' S.
and 1720 W. Long. As they proceeded fouthward,
the number of ice iflands increafed prodigioufly ; and
in Lat. 67° 31'and W. Long. 1428 54', they all at
once got in among fuch a duller of thefe ifiands, that
it became a matter of the utmoft difficulty and danger
to keep clear of them. Finding it impoflible, there-
force, to get any farther to the fouthward at prefent,
3 F the
coo
[ 41
ts flopped
by ice.
the Captain determined to explore a confiderable trail
of fea to the' north of his prefent fituation, and then
again to hand to the fouth. But in this he was 'hill
unfuccefsful; no land being difeovered either in fail¬
ing northward, eaftward, weftward, or fouth ward;
though he proceeded as far in the laft direction as
71. jo. S. Lat. and 106. 54. W. It was now impof-
fible to proceed; and the opinion of the Captain himfelf,
as well as of moll of the gentlemen on board, was, that
the ice by which they were now Hopped extended as far
as the pole. As there was Hill room, however, in parts
of the ocean entirely unexplored, for very large iflands,
our Commander determined not to abandon the pur-
fuit in which he was engaged until there Ihould not be
any pofiibility of doing more ; and befides the polfi-
bility of making new difeoveries, he was confcious
that many of the illands already difeovered were fo
obfeurely known, that it was of confequence to pay
them a fecond vifit. With this view he propofed to
go in queH of Eafler or Davis’s Illand ; the Htuation
of which was known with fo little certainty, that none
of the attempts lately made to difco'ver it had been
fuccefsful. He next intended to get within the tro¬
pic, and then to proceed to the well, touching at any
iHands he might meet with, and fettling their fitua-
tions, until he Ihould arrive at Otaheite, where it was
necelfary for him to make feme Hay in order to look
for the Adventure. It was part of his defign alfo to
run to the wtflern as far as'Terra AuHral del Efpb
ritu Sanfto, difeovered by Quiros, and which M.
Bougainville had named 'The -Great Cyclades. From
this land he propofed to fail to the fouthvvard, and
from thence to the eafl between the latitude of 50°
and 6o°. In the execution of this defign, he deter¬
mined if pollible to reach Cape Horn during the en-
fuing November, when he would have the befi part of
the fummer before him to explore the fouthern part of
the Atlantic Ocean.
In purfuing his courfe to the northward, it had been
part of his defign to find out the land faid to have been
difeovered by Juan Fernandez in about the latitude of
38°; but he was foon convinced, that if any fuch
land exified, it could only be a very fmall illand : but the
profecution of the defign was for feme little time inter-
4(j rupted by a violent bilious diforder by which the Cap-
JTntritive tain was attacked. In this, when he began to recover,
property of as there was no frelh meat on board, he was obliged to
dog’s flefh. have recourfe to dog’s flelh ; and a favourite animal
belonging to Mr ForHer was facrifieed on the occafion.
The Captain was able to eat not only of the broth
made of this, but likewife of the flelh, when his fio-
mach could bear nothing elfe. On the 1 ith of March
they arrived at Eafler Illand, before which time the
Vllit^E ft r Captain was tolerably recovered. Here they made
Ifland 3 £r but few difeoveries farther than determining the fitua¬
tion of it to be in S. Lat. 270 5' 307, and W. Long.
109° 46' 20". The illand itfelf was found barren and
defolate, having every appearance of being lately ruin¬
ed by a volcanic eruption ; without either wood, fuel,
or frelh water worth taking on board. The inhabi¬
tants were few in number; and the women in very
fmall proportion to the men, but remarkable for their
lewdnefs. A number of gigantic Hatues were obferved,
which had alfo been taken notice of by Commodore
o j COO
Roggewein, and the origin of vyhich could not be ac- CV.Vs
counted for. Difcove-
On leaving Eafter Illand, Captain Cook was again t^!’' .
attacked by his bilious diforder ; but happily recover- ^
ed before he reached the, Marquefas, which they did And the
on the 6th and 7th of April. One of thefe, being Marqnefas.i
a new difeovery, received the name of Hold’s IJland,
from the young gentleman by whom it was firfl obfer¬
ved. Thefe are five in number; fituated between 9
and 10 degrees of fouth latitude, and between 138. 47.
and 139. 13. of wefl longitude. They were difeovered
by Mendana a Spaniard ; and their names are, La
Magdalena, St Pedro, La Dominica, Santa Chriitina,
and Hood’s Illand. The inhabitants are, without ex¬
ception, the finefl race of people in the South Sea,
furpafiing all others in that part of the world in the
fymmetry of their perfons and regularity of their fea¬
tures. Their origin, however, from the affinity of
language, was evidently the fame with that of Ota¬
heite. It was in St Chriflina that our commander ancho¬
red ; and he has left particular directions for finding a
particular cove in Refolution Bay in that illand, which
is the mofl convenient for procuring wood and water.
In the palfage from the Marquefas to Otaheite, our
navigators palled feveral low and fmall illands connec¬
ted together by reefs of coral rocks. One of thefe,
named by the inhabitants Tiookea, was vifited by Lieu-
tenant Cooper. It was difeovered and vifited by Cap- Kland
tain Byron; and is fituated in S. Lat. 27. 30. \V. I’lookea*
Long. 144. 56. The inhabitants are much darker in
their complexions, and feem to be of a fiercer difpofi-
tion than thofe of the neighbouring illands. 'They
have the figure of a filh marked upon their bodies ; a
very proper emblem of their profeffion, deriving their
fubfilience almofl entirely from the fea. Faffing by
St George’s Illands, which had been alfo difeovered
and named by Captain Byron, our Commander now
difeovered four others, which he named Pallifer’s 53
IJlands. One of thefe is fituated in S. Lat. 15. 26. PalHierV
and W. Long. 146. 20. another in S. Lat. 15. 2 7..lflaluls•
and W. Long. 146. 3. They were inhabited by
people refembling thofe of Tiookea, and like them
were armed with long pikes. Here our navigator ob¬
ferved, that from W. Long. 138° to 148° or J500, the
fea is fo full of fmall low illands, that one cannot pro¬
ceed with too much caution.
On his arrival in Otaheite, provifions were met with 54
in great plenty; and they were now very acceptable, Arrival at_
by reafon of the long time the ffiip had been at fea °ta!ieite" «
without obtaining any confiderable fupply. Two
goats which had been given by Captain Furneaux to a
chief named Otoo> appeared to be in a very promifing.
fituation. The female had brought forth two kids,
which weie almofl large enough to propagate ; and as
Ihe was again with kid, there was little doubt that the
illand would foon be Hocked with thefe ufeful animals ;
though it was otherwife with the lheep>, all of which
had died except one. On this occafion, alfo, the Cap-,
tain furnilhed the natives with cats, of which,he gave-
away twenty; fo that there was little danger of the flock,
of thefe animals decaying. During his refidence at
this time, he had an opportunity of making fome
computation of the number of inhabitants on the ifland,
which he fuppofed to be no lefs than 200,000.
4 Huaheine
Cook*
Dlfcove-
Huaheine,
Uiietea,
Howe
liland, &c.
Rotterdam
Ifland.
Suppofed
volcano.
Mew He¬
brides vifi-
ted.
COO [ 411 ] coo
Huaheine and Uiietea Iflands were next vifited, but this ifland, in which the fliip came to an anchor! was Cook*
Without any remarkable occurrence. From the latter named Sandwich harbour, and lies on the north-ealt Dif ove-
.our Commander fet fail on the 5th of June 1774 ; and fide in S. Lat. 16. 25. 20. E. Long 167. 57. 53. It rie8' . ..
next day came in fight of Howe Ifland, difcovered by is very commodious for the carrying on any opera-
Captain Wallis, and fituated in S. Lat. 16. 46. and tions at land, having a good depth of water, and many
W. Long. 154. 8. On the 16th a new ifland, named other advantages.
Palmcrjlone IJlandt_ was difcovered in S. Lat. 18. 4. The next difcovery was that of the Group named ^grd>s
W. Long. 163. 10.; and, four days after, another Shepherd’s Ijles, in honour of Dr [Shepherd, Plumian 121 *
was obferved in S. Lat. 19. 1. W. Long. 169. 37. profeffor of aftronomy at Oxford. Numbers more
As it was evidently inhabited, the Captain determined were every day obferved ; of which one peaked rock,
to land ; but found the people fo extremely holtile, named the Monument, was uninhabited, being appa-
that no intercourfe could be had: nay, he himfeif was rently inaccefiible to any other creature but birds,
in danger of lofing his life by a lance thrown by one Sandwich ifland is of coniiderable extent, and exhibits
of the natives, which paffed clofe over his fhoulder. a mofl: beautiful profpedl. It is furrounded with o-
From the extreme hollility of the people of this ifland, ther fmaller iflands, the principal of which were na-
it was named by Captain Qoo\l Savage IJland. It is med Montague and Hinchinbrook. At Erromango they
of a round (hape, pretty high, and has deep water clofe found the people hoftile and treacherous ; and from a
to the fliore, but has no good harbour. fkirmilh they had with them near a promontory on the
Palling by a number of fmall iflands, Captain Cook north-eaftpointoftheifland, itwasnamed Traitor’sHead.
next anchored at that of Anamocka or Rotterdam, Its fituatioh is in S. Lat. 10. 43. E. Long. 169. 28.
difeof fered by Tafman. It is fituated in 20. 15. S. Lat. From Erromango our navigator proceeded to Tan-^^0
and 174. 31. W. Long. Its form is triangular, each na, an ifland they had formerly difcovered at a di-ifia^
fide extending about three and a half or four miles, fiance, and which is furrounded by fame others, three
From the north-weft to the fouth it is encompafied by of which are named Immer, Footeona or Erronan, and
a number of fmall' iflands, fand banks, and breakers ; Anatom. At Tanna they ftaid for fome time, on ac-
of which no end can be feen from the ifland on the count of their wanting fome quantity of wood. A
northern fide, and may pofiibly be as far extended as volcano was feen about the middle of this ifland, which
Amfierdam or Tongataboo. While the Captain re- burned with great violence, particularly in moifi and
mained on this illand, he learned the names of more wet weather : but notwithfianding the friendly terms . .
than 20 of the adjacent ifles, fome of which were in on which they w’ere with the natives, the latter would Volcano,
fight between the north-weft and north-eaft. Two of never allow them to approach this mountain. There
thefe, which lie more to the weftward than the others, were fome fpots on the fea-coaft which emitted an hot
are named Amattafoa and Oghao. They are remarkable and fulphureous fmoke ; and the people alfo exprefled
for their height; and from a great fmoke viiible about much uneaiinefs when thefe were approached or med-
the middle of Amattafoa, it was fuppofed to have a died with. The port which the fhip entered in this
volcano. The ifland of Rotterdam, Middleburg or ifland was named Refolution Harbour, and is fituated in
Eaoowe, with Pilftart, form a group extending about S. Lat. 19. 32, 25-I-. E. Long. 169. 44. 35'. It is a
three degrees of longitude and two of latitude. The fmall creek three quarters of a mile long, and about
whole group was named The Friendly Ijles by Captain half as broad. It is extremely convenient,, having
Cook, on account of the friendfhip which feemed to plenty of wood and water clofe to tiie ihore. Among
fubfift among the inhabitants, and their courteous be- the vegetable productions of this ifland, there is reafon
haviour to ftrangers. The people of Rotterdam Ifland to fufpeCt the .nutmeg-tree to be one, a pigeon ha-
are fimilar to thofe of Amfterdam ; but the ifland is ’ ving been ftiot, in the craw of which was a wild
not in Rich a ftate of high cultivation as Amfterdam, nutmeg. The inhabitants are two diftinCt races
nor do its fruits come to fuch perfection. It is alfo of people, and fpeak two different languages; one
inferior in the articles of cloth, matting, &c. which are that of the Friendly iflands, the other peculiar to
accounted the wealth of thefe paits. Tanna and thofe in the neighbourhood. The people 61
From Rotterdam ifland our navigator continued his are very expert in the ufe of their weapons ; oh whichDex.te!’lt- .0^
courfe to the weftward, where he firft difcovered a Mr Wales makes the following remarks: “ I muft^^T1^
fmall ifland in S. Lat. 19. 48. W.Long. 178. 2. It confefs I have often been led to think the feats ufe of their
was named Turtle Ifland, from the great number of which Homer reprefents his heroes as performing w ith lances,
thefe animals found upon it. Sixteen days after he their fpears a little too much of the marvellous to be
fell in with the clufter of iflands named by M. Bou- admitted in an heroic poem, I mean when confined
gainville the Great Cyclades. The firft ifland on which within the ftrait ftays of Ariftotle; nay, even fo great an
he landed was Mallicollo, where, though the people advocate for him as Mr Pope acknowledges them to
were at firft very hoftile, they w'ere foon conciliated, be furprifing: but iince I have feen what thefe people
and a friepdly intercourfe took place. The language can do with their wooden fpears, and them badly
of thefe people is confiderably different from that of pointed, and not of an hard nature, I have not the leall
the other South-fea iflands; they are diminutive in their exception to any one paffage in that great poet on this
perfons, and of ugly features ; their hair black or account. But if I fee fewer exceptions, I can find in¬
brown, fhort and curling, but lefs foft than that of the finitely more beauties in him, as he has, I think,
negroes. They had no name for a dog in their lan- fcarcely an aflion, circumftance, or defeription of any
guage, and had never feen the animal; fo that they kind wftiatever relating to a fpear, which I have not
were extremely fond of a dog and bitch of which feen and recognifed among thefe people ; as their
Captain Cook made them a prefent. The harbour in whirling motion and whiffling noife as they fly; their
3 F 2 quivering
coo
Cook’s
Difcove-
ries.
[ 412 ]
COO
6j
New Cale¬
donia dif.
‘Covered,
63
Norfolk
Ifiand.
quivering motion in the ground when they fall; their
meditating their aim when they are going to throw ;
and their lhaking them in their hand as they go along.”
The Archipelago, in which Captain Cook had now
remained a confiderable time, is fituated between 14..
29. and 20.4. S.Lat.and between 166. 41. and 170. 21.
E. Long, extending 125 leagues in the dire&ion of
N. N. W. 4- W. and S. S. E 4- E. The principal
iflands are the Peak of the Etoile, Tierra del Efpiri-
tu Santo, Mallicollo, St Bartholomew, the Me of Le¬
pers, Aurora, Whitfuntide Me, Ambrym, Paoom,
Apee, Three Hills, Sandwich, Erromango, Tanna,
Immer, and Anatom. They were firft difcovered in
1606 by Quiros, who fuppofed them to be part of a
fouthern continent; nor were they vifited from that
time till the year 1768, when M. Bougainville beftow-
ed upon them the name of the Great Cyclades, as al¬
ready mentioned. This gentleman, however, belides
landing in the Me of Lepers, only difcovered that the
country was not connected, but confilled of iflands.
Captain Cook examined the whole in fuch an accu¬
rate manner, afcertaining the fltuation of many of
the iflands, and difcovering fuch numbers of new ones,
that he thought he had an undoubted right to impofe
a new name upon them ; and therefore called them the
New Hebrides.
From the New Hebrides Captain Cook fet fail for
New Zealand, in order to profecute his voyage in
fearch of a fouthern continent, but in three days dif¬
covered a large ifland, which he named New Caledo¬
nia ; and which, next to New Zealand, is the largeft
in the Pacific Ocean. It lies between 19. 37. and 22.
30. S. La£. and between 163. 37. and 167. 14. E.
Long, lying N. W. 4- W. and S. E. 4^ E. extending
about 87 leagues in that dire&ion, though its breadth
does not any where exceed 10 leagues. The natives
are ilrong, adtive, well made, and feem to be a middle
race between thofe of Tanna and the Friendly Mes;
and the women were more chafte than thofe of the
iflands farther to the eaftward. The ifland afforded a
eonfiderable variety of plants for the botanifts, and
fome excellent timber of the fpecies of the pitch-pine,
for mafts and fpars. The wood is clofe-grained, white,
and tough ; and very fit for the purpofe. One of the
fmall iflands furrounding the large one was named the
JJle of Pines, from the quantity of thefe trees found
upon it; and another, from the number and variety of
plants it afforded, had the name of Botany IJland. The
coaft, however, was fo dangerous, that our navigator,
having no more time to fpare, was obliged to leave
fome part of it unexplored, though the extent was de¬
termined, as has been already related. Mr Forfter was
of opinion, that the language of this people is totally
different from that of any of the other South Sea
iflands.
Proceeding from New Caledonia, our navigator next
fell in with an ifland about five leagues in circumfe¬
rence, and of a good height, fituated in S. Lat. 29.
2. 30. and E. Long. 168. 16. ; on which he beflowed
the name of Norfoll IJland. It was entirely uninhabited.
Various trees and plants common at New Zealand were
obferved here, particularly the flax-plant, which is more
luxuriant in this ifland than in any part of New Zea¬
land. The chief produce of the ifland is a kind of
fpruce pine, many of the trees of which are 10 or 12
feet in circumference. The palm-cabbage likewife Cock’s
abounds here ; and the coafls are well flocked with Dlfc',ve*
excellent fifh. On the 18th of Oftober they arrived. nes' .
at Queen Charlotte's Sound in New Zealand ; the fi- 6
tuation of which was now afcertained by Mr Wales Arrival at
with the utmoft accuracy, its latitude being found 41. Zealand;
5. 564. S. and its longitude 174. 25. 74 E. On ex¬
amining the gardens which had been made, it was found
that they were in a thriving condition, though they
had been entirely negletted by the natives. Some of
the cocks and hens were fuppofed to be flill in exift-
ence, as a new laid hen’s egg was found, though none
were feen.
On the 10th of November Captain Cook fet fail
from New Zealand in fearch of a fouthern continent;
but having traverfed a vaft extent of fea for 17 days,
from S. Lat. 43. o. to 55. 48. he gave up all thoughts
of finding any more land in this part of the ocean,
and therefore determined to fleer direflly for the weft
entrance of the (traits of Magellan, with a defign of
coafting the fouthern part of Terra del Fuego quite
round Cape Horn to Le Maire’s Straits. As the
world had hitherto received but very imperfedt accounts
of this coaft, he thought a furvey of it would be of
more advantage to navigation and geography than
any thing he could exp’eft to meet with in a higher ^
latitude. On the 17th of December he reached the At Terra
coaft of Terra del Fuego, and in three days more an-del Fuego.
chored in a place to which he gave the name of Chrift-
mas Sound. The land appeared defolate beyond any
thing he had hitherto experienced. It feems to be
entirely compofed of rocky mountains without the N
leaft appearance of vegetation. Thefe mountains ter¬
minate in horrid precipices, the craggy fummits of
which fpire up to a vaft height; fo that fcarcely any
thing in nature can have a more barren and lavage
afpebt than the whole of the country. In the courfe
of his voyage along this coatt, he could not but ob-
ferve, that at no time had he ever made one of fuch
length where fo little occurred of an interefting na¬
ture. Barren and dreary, however, as the coaft was,
it w'as flot totally deftitute of accommodations about
Chriftmas Sound. Frefh water and wood for fuel
were found about every harbour; and the country
every where abounds with fowl, particularly geefe.
A confiderable number of plants were alfo found upon
it, almoft every fpecies of which was new to the bo-
tanifta. In palling by Cape Horn, it was wilhed to
determine whether it belonged to the land of Ter¬
ra del Fuego or to a fmall ifland fouth from it; but
this was found impracticable on account of the fog¬
gy weather and dangerous fea. Its latitude was
now determined to be 55. 58. S. and its longitude
67. 46. W. The coaft appeared lefs dreary here than
on the weftern fide of Terra del Fuego; for though
the fummits of fome of the hills were rocky, the fides
and valleys feemed covered with a green turf and wood-
ed in tufts. In palling this cape a remark was made Remarksoft-
by -the Captain, that if he were on a voyage round a voyage
Cape Horn to the weft, and not in want of wood or^u, d ^aPe
water, or any other thing which might make it necef- orn‘
fary to put into port, he would fail a confiderable way
to the fouthward, fo as to be out of the reach of land
altogether. By this method he would avoid the cur¬
rents, whofe force, he was of opinion, would be broken
COO t 4>3 ] coo
at 10 or 12 leagues diftance from the fhore, and far- Cook was undetermined whether it was a group of Cook’s
ther off would be entirely deftroyed. The extent of iflands or part of a continent lying near the pole, as Di^«vc-
67
, Terra del Fuego, and confequently of Magellan’
Straits, was found to be lefs than what is commonly
laid down in maps and charts, and the coaft, in gene¬
ral, lefs dangerous than has been ufually reprefent-
ed 5 though this muft undoubtedly have been owing
in a great meafure to the weather, which happened to
be remarkably temperate. In one of the fmall iflands
conco^f near ^taten F^and, and which, from their being difco-
the Canimalsvered on new year’s day, were called New Tear’s IJles,
in thefe a remarkable harmony was obferved among the ani-
parts. mals 0f different fpecies with which thefe defolate re¬
gions abound. The fea-lions occupy the greateft part
of the fea-coaft ; the bears occupy the ifland; the
fhags are ported in the higheft cliffs; the penguins in
fuch places as have the beit accefs to and from the fea ;
and the other birds choofe more retired places. Oc-
cafionally, however, all thefe animals were feen to mix
together like domeftic cattle and poultry in a farm¬
yard, without one attempting to hurt the other in the
leaft. Even the eagles and vultures were frequent¬
ly obferved fitting together on the hills among the
fhags, while none of the latter, either old or young,
appeared to be difturbed at their prefence. It is pro-
after all his difappointments he ftill was inclined to,
think that fuch a continent has an cxiftence, on ac¬
count of the vaft quantity of ice met with in the
fouthernfeas; and which from its great height appears
to be formed in bays and gulphs of the land, and not
in the ocean itfelf. The greateft part of this fouthern
continent, however, if it has any exiftence, muft be
within the polar circle, where the fea is fo incumbered
with ice, that the land muft be inacceffible. So great
is the danger in navigating thefe fouthern feas, that
Captain Cook afferts on the moft probable grounds in
the world, that luch lands as lie to the fouthward of
his difcoveries could not be explored; and that no
man would ever venture farther than he had done.
Thick fogs, fnow-ftorms, imenfe cold, and every thing
that can render navigation difficult or dangerous, mult
be encountered; all which difficulties are greatly
heightened by the inexprefiibly horrid afpe& of the
country itfelf. It is a part of the world doomed by
nature never once to feel the warmth of the fun’s rays,
but to be buried in everlafting fnow and ice. What¬
ever ports there may be on the coaft, they are almoft
entirely covered with frozen fnow of a vaft thicknefs.
bable, therefore, that thefe birds of prey fubfift by If, however, any of them fhould be fo far open as to
feeding on the carcafes of the animals which die natu- invite a fhip into it, fhe would run the rifk of being
fixed there for ever, or of coming out in an ice ifland.
To this it may be added, that the iflands and floats on
the coaft, the great falls from the ice-cliffs in the port,
or a fudden fnow-ftorm, might be attended with equal¬
ly fatal effedts. For thefe reafons our commander de¬
rally or by various accidents, and which muft be very
numerous from the immenfe quantity exifting on the
ifland.
68 Our navigator now fet out in queftof that extenfive
Farther dif- coa{t laid down in Mr Dalrymple’s chart, andin wjiich
the fomh-1 *3 mar'te^ t^ie Gulph of St Sebattian; but when he termined to abandon the purfuit of a land whofe ex-
ern regions, came into the place where it is fuppofed to lie, neither iftence was fo equivocal, but whofe inutility, if it fhould
land nor any certain figns of it could be met with. u“ J:r“ J    ‘ ^ ’ ' ’ *
Some iflands, however, were difeovered, particularly
Willis’s ifland, in S. Lat. 54. o. W. Long. 38. 23 ;
another named Bird IJland and South Georgia, fituated
between 53. 57. and 54. 57. S. Lat. and between
38. 13. and 35. 34. W. Long. All thefe were co-
be difeovered, was certain. One thing only remained
to complete what he wifhed to accomplifh, and that
was to determine the exiftence of Bouvet’s land. Inv 7° .
this inquiry he fpent t6 days; but having run for 13q„e^'n
of theie direttly in the latitude affigned to that land, Bouvet’*
and found no appearance of it, or of Gape Circumci-land-
vered with fnow and ice to a great height. Not a tree lion, he concluded, that neither of them had any ex-
was to be feen, not even a fhrub, nor were there any iftence, but that the navigators had been deceived
rivulets or ftreams of water ; the only vegetables to be by the appearance of ice iflands. Two days more
met with were a coarfe ftrong bladed grafs, wild bur- were fpent in queft of fome land which had been ob-
net, and a kind of mofs. A confiderable quantity of ferved more to the fouthward, but with the like bad
feals and penguins were met with, whofe flefh, though, fuccefs: after which our commander abandoned all far-
very coarfe, was preferred by the flop’s company, ther thoughts of fouthein difcoveries, and prepared for
even by Captain Cook himfelf, to the fait provifions, returning to England. On his way home, however,
which were now greatly decayed. The moft foutherly
land difeovered by our navigator was that on which he
beftowed the name of Southern Thule, and which is
fkuated in S. Lat. 590 13' 30'', W. Long. 270 45'.
This was ft ill more defolate than South Georgia* be¬
ing forfaken even by the feals and penguins which
he determined to direift his courfe in fuch a manner a*
to fall in with the ifles of Denia and Marfeveen. Thefe or
are laid down in Dr Halley’s variation chart in the0f Denia63
latitude of 41-L S. and about 4. o. E. from the me-andMarfe-
ridian of the Cape of Good Hope. None of thefevecn'
iflands could be found ; and therefore our commander
abounded on it. Not a Angle herb of any kind was having very little time to fpare either in fearching for
feen upon it, but vaft; high and barren mountains, them or attempting to difprove their exiitence made
the tops of fome of which reached above the clouds;
and it may be remarked, that this feems to be the only
part of the world hitherto difeovered, entirely unfit
for the fupport of animal life.
69 Southern Thule was difeovered on the 31 ft of Ja-
nuary *775 ; and from this to the 6th of February
of** fouth- ^evera^ ather lands were difeovered, and named Cape
ern conti- Brijlol, Cape Montague, Sounder’s IJle, Candlemas IJles,
the bell of his way to the Cape of Good Hope, and
from thence to England. In his paflhge thither he
vrfited the ifles of St Helena, Afcenfion, and Fernando
de Noronha. An experiment was made 011 the ufe of0(. 74
the ftill for procuring freffi water at fea; the relult offjj,^/ '
which was, that though the invention was ufeful upon dieting
the whole, yet it would not by any means be advilable^a-water, -
to trull entirely to it. Provided indeed that there was
and Sandwich's Land. With regard to this laft, Captain not a fcarcity of fuel, and that the coppers were good!
COO [41
Cook’s as much might thus be procured as would fupport
Difcove- jjfe . ]jUt tjjat no efforts would be fufficient to procure
. ^ ' , the quantitv neceffarv for the prefervation of health,
efpecially in hot climates. He was likewife convinced
that nothing contributes more to the health of feamen
than having plenty of frelh water. His laft ftage in
this fecond voyage before his arrival in England was
at Fayal, one of the Azores iflands; and his only de-
fign in flopping here was to give Mr Wales an oppor¬
tunity of finding the rate of the watches going, that
fo he might be enabled to find the longitude of thefe
iflands with the greater certainty.
Third voy- In our commander’s third voyage he touched at the
age. ifland of Teneriffe inftead of Madeira, looking upon
the former to be a better place for procuring refrelh-
ments ; and was convinced of the juftnefs of his con-
^ jefture by the facility with which provifions of all kinds
Vifits the were obtained. The air of the country is exceedingly
Me of Te- healthy and proper for thofe fubjedt to pulmonary
neriffe. complaints. This was accounted for by a gentleman
of the place from the great height of the ifland, by
which it was in the power of any perfon to change the
temperature of the air as he pleafed; and he exprefltd his
4 ] coo
a good harbour there. In his paflage to it feveral new Cook’*
iflands were dilcovered ; to one which Kerguelen had Dl{cov«
given the name of the JJland of Rendezvous, Cap-
tain Cook, oh account of its fliape, changed it to that
of Blight's Cap. It is fituated in S. Lat. 48. 29. E.
Long. 68- 40. and is a high round rock, inaccefiible
to all creatures but birds. Next day he fell in with Defa^t;(
Kerguelen’s land, at firft thought to be a part of the pf that
fouthern continent, but afterwards found by Kergue-iiland.
len himfelf to be an ifland. The extent of it, how¬
ever, was not determined either by the French navi¬
gator or by Captain Cook. The former reckons it
at 200 ;leagues in circumference, but'Captain Cook
eftimates it at much lefs. Our navigator could not
get any extenfive view of it on account of the fog¬
gy weather; but as far as could be difcovered, it was
barren and defolate, infomuch that*there was neither
food nor covering for cattle of any kind, fo that they
would inevitably perilh if any were left. Even the
feai-coafts were in a great meafure deftitute of filh ;
but the fliore was covered with innumerable multitudes
of feals, together with penguins and other birds ; all
of which were fo void of fear, that any quantity
furprize that jphyficians, inftead of fending their patients whatever might be killed without any difficulty. Not
to Nice or Liflbon, did not fend them to Teneriffe.
_ , From the fame gentleman it was learned, that the tea-
Tea-fhrub.    •  ’ j ...1 • u •
a Angle tree nor ffirub could be feen, nor a piece of
drift wood on the fliore; and herbage of every kind
flirub grows in that ifland as a common weed, which is was likewife very fcarce. A prodigious quantity of the
76
conftantly exterminated in large quantities. The
Spaniards, however, fometimes ule it as tea, and afcribe
to it all the qualities of that brought from the Eaft
Indies. They give it alfo the name of tea, and fay
that it was found in the country when the iflands were
firii difcovered. Another botanical curiofity is the
Itnpregna- fruit called the impregnated lemon, which is a perfect
fea-weed, called by Sir Jofeph Banks fucus gigantcus,
was found in one of the bays. ' The whole variety of
plants found in this ifland did not exceed 16 or 18
fpecies. The harbour in which our navigator made
his longeft flay on this defolate coaft was named Port
Pallifer, and is fituated in S. Lat. 49. 3. E. Long.
69. 37. In this voyage our navigator undoubtedly
tedlemon. and diftindl lemon inclofed within another, and dif- dilplayed fuperior nautical abilities to thofe of M.Ker-
fering from the outer only
globular.
being a little more guclen, who in two voyages to the place had never
been able to bring his ftiips to anchor on any part of
From Teneriffe Captain Cook proceeded to the the coaft.
Prince Ed- Cape of Good Hope, and from thence to the fouth- From Kerguelen’s land our navigator proceeded to 8°
ward’s ward, where he fell in with two iflands, the larger of the coaft of New Holland, where he now touched at^.em^“,
covered'**' w^‘C l 13 a^out l5 leagues in circuit, and the fmaller the fouthern part called Pan Diemen's land, where hejaa(j>
cover . abol)t nine ; their diftance from one another being anchored in Adventure Bay. Here they found plenty
about five leagues. The one of thefe iflands lies in of wood and water, with abundance of grafs,coarfe in-
S. Lat. 46. 53. and E. Long. 37.,46; the other in deed, where they went firft aftiore, but afterwards
S. Lat. 46. 4. E. Long. 38. 8. As the fhips paffed much finer and proper for the cattle. Here, as every
through between them, they could not difcern either where elfe, the latitudes and longitudes were fettled
tree or (hrub upon any of them even with the affiftance with the greateft exaiftnefs. The bottom of Adven-
of their bell glaffes. The ffiore feemed to be bold and ture Bay was found to lie in S. Lat. 43° 21' (P \ E.
rocky, their internal parts full of mountains, whofe Long. 1470 29'. The inhabitants viiited them in a
fides and fummits were covered with fnow. Thefe two, friendly manner, but feemed as ftupid and infenfible as
with four others, which lie from 9 to 12 degrees of thofe they had formerly feen. They feemed to be to-
longitude more to the eaft, and nearly in the fame la- tally ignorant of the. ule of iron, and fet no value up-
titude, had been difcovered in the year 1772 by Cap- on any thing in the ornamental way excepting beads;
tains Mation du Frefne and Crozet, two French navi- nor did they feem to be acquainted even with the ufe
gators, in their paffage from the Cape of Good Hope of filh hooks. Here they found the ftories of the an-
tothe Philippines. As no names had been affigned to cient fauns and fatyrs living in hollow trees realized,
them in a chart of the Southern Ocean communicated Some huts covered with bark, and of a moft wretched
to Captain Cook in 1775, the two larger opes were by conftruftion, were indeed found near the Ihore ; but
him diftinguilhed by the name of Prince Edward's the moft commodious habitations were afforded by
IJlands, in honour of bis Majefty’s fourth fon ; the the largeft trees. Thefe had their trunks hollowed
other four, with a view to commemorate the difcove- out by fire to the height of fix or feven feet; and
ries, were called Marion's and Crozet's Iftands. there was room enough in one of them for three or
1 From thefe out commander fleered to the fouthward four perfons to fit round a hearth made of clay; and
in fearch of Kerguelen’s land, which he had been in- it may juftly feem furprifing, that notwithftanding the
78
Voyage 11
queft of
Kergue¬
len’s land. ftru&ed to touch at, in order to difeover, if poffibk,
extreme violence offered to the vegetative powers of
the
COO [ 4^5 1 COO
Cook’s the tree by forminar this habitation, it ilill continued to
liiicove- flouri(t1 !n contequence or one nac uciug left entire.
, ' '*b' , The people, notwithtlanding their extreme barbarity,
were fuppofed to proceed from the fame ftock with
thofe of the South S?a Iflands. As in one of their
vifits the natives had feized upon two pigs which had
been brought afhore, apparently with an intention to
kill them, the commander determined to make them
a prefent of thefe animals; though from their exceffive
ftupidity and inattention there was no probability of
their allowing them to propagate, if they had been
put direftly into their hands. To prevent this, Cap¬
tain Cook ordered the two they had attempted to
feize, being a boar and fow, to be carried about a mile
within the head of the bay, and faw them left by the
fide of a frefli water rivulet. He was prevented from
leaving any other fpecies by a conhderation of the bar-
barity of the inhabitants.
Vifit to From New Holland our navigator proceeded to New
New Zea- Zealand, where he arrived on the 12th of February
land. 1777> and anchored in Queen Charlotte’s Sound.
Here he was defirous of leaving a further fupply of ani¬
mals ; but the inhabitants had hitherto fhown fuch
careleffnefs about thofe which had been left, that he
durlt not venture to leave any other than two goats, a
male and a female with kid, and two hogs, a boar
and fow. He was informed, however, that one chief
had feveral cocks and hens in his poffefiion, fo that
there was fame probability of thefe animals being- al¬
lowed to multiply ; and as ten or a dozen hogs had at
different times been left by Captain Cook, befides
thofe put on ihore by Captain Furneaux, it feems alfa
to be likely that this race of creatures will increafe ei¬
ther in a wild or domeflic ftate, or both. The gardens
had ftill been almoft totally negledted, and fome of
them deftroyed. Thofe which remained, however,
produced cabbages, onions, leeks, purflains, radiihes,
and a few potatoes. Thefe laft had been brought from
the Cape of Good Hope, and were fo greatly melio¬
rated by the change of foil, that with proper cul¬
tivation they feemed to bid fair for excelling thofe of
moft other countries.
Our navigator’s next courfe was towards the Ifland
of Otaheite ; in the run to which he difeovered the
liland of Mangea, fituated in S. Lat. 22. 57. £.
Extraordi- Long. 301. 53. From thence he proceeded to Wa¬
nary pre- teoa, where Omai, now on his way home, recognized
fervation of three of his countrymen, natives of the Society
ionic of the Jf]ands> who had arrived here by the following acci-
Otaheite. dent. About 12 years before, 20 of the natives of
Otaheite had embarked in a canoe, in order to vifit the
neighbouring illand of Ulietea. A violent ftorm arofe,
which drove them out of their courfe, and they fuffered
incredible hardfliips by famine and'fatigue, fo that the
greateft part of them perifhed. Four men continued
hanging by the fide of the veffel for four days after it
was overfet, when they were at laft brought within
fight of the people of this ifland. The latter imme¬
diately fent out their canoes, and brought them a-
ftiore, treating them afterwards with fomuch kindnefs,
that the three who now furvived exprefled no defire
of returning to their own country, though they had
now an opportunity, but chofe rather to remain where
they were. This ifland is fituated in S. Lat. 20. 1. E.
Lon. 201.45. and is .about fix leagues in circumference.
The inhabitants are faid to be equally amiable in their Cuok’s
jjv. r .,,o cinu   ^
Vifiting a fmall ifland named IVcnnooa;etc, or Ota- .
loot ala, fituated in S. Lat. 19. 15. and E. Long. 201.
37. our commander found it without inhabitants, tho’
there were undoubted marks of its being occafionally
frequented. Harvey’s Ifland, which in his former
voyage had been deftitute of inhabitants, was now
found to bq well peopled; but the inhabitants (bowed
fuch an hoftile difpofition that no refrefhments could be
procured ; for which reafon it was determined to fteer
for the Friendly Iflands, where there was a certainty
of meeting with an abundant fupply. In his way tin- paimerft0n
ther he touched at Palmerfton Ifland, from a fmall ifle ifland a pro-
near which a fupply of rzoo cocoa nuts were obtained,'per place
befides abundance of fi(h and birds of various ^e^e/r^t'
Had the ifland been capable of furnifliing water, the w;t}j(Ju|.
Captain would have preferred it to any of the inhabited water,
ones for the purpofe of procuring refrefhments, as they
could be had in any quantity without moleftation from
the petulance of the inhabitants. As water at this
time happened to be a fcarce article, our navigator was
obliged to fupply himfdf from the (bowers which fell,
and which afforded as much in an hour as he could pro¬
cure by diftillation in a month.
During the time of refidence at the Friendly Iflands
our navigator vifited one named Hepaee, at which no
European (hip had ever touched before. Here he was
entertained in a friendly manner, fupplied with re¬
frefhments, and left fome ui'eful animals ; great addi¬
tions were made to the geography of thefe iflands, and
many curious remarks made on the inhabitants and na¬
tural produ&s. It was obferved by Mr Anderfon, that
the people had very proper notions of the immateria¬
lity and immortality of the human foul, and he thought:
himfelf authorifed to aflert, that they did hot worfhip
any part of the vifible creation.
Palling by a fmall ifland named Toolouai, about five Reception
or fix miles in extent, and fituated in S. Lat. 23. 2C. °f at
.L. Eong. -2io. 37. our navigator now arrived at Ota¬
heite. Here Oir.ai met with his relations, fome of
whom received him with apparent indifference; but
his meeting with an aunt and a filler was marked with
expreflions of the moft tender regard. It was Hua-
heine, however, that was deftined for the place of O-
mai’s final refidence, and thither the Captain repaired
on purpofe to fettle him. The affair was conduct¬
ed with great folemnity; and Omai brought with
him a fuitable aflbrtment of prefents to the chiefs,
went through a great number of religious ceremo¬
nies, and made a fpeech, the fubjeft of which had
been dictated to him by Captain Cook. The re- S5
full of the negociation was, that a fpot of ground wasHeIsfc£
afligned him, extending about 200 yards along theHua'
(bore of the. harbour, with a proportionable part of
an adjacent hill. The carpenters of both fhips were
then employed in conftruCling an houfe for him, in
which he might fecure his European commodities.
At the fame time a garden was made for his ufe, in
which were planted (haddocks, vines, pine-apples, me¬
lons, and leveral other garden vegetables. Here he-
met with a brother, .After, and fifter-in-law, by whom
he was very aff’eCtionately received : but it was difeo¬
vered with concern, that none of his relations were
able to proteft him in cafe of any attack on his perfon
coo
86
Remarks on
■ the Society
iilands.
87
■Chriftmas
Hland dis¬
covered-
Sandwich
Xfles.
or property; fo that there was too much reafon to
rvf. t'. mi'uia uc j-iuuuciea iirnneaiateiy un uvc
departure of the EngHAi. To prevent this, if pof-
fible, Captain Cook advifed him to conciliate the fa¬
vour and engage the patronage and proteftion of fome
of the moll powerful chiefs by proper prefents; at the
fame time that he himfelf took every opportunity of
letting the inhabitants know that it was his intention
to return to the ifland again, and if he did not find
Omai in the fame ftate of fecurity in which he left
him, thofe by whom he had been injured would cer¬
tainly feel the weight of his refentment. About a
fortnight after leaving Huaheine, the Captain had a
me/Tage from Omai; in which he informed him that
every thing went well, only that his goat had died in
kidding, for which he defired another might be fent;
and accompanied this requeft with another for two
axes, which were fent along with a couple of kids,
male and female. On taking his final leave of the So¬
ciety Iflands, Captain Cook obferves, that it would
have been far better for thefe poor people never to
have known the fuperiority of the Europeans in fuch
arts as render life comfortable, than after once being
acquainted with it to be again abandoned to their ori¬
ginal incapacity of improvement; as, if the intercourfe
between them and us Ihould be wholly difcontinued,
they could not be reftored to that happy ftate of me¬
diocrity in which they were found. It feemed to him
that it was become in a manner incumbent on the Eu¬
ropeans to vifit thefe iflands once in three or four years,
in order to fupply them with thofe conveniences of
which they have taught them the ufe. It is indeed to
be apprehended, that by the time the iron tools which
were then among them are worn out, they will have
forgot the ufe of their own ; as in this laft voyage it
was obferved that the ufe of their former tools was al-
moft totally aboliftied.
Having left the Society Iflands, Captain Cook now
proceeded to the northward, crofling the equator on
the 22d and 23d of December ; and on the 24th dif-
covered a low uninhabited ifland about 15 or 20
leagues in circumference. Here the longitude and la¬
titude were exa&ly determined by means of an eclipfe
of the fun. The weft fide of it where the eclipfe was
obferved, lies in N. Lat. 1. 59. E. Long. 202. 30.
From the time of its difcovery it obtained the name of
Chrljlmas IJland. Plenty of turtle were found upon it,
and the Captain caufed the feeds of the cocoa-nut,
yams, and melons, to be planted.
Proceeding ftill to the northward, our navigator
next fell in with five iflands, to which he gave the ge¬
neral name of Sandwich ljlesy in honour of his patron.
Their names in the language of the country are Woa-
hoo, Atooi, Oneeheow, Oreehoua, and Tehoora.
They are fituated in the latitude of 21. 30. and 22. 15.
North, and between 199. 20. and 201. 30. E. Long.
The longitude was deduced from no fewer than 72 fets
of lunar obfervations. The larged of thefe iflands is
Atooi, and does not in the lead refemble the other
iflands of the South Sea formerly vifited by our na¬
vigator, excepting only that it has hills near the
centre, which flope gradually towards the fea-fide.
The only dofneftic animals found upon it were hogs,
dogs, and fowls. Captain Cook defigned to have
made the inhabitants of this ifland a prefent of fome
Hr 91.
[ 416 1
COO
others j but being driven out of it by ft refs of wea- Cook**
ther, he was ootigen to Janet them upon a fmaller one
named OnedKcow. They were a he-goat with two fe- ,
males, and a boar and fow of the Englilh breed,
which is much fuperior to that of the South-Sea
Iflands. He left alfo the feeds of melons, pumkins,
and onions. The foil of this ifland feemed in general
to he poor : it was obfervable that the ground was co¬
vered with flirubs and plants, fome of which had a
more delicious fragrancy than had been experienced
before. The inhabitants of thefe iflands are much
commended, notwithftanding their horrid cuftom of eat¬
ing human flelh. In every thing manufa&ured by them
there is an ingenuity and neatnefs in an uncommon de¬
gree ; and the elegant form and polilh of fome of their
fiftiing-hooks could not be exceeded by an European
artift, even aflifted by all his proper tools. From what
was feen of their agriculture alfo, it appeared that they
were by no means novices in that art, and that the
quantity and goodnefs of their vegetable produ&ions
might with propriety be attributed as much to their
ikilful culture as to the fertility of the foil. The lan¬
guage of the Sandwich Ifles is almoft identically the
fame with that of Otaheite. g
Proceeding farther to the northward, our navigators American
difeovered the coaft of New Albion on the 7th of March coaft difeo-
1778. Its appearance was very different from that ofvered-
the countries with which they had hitherto been conver-
fant. The land was full of mountains, the tops of which
were covered with fnow ; while the valleys between
them, and the grounds on the fea-coaft, high as well
as low, were covered with trees, which formed a beau¬
tiful profpedl as of one vaft foreft. The place where
they landed was fituated in N. Lat. 44. 33. E. Long.
235. 20. At fir ft the natives feemed to prefer iron
to every other article of commerce; but at laft they
Ihowed fuch a predileftion for brafs, that fcarcely a bit
of it was left in the Ihips except what belonged to the
neceffary inftruments. It was obferved alfo, that thefe
people were much more tenacious of their property
than any of the favage nations that had hitherto been
met with, infomuch that they would part neither with
wood, water, grafs, nor the moft trifling article, with¬
out a compenfation, and were fometimes very unrea-
fonable in their demands; with which, however, the
Captain always complied as far as was in his power.
The place where the Refolution was now anchored Nootka
was by our navigator called St George’s Sound, but he Sound,
afterwards underltood that the natives gave it the name
of Nootka. Its entrance is fituated in the call corner
of Hope Bay, in N. Lat. 49. 33. E. Long. 233. 12.
The climate, as far as they had an opportunity of ob- Mildnefsof
ferving it, was much milder than that on the eaftern the climate,
coaft of the American continent in the fame parallel of
latitude ; and it was remarkable that the thermometer,
even in the night, never fell lower than 42 J, while in
the day-time it frequently pofe to 6o°. The trees met
with here are chiefly the Canadian pine, white cyprels,
and fome other kinds of pine. There feemed to be a
fcarcity of birds, which are much haraffed by the natives,
who ornament their clothes with the feathers, and ufe
the flefti for food. The people are no ftrangers to the Natives ac-
ufe of metals, having iron tools in general ufe among clua'nt®d
them ; and Mr Gore procured two filver fpoons of a ^ 0£n^_
couftrutlion fimilar to what may be obferved in fome tals.
1 Flemifh
Prhvre
William’:
Sound.
COO [ 417 ] coo
Flemifti piftures, from a native who wore them round it feemed probable that a valuable fur-trade might be Cook’s
his neck as an ornament. It is moft probable that carried on from that country. Several attempts have
thefe metals have been conveyed to them by the way accordingly been made from the Britilh fettlements in -■
of Hudfon’s Bay and Canada ; nor is it improbable the Eaft Indies to eftablilh a traffic of that kind ; but
that fome of them may have been introduced from the little benefit accrued from it except to the proprietors
north-weftern parts of Mexico. of the firft veffel, her cargo having greatly lowered
While Captain Cook failed along this coaft, he kept the price of that commodity in the Chincfe market. It
always at a diitance from land when the wind blew muft be obferved, that on the weftern fide of the Ame-
ftrongly upon it; whence feveral large gaps were left rican continent, the only valuable Ikins met with are
unexplored, particularly between the latitudes of 50° thofe of the fea-otter; thofe of the other animals, efpe-
and 550. The exaft fituation of the fuppofed ftraits cially foxes and martins, being of an inferior quality to
of Anian was not afcertained, though there is hot the fuch as are met with in other parts. pS
lead doubt, that if he had lived to return by the fame Proceeding farther to the northward, our navigator They fall
way in 1 779, he would have examined every part with now fell in with a race of people who had evidently
his tifual accuracy. On departing from Nootka Sound, been vifited by the Ruffians, and feemed to have adopt-{7
our navigator firft fell in with an ifland in N. Lat. 59. ed from them fome improvements in drefs, See. Inthe Ruf- 1
49. E. Long. 216. 58. to which he gave the name of the profecution of this part of their voyage, it appearedfians.
Kay’s IJland. Several others were difeovered in the that they had been providentially conveyed in the dark
neighbourhood ; and the {hip came to an anchor in an through a paflage fo dangerous, that our commander
inlet named by the Captain Prince William’s Sound, would not have ventured upon it in the day time.
Here he had an opportunity of making feveral obferva- They were now got in among thofe iflands which had
tions on the inhabitants, as well as on the nature of lately been difeovered by Captain Beeiing and other
the country. From every thing relative to the former, Ruffian navigators, and came to an anchor in an har-
it W'as concluded, that the inhabitants were of the fame hour of Oonalaftika, fituated in N. Lat. 53. 55. E.
race with the Efquimaux or Greenlanders. The ani- Long. 193. 30. Here it was remarked, that the inha-
mals were much the fame with thofe met with at Noot- bitants had as yet profited very little by their inter-
ka, and a beautiful {kin of one animal, which feemed to courfe with the Ruffians; fo that they did not even
be peculiar to the place, was offered for fale. Mr An- drefs the filh they ufed for their food, but devoured
deribn was inclined to think that it was the fame them quite raw.
to which Mr Pennant has given-tire name of the From Oonalafhka our navigator proceeded again to-
cafan marmot. The alcedo, or great king’s-fiftier, was wards the continent, which he continued to trace as far
found here, having very fine and bright colours. The as poffible to the northward. In the latitude of 54. 48.
humming-bird alfo came frequently, and flew about the E. Long. 195. 45. N. Lat. is a volcano of the fhape of A volcano,
{hip while at anchor ; though it is fcarce to be fuppo- a perfect cone, having the crater at the very fummit.
fed that it can live throughout the winter on account On the coaft farther to the north the foil appears very
of the extreme cold. The water-fowl were in confi- barren, producing neither tree nor fhrub, though the
derable plenty; and there is a fpecies of diver which lower grounds are notdeftitute of grafs and fome other
feemed to be peculiar to the place. Almoft the only plants. To a rocky point of confiderable height, fi-
kinds of fiffi met with in the place were torlk and ha- tuated in N. Lat. 58. 42. E. Long. 197. 36. ourcom-
libut. The trees were chiefly the Canadian and fpruce mander gave the name of CaJ>e Newnham.
pine, fome of which were of a confiderable height and Here Mr Anderfon, the furgeon of the Refolution,
thicknefs. The Sound is judged by Captain Cook to died of a confumption under which he had laboured for
occupy a degree and a half of latitude and two of more than twelve months. Soon after he had breathed
longitude, exclufively of its arms and branches, which his laft, land being feen at a diftance, it was named 4n-
were not explored. There was every reafon to believe derfon’s IJland; and on the 9th of Auguft the {hip an-
that the inhabitants had never been vifited by any Eu- chored under a point of the continent, which he na- 97
ropean veffel before ; but our navigator found them in med Cape Prince of Wales. This is remarkable for be- CapePrinca
poffeffion not only of irpn but of beads, which it is ing the moft wefterly point of the American continent °I Wa^es-
probable are conveyed to them acrofs the continent hitherto known. It is fituated in N. Lat. 65. 46. E.
from Hudfon’s Bay. Long. 191. 45. It is only 39 miles diftant from the »
Soon after leaving Prince William’s Sound, our na- eaftern coaft of Siberia ; fo that our commander had vic;„;ty. 0f
vigators fell in with another inlet, which it was ex- the pleafure of afeertaining the vicinity of the two the conti-
pefted would lead either to the northern fea or to continents to each other, which had only been imper-,ients
Hudfon’s or Baffin’s bay; but upon examination it fe&ly done by the Ruffian navigators. Setting fail^,aa?M*
was found to end in a large river. This was tra- from this point next day, he fleered to the weft and menca*
ced for 210 miles from the mouth, as high as N. north, when he foon fell in with the country of the
Lat. 6i. 30. and promifes to vie with the moft con- Tfchutlki, which had been explored by Beering in
fiderable ones already known, as it lies open by means 1728. Here he had an opportunity of corre&ing M.
of its various branches to a very confiderable inland Stcehlin’s map, who had placed in thefe feas an ima-
communication. As no name was given by our com- ginary ifiand, on which he bellowed the name of ud-
mander to this river, it was ordered by Lord Sand- lafehka. Being convinced that the land he had now
wich to be named Cook’s River. The inhabitants reached was part of the Afiatic continent, our com-
feemed to be of the fame race with thofe of Prince mander dire&ed his courfe eaftward, in order to fall
William’s Sound; and like them had glafs beads and in with that of America; and on the 17th reached
knives, they were alfo clothed in very fine furs : fo that the latitude of 70. 33. and E. Long. 197. 41. Here
VoL.V.Partll. 3 G 6 ^ thcy
COO [41
Cook’s they begafi to perceive that brightnefs in the horizon
called by mariners the Mink of the ice ; and in 70. 41.
* - they had got quite up to it, fo that no farther pro-
95 grefs could be made. Next day they made a fhift to
The pro- get as far as 70. 44 ; but the ice was now as compact
ward'fto^ 33 3 Wa^’ an<^ a^out ten or twelve ^eet *n height. Its
fed by ice" ^urface wa® extremely rugged, and farther to the
northward, appeared much higher. Its furface was
covered with pools of water ; and great numbers of
fea-lions lay upon ir, whofe flefh they were now glad
to ufe as food. Our commander continued to tra-
verfe the Icy Sea till the 29th; but the obftru&ions
becoming every day greater and greater, it was
thought proper to give over all further attempts of
finding a paffage to Europe for that year. He did
not, however, omit the inveftigation of the Afiatic and
American coafts until he had fuljy afcertained the ac¬
curacy of Captain Beering’s accounts as far as he went,
and correfted the errors of M. Stashlin. Great addi¬
tions were thus made to the geographical knowledge
of this part of the globe, and Mr Coxe obferves, that
“ it reflefts no fmall honour upon the Britifh name,
that our great navigator extended his difcoveries much
farther in one expedition, and at fo great a diftance
from the point of his departure, than the Ruffians ac-
compliffied in a long feries of years, and in parts be-
i00 longing or contiguous to their own empire.”
Arrival at An end of this celebrated navigator’s difcoveries,
©onalafli however, was now at hand. From Beering’s llraits
ia' he failed For Oonalafhka, where he arrived on the
2d of Oftober, and ftaid for fome time in order to
repair his (hips. While the carpenters were employed
in this work, one third of the people had permiffion
to go on fhore by turns, in order to gather berries, with
which the ifland abounds, and which, though now
beginning to decay, were of great fervice, in conjun&ion
with the fpruce-beer, to preferve the people from the
fcurvy. Such a quantity of fifh was likewife procured,
as not only ferved to fupply the (hips for the prefent, but
likewife allowed a great,number to be carried out to fea;
fo that hence a confiderable faving was made of the pro-
vifions of the fhips, which was an article of very confi¬
derable confequence. On the eighth of the month
our commander received a very Angular prefent from
fome perfons unknown, by the hands of an Oonalafh¬
ka man named Derramoujhl. It confided of a rye-
loaf, or rather a falmon pye in the form of a loaf, and
highly feafoned with pepper. This man had the like
prefent for Captain Clerke, and each of them was ac¬
companied with a note which none on board could
underftand : a few bottles of rum, with fome wine
and porter, were fent in exchange; it being fup-
pofed that fuch a prefent would be more acceptable
than any other thing that could be (pared. Corporal Le-
diard of the marines, an intelligent man, was at the
fame time diredfed to accompany Derramoufhk, for the
purpofe of gaining a more fatisfaftory account of the
country. On the tenth of the month he returned with
three Ruffian feamen or furriers, who, with feveral o-
thers, refided at Egoodhac, where they had a dwell¬
ing houfe, fome ftore-houfes, and a floop about 30 tons
burden. One of thefe people was either mafter or
mate of the veffel, and all of them were very fober
and decent in their behaviour. The greateft difficul-
5'
8 ] COO
ty arofe from the want of an interpreter; for which Cook’*
reafon the converfation was carried on by figns. How- Difcove-
ever, the Captain obtained a fight of two fea charts, nes ,
both of which he was allowed to copy. One of them
included the fea of Penfhinfk, part of the coall of
Tartary down to the latitude of 41°; the Kurile If-
lands, and the penjnfula of Kamtfchatka. The other
comprehended all the difcoveries that had been made
from the time of Captain Beering to the year 1777 ;
but thefe were found to be very trifling. Indeed our
navigator was affured by all the Ruffians whom he had
occaiion to fee, that they knew of no other iflands
than thofe laid down in the charts juft mentioned,
and that none of them had ever feen any part of the
American continent excepting what lies oppofite to Ior
the country of the Tfchutlki. With regard to the na- Charafler
tives of Oonalaflika, they are to appearance the moftot ’he in-
inoffenfive and peaceable people in the world, not tohal31tants'
be in a ftate of civilization ; though perhaps this may
be ow ing in fome meafure to the conneftion they have
long had with the Ruffians. From the affinity ob-
ferved between the language of the Efquimaux, Green¬
landers, and thofe of Norton’s Sound in N.Lat. 64. 55.
there is great reafon to believe that all thofe nations
are of the fame extra&ion ; and if that be the cafq,
there is little reafon to doubt that a communication A commu-
by fea exifts between the eaftern and weftern fides ofnicati°n
the American continent; which, however, may very
probably be {hut up by ice in the winter time, or e- the eaft
ven for the moft part throughout the year. and weft
The return of Captain Cook to the Sandwich If. coafts of
lands, with the lamentable cataftrophe that enfued^"111^^3*
have been already related under the former article. We Confequem.
fhall now briefly enumerate the confequences of hiscesofCap-
difcoveries wuth refpeft to the advancement of fcience.tain Cook’*-
Thefe are principally his having overthrown the hy-difcoveriei'
pothefis of a fouthern continent of immenfe extent,
ufually fpoken of under the name of Terra aujlralis in¬
cognita ; his demonftration of the impra&icability of a
northern paffage either by Afia or America to the
Eaft Indies; and his having eftabliftied a fure method
of preferving the health of feamen through the long-
eft fea-voyages. It is remarked by the bifhop of
Carlifle, that one great advantage refulting from the
late furveys of the globe, is the refutation of fanciful
theories too likely to give birth to imprafticable un¬
dertakings. The ingenious reveries of fpeculative
philofophers will now be obliged to fubmit, perhaps
with reluftance, to the fober dictates of truth and ex¬
perience ; nor is it only by difcouraging future unpro¬
fitable fearches that the late voyages are likely to be
of fervice to mankind, bu£ likewife by leffening the
dangers and diftreffes formerly experienced in thofe
feas which are within the a&ual line of commerce and
navigation.
The interefts of fcience, as well as of commerce,,
are highly indebted to the labours of our illuftrious
navigator. Before his time almoft half the furface of
the globe was involved in obfcurity and confufion: but
now fuch improvements have been made, that geogra¬
phy has affumed a new face, and become in a manner
a new fcience ; having attained fuch completenefs as
to leave only fome lefs important parts to be explored
by future voyagers. Other fciences befides geography.
COO [ 419 J coo
Conk’j have been advanced at the fame time. Nautical aftro-
Difcove- vvhich was in its infancy when the late voyages
a~ were undertaken, is now brought to much greater per¬
fection ; and, during Captain Cook’s laft expedition,
many even of the petty officers could take the diftance
of the moon from the fun or from a ftar, the molt de¬
licate of all obfervations, with fufficient accuracy ; and
the officers of fuperior rank would have been alhamed to
have it thought that they did not know how to obferve
for, and compute, the time at fea; a thing before hardly
mentioned among feamen. It muft, however, be re¬
membered, that a great part of the merit in this re-
fpedl is due to the board of longitude. In confequence
of the attention of that board to the important objeft
juft mentioned, liberal rewards have been’given to ma¬
thematicians for perfecting the lunar tables and facili¬
tating calculations; and artifts have been amply en¬
couraged in the conftru&ion of watches, and other in-
ftruments better adapted to the purpofes of navigation,
than any that formerly exifted.
A vaft addition of knowledge has been gained with
refpedt to the ebbing and flowing of the tides ; the di¬
rection and force of the currents at fea ; the nature of
the polarity of the needle, and the caufe of its varia¬
tions. Natural knowledge has been increafed by ex¬
periments on the effeCts of gravity in different and very
diftant places; and from Captain Cook’s having pene¬
trated fo far into the fouthern regions, it is now afcer-
tained, that the phenomenon ufually called the aurora
borealist is not peculiar to high northern latitudes, but
belongs equally to all cold climates, whether north or
fouth.
No fcience, however, perhaps Hands more indebted
to thefe voyages than that of botany. At leal! 1200
new fpecies of plants have been added to thofe former¬
ly known ; and every other department of natural
hiftory has received large additions. Befides all this,
there have been a vaft many opportunities of obferving
human nature in its different iituations. The iflands
vilited in the middle of the Pacific Ocean are inhabited
by people, who, as far as could be obferved, have con¬
tinued unmixed with any different tribe fince their firft
fettlement. Hence a variety of important faCts may
be collected with refpeCt to the attainments and defi¬
ciencies of the human race in an uncultivated Hate, and
in certain periods of fociety. Even the curiofities
brought from the newly difcovered iflands, and which
enrich the Britilh muieum and the late Sir Alhton Le¬
ver’s (now Mr Parkiufon’s) repofitory, may be confi-
dered as a valuable acquifition to this country, and af¬
fording no fmall fund of inftruCtion and entertainment.
There are few inquiries more generally interefting
than thofe which relate to the migrations of the
various colonies by which the different parts of the
earth have been peopled. It was known in general,
that the Afiatic nation called the Malayans poffeffed in
forfner times much the greateft trade of the Indies,
and that their (hips frequented not only all the coafts
of Afia, but even thofe of Africa likewife, and parti¬
cularly the large ifland of Madagafcar: but that from
Madagafcar to the Marquefas and Eafter Ifland, that
is, nearly from the eaft fide of Africa till we approach
the weft coaft of America, a fpace including almoft
half the circumference of the globe, the fame nation
of the oriental world fhoukl have made their fettle-
ments, and founded colonies throughout almoft every Cook’s
intermediate ftage of this immenfe traCf, in iflands at Dlfcove*
amazing diftances from the mother-continent, is an hi- ^ ’
ftorical faCt that before Captain Cook’s voyages could
not be known, or at leaft but very imperfedlly. This
is proved, not only by a fimilarity of manners and cu-
ftoms, but likdwife by the affinity of language ; and
the colle&ions of words^which have been made from all
the widely-diffufed iflSnds and countries vifited by
Captain Cook, cannot fail to throw much light on the
origin of nations, and the manner in which the earth
was at firft peopled.
Befides this, information has been derived concern¬
ing another family of the earth formerly very much
unknown. This was the nation of the Efquimaux or
Greenlanders, who had formerly been known to exill
only on the north-eaftern part of the American conti¬
nent. From Captain Cook’s accounts, however, it ap¬
pears, that thefe people now inhabit alfo the coafts and
iflands on the weft fide of America oppofite to Kamt-
fchatka. From thefe accounts it appears alfo, that the
people we fpeak of have extended their migrations to
Norton Sound, Oonalalhka, and Prince William’s
Sound ; that is, nearly to the diftance of 1500 leagues
from their ftations in Greenland and the coaft of La-
bradore. Nor does this curious faft reft merely on the
evidence arifing from the fimilitude of manners ; for it
Hands confirmed by a table of words, exhibiting fuch
an affinity of language as muft remove every doubt from
the mind of the molt fcrupulous inquirer.
From the full confirmation of the vicinity of the
two great continents of Afia and America, it can no
longer be fuppoftd ridiculous to believe, that the latter
received its inhabitants from the former ; and by the
fafts recently difcovered, a degree of further evidence
is added to thofe which might formerly be derived from
nature concerning the authenticity of the Mofaic ac¬
counts. It is not indeed to be doubted, that the in-
fpired writings will ttand the teft of the moft rigorous
inveftigation ; nor will it ever be found, that true philo-
fophy and Divine Revelation can militate againft each
other. The rational friends of religion are fo far from
dreading the fpirit of inquiry, that they wifh for no¬
thing more than a candid and impartial examination of
the fubjedt, according to all the lights which the im¬
proved reafon and enlarged fcience of man can af¬
ford.
Another good effeft of the voyages of Captain Cook
is, that they have excited in other nations a zeal for
fimilar undertakings. By order of the French govern¬
ment, Meffrs de la Peyroufe and de Langle failed from
Breft in Auguft 1785, in the frigates Bouffole and
Aftroloobe, on an enterprize, the purpofe of which was
to improve geography, aftronomy, natural hiftory, and
philofophy, and to collect an account of the cuftoms
and manners of difterent nations. For the more ef-
fedlual profecution' of the defign, feveral gentlemen
were appointed to go out upon the voyage, who were
known to excel in different kinds of literature. The
officers of the Bouffole were men of the heft informa¬
tion and firmed refolution ; and the crew contained a
number of artificers in various branches of mechanics.
Marine watches, &c. were provided, and M. Dagelet
the aftronomer was particularly directed to make ob-‘
fervations with M. Condamine’s invariable pendulum,
3 G 2 to
COO t 420 ] coo
to determine the differences in gravity, and to afcer- the having obtained frefli means of fubfiftence, this of CookS
tain the true proportion of the equatorial to the polar itfelf mull be confidered as a valuable acquifition.
diameter of the earth. It has likewife been made evi- Greater confequences, however, may foon be expe&ed. nei,‘ f
dent, that notwithftanding all that has been done by The connexion formed with thefe people may be con-
Captain Cook, there is Hill room for a farther invef- fidered as the fir ft ftep towards their improvement; and
ligation of the geography of the northern parts of the thus the bleffings of civilization may be fpread among
world. The objedt accordingly was taken up by the the various tribes of Indians in the Pacific Ocean,
Emprefs of Ruffia, who committed the care of the which in time may prepare them for holding an ho-
enterprize to Captain Billings an Englifliman in her nourable place among the nations of the earth. l0+
majefty’s fervice. We lhall only make one obferva- As a fupplement to this account of the difcoveries Account of
tion more concerning the benefits likely to accrue from made by Captain Cook himfelf, we lhall here fubjoin CaPta‘n
the voyages of Captain Cook, and that is relative to a narrative of the fubfequent part of the voyage by
the fettlement in Botany Bay. Whatever may be
fuppofed to accrue to the nation itfelf from this fettle¬
ment, it mull undoubtedly give the higheft fatisfadlion
Captains Clerke, &c. until the return of the Ihips toV°^e'
England. At the time of Captain Cook’s death, the
great point of a north-weft palfage remained in fome
to every friend to humanity to be informed, that thus meafure to be Hill determined r for though, by the
a number of unhappy wretches will be effe&ually pre- event of the former attempt, it had been rendered
vented from returning to their former fcenes of temp¬
tation and guilt, which may open to them the means
of induftrious fubfiftence and moral reformation. If
the fettlenDent be conduced with wifdom and prudence,
highly improbable that they Ihould fucceed in this, it
was Hill refolved to try whether or not, at certain
feafons of the year, the ice might not be more open
than they had hitherto found it. The lirft objedl thatMetj^t
tain Cookes body ; for which Mr King was of opinion the .reco-
that fome vigorous meafure ought inftantly to be pur- veTJ
fued. His motives for this, befides the perfonal re- ^j^ia
indeed it is hard to fay what beneficial confe^uences naturally occurred, however, was the recovery of Cap-taken for
may be derived from it, or to what height it may a- ~
rife-. Rome, the greateft empire the world ever faw,
proceeded from an origin little, if at all,, fuperior to      ,     r  ‘' Cook’s
Botany Bay. For an account of this fetlement fee gard he had for the Captain, were to abate the con- body.
the article New-I/oiijiND. CJ ^ *“ r r J ‘ r
One other objefl remains only farther to be confi¬
dered with regard to thefe voyages, and that is the ad¬
vantages which may refult from them to the difeovered
fidence which mull be fuppofed to enfue on the part
of the natives, which would probably incline them to
dangerous attempts ; and this the more particularly,
as they had hitherto difcovesed much lefs fear of the
people. Here, however, it may perhaps be difficult to fire-arms than other lavage nations were accultomed to
fettle matters with precifion. From the preceding
counts, it mull be evident that the intentions of Cap¬
tain Cook were in the higheft degree benevolent; and
do. Mr Samwell alfo takes notice of the intrepidity
of the natives in this refpedl; but afcribes it, in the firlt
inftance, to ignorance of their effedts; and in the next.
if at any time the people were the fufterers, it mull toanotion, thatastheeffedlsof thefearmswereoccafioned
have been through their own fault. In one inftance by fire,they might be counteradled by water. For this
indeed it might be otherwife, and that is with refpedl purpofe they dipped their war-mats in water ; but find-
to the venereal difeafe. The evidence in this cafe cannot
be altogether fatisfadlory. Mr Samwell, who fucceeded
Mr Anderfon as furgeon of the Refolution, has endea-
ing themfelves equally vulnerable after this method had-
been purfued, they became more timid and cautious.
As matters flood at prefent, there was even reafon to
voured to Ihow, that the natives of the lately explored dread the confequences of a general attack upon the
parts of the world, and efpecially of the Sandwich Ihips; and therefore Mr King was the more confirmed
iilands, were not injured by the Englilh; and it was in his opinion of the neceffity of doing fomething to
the conftant care and folicitude of Captain Cook to convince them of the prowefs of their adverfaries. In
prevent any infe&ion from being communicated to the thefe apprehenfions he was feconded by the opinion of
people where he came. But whether he was u-niver- the greater part of the officers on board ; and nothing
daily fuccefsful in this refpeil or not, it is evident that feemed more likely to encourage the Mlanders to make
the late voyages were undertaken with a view exceed- the attempt than an appearance of being inclined to
ingly different from thofe of former times. The horrid an accommodation, which they would certainly attri-
eruelties of the Spanifti conquerors of America cannot be bate to weaknefs or fear. Captain Clerke, however,,
remembered without concern for the caufe of religion and thofe who were in favour of conciliatory meafures,
and human nature; but to undertake expeditions with a urged, that the mifchief was already irreparable; that
defign of civilizing the world,and meliorating its condi- the natives, by reafon of their former friendfhip, had
tion, is certainly a noble objeft. From the long continu- a ftrong claim to the regard of the Englifii; and that
ed intercourfe betwixt this country and the South Sea the more particularly, as the late calamitous accident
iflands, there cannot be any doubt that fome degree of did not appear to have taken its rife from any preme-
Jknowledge muft already have beea communicated to ditated defign: they urged alfo the ignorance of the king
them. Their flock of ideas muft naturally be enlar- concerning the theft, and the miftake of the iflandera
ged by the number of uncommon obfervations which who had armed themfelves on a fuppofition that fome at-
have been prefented to them, and new materials tempt would be made to carry off the king. To all this
furnrfhed for the exercife of their rational faculties.
A confiderable addition muft be made to their im¬
mediate comfort and enjoyment by the introduftion
cf ufeful animals and vegetables; and if the only be-
*efit they fhould ever receive from Britain ffiould be
was added, that the ffiips were in want of refreffiments,
particularly water; that the Refolution’s foremaft would
require feven or eight days before it could be properly
repaired; and as the fpring was fall advancing, the
fpeedy profecution of the voyage to the northward
ought
COO L 421 1 COO
Cook’s ought now to be the only objeft ; that a vindiftive con-
Difcove* te[^ w{tj1 t}je natives might not only juftify an imputa-
; tion of needlefs cruelty, but would occafion great de-
V"—' lay in the equipment of the drips.
In confequence of the prevalence of thefe fentiments
lenient meafures were adopted, though the behaviour
of the natives continued to be very infolent. A great
body ft ill kept pofleflion of the ftiore ; many of whom
came off in their canoes within piftol-fhot of the (hips,
and provoking the people by every kind of infult and
defiance. A train of negociations for Captain Cook’s
body took place ; in which the natives (howed the moft
holtile and treacherous difpofition, and, as afterwards
appeared, had cut the flefh from the bones and burnt
it. A piece of about ten pounds weight was brought
by two natives at the hazard of their lives, who gave
information that the reft had been burnt, and that the
bones were in the poffeffion of the king and fome of the
principal chiefs. Information was given, at the fame
time, that the chiefs were very defirous of war in or¬
der to revenge the death of their countrymen.
Thus it appeared that the pacific plan had anfwered
no good purpofe. No fatisfaftory anfwer had been
given vto the demands made of the bodies of the flain ;
nor was any progrefs made in the great work intended,
viz. a reconciliation with the natives; they ftill re¬
mained on ftiore in an hoftile pofture, as if determined
to oppofe any endeavours that might be made by our
people to land ; at the fame time that a landing
was become abfolutely neceffary, in order to complete
the ftock of water. Had this fpiritlefs condudf been
perfifted in, there is not the leaft doubt that neither
this purpofe nor any other could have been effected.
The infolence of the natives became every day greater
and greater; infomuch that one of them had the au¬
dacity to come within mulket-ftiot of the Refolution,
and, after throwing feveral ftones, waved Captain
Cook’s hat over his head, while his countrymen on
ftiore were exulting and encouraging his audacity. By
this infult the people were fo highly enraged, that,
coming on the quarter-deck in a body, they begged
that they might no longer be obliged to put up with
fuch reiterated provocation, but might be allowed to
make ufe of the firft opportunity of revenging the
death of their Captain. The neceflity of more vi¬
gorous meafures, therefore, being now apparent, a
few difcharges of the great guns, with the burning of
I06 a village and fome other ads of feverity, at laft pro-
Hisre- duced the mangled remains of Captain Cook. They
mains at were wrapped up in a bundle, in which were found
laft obtain- hands entire, which were eafily known by a
fear in one of them dividing the fore-finger from the
thumb the whole length of the metacarpal bone. A-
1 long with thefe was the fkull, but with the fcalp fepa-
rated from it, and the bones of the face wanting; the
fcalp, wish the ears adhering to it, and the hair cut
ftiort; the bones of both the arms, with the flein of
the fore-arms hanging to them ; the bones of the thighs
and legs joined together, but without the feet. The
ligaments of the joints were obferved to be entire ; the
whole ftiowing evident marks of having been in the
fire, except the hands, which had the flefti remaining
upon them, and were cut in feveral places and cram¬
med with fait, moft probably for the purpofe of pre¬
ferring them. The Audi was not fra&ured j but the
fcalp had a cut in the back part of it. The lower jaw Cook’s
and feet were wanting, having been feized by differ-
ent chiefs. , n“’ f
Having accompliftied the purpofes of their ftay in JQ^
this place, Captain Clerke fet fail from Karakakooa bay Unfuccefs-
in O-why-hee towards Mowee, with adefign to explore fulattempt*
the coafts of that ifland more fully than had been done,*0
but were unable to accomplifh their purpofe : nor in- 1 *
jj « • 1 i*r covenes*.
deed was it in their power to accomplifh any dilcovery
of confequence among thefe iflands. The only intel¬
ligence worth mentioning which they were able to pro¬
cure was, that wars had enfued about the property of
the goats which were left by Captain Cook on the
ifland of Oneehow, as has been already mentioned,
and that during the conteft all thefe poor animals, who
had already begun to multiply, were deftroyed ; fo
that the benevolent attempts of our illuftrious naviga¬
tor in favour of thefe iflanders had proved abortive.
On quitting the ifland of Oneehow our navigators
fet fail for another named Modoopapappa, which they
were affured by the natives lay within five hours fail¬
ing of Tahoora, a fmall ifland in the neighbourhood
of Oneehow. In this they proved unfuccefsful; on
which it was determined to fteer for the coaft of Kamt-
fchatka. In the paflage thither they arrived at that
place where de Gama is faid to have difcoveied a great
extent of land ; but of this they could difeover no ap¬
pearance. This imaginary continent is faid to have
been difeovered by a navigator called Join de Gama,
but who feems alfo to have been imaginary, as no per-
fon can find out either the country where he lived or
the time when he made the difeovery. We are in¬
formed by Muller, that the firft account of it was pub-
liftied by Texeira in a chart in 1649, who places it be¬
tween the latitude of 44 and 45 degrees, and about
16o° E. Long, and calls it “ land feea by John de
Gama, in a voyage from China to New Spain.” By
the French geographers it is removed five degrees far-
ther to the eaft. When they arrived at Kamtfchatka Their fa-
they were entertained in the moft hofpitable manner, vouraWe-
and furnilhed with every thing that could be procured reception
in that defart and barren region. “ In this wretched
extremity of the earth (fays the narrator of the voy- c a 3'
age), beyond conception barbarous and inhofpitable,
out of the reach of civilization, bound and barrica-
doed with ice, and covered with fummer fnow, we ex¬
perienced the tendereft feelings of humanity, joined to
a noblenefs of mind and elevation of fentiment which
would have done honour to any clime or nation.” From
Major Behm, in particular, they received fo many and
fo great obligations, that an handfome acknowledge¬
ment was made him by the Royal Society, as has been
already obferved. Even the failors were fo ftruck with,
his gratitude, that they voluntarily req-uefted that their
allowance of grog might be with-held, in order to
compliment the garrifon of Bolcheretlk with the fpi-
rits; faying, that they knew brandy was extremely
fcarce in that country, the foldiers on ftiore having of¬
fered four roubles a bottle for it. The officers, how¬
ever, would not allow them to fuffer by their genero-
fity in this inclement country and feafon of the year
(the month of March not being yet expired) ; but,
in room of the fmall quantity of brandy which Major
Behm confented to accept, fubftituted an equal quan¬
tity of rum.
It
fubrait
the Fm-
yrefs.
COO [ 422 ] coo
It is worth obferving, that the kindnefs with which fymptoms, by drinking too freely of the liquors with Cook’*
which he had been prefented by the Englilh. Captain D><cove-
Clerke loon relieved them, by putting them under the ngs' ,
care of the furgeons of the Ihips, and fupplying them v
with four-krout and malt for fweet wort. In confe-
quence of this a furprifing alteration was foon obferved
in the figures of moft of them; and their fpeedy re¬
covery was principally attributed to the fweet wort: r n
On the 12th of June they began to proceed north-Eruption
to fubdue thefe people had been made finoe the year ward along the coaft of Kamtfchatka, and three day8°f a vol~
1750, when the Ruffian forces had at laft been obliged 'after had an opportunity of obferving an eruption ofcano'
to retreat, after having loft their commanding officer, one of the volcanoes of that peninfula. On the 15th,
The Ruffians afterwards removed their frontier fortrefs before day light, they were furprifed with a rumbling
from the river Anadyr to the Ingiga, which runs in- »oife like diftant thunder ; and when the day appear-
to the northern extremity of the fea of Okotfk, and ed, found the decks and fides of the {hips covered n
inch thick with fine duft like emery.
Difawe- the emprefjj had ordered the Bmiffi navigators to be
» treated in this part of her dominions was amply re-
IOp warded, even with no lefs than the addition of a new
Tfdv,:tfki kingdom to the Ruffian empire, which hitherto her
arms had not been able to lubdue. Among the north¬
ern Afiatics none had been able to maintain their in¬
dependence except the Tfchutlki, whp inhabit the
north-eaftern extremity of the continent. No attempt
gives its.name to a gulf to the weft of the fea of Pen-
. fhinlk. On' the day that Captains Clerke and Gore
arrived at Bolcharetfk, Major Behm received difpatches
from this fort, acquainting him that a party of the
Tfchutlki had been there with voluntary offers of friend-
fhip and a tribute. That on alking the reafon of fuch
an unexpedted alteration in their fentiments, they had
acquainted his ‘people, that two large Ruffian boats
had vifited them towards the end of the preceding
fummer ; that they had been ffiown the greateft kind-
nefs by the people who were in them, and had entered
into a league of amity with them ; and that, in confe-
quence of this, they came to the Ruffian fort in order to
fettle a treaty upon terms agreeable to both nations.
This incident had occafioned much fpeculation, and
could never have been underftood without the affift-
ance of thofe who were now prefent; the large Ruf-
Jian boats having been in truth no other than the Refolu-
1IQ tion and Difcovery, under Captains Cook and Clerke.
•Vaft quan- About the middle of May the fnow began to melt
fity of fifh. very fall in this unhofpitable region, and the ffiips be¬
ing now on their paffage northward, met with an ex¬
cellent opportunity of fupplying themfelves with fifti.
The beach was cleared of ice on the 15th of the
month ; from which time vaft quantities came in from
every quarter. Major Behm had ordered all the Kamt-
fchadales to employ themfelves in the fervice of the
Engliffi {hips; fo that often they found it impoffible
to take on board the quantities that were fent. They
chiefly confifted of herrings, trout, flat filh, and cod.
Thefe filh were here found in fuch plenty, that once
the people of the Difcovery furrounded fuch an ama¬
zing quantity with the feine, that they were obliged
to throw out a very confiderable number, left the net
fhould have been broken to pieces; and the cargo was
Hill fo abundant, that, befides having a Hock for im¬
mediate ufe, they filled as many calks as they could
conveniently fpare for faking ; and after fending on
board the Refolution a tolerable quantity for the
fame purpofe, they left behind feveral bulhels upon the
jjj beach.
The air was
at the fame time loaded and obfcured with this fub-
ftance ; and in the neighbourhood of the volcano it-
felf, it was fo thick that the body of the hill could not
be difcovered. The explofions became more loud at
12 o’clock and during the afterndon, being fucceed-
ed by Ihowers of cinders, generally of the lize of peafe,
though fome were as large as hazzle-nuts. Along
with thefe therfe alfo fell fome fmall Hones which
had undergone no alteration from the action of the
fire. In the evening there were dreadful -claps of thun¬
der with bright flalhes of lightnings which, with the
darknefs of the Iky, and the fulphureous fmell of the
air, produced a moft awful and tremendous effect.
The Ihips were at this time about 24 miles diftant
from the volcano ; and it appeared that the volcanic
Ihower had been carried to a ftill greater diftance, as
they next day found the bottom of the fea to confift
of fuch fmall Hones as had fallen upon the decks of the
Ihips. The mountain was ftill obferved to be in a ftate
of eruption on the 18th.
For fome time Captain Clerke kept the coaft of Voyage to
Kamtfchatka in view, with a defign to make an accu-d16 north-
rate furvey of it; but in this he was difappointed byward‘
foggy and fqually weather : however, he determined
the pofition of fome remarkable promontories, and at
laft finding the feafon too far advanced to accomplilh
his delign, fet fail for Beering’s Straits, chiefly with a
view to afcertain the fituation of the projecting points
of the coaft.
On the 3d of July our navigators came in fight of
the illand of St Lawrence, and another which was
fuppofed to lie between it and Anderfon’s illand. The
latter being entirely unknown to Captain Clerke, he
was inclined to have approached it, but was unable to
effeCt his purpofe. All thefe illands, as well as the coaft
of the Tfchutlki on the continent, were covered with
fhow, and had a difrnal appearance.
In the preceding year Captain Cook had determined
the fituation of the Illands of St Diomede to be in 65°
48' latitude ; but now being fomewhat at a lofs to re*
concile this with the pofition of the continent, they
Spirituous While they remained in this country an opportu-
liquors per- n|ty offered of obferving the pernicious effeCts of fpi- Hood for fome time over to the latter, till fully con-
* he'fea m rituous liquors in producing the fea-fcurvy. All the vinced of the accuracy of the former obfervation. At
fcurvy. Ruffian fpldiers were in a greater or leffer degree af- ' ' ’
Hided with that diforder, fome of them being in the
laft ftage of it; and it was particularly obferved that a
ferjeant, with whom our people had kept up a moft
friendly intercourfe, had, in the courfe of a feiv days,
brought upon himfelf the moft alarming fcorbutic
this time they approached within two or three leagues
of the eaftern cape of Alia, which is an elevated
round head of land extending about five miles from
north to fouth, and forms . a peninfula connected
with the continent by a narrow ifthmus of low
land. It has a bold Ihore, and three lofty detached
fpiral
COO [ 423 ] coo
Conk’s fpiral rocks are feen off its northern part. It was iftill
Difcovc- encompaffed wdth ice, and is covered with fnow. Here
t they found a ftrong current fetting to the northward,
* which at noon had occafioned an error in the compu¬
tation of the latitude of no lefs than 20 miles. A fi-
milar effeft had been obferved the preceding year in
pafling this ftrait. On (leering to the north-eaft the
weather cleared up, fo that ^they had a view of the
eaftern cape of Afia, Cape (Prince of Wales on the
weftern coaft of America, with a remarkable peaked
hill on the latter, and the two iflands of St Diomede
lying between '.hem. Here they met with great num¬
bers of very fmall hawks, having a compreifed bill ra¬
ther large in proportion to the body ; the colour dark
brown, or rather black, the breaft whitifh, and towards
1T4 the abdomen of a reddifh hue.
Are flop- On the 6th of July at 12 o’clock, the (hips were in
ped y tie jr. Long. 191.^6. when having already
paffed many large pieces of ice, and obferved that in
feveral places it adhered to the continent of Alia, they
wrere fuddenly (lopped about three in the afternoon by
an extenfive body, which ftretched towards the weft.
By this their hopes of reaching any higher latitude
than what had been attained laft year were confiderably
diminiftied ; but finding the courfe obftru&ed on the
Afiatic fide, they proceeded to the north eaftward, in
order to explore the continent of America, between the
latitudes of 68° and 69°; which had laft year been found
impra&icable on account of the foggy weather: but
in this alfo they were partly difappointed; for on the
7th, about fix in the morning, they met with another
large body of. ice ttretching from north-weft to fouth-
eaft ; but not long afterwards, the horizon becoming
clear, they had a view of the American coaft at the
diftance of about ten leagues, .extending from north-
eaft by eaft to- eaft, and lying between N. Lat. 68°
and 68° 20'. As the ice was not very high, the view
extended a great way over it, fo that they could per¬
ceive it exhibiting a compaft folid furface, and appa¬
rently adhering to the land. Soon after the weather
became hazy, fo that they loft fight of the land ; and
it being impoffible to get nearer, they continued to
fleer northward clofe by the fide of the ice. This
courfe was continued till next morning, during which
time the (hips paffed fome drift-wood; but the morning
fbllwwing, thewind fhifting to the north, theywere obli¬
ged to (land to the weftward. At two in the afternoon
they were again clofe to an immenfe expanfe of ice;
which from the maft head feemed to conlift of very
large compact bodies, united towards the exterior
edge, tho’ in the interior parts fome pieces floated in
the water ; it extended from weft fouth-weftto north-
eaft by north. There was now a neceflky for (leering
towards the fouth, as the ftrong northerly winds had
drifted down fuch numbers; of loofe pieces, that they
had encompaffed the (hips for fome time, and it was
impoffible to avoid very fevere ftrokes while failing a-
mong them. Thus, however, they reached the lati¬
tude of 69. 12. and E. Long. i88i 5. ; but having
how failed almoft 40 leagues to the weft along the
edge of the ice without perceiving any opening, Cap¬
tain Clerke determined to bear away fouth by eaft, the
only quarter which was clear at prefent, and to wait
till the feafon was fomewhat farther advanced before
any further attempts were made. The intermediate
time he propofed to employ in furveying the bay of Cook’s
St Lawrence, and the coaft fituated to the font’.ward I)‘f?:ove'
of it ; as it muft be a great fatisfa&ion to have an »
harbour fo near in cafe of the (hips receiving any da¬
mage from the ice ; and the Captain was alfo defirous
of paying another vifit to the Tfchutfki, efpecially in
confequence of the accounts of them that had been
given by- Major Behm. In this navigation they killed Remark-
feveral fea-horfes, and had an opportunity of obfer- able affec-
ving the ftrength of parental affection in thofe mon-don of the
ftrous animals. On the approach of the boats towarc^8
the ice, all of them took their young ones under their y0Ung<
fins, and attempted to make their efcape with them into
the fea. Some, whofe cubs were killed or wounded,
and left floating upon the furface of the water, rofe
again, and carried them down, fometimes juft as they
were on the point of being taken into the boat; and
could be traced bearing them to a confiderable diftance
through the water, which was ftained with their
blood. They were afterwards obferved bringing them
at intervals above the furface, and again plunging un¬
der its furface with an horrid bellowing ; and one fe- ■
male, whofe young one had been killed and taken on
board, became fo furious, that (he ftruck her tufles
through the bottom of the Gutter. Iig
Our navigators dill found themfelves difappointed in The (hips
their attempts. On approaching the coaft of the finally ftop--
Tfchutflci they met with a large and compadl body of Pcd byice'
ice, extending to the north-eaft, fouth-weft, and fouth-
eaft, as far as the eye could reach ;- fo that they were
again obliged to fail back to the northward. Here al¬
fo their courfe was foon (lopped; for, on the 13th,
being in N. Lat. 69. 37. and about the middle of the
channel between the two continents, they once more
fell in with a compadt body of ice, of which they
could perceive no limit. Captain Clerke therefore de¬
termined to make a final attempt on the coaft of A-
merica, the paffage northward having been found
laft year pra&icable much farther on that than the A-
(iatic fide. Thus they attained the latitude of 70. 8.
at the diftance, as was fuppofed, of 25 leagues from
the coaft of America ; and fome days after got about
three minutes farther to the northward, about the di¬
ftance of feven or eight leagues from the Icy Cape.
This, however, was the utmoft limit of the voyage to
the north-eaft ; and they were foon obliged to relin-
quifh all hopes of proceeding farther on the Ame¬
rican fide. Another effort was (till refolved on to
try the practicability of a north-weft paffage; and for
this purpofe our -navigators altered their diredlion on
the 21 ft of July, palling through a great quantity of
loofe ice. * About ten at night the main body was dif-
eovered at a very fmall diftance, fo that they were ob¬
liged to proceed to the fouthward. During this peri- n 117
lous navigation, the Difcovery, after having almoft got fituanonsf
clear out from the ice, became fo entangled by feveral the Difco-
large pieces, that her progrefs was (lopped, and (he very,
immediately dropped to leeward, falling broadfide fore-
mod on the edge of a confiderable body of ice, on
which (he ftruck with violence, there being an open
fea to windward. At length the mafs was either bro¬
ken or moved fo far, that the crew had an opportu¬
nity of making an effort to efcape. But unluckily..
before the (hip gathered way fufficient to be under
command,. (he. fell to leeward a fecond time upon an-
other-
COO 1 424 1 coo
Cook's otlier piece of ice ; and the fvvell rendering it unfafe
Difcovs- t0 t0 windWard, and finding no profpecf of get-
. ri'5' . ting clear, they pulhed into a fmall opening, and made
the veffel fail to the ice with hooks. Here the Refo-
lution for fome time loft fight of her confort, which
occafioned no fmall uneafinefs in both vefiels; but at
length, on a change of wind, the Difcovery, fetting
all her fails, forced a paflage, though not without lo-
fing a confiderable part of her fheathing, and be¬
coming very leaky by reafon of the blows ftie had re¬
ceived.
Thus the two veflels continued to make every effort
to penetrate through the immenfe quantities of ice
with which thofe feas are filled winter and fummer,
but without fuccefs. Captain Clerke therefore finding
that it was impofiible either to get to the northward,
or even to reach the Afiatic continent, the fhips being
alfo greatlydamaged, determined to proceed fouthward
to the bay of Awatfka, on the Kamtfchadale coaft, to
refit, and afterwards take a furvey of the coafts of Ja-
pan before the winter fliould fet in.
Of the ex- During this navigation, two general conclufions were
tent of the adopted relative to the extent of the Afiatic coaft, in
Afiatic con- oppofition to the opinion of Mr Muller. One is, that
thtfnorth t^ie promontory, called the Eajl Cape, is in reality the
ward? * moft eafterly point of Afia ; and that no part of that
quarter of the globe extends farther than the longitude
of 190° 22' E. The other conclufion is, that the
latitude of the moft north-eafterly point of Afia does
not exceed 70° N. but is rather fomewhat below it.
As the prefent difcoveries, however, were terminated
on the Afiatic fide in the 69th degree of latitude, the
probable direftion of the coaft afterwards can only be
conjefttfred. The only fources of knowledge in this
cafe are the Ruffian charts and journals; and thefe in
general are fo defe&ive and contradictory, that the
particulars of their real difcoveries can fcarce be col¬
lected. Hence the Ruffian geographers are greatly
divided in their opinions concerning the extent and fi¬
gure of the peninfula of the Tfchutfki. Mr Muller,
in a map publhhed in 1754, fuppofes it to extend north-
eaft as far as the latitude of 750, and E. Long. 190,
ending in a round cape which he calls Tfchukotjioi Nofs.
To the fouthward of this cape he fuppofes the coaft to
form a bay to the weft, bounded in the latitude of
67° 18' by Serdze Kamen, the moft northerly point
obferved by Beering in his expedition in 1728. A
new form is given to the whole peninfula in a map
publilhed by the academy at Peterfburg in 1776. Here
its moft north-eafterly extremity is placed in N. Lat.
730, E. Long. 178° 30'; and its moft eafterly point
in N. Lat. 65°, E. Long. 189® 30'. All the other
maps vary between thefe two fituations; and the only
thing in which all of them agree is the pofition of the
caft cape in N. Lat. 66°. The form of the coaft,
however, is very erroneous in the map publifhed by
the academy, and may be entirely difregarded. In
Mr Muller’s map, the northern part of the coaft has
fome refemblance to that laid down in Captain Cook’s
and Clerke’s furvey, as far as the latter extends ; only
that Mr Muller does not make it trend fufficiently to
the weft, but fuppofes it to recede only five degrees
of longitude between the latitudes of 66° and 69°;
whereas it really recedes almoft ten.
We muft next examine Mr Muller’s authority for
N° 91. 3
fuppofing the coaft to bend round to the north and Cook’,
north-eaft in fuch a manner as to form a large pro- Difcove-
montory. —Mr Coxe, whofe accurate refearches into ries-
this matter muft give great weight to hia opinion, y~“"
thinks, that the extremity of the promontory was
never doubled by any perfon except Defhneff and his
party ; who failed, in the year 1648, from the river
Kovyma, and are imagined to have got round to the
river Anadyr. The account of this voyage, however,
gives no geographical delineation of the coaft, fo that
its figure muft be determined by other circumftances ;
and from thefe it evidently appears, that the Tfchu-
kotikoi Nofs of Deftmeff is in reality the Eaft Cape of
Captain Cook. Speaking of this Nofs, he fays, that a
peribn, with a favourable wind, may fail from the
iilhmus to the Anadyr in three days and three nights.
This agrees entirely with the fituation of the Eaft Cape,
which is about 120 leagues from the mouth of the river
Anadyr ; and there being no other ifthmus to the
north between that and the latitude of 69°, it feems evi¬
dent, that by this defcription he certainly means either
the Eaft Cape or fome other fituated to the fouthward
of it. In another place he fays, that oppofite to
the ifthmus there are two iflands, upon which fome
of the Tfchutlki nation were obferved, having pieces
of the teeth of fea-horfes fixed in their lips ; and this
exadtly coincides with the two iflands that lie to the
fouth eaft of the Eaft Cape. Our navigators indeed
did not obferve any inhabitants upon thefe iflands;
but it is by no means improbable, that fome of thofe
from the American coaft, whom the above defcription
perfectly fuits, might have accidentally been there at
the time, and been miftaker\ for a tribe of Tfchutfki.
Other circumftances, though lefs decifive than thofe
juft mentioned, concur in the fame proof. Defhneff
fays, that in failing from the Kovyma to the Anadyr,
a great promontory, which proje&s far into the fea,
muft be doubled; and that this promontory extends
between north and north-eaft. From thefe expreffions,
perhaps, Mr Muller was induced to reprefent the
country of the Tfchutfki in the form we find in his
map ; but if he had been acquainted with the pofition
of the Eaft Cape as determined by Captain Cook, and
the ftriking agreement between that and the promon¬
tory or ifthmus in the circumftances above mentioned,
it is moft probable that he would not have deemed
thefe expreffions of fufficient weight to authorife his
extending the north-eaftern extremity of Afia either
as far to the north or to the eaft as he has done.
Another authority ufed by Mr Muller feems to have
been the depofition of the Coffac Popoff, taken at
the Anadirfkoi Oftrog in 1711. Popoff was fent by
land, in company with feveral others, to demand tri¬
bute of the independent Tfchutfki tribes, who inhabi¬
ted the country about the Nofs. In the account of
this journey, the diftance betwixt Anadirfk and Tfchu-
kotfkoi Nofs is reprefented as a journey of ten weeks
with loaded rein-deer. From fuch a vague account,
indeed, we can judge but very little; but as the di¬
ftance between the Eaft Cape and Anadirfk does not
exceed 200 leagues, and confequently might be accom-
plifhed in the fpace above mentioned at the rate of 12
or 14 miles a-day, we cannot reckon PopofFs account
of its fituation inconfiftent with the fuppofition of its
being the Eaft Cape. It may likewife be obferved,
that
Coot’s
JJifcove-
COO l 425 1 COO
that Popotf’s rout lay along the foot of a rock named
Matkol, fituated at the bottom of a fpacious gulf,
which Muller fuppofes to have been the bay he lays
down between the latitudes of 66° and 72®; and he
accordingly places the rock Matkol in the centre of it:
but it feems more probable, that it might be a part of
the gulf of Anadyr, which they would undoubtedly
pafs in their journey towards the Eaft Cape.
But what feems to put the matter beyond all doubt,
and to prove that the cape which Popoff vifited cannot
be to the northward of 69° Lat. is that part of his
depofition which relates to an ifland lying off the Nofs,
from whence the oppofite coaft might be difcerned;
for,as the oppofite continents, in the latitude of 69°,
diverge fo far as to be upwards of 100 leagues diftant,
it is highly improbable that the Afiatic coaft fliould
again trend eadward in fuch a manner as to come al-
moft in fight of that of America. As an additional
proof of the pofition in queftion, we may obferve, that
theTfchukotlkoiNofs is conftantlylaiddown as dividing
the fea of Kovyma from that of Anadyr; which could
not poffibly be the cafe if any large cape had proje&ed
to the north-eaft in the higher latitudes.
The next queftion to be determined is, to what degree
of latitude the northern coaft of Afia extends before it
inclines dire&ly weftward ? Captain Cook was always
ftrongly inclined to believe, that the northern coaft of
this continent, from the Indigirka eaftward, has hi¬
therto been ufually laid down above two degrees to the
northward of its true fituation ; for which reafon, and
on the authority of a map that was in his poffdfion,
as well as from intelligence received at Oonalaftika, he
placed the mouth of the Kovyma in the latitude of 68
degrees. Should he be right in his conje&ure, it is
probable th^t the coaft of Afia does not any where
extend beyond the latitude of 70 degrees before it
trends to the weft; and confequently our navigators
mu ft have been only one degree from its northern ex¬
tremity. This feems to be confirmed by the filence of
the Ruffian navigators concerning any extent of conti¬
nent to the northward of Shelatfkoi Nofs ; nor do
they mention any remarkable promontory,' except
the Eaft Cape, between the Anadyr and the Kovy¬
ma. Another particular which Defhneff relates may
perhaps be deemed a farther confirmation of this
■opinion, vi%. that he met with no obftruftion from
ice in failing round the north-eaftern extremity of
Afia; though he adds, that this Tea is not at all
times fo free of it, which indeed appears evidently
to be the cafe. That part of the continent which lies
between Cape North and the mouth of the Kovyma is
about 125 leagues in extent. A third part of this
fpace, from Kovyma eaftward, was explored in the
year 1723 by Feodot Amoffoff, who informed Mr
Muller that its direction was eafterly. Since that time
it has been furveyed with fome accuracy by Shalauroff,
whofe chart makes it trend north-eaft-by-eaft as far
as Shelatlkoi Nofs, which he places at the diftance of
about 43 leagues eaft of the Kovyma. ( The fpace
therefore between the Nofs and Cape Norik, fomewhat
more than 80 leagues, is the .only part of the Ruffian
dominions now remaining unexplored. But if the
Kovyma be erroneoufly laid down in point of longitude
as well as latitude, a fuppofition far.from being impro¬
bable, the extent of the undifcovered coaft wall be con-
Vol. V. Part II.
fiderably diminifhcd. The following are the reafons
why it may be fuppofed that the mouth of the Kovyma
is placed too far to the weftward in the Ruffian charts: i_
1. Becaufe the accounts that have been given of the
navigation of the Frozen Ocean from that river round
the north-eaftern extremity of Afia to the Gulf of
Anadyr, do not agree with the fuppofed diftance be¬
tween thofe places. 2. Becaufe the diftance from the
Anadyr to the Kovyma over land is by fome Ruffian
travellers reprefented as a journey of no very great
length, and eafily performed. 3. Becaufe the coaft
from the Shelatlkoi Nofs of Shalauroff appears to trend
direftly fouth-eaft towards the Eaft Cape. From all
w'hich it may be inferred, with fome degree of proba¬
bility, that only 60 -miles of the northern Afiatic coaft
remain to be explored.
With regard to a north-weft paffage from the At- Impraiftica-
lantic into the Pacific Ocean, it is highly probable Nlky of a
that no fuch thing exiftsto the fouthward.oif the j6th
degree of latitude. If, in reality, it exifts any where, eaft pafiage
it muft certainly be either through Baffin’s Bay, or into the
by the north of Greenland in the weftern hemifphere,Pacitic
or in the eaftern through the frozen fea to the north ceari‘
of Siberia ; fo that in whichever continent it is feated
the navigator muft pafs.through Beering’s Straits.
All that remains now to be confidered therefore is,
the impracticability of penetrating into the Atlantic
Ocean through thefe Straits. From the voyages of
our navigators it appears, that the fea' to the northward
of Beering’s Straits is more free from ice in Auguft
than in July, and perhaps may be ftill more fo in fom£
part of September. But after the autumnal equinox,
the length of the day diminiffies fo fall that no farther
thaw can be expe&ed; and it would be u.nreafonable
to attribute fo great an effeCt to the warmth of the
laft fortnight of September as to imagine it capable of
difperfing the ice from the moll northern parts of the
American coaft. Even admitting this to be poffible,
it muft at leaft be allowed that it would be highly im¬
prudent to endeavour to avoid the Icy Cape, by rali¬
ning to the known parts of Baffin’s Bay, a diftance of
about 1260 miles, in fo ffiort a time as that paffage can
be fuppofed to be open. On the fide of Afia there
appears ftill lefs probability of fuccefs, as appears from
the teftimony of the Ruffian as well as the Englifh na¬
vigators. The voyage of Deftincff indeed proves the
poffibility of circumnavigating the north-eaftern ex¬
tremity of Afia ; but even this affords a very flender
foundation to hope for any great benefit, as no perfon
beiides himfelf appears to have fucceeded in tke at¬
tempt, though more than a century and an half has
now elapfed fince the time' of his voyage. But even
fuppofing that, in fome very favourable feafon, this
cape might be doubled, ftill the Cape of Taimura re¬
mains, extending as far as the 78th degree of latitude,
and round which none pretend ever to have failed.
Thefe arguments feem conclufive againft any ex-
peftation of a north-weft or north-eaft paffage to the
Eaft Indies, unlefs on the fuppofition of an open fea
very near the polar regions. The probability of get¬
ting into the polar feas is confidered under the article
Pole ; and indeed from what has already been ad¬
vanced muft appear very little. Waving this fubjt.ct
therefore at prefent, we (hall return to the remarks
made by our navigators during their fecond voyage.
3 H 'in
COO l 426 ] coo
In til's they did little more than confirm what had complexions of the Ruffians feemed to be much more Cook’s
been obferved during the firil; for it never was in unhealthy and fallow than when they faw them for- Difcove'
j their power to approach the Continent of Afia in any merly; and the Ruffians made the fame obfervation n^''
higher latitude than 67°, nor that of America in any upon the complexions of their guefts. As no certain
part, excepting a few leagues, between 68° and 68° 20', caufe for this alteration could be perceived, the blame
1 which they had not feen before. In both years the was by both parties laid on the verdure of the coun-
ice was met with fooner on the Afiatie than the A- try ; which, by contrailing itfelf with the colour of the
, merican coaft; but in 1779 they met with it in lower people, made the latter appear to difadvantage.
latitudes than in 1778. As they proceeded north- Having Repaired as well as they could the damap-e^
ward, the ice was found univerfally more compadl and fullaitied by the (hips among the ice, our navigators
foiid, though they were afeertained at the fame time that now began to proceed on their voyage fouthward y
the greateft part of what they met with was moveable, but the (battered condition of their veffels, with the
Its height on a medium was eftimated at eight or ten little time they had now to fpare on voyages of dif-
feet; though fome of the higheft might be about 16 covery, after having been fo long at fea, now render-
or 18. The currents were generally at the rate of one ed them much lefs fuccefsful than formerly. Before
mile in the hour, and more generally fet from the leaving the peninfula, however, they took care to give
^ fuch a defeription of the bay of Awatfka as mult be
of great fervice to future navigators. This bay lies,
in 52. 51. N. Lat. and 158. 48. E. Long, in the
bight of another bay formed by Cape Gavareea to the
fouth-weft than from any other quarter. Their force,
however, was fo inconfiderable, whatever their direc¬
tion might be, that no concluiion could poffibly be
drawn from them concerning the exiltence or non-
' Beath of
Captain
Clerke.
See Cleric.
Retut:
Kamtfchat-
ka, with
deferiptien
of the Bay
of Awat-
ika.
exiitence of a northern paffage. With regard to the fouth, and Cheeponlkoi Nofs to the north. The lat-
temperature of the weather, July was found much ter of thefe bears from the former N. E. by N. and is
colder, than Auguft. In the former, the thermometer 32 leagues diftant. From Cape Gavareea to the en-
was once at 28°, and very frequently at jo"5; whereas trance of Awatlka bay the coaft takes a northerly di-
during the laft year it was very uncommon in Auguft reclion, and extends about 11 leagues. It confifts of
to have it as low as the freezing point. High winds a chain of ragged cliffs and rocks, and in many parts
were experienced in both feafons, all of which blew prefents an appearance of bays or inlets; but on a
from the fouth-weft. The air was foggy whenever nearer view, low grounds were perceived by which the
the weather became calm; but the fogs were obferved headlands were connefted. From the entrance of
to accompany foutherly winds much more than others. Awatlka bay, Cheeponfkoi Nofs bears E. N. E. diftant
The ftraits, in the neareft approach of the conti- 17 leagues. The (bore on this fide is flat and low,
nents to each other, in the latitude of 66°, are about with hills behind gradually riling to a confiderable
13 leagues over; beyond which they diverge to N. height. The latitude of Cape Gavareea is 52. 21.
E. by E. and W. N. W.; fo that in the latitude of By this remarkable difference of the land on both lides.
69°, their diftance from each other is about 300 miles, the Cape, navigators may be directed in their courfe
A great refemblance is obferved betwixt the continents towards it from the fouthward. When they approach
on both fides of the ftraits. Both are deftitute of it from the northward, Cheeponlkoi Nofs becomes
wood ; the Ihores are low, with mountains further in- very confpicuous ; it being a high projedting her dland,
land, riling to a’great height. The foundings in the and united to the continent by a large extent of level
mid way between them were from 29 to 30 fathoms, ground lower than the Nofs; and prefents the fame
gradually decreafing as either continent was approach- appearance whether viewed from the north or fouth.
ed; with this difference, however, that the water was Should the weather happen to be fufficiently clear to
fomewhat lhallower on the coaft of America than that admit a view of the mountains both on the fea coaft
of Afia, at an equal diftance from land. The hot- and in the neighbourhood, the fituation of Awatlka
tom, towards the middle, was a foft llimy mud ; and bay may be known by the two high ones to the fouth
near either Ihore was a brownilh fand intermixed with of it. That neareft the hay is in the form of a fugar
a few Ihells and fmall fragments of bones. There loaf, the other flat at top and not quite fo high. Three
was but little tide or current, and what there was came very confpicuous mountains appear on the north fide
from the weft. of the bay ; of which that to the weft appears to be
Before the Ihipscould reach the peninfula ofKamt- the higheft; the next, being a volcano, is readily
fchatka. Captain Clerke expired; in confequence of known by the fmoke which it emits; the third is the
which the command devolved upon Mr King, Cap- moll northerly, and might properly be called a duller
tain Gore being now the fuperior officer. On the of mountains, as it prefents feveral flat tops to view.,
return to Kamtfchatka, Captain Clerke was buried in When got within the capes, the entrance of the bay
thefpot on which a church was to be erefted; it ha- .of Awatlka to the north is pointed out by a light-
ving been his own defire to be interred in the church. houfe on a perpendicular head-land. Many funken
By the time they arrived at this peninfula, the face rocks lie to the eaftward of this head-land, ftretching
.of the country was greatly improved; the fields being two or three miles into the fea ; and which with a
covered with the moll lively verdure, and every plant moderate fea or fwell will always Ihow themfelves. A
in the moft flourilhing ftate. The eruption of the fin all round illand lies four miles to the fouth of the
volcano which they had obferved on their laft depar- entrance, principally compofed of high pointed rocks,
ture from Kamtfchatka, had done little or no damage one of which is very remarkable. The entrance into
notwithftanding its violence. Several ftones had fallen the bay is at fiift about three miles wide, and one and
about the fize of a goofe’s egg, but none larger. At an half in the narrowed part; the length is four miles
this vifit it was obferved by our navigators, that the in a north-weft dire£lion. Within the mouth is a
noble.
GOO [ 427 ] COO
Cook’s noble feafon about 25 miles in circumference; in which
Difcove- are ^ }jarbours 0f Rakoweera to the eaft, Tarcinlka
1 , to the well, and St Pererand St Paul to the north.
I13 On leaving Kamtfchaka, it was unanimoufly judged
Account of improper to make any attempt to navigate the Teas
the voyage between the continent of Afia and Japan. Inftead of
from the ^ this, it was propofed to fleer to the eaftward of that
vmg K.unt- i^andj and/in the way thither to fail along the Ku-
fthdika. riles; examining particularly thofe that are fituated
neareft to the northern coali of Japan, which are faid
to be eonfiderable, and neither fubjeA to the Ruffians
nor Japanefe. In cafe they fhould have the good for¬
tune to meet with fome fecure and commodious har¬
bours in any of thefe iflands, it was fuppofed that they
might prove of confiderable importance, as convenient
places of flicker for fubfequent navigators, who might
be employed in exploring the feas as the means of pro¬
ducing a commercial intercourfe among the adjacent
dominions of the two above mentioned empires. The
next objedl was to take a furvey of the coafls of the
iflands of Japan ; after which they deflgned to fail
for the coafl of China as far north as poffible, and
then fail along it fouthwar'd to Macao.
In purfuance of this plan, they failed along the
coall of Kamtfchatka, till they came to the fouthern
point called Cape Lopatka, whofe fituatkm they deter¬
mined to he in Lat. 51. o. E. Long. 156. 45. To the
north-weft they obferved- a very lofty mountain whofe
fummit was loft in the clouds; and the fame inftant
the firft of the Kurile i Hands, named Shoomjla, made
its appearance in the dire&ion of weft, half fouth.
The paffage betwixt the fouthern extremity of Cape
Lopatka and the ifland of Shoomfka, though only
ope league in breadth, is extremely dangerous, both
on account of the rapidity of the tides, and of the funk
rocks which lie off the Cape. In the courfe of this
voyage, they had occafion to obferve, that a violent
fwell from the north-eaft frequently took place, though
the wind had been for fome time in the wcftern quarter;
a circumftance for which they feem to have been al¬
together unable to account.
The tempeftuous weather which now occurred, pre¬
vented any difcoveries from being made among the
Kurile Ifles; however, they again failed over the fpace
affigned to the land of De Gama, without being able
to find it ; and from comparing fevcral accounts of
the Ruffian navigators with one another, it was judged
extremely probable, that the land of Jefo, fo frequent¬
ly laid down in former maps, is no other than the moft
fouiherly of the Kurile Ifles. On coming in view of
the coaft of Japan, they had the mortification to find
that they could not approach the land by reafon of
the tempeftuous weather and bad ftate of the ftiips; the
tmafts of thefe iflands being extremely dangerous. Faf¬
fing from thence in queft of the Bafliee Iflands, they
found amazing quantities of pumiee-ftone floating in
the fea ; fo that they feemed inclined to believe, with Mr
Muller, that if there had formerly been any part of the
continent, or large ifland, called tb.t Land of Jefo, it,
muft have difappeared in a volcanic convulfion; which
alfo muft have been the cafe with that called the Cotn-
pany’s Land and Staten Ifland. Though they had not
the good fortune to find the Bafliee Iflapds, they dif-
covered one in 24. 48. N. Lat. 141. 20. E. Long,
which fitvin its appearance, and the fulphureous fmell
emitted by it, they named Sulphur If and. After this Cookery
nothing remarkable occurred till their ^arrival at Can- Co(Spfrj
ton in China, where having ftaid for fome time in or-
der to put their (hips in repair, they at laft fet fail for
Britain ; but through ftrefs of weather were driven as
far north as Stromnefs in Orkney. From thence Cap¬
tain Gore fent a difpatch to the Lords of the Admi¬
ralty to inform them of his arrival; and on the 4th of
Oftober 1780 the fliips reached the Nore, after an ab-
fence of 4 years 2 months and 22 days.
COOKERY, the art of preparing and dreffing
vi&uals foV the table : An art, in its fimpleft and ordi¬
nary modes, fufficiently familiar to every houfekeeper;
and, in its luxurious refinements, too copioufly detailed
in manuals and diredlories publilhed for the purpofe to
require any enlargement here, were it even a topic that
at all deferved confideration in a work of this nature.
COOLERS, in medicine, thofe remedies which
produce an immediate fenfe of cold, being fuch as have
their parts in lefs motion than thofe of the organs of
feeling; as fruits and all acid liquors. Or they
are fuch as, by a particular vifeidity or groffiicfs of
parts, give the animal fluids a greater confiftency than
they had before, and confequently retard their motion,
having lefs of that inteftine force on which their heat
depends: of this fort are cucumbers and all fubitanegs
producing vifeidity.
COOM, a term applied- to the foot that gathers
over an ovenVmouth ; alfo for that black, greaiy fub-
ftance, which works out of the wheels of carriages.
COOMB, or Comb, of Corn, a dry meafure con¬
taining 4 bufhels, or half a quarter.
COOP, in huftrandry, a tumbrel or cart inclofed
with boards, and ufed to carry dung, grains, dec.
Coop is alfo the name of a pen, or enclofed place,
where lambs, poultry, &c. are Ihut up in order to
be fed.
COOPER, a tradefman who makes calks, tubs,
and barrels, for holding liquors or other commodities.
Every cuftom-houfe and excife office has an officer
called King’s-cooper ; and every fliip of burden has a
cooper on board.
Cooper (Anthony-Alhley), firft earl of Shaftef-
bury, a moft; able ftatefman, was the fon of Sir John
Cooper, Bart, of Rockborn in Hampfhire, and was
born in 1621. He was eledfed member for Tewkef-
bury at 19 years of age, in the fhort parliament that
met April 13. 1640. He feems to have been well af-
fedted to the king’s fervice at the beginning of the civil
wars; for he repaired to the king at Oxford with offers
of affiftance : but prince Maurice breaking articles to a
town in Dorfedhire that he had got to receive him,
furnilhed him with a pretence for going over to the
parliament, from which he accepted a commiffion.
When Richard Cromwell was depofed, and the Rump
come again into power, they nominated Sir Anthony
one of their council of ftate, and a commiffioner for
managing the army. At that very time he had enga¬
ged in a fecret correfpondence for reftoring Charles II.
and, upon the king’s coming over, was fworn of his
privy council. He was one of the commiffioners for
the trial of the regicides ; was foon after made chan¬
cellor of the exchequer, then a commiffioner of the
treafury; in 1672 was created earl of Shaftelbury ;
and foon after was railed to the poll of lord chancel-
3 H 2 lor.
COO [ 428
Cooper, lor. He filled this office with great ability and inte-
  grity; and though the (hort time he was at the helm
was in a tempeftuous feafon, it is doing him juftice to
fay, nothing could either diftradl or affright him.
The great feal was taken from him in 1673, 12 months
after his receiving it ; but, though out of office, he Hill
made a diftinguifhed figure in parliament, for it was
not in his nature to remain inactive. He drew upon
himfelf the implacable hatred of the duke of York, by
fteadily promoting, if not originally inventing, the fa¬
mous project of an exclufion-bill. When his enemies
came into power, he found it neceffary to confult his
fafety by retiring into Holland, where he died fix
weeks after his arrival, in 1683. While his great a-
bilities are confeffed by all, it has been his misfortune
to have his hiftory recorded by his enemies, who Itu-
died to render him odious. Butler has given a very
fevere charadfer of him in his Hudibras.
Cooper (Anthony Afhley), earl of Shaftefbury,
was fon of Anthony earl of Shaftefbury, and grandfon
of Anthony fir ft earl of Shaftefhury, lord high chan¬
cellor of.England. He was born in 1671, at Exeter-
houfe in London, where his grandfather lived, who
from the time of his birth conceived fo great an affec¬
tion for him, that he undertook the care of his edu¬
cation ; and he made fo good a progrefs in learning,
that he could read with eafe both the Latin and Greek
languages when only 11 years old. In 1683, his fa¬
ther carried him to the fchool at Winchefter, where he
was often infulted on his grandfather’s account, whofe
memory was odious to the zealots for defpotic power:
he therefore prevailed with his father to confent to his
defire of going abroad. After three years ftay abroad,
he returned to England in 1689, and was offered a
feat in parliament in fome of thole boroughs where his
family had an intereft. But this offer he did not now
accept, that he might not be interrupted in the courfe
of his ftudies, which he profecuted five years more
with great vigour and fuccefs; till, on Sir John Tren-
chard’s death, he was elefted burgefs for Pool. Soon
after his coming into parliament, he had an opportu¬
nity given him of expreffing that fpirit of liberty by
which he uniformly direfted his condudt on all occa-
fions. It was the bringing in and promoting “ the
a£f for regulating trials in cafes of high treafon.”
But the fatigues of attending the houfe of commons,
in a few years fo impaired his health, that he was ob¬
liged to decline coming again into parliament after the
diffolution in 1698. He then went to Holland, where
the converfation of Mr Bayle, Mr le Clerc, and feve-
ral other learned and ingenious men, induced him to
refide a twelvemonth. During this time, there was
printed at London, in 8vo. an imperfect edition of
lord Aihley’s Inquiry concerning Virtue. It had been
furreptitioufly taken from a rough draught, fketched
when he was no more than 20 years of age. His lord-
fhip, who was greatly chagrined at this event, immedi¬
ately bought up the impreflion before many books were
fold, and fet about completing the treatife, as it
afterwards appeared in the fecotid volume of the Cha-
ra&eriftics. Soon after lord Afhley’s return to Eng¬
land, he became, by the deceafe of his father, earl of
Shaftefbury. But his own private affairs hindered
him from attending the houfe of lords till the fe-
cond year of. his peerage, when he was very earned
] . G 0 0
to fupport king William’s meafures, who w^is at 'Cooper.
that time proje&ing the grand alliance. So much  
was he in favour with king William, that he had
the offer of fecretary of flate ; but his declining confti-
tution would not allow him to accept it. Though he
was difabled from engaging in bufinefs, the king con-
fulted him on matters of very high importance; and
it is pretty well known that he had the greateft fhare
in compoling that celebrated laft fpeech of king Wil¬
liam, December 31. 170.1. On Queen Anne’s ac-
ceffion to the throne, he returned to his retired man¬
ner of life, being no longer advifed with concerning
the public ; and was then removed from the vice-ad¬
miralty of Dorfet, which had been in the family for
three generations. In 1703, he made a fecond jour¬
ney to Holland, and returned to England the year fol¬
lowing. The French prophets, foon after this, having
by their enthufiaftic extravagancies made a great noife
throughout the nation, and, among different opinions,
fome advifing a profecution, the lord Shaftefbury ap¬
prehended that fuch meafures tended rather to inflame
than to cure the difeale. This was the origin of his
Letter, concerning Enthufiafm, which he fent to lord
Somers, then prefident of the council; and which, being;
approved of by that nobleman and other gentlemen to
whom it was fhown, was publifhed in 1708, tho’ without
the name of the author, or that of the perfon to whom it
was addreffed. His Moralift, a philofophical Rhapfody,
being a recital of certain converfations on natural and
moral fubje&s, appeared in Jan. 1709; and in the May
following hisSen/us Communis, an Effay upon the Freedom •
of Wit and Humour, in a Letter to a Friend. It was in.
the fame year that he entered into the marriage ftate
with Mrs Jane Ewer, the youngeft daughter of Tho.
mas Ewer, Efq; of Lee in Hertfordfhire. By this
lady, to whom his lordfhip was related, he had an only
fon, Anthony the late Earl of Shaftefbury. In 1710,
his Soliloquy, or Advice to an Author, was pub¬
lifhed at London in 8vo. While he was thus employ¬
ing himfelf in literary compofition, his health declined
fo faft, that it was recommended to him to feek affiftance
from a warmer climate. Accordingly, in July 1711,
he fet out for Naples, and purfuing his journey by way
of France, was obliged to pafs through the Duke of
Berwick’s army, which at that time lay encamped near
the borders of Piedmont. Here he was entertained by
that famous general in the moft friendly manner, and
every affiftance was given him to conduft him in fafety
to the Duke of Savoy’s dominions. Our noble au¬
thor’s removal to Italy Was of no fervice to the re-
eftablifhment of his health ; for after having refided at
Naples about a year and a half,, he departed this life
on the 4th of February, O. S. 1712-13, in the 4zd
year of his age. The only pieces which he finifhed af¬
ter he came to this city, were the Judgment of Her¬
cules, and the Letter concerning Defign, which laft
was added to that impreffion of the Charafteriftics
which appeared in 1732. It was in 1711 that the firft
edition was publifhed of all the Charafteriftics toge¬
ther, and in the order in which they now ftand. But
this publication not being entirely to his lordfhip’s fa-
tisfaCtiou, he chiefly employed the latter part of his
life in preparing his writings for a more elegant edi¬
tion ; which was given to the world in 1713, foon af¬
ter his deceafe. The feveral prints that were then firft
coo
interfperfed through the volumes were all invented by
' himfelf, and defigned under his immediate infpe&ion }
and for this purpofe he was at the pains of drawing up
a moft accurate fet of inftru&ions, ^he manufcript of
which is ftill preferved in the family. 'That no mif-
takes might be committed, the Ea>l did not leave to
any other hands fo much as the drudgery of corre&ing
the prefs. In the three volumes of the Charafteriftica
of Men, Manners, Opinions, and Times, he com¬
pleted the whole of his works which he intended for
the public eye. Not long before his death he had
formed a fcheme of writing a difeourfe on painting,
fculpture, and the other arts of defign, which, if he
had lived to have finifhed it, might have proved a very
pleafing and ufeful work, as he had a fine tafte in fub-
jefts of that kind : but his premature deceafe prevent¬
ed his making any great pvogrefs in the undertaking.
The Earl of Shaftefbury had an efteem for the works
of the befl. Englifh divines ; one remarkable inftance
of which was difplayed in his writing a Preface to a
volume of Dr Whichcot’s Sermons, publilhed in 1698.
Copies of thefe fermons had been taken in Ihort-hand,
as they were delivered from the pulpit; and the Earl
had fo high an opinion of them, that he not only in¬
troduced them to the world by his Preface, but had
them printed under his own particular infpeftion. In
his Letters to a Young Man at the Univerfity, he fpeaks
of Bilhop Burnet and Dr Hoadly in terms of great
applaufe, and has done juftice to the merits of Tillot-
fon, Barrow, Chillingworth, and Hammond, as the
chief pillars of the church againft fanaticifm. But
whatever regard his lordfhip might have for fome of
our divines, it was to the writings of antiquity that his
admiration was principally directed. Thefe were the
conftant obje&s of his lludy, and from them he formed
his fyftem of philofophy, which was of the civil, focial,
and theiftic kind.
Of Lord Shaftefbury’s character as a writer, differ¬
ent reprefentations have been given. As one of his
greatelt admirers, may be mentioned Lord Monboddo ;
who, fpeaking of his Rhapfodift in particular, does not
hefitate to pronounce it not only the bell dialogue in
Englilh, out of all degree of comparifon, but the
fublimeft philofophy; and, if we will join with it the
Inquiry, the completefl fyftem both of morality and
theology that we have in our. language, and, at the
fame time, of the greateft beauty and elegance for the
fiyle and compofition.
Even feveral of the authors who have diftinguilhed
themfelves by their, direft oppolition to many of the fen-
timents which occur in the Chara&erillics, have never-
thelefs mixed no fmall degree of applaufe with their cen-
fures. “ I have again perufed, with frefti pleafure and
frdh concern (fays Mr Balguy, in his Letter to a Dei ft),
the volumes of Charadteriftics—I heartily wilh the noble
author had been as unprejudiced in writing as I was in
reading. If he had, I am perfuaded his readers would
have found double pleafure and double inftrudlion. It
feems to me, that his lordlhip had little or no tempta¬
tion to purfue any fingularities of opinion by way of di-
ftin&ion. His fine genius would fufficiently have diftin-
guifhed him from vulgar authors in the high road of
truth and good fenfe ; on which account his deviations
feem the more to be lamented. The purity and polite-
nefs of his ftyle, and the delicacy of his fentiments,.
COO
are and ciuft be acknowledged by all readers of tafte Cooper,
and fincerity. But neverthelefs, as his beauties are v —'
not eafy to be overlooked, fo neither are his blemifti-
es. His works appear to be ftained with fo many grofg
errors, and his fine thoughts are fo often mingled with
abfurdities, that however we may be charmed with the
one, we are forced to condemn the other.” Mr Bal¬
guy hath farther obferved, with regard to the Inquiry
concerning Virtue, which is the immediate objedt of
his animadverfion, that though he cannot agree in every
particular contained in it, he finds little more to do
than to tell how much he admires it; and that he thinks
it indeed, in the main, a performance fo juft and exaft
as to deferve higher praifes than he is able to give it.
Dr Brown, in his Effay on the Chara&eriftics, ob-
ferves, that the Earl of Shaftelbuvy hath in that per¬
formance mingled beauties and blots, faults and excel¬
lencies, with a liberal and unfparing hand. At the
fame time, the Doftor applauds that generous fpirit of
freedom which ftiines throughout the whole. Another
diredt antagonift of the Earl of Shaftelbury, Dr Le-
land, has obferved, that no impartial man will deny
him the praife of a fine genius. “ The quality of the
writer (continues theDodtor), his lively and beautiful
imagination, the delicacy of tafte he hath Ihown in
many inftances, and the graces and embellilhments of
his Ityle, though perhaps fometimes too affedted, have
procured him many admirers. To which may be add¬
ed his refined fentiments on the beauty and excellency
of virtue, and that he hath often'fpoken honourably
of a juft and good Providence, which minifters and
governs the whole in the beft manner; and hath ftrong-
ly aflerted, in oppofition to Mr Hobbes, the natural
difference between good and evil; and that man was
originally formed for fociety, and the exercife of mu¬
tual kindnefs and benevolence ; and not only fo, but
for religion and piety too. Thefe things have very
much prejudiced many perfons in his favour, and pre¬
pared them for receiving, almoft implicitly, whatever
he hath advanced.” Dr Johnfon, as we are informed
by Sir John Hawkins, bore no good-will to Lord
Shaftefbury ; “ neither did he feem at all to relifh the
cant of the Shaftefburian fchool, nor inclined to ad¬
mit the pretenfions of thofe who proftffed it, to taftes
and perceptions which are not common to all men ; a
talle in morals, in poetry, and profe writing, in paint¬
ing, in fculpture, in mufic, in archite&ure, and in
government! A tafte that cenfured every production,
and induced them to reprobate every effort of genius
that fell fhort of their own capricious ftandard.”
The grand point in which our noble author has ren- Blog. Brit,-
dered himfelf juftly obnoxious to the friends of reli-vol-»v.
gion, is his having interfperfed through the CharaCfer-
illics a number of infinuations that appear to be unfa¬
vourable to the caufe of revelation. There have not,
however, been wanting many among his admirers, who
have thought that he ought not tube reckoned among
the deiftical writers. The author of Animadveilions
upon Dr Brown’s, three Effays on the ChaiaCtttillics
obferves, that it is “imprudent, to fay no worfe, in
fome fincere advocates for Chriftianity, to rejeft the
friendly advice and affiltance of fo malterly a writer as
the Lord Shaftefbury, and to give him up to the deiits
as a patron of infidelity.” But it is matter of faft,
and not confiderations of prudence or imprudence, that
muR-
[ 429 1
coo r 430 1 coo
Cooper, tnuft determine the queftion. In fupport of his Lord-
   ' (hip’s having been a believer in our holy religion, may
be alleged, his Preface to Whichcot’s Sermons, and his
Letters to a Student at the Univerfity: in both which
works he conftantly exprefles himfelf in fuch language
as feems to indicate that he was really a Chrittian.
And with regard to the Letters it may be remarked,
that they were written in 1707, 1708, and 1709, not
many years before his lordfliip’s death. Neverthelefs,
there are in the Chara&eiidics fo many fceptical paf-
fages, that he muft be considered as havirg been a
doubter at lead, if not an abfolute dilbeliever, with
refpeft to revelation. But if he muit be ranked a-
mongft the deifts, we agree with the obfervation of
one of his biographers, that he is a very dillerent dcift
from numbers who have appeared in that chara&er;
his general principles being much lefs exceptionable.
The llyle of Lord Shaftefbury’s compofitions is alfo
a point upon which various and contradiftory fenti-
ments have been entertained. But for the fulled and
mod judicious criticifm that has appeared upon that
fubjeft, we may refer the reader to Dr Blair’s Lec-
tures on Rhetoric and Belles Lcttres, Vol. I. p. 192,
193, 207, 208, 234, 263, and 396—398.
Cooper (Samuel), a very eminent Englifh minia¬
ture painter, born in 1609, and bred under the care of
his uncle John Hofkins. He derived, however, his
principal excellence from a dudy of the works of Van
Dyck, in whofe time he lived ; infomuch that he was
commonly dyled “ Van Dyck in little.” His pencil was
chiefly confined to the head, in which, with all its de¬
pendences, efpecially the hair, he was inimitable ; but
if he defcended lower, his incorreddnefs was noto¬
rious. He died in 1672; and his pieces are univerfally
admired all over Europe, felling for incredible prices.
— He had a brother, Alexander, likewife a good mini¬
ature painter, who became limner to Chridina queen
of Sweden.
Cooper (Thomas), a pious and learned prelate in
the reign of queen Elizabeth, was born at Oxford a-
bout the year 1517. He was educated in the fchool
adjoining to Magdalene college, of which he was a choi-
rilter; where alfo, in 1539, he was eledted probation¬
er, and fellow in the following year. About the year
1546, quitting his fellowftup, he applied himfelf to the
dudy ofphyfic, in 1556 took the degree of bachelor in
that faculty, and pradtifed as phyfician at Oxford. Be¬
ing inclined to the Protellant religion, probably this was
•only a prudent fufpenfion of his final intentions during
the Popidi reign of queen Mary : for, on the accelljon
of Elizabeth, he refumed the dudy of divinity; be¬
came a celebrated preacher, was made dean of Chrift-
church and vice chancellor of the univerfity, having
accumulated the degrees of bachelor and dodter in
divinity. In 1569 he was made dean of Glouceder;
and, the year following, bidiop of Lincoln : whence,
in 1584, he was tranflated to the fee of Wincheder;
in which city he died on the 29th of April 1594., and
was buried in the cathedral there, on the fouth fide of
the choir. The feveral writers who have mentioned
Dr Cooper, unanimoufly give him the character of an
eloquent preacher, a learned divine, and a good man.
He had the misfortune while at Oxford to marry a
lady whofe gallantries became notorious: neverthelefs
he would not b? divorced from her; knowing that he
2
could not live without a wife, he did not choofe “ to
charge his confcience with the fcandal of a fecond
marriage.”—He wiote, t. The Epitome of Chronicles
from the 17th year after Chrid to 1540, and thence
after to 1560. 2. Thefaurus linguae Romanae et Bri-
tannicae. This dittibnary, which is an improvement
upon Elyot’s, was much admired by queen Elizabeth,
who thence forward determined to promote the au¬
thor. 3. A brief expofition of fuch chapters of the
Old Tedament as ufually are read in the church, at
common prayer, on Sundays throughout the year.
4. An admonition to the people of England. 5. Ser¬
mons.
Cooper (John-Gilbert), a polite writer of the
prefent age, was born in 1723; and was defcended
from an ancient family in the county of Nottingham,
whofe fortune was injured in the lud century by their
attachment to the principles of monarchy. He redded
at Thurgarton priory in Nottinghamdiire, which was
granted by King Henry VIII. to William Cooper, one
of his ancedors. This manfion Mr Cooper inherited
from his father, who in 1739 was high-fheriff of the
county ; and tranfmitted it to his fon, who filled the
fame refpe&able office in 1783. After palling through
Wedminder fchool under Dr John Nicoll, along with
the late Lord Albemarle, Lord Buckinghamfhire, Ma¬
jor Johnfon, Mr George Afhby, and many other-emi¬
nent and'ingenious men, he became in 1743 a Bellow-
Commoner of Trinity-college, Cambridge, and refided
there two or three years ; but quitted the univerfity
on his marriage with Sufanna the daughter of William
Wrighte, Efq; fon to the Lord Keeper of that name,
and Recorder of Leiceder 1 729 —1763. In the year
1745 he commenced author by the publication of The
Power of Harmony, a poem in 4.10 ; and in 1746 and
1747 he produced feveral Effays and Poems under the
fignature of Philalethes, in a periodical work called
The Mufeum, publidied by Mr Dodfley. In the fame
year he came forward as an? author, with his name, by
a work which received much affidance from his friend
the Reverend John Jackfon of Leiceder, who commu¬
nicated feveral learned notes, in which he contrived to
manifeft his diflike to his formidable antagonid Mr
Warburton. It was intitled The Life of Socrates,
colledted from the Memorabilia of Xenophon and the
Dialogues of Plato, and illudrated farther by Ari-
dotle, Diodorus Siculus, Cicero, Proclus, Apuleius,
Maximus Tyrius, Boethius, Diogenes Laertius, Au-
lus Gellius, and others, 1749, 8vo. In this work Mr
Cooper gave evident marks of fuperior genius ; warm,
impetuous, and impatient of reftraint. In 1754-, Mr
Cooper publifiied his Letters on Tafle, 8vo ; an ele¬
gant little volume, on which no fmall (hare of his re¬
putation is founded; and in 1755, Tomb of
Shakefpeare, a Vifion, 410; a decent performance, but
in which there is more of wit and application than of
nature or genius. In 1756 he affided Mr Moore, by
writing fome numbers of The World ; and attempted^
to rouie the indignation of his countiymen againd the
Heffians, at that jundture brought over to defend the
nation, in a poem called The Genius of Britain, ad-
dreded to Mr Pitt. In 1758, he publifhed Epidles to
the Great, from Aridippus in Retirement, 410; and
The Call of Aridippus, Epidle IV. to Mark Aken-
fide,M.D. Alfo, A Father’s Advice to his Son, in 410.
Cooper.
COP [ 431 1 COP
Co- ordi- In'the Annual Regifter of the fame year ishisTranflation
nate of An Epiftle from the King of Pruffia to Monfieur Vol-
Co aiba ta“*e‘ *n ,759> Ver Vert; or, the Nun-
nery Parrot; an Heroic Poem, in four cantos; inferibed
to the Abbefs of D***; trauHated from the French
of Monfieur Greifet, 410; reprinted in the firft vo¬
lume of Dilly’s Repofitory, 1777; and, in 1764*
Poems on feveral Subjects, by the Author of the Life
of Socrates; with a prefatory Advertifement by Mr
Dodfley. In this little volume were included all the
feparate poetical pieces which have been already men¬
tioned, excepting Ver Vert, which is a fprightly com¬
petition. Mr Cooper died at his father’s houfe in May-
Fair, after a long and excruciating illnefs arifing from
the done, April 14. 1769 ^
CO-ORDINATE, fomething of equal order, rank,
or degree, with another.
COOT, in ornithology. See Fulica.
COOTWICH (John), doftor of laws, was born at
Utrecht, and fpent great part of his life in travelling.
He publiihed in Latin, in*i 619, an account of his jour¬
ney from Jerufalem and from Syria; which is very fcarce
and in high efteem. Time of his death uncertain.
COPAIBA, or Balfam of Copaiba, a liquid refi-
nous juice, flowing from incifions made in the trunk
of the copaifera balfamum. See the following article.
This juice is clear and tranfparent, of a whitifh or pale
yellowifh colour, an agreeable fmell, and a bitterifli
pungent tafte. It is ufually about the confiftence of
oil, or a little thicker: when long kept, it becomes
nearly as thick as honey, retaining its clearnefs; but
has not been obferved to grow dry or folid, as moft of
the other refinous juices do. We fometimes meet
with a thick fort of balfam of copaiba, which is not at
all tranfparent, or much lefsfothan the foregoing, and
generally has a portion of turbid watery liquor at the
bottom. This fort is probably either adulterated by
the mixture of other fubftances, or has been extrafted
by codtion from the bark and branches of the tree : its
fmell and tafte are much lefs pleafant than thofe of the
genuine balfun. Pure balfam of copaiba diffolves en¬
tirely in rectified fplrit, efpecially if the menftruum be
previoufly alkalized: the folution has a very fragrant
fmell. Diftilled with water, it yields a large quantity
of a limpid eflential oil; and in a ftrong heat, without
addition, a blue oil.
The balfam of copaiba is an ufeful corroborating de¬
tergent medicine, accompanied with a degree of irri¬
tation. It ftrerigthens the nervous fyftem, tends to
Ibofen the belly, in large dofes proves purgative, pro¬
motes urine, and cleanfes and heals exulcerations in
the urinary paffages, which it is fuppofed to perform
more efttctually than any of the other balfams. Fuller
obferves, that it gives the urine an intenfely bitter
tafte, but not a violet fmell as the turpentines do.
This balfam has been principally celebrated in gleets
and the fluor albus, and externally as a vulnerary. The
author above mentioned recommends it likewife in dy-
fenteries, in fcorbutic cachexies, in difeafes of the
breaft and lungs, and in an acrimonious or putrefeent
ftate of the juices: he fays, he has known very danger¬
ous coughs, which manifeftly threatened a confump-
tion, cured by the ufe of this balfam alone ; and that,
notwithftanding its being hot and bitter, it luts good
effects even in heflic cafes. Moft phyficians feem Copaifera
now, however, to confider balfams and relins too fti- Q(j_a.(.e
mulant to be ventured on in phthifical affections. ,,er8_
The dofe of this medicine rarely exceeds 20 or 30  
drops, though fome direct 60 or more. It may be
conveniently taken in the form of an eheofaccharum, or
in that of an emulfion, into which it maybe reduced by
triturating it with almonds, or rather with a thick mu¬
cilage of gum-arabic, till they are well incorporated, and
then gradually adding a proper quantity of water.
COPAIFERA, in botany: A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the decandiia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under thofe of
which the order is doubtful. There is no calyx ; there
are four petals ; the legumen ovate; one feed with an
arillus or coat refembling a berry. We know but of
one fpecies, the balfamum, being that which yields the
copaiba balfam mentioned in the preceding article.
This tree grows near a village called Ayapel, in the
province of Antiochi, in the Spanifh Weft Indies,
about ten days journey from Carthagena. There are
great numbers of thefe trees in. the woods about this
village, which grow to the height of 50 or 60 feet.
Some of thefe trees do not yield any of the balfam ;
thofe which do, are diftinguiftied by a ridge which
runs along, their trunks. Thefe trees are wounded in
the centre, and they place calabafli fhells, or fome o-
ther veffels, to the wounded part to receive the balfam,
which will all flow out in a ftiort time. One of thefe
trees will yield five or fix gallons of balfam : but tho’
they will thrive well after being tapped, yet they ne¬
ver afford any more balfam.
COPAL, improperly called gum copal, is a gum of
the refinous kind brought from New Spain, being the
concrete juice of a tree * which grows in thefe parts. * ^us Co»-
It comes to us in irregular maffes, fome of which^3^'"*"”*
are tranfparent, and of different fhades as to colour,
from a light yellow to a deep brown. Some pieces
are whitifh and femitranfparent. To the fmell it
is more agreeable than frankincenfe ; but hath nei¬
ther the folubility in water common to gums, nor in
fpirit of wine common to refins, at leaft in anjr con-
fiderable degree. By thefe -properties it refembles
amber ;' which has induced fome to think it a mineral
bitumen refembling that fubftance. In diftillation it
yields an oil, which like mineral petrolea is indiffolu-
ble in fpirit of wine. Copal itfelf is folublc in the effen-
tial oils, particularly in that of lavender, but not eafily
in the expreffed ones. It may, however, be diffolved
in linfeed oil by digeftion, with a heat very little lefs
than is fufficient to boil or decompofe the oil. This
folution, diluted with fpirit of turpentine, forms a
beautiful traafparent varnifh, which when properly
applied, and flowly dried, is very hard and durable.
This varnifh is applied to fnuff-boxes, tea-boards,
and other utenfils. It preferves and gives luftre to
paintings, and greatly reftores the decayed colours
of old pidlures^ by filling up the cracks and rendering,
the furfaces capable of reflecting light more uniformly..
COPARCENARY, the fhare or quota of a co¬
parcener.
COPARCENERS, (from con 2Xi<S.partlceps, “part¬
ner ;”), or Parceners ; fuch as have equal portions-,
in the inheritance of. their anceftor.
Co.-
COP [ 432 1 COP
Cope Coparceners are fo either by law or cuftom. Copar- chandize clofe to the warehoufes that line the quays. Coperni
'I . ceners by law, are the iflue female ; which, in default
°gen. * a male heir, come equally to the lands of their an-
i_—v ' ceftor. Coparceners by cuftom, are thofe who, by fome
peculiar cuftom of the country, challenge equal parts in
fuch lands; as in Kent, by the cuftom of gavelkind.
The crown of England is not fubjsdt to coparcenary.
COPE, an ecclefiaftical ornament, ufually worn
by chanters and fubchanters, when they officiate in
folemnity. It reaches from the (boulders to the feet.
The ancients called it pluviale. —The word is alfo ufed
for the roof or covering of a houfe, &c.
Cope is alfo the name of an ancient cuftom or tri¬
bute due to the king or lord of the foil, out of the
lead-mines in fome part of Dqrbyffiire; of which Man-
love faith thus:
Egrets an ( regrets to the king’s highway, }
The miners have ; and let and cope they pay :
The thirteenth difh of ore within their mine,
To the lord, for/sf, they pay at meafuring time ;
Sixpence a load for cope the lord demands,
And that is paid to the burgbm jler 1 hands.
This word by doomfday-book, as Mr Hagar hath in¬
terpreted it, fignifies a hill: and cope is taken for the
fupreme cover, as the cope of heaven.
COPEL. See Cupel.
COPENHAGEN, the capital of the kingdom of
Denmark, fituated on the eaftern ffiore of the ifland of
Zealand, upon a fine bay of the Baltic fea, not far
from the ftrait called the Sound. E. Long. 13. o. N.
Lat. 55. 30. ■ ....
The precife date of the foundation of this city is dis¬
puted ; but the moft probable account is, that it took
its rife from a caftle built on the fpot in the year 1168,
as a proteftion againft the pirates which at that time
fwarmed in the Baltic. The conveniency of the fitua-
tion, and the fecurity afforded by the caftle, foon in¬
duced a number of the inhabitants of Zealand to refort
thither : but it was not diftingqifhed by the royal refi-
dence until 1443, during the reign of Chriftopher of Ba¬
varia; fince which period it has been gradually enlarged
and beautified, and is become the capital of Denmark.
Copenhagen is the beft built city of the north ; for
although Petcrfburgh excels it in fuperb edifices, yet,
as it contains no wooden houfes, it does not difplay
that ftriking contraft of meannefs and magnificence,
but in general exhibits a more equable and uniform ap¬
pearance. The town is furrounded towards the land
with regular ramparts and baftions, a broad ditch full
of water, and a few outworks: its circumference
jneafures between four and five miles. The ftreets are
well paved, with a foot-way on each fide, but too nar¬
row and inconvenient for general ufe. The greateft
part of the buildings are of brick ; and a few are of
free-ftone brought from Germany. The houfes of the
nobility are in general fplendid, and conftructed in the
Italian ftyle of architefture : the palace, which was
erefted by Chriftian VI. is a large pile of building;
the front is of ftone, and the wings of brick ftuc-
coed ; the fuite of apartments is princely 5 but the
external appearance is more grand than elegant.
The bufy fpirit of commerce is vifible in this city,
which contains about 80,000 inhabitants. The haven
is always crowded with merchant (hips; and the ftreets
pre interfefted by broad canals, which bring the mey-
N° 91^
This city owes its principal beauty to a dreadful fire in , C;,n- .
1728, that deftroyed five churches and 67 ftreets, which CoIc^ni'”
have been fince rebuilt in the modern ftyle. The new
part of the town, railed by the late King Frederic V.
is extremely beautiful, fcarcely inferior to Bath. It
confifts of an oftagon, containing four uniform and
elegant buildings of hewn ftone, and of four broad
ftreets leading to it in oppofite directions. In the
middle of the area Hands an equeftrian ftatue of Fre¬
deric V. in bronze, as big as life, which coft 80,000 1.
The Royal Mufeum, or Cabinet of Rarities, merits
the attention of travellers. This collection, which
was begun by Frederic III. is depolited in eight apart¬
ments, and ranged in the following order: animals,
fhells, minerals, paintings, antiquities, medals, dreffes,
arms and implements of the Laplanders.
Part of Copenhagen, which is called Chr'fiianffjafen,
is built upon the Ifle of Amak, which generally at¬
tracts the curiofity of foreigners; (fee Amak). From
this place, to which the main city is joined by a bridge,
the markets are fupplied with fowl, beef, mutton, veni-
fon, corn, and culinary vegetables, which are produced
hete in the greateft abundance.
COPERNICAN, in general, fomething belongihg
to Copernicus. Hence,
Copernic/in Syjlem or Hypothecs, that fyftem of the
world, wherein the fun is fuppofed to reft in the centre,
and the planets, with the earth, to move in ellipfes
round him. See Copernicus.
COPERNICUS (Nicolaus),an eminent aftronomer,
was born at Thorn in^Pruffia, Jan. 10. 1472. He
was taught the Latin and Greek languages at home ;
and afterwards fent to Cracovia, where he ftudied
philofophy and phyfic. His genius in the mean time
was naturally turned to mathematics, which he pur-
fued through all its various branches. He fet out for
Italy when he was 23 years of age ; but ftaid at Bo-
nonia fome time, for the fake of being with the cele¬
brated aftronomer of that place, Dominicus Maria;
vvhofe converfation, however, and company, he affec¬
ted, not fo much as a learner, as an affiftant to him in
making his obfervations. From thence be paffed to
Rome, where he was no fooner arrived than he was
confidered as not inferior to the famous Regiomonta¬
nus ; and acquired in ffiort fo great a reputation, that
he was chofen profeffor of mathematics, which he
taught for a long time with great applaufe. He alfo
made fome aftronomical obfervations there about the
year 1500. Returning to his own country fome years
after, he began to apply his vaft knowledge in mathe¬
matics to corrett the fyftem of aftronomy which then
prevailed. He fet himfelf to collect all the books
which had been written by philofophers and aftrono-
mers, and to examine all the various hypothefes they
had invented for the folution of the celeftial pheno¬
mena ; to try if a more fymmetrical order and conili-
tution of the parts of the world could not be difeo-
vered, and a more juft and exquifite harmony in its mo¬
tions eftablilhed, than what the aftronomers of thofe
times fo eafily admitted. But of all their hypothefes none
pleafed him fo well as the,Pythagorean, which made
the fun to be the centre of the fyftem, and fuppofed
the earth to move not only round the fun, but round
its own axis alfo. He thought he difeerned much
beautiful
COP [ 433 1 COP
3,beautiful brder and proportion in this; and that all
that embarraffment and perplexity from epicycles and
excentrics, which attended the Ptolemaic hypothefes,
would here be entirely removed.
This fyftem, then, he began to confider, and to write
upon, when he was about 35 years of age. He em¬
ployed himfelf in contemplating the phenomena care¬
fully ; in making mathematical calculations; in exa¬
mining the obfervations of the ancients, and in making
new ones of his own ; and after more than 20 years
chiefly fpent in this manner, he brought his fcheme to
perfection, and eftabliflxed that fyltem of the world
which goes by his name, and is now univerfally re¬
ceived, (fee Astronomy, n° 22.) His fyltem, how¬
ever, was then looked upon as a molt dangerous here-
fy : for which he was thrown into prifon by Pope
Urban VIII. and not fullered to come out till he had
recanted his opinion ; that is, till he had renounced the
teftimony of his Tenfes. He died the 24th of May
1543, in the 70th year of his age.
This extraordinary man had been made canon of
Worms by his mother’s brother, Lucas Wazelrodius,
who was bilhop of that place. He was not only the
greateft of aftronomers, but a perfeCt mailer of the
Greek and Latin tongues ; to all which he joined the
greateft piety and innocence of manners.
Copernicus, the name of an aftronomical inftru-
ment, invented by Mr Whifton, to exhibit the motion
and phenomena of the planets, both primary and fecon-
dary. It is built upon the Copernican fyftem, and for
that reafon called by his name.
COPHTI, Cophts, or Copti, a name given to
the Chriftians of Egypt, who are of the fed of Jaco¬
bites.
The critics are extremely divided about the origin
and orthography of the word ; feme write it Cophti,
others Cophtites, Cophtitas, Copts, &c. Scaliger de-
■ rives the name from Coptos, an anciently celebrated
town of Egypt, the metropolis of the Thebaid. Kir-
cher refutes this opinion, and maintains, that the word
originally fignifies “ cut” and “ circumfcribedand
was given thefe people by the Mahometans, by way of
reproach, becaufe of their praftice of circuraciling :
but P. Sollier, another Jefuit, refutes this opinion.
Scaliger afterwards changed his opinion, and derived
the word from Atyrnfr^r, the ancient name of Egpyt,
by retrenching the lirfl fyllable : but this opinion, too,
P. Sollier difputes. John de Leo and others fay, that
the Egyptians anciently called their country Elchibth,
or Cibth, from Cibth their firft king, whence Cophtite,
&x. others fay from Cobtim fecond king of Egypt.
Vanfleb derives the word Copht from Copt fon of
Mifraim, grandfon of Noah. All thefe etymologies
P. Sollier rejefts, on this principle, that were they true,
•the Egyptians ought all equally to be called Cophti;
whereas, in effeft, none but the Chriftians, and among
thole none" but the Jacobites, bear the name, the
Melchites hot being comprehended under it. Hence
he choofes to derive the word from the name Jacobite,
retrenching the firft fyllable ; whence, Cobite, Cobea,
■Copta, and Cophta.
The Cophts have a 'patriarch who refides at Cairo,
but lie takes his title from Alexandria : he has no
archbilhop under him, but 11 or 12 biftrops. The
reft of the clergy, whether fecular or regular, is coifi-
■Vol.V, Part II.
pofed of the orders of St Antomy, St Paul, and St Coph
Macarius, who have each their monafteries. Befides
the orders of priefts, deacons, and fubdeacons, the
Cophts have likewife archimandrites, the dignity
whereof they confer with all the prayers and ceremo¬
nies of a itrict ordination. This makes a confiderable
difference among the priefts; and befides the rank
and authority it gives them with regard to the religi¬
ous, it comprehends the degree and fun&ions of arch-
priefts. By a cuftom of 600 years Handing, if a prieft
elefted biftiop be not already archimandrite, that dig¬
nity muff be conferred on him before epifcopal ordi¬
nation. ' The fecond perfon among the clergy, after
the patriarch, is the titular patriarch of Jerufalem, who
alfo refides at Cairo, becaufe of the few Cophts at Je¬
rufalem ; he is, in effeft, little more than the bilhop
of Cairo : only he goes to Jerufalem every Eafter,
and vifits fome other places in Paleltine near Egypt,
which own his jurifdidion. To him belongs the go¬
vernment of the Cophtic church, during the vacancy
of the patriarchal fee.
To be defied patriarch, it is neceffary the perfqn
have lived all his life in continence: it is he confi^w
the bilhoprics. To be defied biftiop, the perfon
mull be in the celibate; or, if he have been married,
it mull not be above once. The priefts and inferior
minifters are allowed to be married before ordination ;
but are not obliged to it, as Ludolphus erroneoufly 1
obferves. They have a great number of deacons, and
even confer the dignity frequently on children. None
but the loweft; rank among the people commence ec-
clefiallics; whence arifes that excefilve ignorance found
among them: yet the refpefi of th\ laity towards
the clergy is very extraordinary. Their office is longer
than the Roman office, and never changes in any¬
thing : they have three liturgies, which they vary oc-
cafionally.
The monaftic life is in great efteem among the
Cophts : to be admitted into it, there is always re¬
quired the confent of the bilhop. The religious
Cophts make a vow of perpetual chaftity; renounce
the world, and live with great aufterity in deferts :
they are obliged to fleep‘in their clothes and their
girdle, on a mat ftretched on the ground ; and to-
proftrate thernfelves every evening 150 times, with
their face and breaft on the ground. They are all,
both men and women, of the loweft clals of the
people; and live on alms. Thh nunneries are proper¬
ly hofpitals; and few enter but widows reduced to
beggary.
E. lloderic reduces the errors and opinions of the
Cophts to the following heads: 1. That they put
away their wives, and efpoufe others while the firft are
living. 2. That they have feven facraments ; viz. bap-
tifm, the eucharift, confirmation, ordination, faith, faff¬
ing, and prayer. 3.That they deny the Holy Spirit to
proceed from the Son. 4. That they only allow of three
oecumenical councils; that of Nice, Conftantinople,
and Ephefus. 5. That they only allow of one nature,
will, and operation, in Jefus Chsift, after the union of
the humanity with the divinity. For their errors in
difeipline, they may be reduced, 1. To the prafiice
of circumcifing their children before baptifm, which
has obtained among them from the 12th century.
2. To their ordaining deacons at five years of age.
COP [ 434 ] COP
Cop!iti, To their allowing of marriage in the fecond degree.
Cophtic. ^ To their forbearing to eat blood: to which fome
  ~v add their belief of a baptifm by fire, which they con¬
fer by applying a hot iron to their forehead or cheeks.
— Others palliate thefe errors, and (how that many of
them are rather abufes of particular perfons than
do&rines of the fe£t. This feems to be the cafe with
regard to their polygamy, eating of blood, marrying
in the fecond degree, and the baptifm of fire : for cir-
cumcifion, it is not pra&ifed as a ceremony of reli¬
gion, nor as of any divine appointment, but merely
as a cuftom which they derive from the Ilhmael-
ites; and which, perhaps, may have had its ori¬
gin from a view to health and decency in thofe hot
countries.
The Cophts, at different times, have made feveral
reunions with the Latins; but always in appearance
only, and under fome neceffity of their affairs. In the
time of pope Paul IV. a Syrian was difpatched to
Rome from the patriarch of Alexandria, with letters
to that pope; wherein he acknowledged his authority,
and promifed obedience ; defiring a perfon might be
difpatched to Alexandria, to treat about a re-union of
his church to that of Rome: purfuant to which,
Pius IV. fuccefibr to Paul, chofe F. Roderic, a Jefuit,
whom he difpatched in 1561, in quality of apoffolical
nuncio. But the Jefuit, upon a conference with two
Cophts deputed for that purpofe by the patriarch,
was made to know, that the titles of father of fathers,
pallor of pallors, and mailer of all churches, which
the patriarch had bellowed on the pope in his letters,
were no more than mere matters of civility and com¬
pliment ; and that it was in this manner the patriarch
ufed to write to his friends: they added, that fince
the council of Chalcedon, and the eftablilhment of fe¬
veral patriarchs independent of one another, each was
chief and mailer of his own church. • This was the
anfwer the patriarch gave the pope, after he had re¬
ceived a fum of money remitted to him from Rome,
by the hands of the Venetian confuL
COPHTIC, or Coptic, the language of the
Cophts, the ancient language of the Egyptians, mix¬
ed with a great deal of Greek, the characters it is
written in being aH Greek. It has a form and con-
ftru&ion peculiar to itfelf: it has no inflections of the
nouns or verbs; but expreffes number, cafe, gender,
perfon, mood, tenfe, and pofleffive pronouns, by letters
and particles prefixed.
F. Kircher is the firll who publilhed a grammar and
vocabulary of the Cophtic. There is not known any
book extant in the Cophtic, except tranllations of the
Holy Scriptures, or of ecclefiallical offices; or others
that have relation thereto, as dictionaries, &c.
The ancient Cophtic is now no longer found but
in books; the language now ufed throughout the
country is Arabic. The old Cophtie, which Kircher
maintains to be a mother-tongue, and independent of
all others, had been much altered by the Greek: for
befides that it has borrowed all its characters from the
Greek, with a very little variation, a great number of
the words are pure Greek. Voffius, indeed, afferts,
that there was no Cophtic language till after Egypt
became fubjeCl to the Arabs. The language, accord¬
ing to him, is a mixture of Greek and Arabic: the very
aame thereof not being in the world till after the Arabs
were mailers of the country. But this, M. Simon ob- Cophtic
ferves, proves nothing ; except that what was ancient- p
ly called Egyptian, has fince by the Arabs been called ^ ■
Cophtic, by a corruption of fpeech. There are, it is
true, Arabic words in the Cophtic; yet this by no
means proves but that there was a language before
that time, either Cophtic or Egyptian. Pietro de la
Valle obferves, that the Cophts have entirely loll
their ancient tongue ; that it is now no longer under-
Hood among them ; that they have nothing extant
therein but fome facred books ; and that they Hill fay
mafs in it.
All their other books have been tranllated into
Arabic, which is their vulgar tongue ; and this hasoc-
calioned the originals to be loll: it is added, that they
rehearfe the epillles and gofpels in the mafs twice ;
once in Arabic and once in Cophtic. Indeed, if we
believe F. Vanlleb, the Cophts fay the mafs in Arabic,
all but the epillles and gofpels, which they rehearfe
-both in that and Cophtic.
Cophtic Bible. See Bible.
Cophtic Liturgies are three ; one attributed to Bafil,
another to St Gregory, and the third to Cyril: they
are tranflated into Arabic for the ufe of the priells
and people.
COPIATA, under the weltern empire, a grave-dig¬
ger. In the firll ages of the church there were clerks
deltined for this employment. In the year 357, Con-
llantine made a law in favour of the priells copiatse,
i. e. of thofe who had the care of interments ; where¬
by he exempts them from the lullral contribution
which all other traders paid. It was under him alfo
that they firll began to be called copiatx, q. d. clerks
deltined for bodily labour, from or %oxti,fci/idox
cado,ferio, “ I cut, beat,” &c. Before that time they
■were called decani and leeticarii; perhaps becaufe they
were divided by decads or tens, each whereof had a
bier or litter for the carriage of the dead bodies. Their
place among the clerks was the next in order before
the chantors.
COPING of a wall, the top or cover of a wall, made
Hoping to carry off the water.
Coping over, in carpentry, a fort of hanging over,,
not fquare to its upright, but bevelling on its under
fide till it end in an edge.
COPIST, in diplomatic fcience, fignifies. a tran-
fcriber or copier of deeds, books, &c.
COPPA, in law, a eop or cock of grafs, hay, or
corn, divided into titheable portions; as the tenth
cock, &c. This word in ftriftnefs denotes the ga¬
thering or laying up the corn in cops or heaps, as the
method is for barley or oats, &c. not bound up, that it
may be the more fairly and jultly tithed: and in Kent
they Hill retain the word, a cop or cap of hay, llraw,
&c.
COPPEL. See Cupel.
COPPER, the finell of the imperfedl metals, called
by the alehemifls Venus, on account of its facility o£
uniting with a great numben of different metallic fub-
llances. Its colour, when pure, is pale red, and its
fpecific gravity from 8.7 to 9.3, which depends not
only on its degree of purity, but alfo on its condenfa-
tion by hammering. The fpecific gravity of Japan
copper is to water as 9000 to 1000; but that of the
Swedifh kinds only as 8784 018843"—The colour,
when
COP C 4^5 ] COP
Copper, when clean, is very brilliant, but It Is extremely liable
to tarnifh. It has a difagreeable fmell, very percep¬
tible on friftion or on being heated : its tafte is Hyp-
tic and naufeous, but lefs perceptible than that of iron.
Its tenacity, duttility, and hardnefs, are very confider-
able, and its elafticity fuperior to that of any other
metal except Heel. From this laft quality mafles of
the metal emit a loud and lafting found when ftruck;
and this more efpecially when caft into a proper form,
viz. fuch an one as may make the metal vibrate in the
moft funple manner poflible. Thus, if caft into the
hollow form of a bell, without any cracks or imper-
fe&ions, an uniform tone will be produced by it; or
at leaft the tones produced by the llroke will confift
of a Angle predominant one, and of others that have
an agreement with it. When broken by often bend¬
ing backward and forward, it appears internally of a
dull red colour, without any brightnefs, and of a fine
granulated texture ; not ill refembling, as Cramer ob-
ferves, fome kinds of earthen ware. It continues
malleable in a red heat, and in this ftate extends much
more eafily than when cold ; but has not that valuable
quality of iron, by which two pieces cohere together
when heated to a great degree. In a heat far below
ignition, the furface of a piece of poliihed copper be¬
comes covered with various ranges of prifmatic co¬
lours ; the red of each order being neareft to' the end
which has been moft heated. Reduced to a fine pow¬
der, or even to filings, and thrown acrofs a fiame, it pro¬
duces blue or green colours, whence its ufe in fire¬
works. It requires a fierce heat to melt it; lefs, ac-
* See Cte- cording to Mr Wedgewood, than gold or filver *, but
mj/lry, more according to fome other metallurgifts.—It is re-
» x°4- markably impatient of moifture when in a ftate of fu-
fion ; and the contact even of a very fmall quantity of
water will caufe a vaft mafs of melted metal to be
thrown about with incredible violence, to the immi¬
nent danger not only of the byftanders but even of the
ftrongeft furnaces and buildings. Effefts of this kind
are faid to have been produced by fo flight a caufe as the
workmen fpitting in a furnace full of melted copper.
Copper is found in the bowels of the earth in the
t following ftates.
Native cop I- Native copper, having the red colour, the mal-
per. leability, and all the other properties of the metal.
It is diftinguiflied, fays Mr FourCroy, into two
kinds ; copper of the firft formation and copper of
the fecond formation or cementation. The copper
of the firft formation is difperfed in laminae or fibres,
in gangue almoft always quartzofe ; fome of its cry-
ftals refemble a kind of vegetation, but other fpeci-
mens are in mafles or grains. Copper of cementation
is commonly in grains or fuperficial lamina:, on ftones
or on iron : this laft appears to have been depofited
4 in waters containing vitriol of copper which has been
Where precipitated by iron. Native copper is found in many
found. places of Europe ; particularly in various parts of
Scotland, England, and Wales ; at St Bell in Lyons;
at Norberg in Sweden, and Newfol in Hungary. It
is alfo to be met with in feveral parts of America.—
Mr Kifwan fays, it is met with either of its own pe¬
culiar colour or blackifti or grey ; and that either in
grains or in large fhapelefs folid lumps ; in a foliated,
capillaty, or arborefcent form, or cryftallized in qua¬
drangular pyramids, in or on clay, chiilus, quartz, floors,
zeolytes, 8rc. He accounts for its origin by fuppofing Copper,
it to have been originally precipitated by iron from
waters which held it in folution, which is the pureftr
fort: but in many cafes it could not have been pro¬
duced in that maimer; and then this fort is never
very pure, but mixed with gold, filver, or iron, or
with fulphur; which laft combination is called black
copper.
Native copper is found in very confiderable quan¬
tities at Cape Lizard in Cornwall: it is formed into
threads or branches, and lies in veins of fome thick-
nefs, contained in blackifh ferpentine mixed with
brqwnifti red, and covered externally with a greenifli
nephrites, partly adherent to it and partly loofe.
Native copper, in large lumps, has alfo been found in
the fame rocks : but a more confiderable quantity is
found at Huel Virgin in the. fame county. Here it
Ihoots into various branches and in various dire&ions.:
the pieces feem to be formed of fmall rhomboidal'
cryftals interfperfed with quartz, the imprefiions of
which are.to be feen in the copper itfelf; from whence
we might conclude that the quartz exiited before the
metal. Some of thefe lumps of native copper have
been found in this fpot that weighed from 20 to 30-
pounds ; and in the month of March 1785 there were
no lefs than 28 millions of pounds of rich copper ore
extracted from this mine. At a place called Qatar-
rach, contiguous to Huel Virgin, fome cryftailized na¬
tive copper has been found, with the tranfparent vitre¬
ous copper ore, to be afterwards mentioned, cryftallized
in octahedrons of a ruby colour; though the latter
now begins to be-very fcarce. Near this place alfo a
compact native copper is found in lumps of a fpheri-
cal form ; the copper either Hill in its metallic form,
or beginning to be transformed into red copper-glafs,
imbedded in decayed granite. Native copper of a
tender and mofs-like form, united to vitreous ruby
copper-ore, cryftallized in rhombs, is found in the
clifts of the mountains compofed of killas, near Pol-
dry.—An indurated iron-clay has lately been found
under the furface of the fea in the Faro ifles, in which
there is fcattered a zeolite with native copper.
II. Mineralized by fixed air; of which there are fe-Dff.rent
veral varieties. 1. Red copper, or hepatic ore of cop-' ores mine-
per. This is known by its red dulky colour, fimilar raided with
to that of the fcales beat off from copper by hammer-flxed aur‘
ing. It is feldom met with, and then is generally
mixed with native copper and mountain green. Some¬
times it is cryftallized in octahedrons or filky fibres,-
and is called Jlowcrs of copper. Mr Kirwan fays, that
it is fometimes met with in a loofe form, and generally
called copper ochre ; but is ufually of a moderate hard-
■nefs, though brittle; fometimes ciydlallized and tranf¬
parent, either in a capillary form, or in cubes, prifms,or
pyramids: it effervefces with acids, and is found in
Scotland, England, and Germany. According to
Mr Fontana, 100 parts of it contain 73 of copper, 26
of fixed air, and one of water. Mr Kirwan diftin-
guifties the hepatic ore as being of a brown colour.
It “ contains a variable proportion of iron or pyrites,
and fometimes fulphurated copper; and hence affords
from 20 to 50 per cent, of copper. It is often iriclefcent”
(we fuppofe fhowing the colours of the rainbow).
2. Earthy copper, mountain-green, green chiyfocolla or
malachite. The laft, according to Mr Kirwan, looks like
3 I 2 green
tiieen.
Malachite.
6
Mountain
blue, or
blue chry-
foeolla.
COP [ 436 ] COP
green jafper, but lefs hard, and does not Hr ike fire of copper with the volatile alkali; from which he af- Copper,
with ileel, is of a radiated or equable texture, gene- firms that they differ only ii/their degree of folubility; »—
rally of an oval form, and the iize of an egg, but he iikewife thinks that the malachites is produced from
forpetimes forming capillary filaments. Mufohen- this blue, which he calls tranfparent azure copper ore;
brook fixes its fpecific gravity from 3.5 to 3.994. It but inoit mineralogiits are of a different opinion. ’
is fometimes mixed with calcareous earth and gypfum. Mr Kirwan tells us, that 100 parts of this ore con-
According to Mr Fontana, 100 parts of the purefl tain about 69 of copper, 29 of aerial acid, and 2 of
fort contain 75 of copper and 25 of aerial acid and water. Mr Morveau, in the Memoirs of the Academy
water. Mountain green is generally found in a loofe of Dijon for 1782, has fhown, that the calces of cop-
and friable ftate, rarely cryffallized and indurated, of- per ore determined to a blue rather than a green cor
ten mixed with calcareous earth, iron, and fome arfe- lour, by a greater proportion of phlogifton. 7
nic. An hundred parts of the pureft kind contain 72 III.Cupreous ftones. Thefe are the turquoife and /a-Turquoife
of copper, 22 of aerial acid, and 6 of water. pis armenus. The former of thefe is improperly calledanci
A compatt green copper ore, like malachite, mix- a Hone, being the tooth of an animal penetrated by
ed with grey copper ore, and likewife green velvet-like the blue calx of copper. It lofes its colour when heat-
copper in the form of bunches, are found at Huel ed ; is opaque, of a lamellar texture, and fufceptible
Virgin in Cornwall. At Carrarach, in the fame coun- of a fine polilh ; its fpecific gravity from 2.5 to 2.908;
ty, is found alfo an amorphous green copper ore, on fome are of a deep blue, fome more white, and be-
a decayed granite; and at St Menan, the fame is come deeper when heated. They are found in Per-
found ftratified betwixt quartz, and covered with a fia and in Languedoc in France; the copper may be
brownifh iron. Cronftedt informs us, that both the extractedifrom them by diffilled vinegar. Reaumur in¬
green and blue colours of copper ores depend on a forms us, Mem.Par. 1715, that nitrous acid will not dif-
menftrunm, and therefore may be often edulcorated folve the Perfian turquoife,though it will that of France,
or waflied away. In Saalfield they find alfo a fort of The lapis armenus has calcareous earth or gypfum for
green, fomewhat indurated, calcareous fubftance, con- its bafe ; whence it fometimes effervefces with acids
taining copper: this, w7hen broken, looks fat, and and fometimes not. It is ufed in painting, when
fomewhat Ihining; but, upon the whole, it re females ground to a fine powder, under the name of Bice.
a jafper. It is there very improperly called a To thefe Mr Fourcroy adds “ copper mineralized by
coppef glafs-ore. Good copper is made of it; and, the muriatic acid and united to clay.” This ore has
with a phlogiftic fubftance, without being uffulated, been confounded with talc ; and it was expofed to fale
it forms a kind of bell-metal fit for being employed at Paris, in the year 1784, under the name of green
for that purpofe. mica. It confifts of fmall beautifully green cryftals.
The malachite, according to Mr Fourcroy, is foe- or fmall brilliant fcales. It was difcovered by Mr
quently found in Siberia, compofing beds, fome of Forfter in the mines of John Georgenftadt; the green
which reprefent nipples of various magnitudes. Some cupreous fand of Peru already mentioned, perhaps be-
fpecimens are compofedof needles, converging towards longs to the fame clafs. g
■a common centre. The grain of malachite is fufficient- IV. Copper mineralized by fulphur, with fcarce any Copper mb
ly hard to take a fine polifh, and is therefore formed iron, improperly called vitreous copper ore. This is ntraii*etl
into toys of different kinds; but as it is frequently of a deep violet grey, greenifli brown, or liver colour; ylull“ur*
porous and full of unequal cavities, the folid pieces of melting with a very gentle heat, ponderous, fometimes
a certain fize are reckoned valuable. The ffrata in flexible, and always yielding to the knife. When bro-
which it is found are often of different fhades of green, ken it appears of a bright golden colour. It is fome-
The mountain green is a true ochre of copper, of a times found in (hapelefs maffes, fometiines regularly,
more or lefs deep green, not heavy, and unequally dif- cryffallized; is much more fufible than pure copper,
tributed on its gangue : it appears to be combined and has a fpecific gravity from 4.81 105.338. It is
with the cretaceous acid. There are two varieties be- found in mines of other copper ores, in limeffone,
fides the malachite, viz. the Ample mountain green, fpar, quartz, mica, and clay : it is the richeft of all the
and that which is cryftallized, or the filky copper ore copper ores ; affording from 80 to 90 percent, of cop-
of China. It is common in the Hartz, and likewife per, 10 or 12 of fulphur, and a fmall proportion of
in China. It is very pure, and cryffallized in long iron. ^
filky bundles of coniiderable folidity. To thefe three V. Copper mineralized by fulphur with a large pro-With a
ftates, fays Mr Fourcroy, we may add a beautiful green portion of iron, azure copper ore ; does not differ from large pro-
fand, brought by M. Dombey from Peru, which ap- the preceding but in the quantity of iron it. contains, Pl'rtlon
pears to be a calx of this metal mixed with fand, and which fometimes amounts to 50 per cent.. It yields
containing a fmall quantity of muriatic acid. 50 or 60 pounds of copper per hundred, the reft being
3. The third variety of this fpecies is the mountain- fulphur. The lefs iron this ore contains, the richer it
blue, or blue chryfocolla. This, according to M. is in copper; and it has by many been confounded
' Fourcroy, is a calx of copper of a deep blue colour, with indurated mountain blue. i0
fometimes regularly formed in rhomboidal prifmatic VI. Copper mineralized by fulphur, with much iron, Yellow cop.
cryftals of a fine blue, in which cafe it is called azure the yellow copper ore, or yellow pyrites. The colour 01 e> or
of copper. “ All thefe calces of copper (fays he) of this is yellow, or yellow mixed witli red or green,
appear to have been precipitated from vitriolic folu- or variegated like a pigeon’s neck ; it is inferior in
tions of copper, by the intermedium of calcareous hardnefs to the other pyrites, not readily giving fire
earths through which the wafers have tranfuded. M. with ffeel as they do. It is fometimes found cryftal-
riage confiders thefe blue copper ores as combinations lized, and fometimts ia lhapelefs maffes; its fpecific
gravity.
COP
[ 437 ]
COP
Copper, gravity is about 4.16. It occurs both in feparate maf- This kind of ore may be analyfed in the liquid way Copper.
‘ fes and embodied in ftones, being the moil common by folution in nitrous acid, and precipitation of the
of all the copper ores. The cryilallized kind affords
leaft metal, containing only from 4 to 8 per cent, the
remainder being chiefly iron. It is generally reddish,
and is in fa6t only a martial pyrites with a fmall por¬
tion of copper ; the. greeniih yellow contains molt ful-
phur, and from 15 to 20 per cent, of copper; the pure
yellow contains moft copper, viz. from 20 to 30 per
cent.- “ The cupreous pyrites (fays M. Fourcroy) of¬
ten prefent very brilliant blue or violet colours at their
furface, which are produced by the decompofition of
their principles: they are then called chatoyant ores of
copper, or ores refembling the peacock’s tail: they
Arftnical
or grey
blendofe
copper ere.
copper by iron. The iron and zinc are precipitated
by the Pruffian alkali ; the precipitate is then calcined
and rediflblved in nitrous acid, and the folution eva¬
porated to drynefs. The iron being thus dephlogif-
tieated, becomes infoluble in the nitrous acid, but the
calx of zinc is rediffolved,and again precipitated by the
Pruffian alkali. An hundred grains of this precipitate
are equivalent to 20 of zinc in its metallic ftate; and
100 grains of dephlogiilicated iron are equivalent to
734- of iron in its metallic Hate.
IX. Argillaceous fchiltofe, or flaty copper ore, feems Slaty cop-
to confilt of the vitreous copper ore intimately com-per ore.
commonly contain a large quantity of fulphur, a fmall bined with fchillus, and not barely difperfed through
quantity of iron, and are not rich in copper ; fuch are it in viiible particles : it is of a brown or black colour,
the ores of Derbyfhire in England, fome of thofe of lamellar texture, and very heavy ; affording from 6 to
St Bell in Lyons, and many ores of Alfatia, fuch as
thofe of Caulenbach and Feldens.’'‘
VII. Copper united to fulphur, arfenic,iron, and a calcareous earth, and iron.
10 per cent, of copper, and is of difficult fufion, un-
lefs limeftone be added. . It contains a little bitumen,
fmall quantity of filver. This is called arfenical or
grey copper ore, and is of a white, grey, or brown
colour; of moderate hardnefs, very brittle, fometimes
cryftallized, and often of an indeterminate figure. It
is very difficult of fufion, and more ponderous than.
X. Bituminous copper ore is a kind of pitcoal Bituminous
fouhd in Sweden. It burns with little or no flame, orc•
but leaves allies from which copper is extracted. ,5
XI. Black copper ore, of the colour of pitch. Mr Black cop.
Gellert denominates it copper ore in fcorise : it is aPer 0l°*
the former. It contains from 35 to 60 per cent, of refiduum of the decompofition of the yellow and grey
copper; the brown is the richeft in copper ; the white copper ores which contain neither fulphur nor arfenic,
or grey contains moft arfenic ; and if the filver it con- and approaches to the ftate of malachite; it has a
tains exceed I or 2 per cent, it is called grey filver
It is found embodied in all forts of ftones, and mixed
with other copper ores, as well as with the ores of o-
ther metals.
black ihiniug appearance like pitch.
XII. Copper united to fulphur and arfenic contain- Ar.timoniaE
ing antimony,, or antinionial copper ore, is mentioned®1 e>
by Mr Sage in his Elements of Mineralogy. It is
A great variety of fulphurated copper ores is to be grey, and bright in its fradture like antimony, and
met with in the mines of Cornwall, viz. a whitifh-grey
ore cryftallized in fmall triangular and quadrangular
pyramids, with truncated points, is found along with
contains from 14 to 20 per cent, of metal.
XIII. Copper diffolved by the vitriolic acid. In the.
year 1673, our countryman Dr Brown vifited a fa-
the folid copper ore at Foldice and Dolcoth : but the mous copper-mine at Hern-grundt, about feven Eng-
richeft are the folid grey ones found in various places.
fome of which may be cut with a knife like the foft
Mi miles from Newfol in the Upper Hungary; and'
he informs us, that there he faw two fprings,,called the
vitreous filver ore. The moft remarkable of the yellow 0/<d and New Ziment, which turned iron.to copper, as
ores is the ftaladlitical ore, of an hemifpherical form,
called run-yellow-copper, often variegated with different
ct lours. A compact red; glaffy copper ore, covered
with mountain green, or green copper, and with cal- of the
it is vulgarly laid. But the cafe is, that the iron ;
diffolved by thevitriolic acid of this fpring-water, and’
tin; copper is precipitated in its metallic form in the place
ciform copper of a vermilion red colour, is found i
eryfta’ilized quartz, mixed with tender green mica. We
alfo meet with an olive-green-coloured copper ore which
is arfenical, and eryftallized into tender fpiculas of c.-
It has been the cuftom in Germany for.
fome centuries to colledt the copper contained in thefe
waters, by filling with them fome pits made purpofely
for this operation. Old iron is thrown in, and being
diffolved by the acid, is fufpended in the water, whilft
bout three lines long, ftanding up ftraight, either fingle the copper is precipitated: the mud being raked>
or fafciculated, or radiated, found on the granitical out,, is melted afterwards in a furnace, and a very
mountain at Carrarach. Thefi: cryftals melt before fine copper is produced: from 100 tons of iron, 84.
the blow-pipe with an arfenical fmoke, and afterwards and fometimes 90 tons of fine copper is thus pro¬
melt, forming a button of a grey colour, which, on duced.
being melted again with borax, foon produces a very But although this method of obtaining copper has-
pure copper. Another kind of arfenical cupreous cry- been long pradtifed in Germany, yet it is but of late
ftals are likewife met with in the fornvof green cubes years, fays Bifhop Watfon (p. 238. of the firft volume
run together, with fmooth and ftiining furfaces, upon of his Effays), that any fuccefsful attempts of this
grey copper-ore, in a mafs of cryftallized compact kind have been made either in England or lreland. In
quartz, with various cryftals in itfilf; and greatly re- this laft, at leaft, it was quite owing to an accident.
fembling fmall cubes of fluor.
There are the very celebrated copper-mines at Arklow,
VIII. Copper mineralized by fulphur andarfenic with in the county, of Wicklow in Ireland ; and from thefe
zinc and iron ; brown or blendofe copper ore. Mr mines iffues a great quantity of water, ftrongly impreg-
Monnet found this ore only at Catherineberg in Bohe- mated with vitriol of copper. One of the workmen,
mia; it is brown, granulated, and very hard, and having accidentally left an Iron {hovel in this water,
he found-it fome weeks after fo incrufted with a coat:
of;
contains from 18 to 30 per cent, of copper.
COP [ 438 ] COP
Coprer. 0f copper, that it was thought to be changed into
copper.
The proprietors of the mines, in purfuance of this
hint, made proper pits and receptacles for the water ;
and have obtained, by means of foft iron bars put in¬
to them? fuch quantities of copper, that thefe dreams
are now of as much confequence as the mines them-
felves. One ton of iron produces near two tons of
copper mud; and each ton of mud produces, when
melted, 16 hundred weight of copper, which fells for
L.io Sterling a ton more than the copper which is
fluxed from the ore.
There is in the ifle of Anglefey, on the coaft: of
North Wales, a mountain called Paris, which abounds
in copper-ore, the bed of ore being above 40 feet in
thicknefs. The leflees of this mine annually raife from
fix to feven thoufand tons of merchantable ore, and
daily employ above 40 furnaces in fmelting it. This
ore contains a great quantity of fulphur, which muft be
feparated by toafting before it can be fluxed into cop¬
per. The phlogifton, with part of the vitriolic acid,
is difperfed into the air by the force of the fire ; another
part of the acid attacks and difiblves fuch a quantity
of the copper, that the water in which the roatled ore
is waflied (by means of old iron immerfed in it ac-
« cording to the German method) produces great quan¬
tities of fine copper, fo that the proprietors have there
obtained in one year near 100 tons of the copper pre¬
cipitated from this water.
If this water was afterwards evaporated, it would
yield green vitriol or vitriolated iron, at nearly the rate
of 200 tons of vitriol for each hundred ton of iron at
leaft ; which, at the rate of L. 3 Sterling per ton, might
perhaps produce very good profit to the undertakers,
if any (hould fettle fuch a manufacture there.
Befides the celebrated copper-mines at Arklow in
the county of Wicklow in Ireland, there are no lefs.
than feventeen different places in Britain in which
copper-mines are found, as .mentioned by Dr Camp¬
bell in the 2d vol. p. 44. of his Political Survey of Bri¬
tain. Thefe are Cardiganfhire, Chefhire, Cornwall,
Cumberland, Derbyfhire, Devonfliire, Lancafhire,- Ifle
of Man, Northumberland, Shropfhire, Somerfetfnire,
Staffordfhire, Yorkfliire, Wales, Warwickfhire, Welt-
moreland, and North Britain : fome that are worked
at this time give fuch large products of this metal,
that the opening more copper-mines in this ifland would
probably affeft the copper-trade of Europe in a very
confiderable manner. The ECton mine, in the effate
of the Duke of Devonfliire, on the frontiers of Der-
byfliire, but properly fituated in the county of Staf-
fordihire, produces at lead; 300 tons of copper per an¬
num. That of the mountain called Paris, in the ifland
of Anglefey, whofe bed of ore is about 4O feet in
thicknefs, produces about 1500 tons of copper in the
year ; and the copper-mines of Cornwall produce no
lefs than 4000 tons in the fame period. Mr Jars, who
viirted thefe mines in the year 1770, found, upon cal¬
culation, that the annual produce of thefe mines a-
mounted to L. 140,000 Sterling; and M. H. Klaproth,
in his Obfervations on the Fofiils of Cornwall, juit
publiflied (in 1787), afl'erts that this account is not
an exaggerated one:
Copper is purified with lefs difficulty than iron ; and
its goodnefs is judged of by the bright rednefs of its Copper.
colour. ’ '
The impurity of copper proceeds from the mixture Goppgrcry.
of heterogeneous ■ fubftances that are alloyed with it, ftali;?es
on account of being naturally contained in the copper-when cool-
ores. Iron and arfenic are the chief of thefe naturalin£b
mixtures. The copper-ores of variegated colours, the
white copper-ores, and generally thofe mineralized by
fulphur, contain a greater proportion of iron ; whilit
the blue and green copper-ores commonly produce a
purer metal, being free, for the moil part, of any con*
fiderable ferruginous mixture. The great aim, there¬
fore, of the metallurgift muft be diredted to feparate
thefe mixtures from the copper, beginning by the pro¬
per examination of the ore, and by afcertaining the
proportion of fulphur that may be required to fcorify
the quantity of iron there contained. The ore fhoulcl
always be roafted by a flow fire, in a clofe furnace,
which contributes the beft towards fcorifying the fer¬
ruginous and heterogeneous mixtures; and the fame
operation muft be repeated after the fecond and thirdfu-
fion of the metal, till its grain becomes of an homo¬
geneous fine texture. The mixture of fulphureous py¬
rites in the fufion of the metal contributes towards
obtaining this objedt; if their quality be chofen ac¬
cording to the quantity of*fulphur wanting. But in
the fecond, third, and following operations, only pure
fulphur ftiould be added, to fcorify the remainder of
the iron that is ftill intermixed with the copper. This
ftiould be done when the metal is already well fufed ;
covering it immediately with a proper quantity of char¬
coal, and feparating the fcoria or drofs formed on the
furface of the fufed metal.
The copper extra&ed from thofe mines near New-
fol, in Upper Hungary, is faid to be ui'ually melted
14 times before it is fit for life. Thefe are the great-
eft copper-mines in all Hungary. There are, however,
other mines, whofe Copper requires far lefs fufions to
be'well purified. The above was the procefs of Mr
Delius, direftor of the mines of Bannat near Temefware
in Hungary, propofed by him to the imperial board
of the Auftrian mines.
Pure copper allowed to cool flowly will form itfelf
into regular cryftallizations, which the Abbe Mongaz
defcribes as quadrangular pyramids, fometimes folid,
and fometimes compofed of other fimilar fmall pyra¬
mids laterally adhering. When heated it becomes co¬
loured on its furface, nearly in the fame manner as
fteel; the colours are blue, yellow, and laftly violet;
it does not melt but by ^ violent white heat, though rg
much inferior to that which melts iron. When in a Burrs with
ftate of fufion it appears covered with a green flame, a green
"which the filings of the mecal likewife produce when
projeiled through flame ; and hence are r.fed in fire-me‘tc
works, as has been already remarked. The cryftalli-
zaiion of the metal above mentioned is beft perceived
by fuffering the metal to cool flowly ; and after the fur- r(^
face is become congealed, the fluid portion being pour- particular
ed off, the remaining folid part is found to be cryllal-defeription
lized in pyramids, which are more regular and large crf"
in proportion as the fufion has been more complete
and cooling more gradual. The pyramids, according
to Fourcroy, are quadrangular, and appear to be form¬
ed of a great number of o&ahedrons inferted into one
another.
C O P [ 439 ] . COP
Copper, another. When heated with excefs of air, this metal bout. It is, however, juftly complained, that the
burns at its.furface, and is converted into a calx of a tinning of copper-veffelsis not fufficien : to defend : hem ’
dark ted colour, in proportion as it abfotbs the bafe from J:he adtion of the air, moifture, and faline fub-
of the'dephlogifticated part of the atmofphere. The fiances ; becaufo thefe veflels, even when well tinned,
How^he ca*x may eaf,1y obtained by heating a ball of cop- are obferved to be fubjeft to ruft. This might poffi-
calx is ob- Per red-hot, the form of which caufes the calx to fcale bly be remedied by a thicker covering of tin ; and a
tained. off; and the fame effecl takes place when red-hot cop- manufadture of this kind was fc>me time ago eftablifh-
per is quenched in cold water; the reparation of the ed at Edinburgh, though it does not appear to have
calx being promoted by the fudden contradlion of the much attradled the notice of the public ; which, how-
metal. This calx is called the feales of copper, and tfver, is no objedfion to the ufefulnefs of the invention,
may be further calcined till it becomes of a deep brown; The method employed was to make the furface of the
aT after which, by violent heat, it may be melted into a copper very rough, with a machine contrived for that
The fcoriae blackilh or deep reddifh brown mafs. Thefcorite may purpofe, and the tin put-upon it in this fituation ; af-
partlyredu-partly be reduced without any additional phlogiilon ;
ced without for the founders,, who buy them of the copperfmiths,
addition. taj.e no ot}jer trouble with them than that of throw¬
ing tlrem into large crucibles on the melted copper,
with which they incorporate by fufion ; and the fame
•method is made ufe of to melt the filings. The calx
of copper appears to poffefs fome faline properties, but
its nature has not yet been afeertained.
** Copper calcines when expofed to the air, and is
.converted into a green ruft or calx, which is in fome
degree foluble in water, and communicates a tafte as
> l’ut well as pernicious qualities to it. It is remarkable,
ter which the copper was hammered fmooth as before,
Mr Fourcroy objefts to this thicker covering of tin,
that there “ is reafon to fear that a degree of heat
fuperior to that of boiling water, to which thefe vef-
fels are often expofed, would melt the tirv and leave
the lurface of the copper uncovered.” This obje&ion
is furely void of foundation : for as long as .there re¬
mains any liquid in the veffel, the tin will not melt
though the heat were applied to it diredlly without
any intervention of copper ; and if a dry heat were
applied, a thin covering of tin would be llill lefs able
to refill it than a thick one. Our author, however,
however, that this ruft does not corrode the internal obferves, that to prevent this accident the tin may be
lion of its parts like that of iron, but is confined to the furface ; alloyed with iron, filver, or platina, to diminilh its
interns! and thus, inftead of deftroying, contributes, for a long fufibility, and render it capable of being applied in
parts. t;me at leaitj to the prefervauon of the metal. This thicker ftrata on the copper. Alloys of this kind, he
is particularly obfervable in the antique medals and fta- tells us, are already ufed in feveral manufa&ures.
tues, which are very well preferved under a covering The very fmall quantity of tin required to cover the Very fmall
Patina, a of ruft. The antiquarians call this cruft and furface of the copper is furprifing; a veflel of 9 quantity of
name for put a high value upon the pieces of antiquity covered inches in diameter and 3^ inches in depth, being tinreclli're^
the ruiiof wjtb ;t . but the Italians and others have got a me- found to gain no more than 21 grains by this opera°forthf
medals.011 thod of imitating this cruft, and thus there is great tion. This fmall quantity is neverthelefs fufficient toF r^0 e*
danger of being deceived/ • prevent the dangers which might arife from the ufe of
QuaHuesof Copper, when taken into the human body, a&s as copper-velfels, provided care be taken not to allow fub-
this metal a violent emetic, and has been generally accounted fiances capable of diffolving the tin to remain too long
when taken poifonous, though lately received with fome applaufe in them ; but more efpecially that the tin be frequently
‘'‘t1'^ch11-into, the materia medica as a tonic. The pernicious renewed, as the friction, heat, and adtion of fpoons,
man o y. qUai{t;es> however, and very difagreeable talle which w'ith which the included fubftances are ftirred, verv
it certainly communicates on fome occafions, render it foon deftroy it. There is likewife another caufe ofReftkmdof
highly neceffary to obferve fome cautions in the ufe of apprehenfion, according to our author, viz. that the tin ought to
this metal, of which fo many kitchen utenfils are made, tin is often alloyed with lead, even to the quantity of1,e employ-
JBefides an exadl attention to eleanlinefs, it is altoge- one-fourth of its weight; in which cafe the latter mayc^‘
ther improper to let any fluid remain in a copper vef- exert its mifehievous influence, efpecially as it is known
fel till it be cold ; for copper is much more caicinable that lead is eafily foluble in fatty fubftances. To pre¬
in the cold than when heated. Mr Fourcroy explains vent this fophifticationr he is of opinion that govern-
this by fuppofing the calcination to be produced by ment ihould take fufficient care that the braziers be
water in a ftate of extreme divifion : as long, there- not deceived in the tin they purchafe, and that they
fore, as the fluid is boiling and the veflel hot, the aque- may not employ any but the Malacca or Banea tin, in
ous vapour does not adhere-to its furface ; but when the ftate it is received from the Eaft Indies, without
the veflel is cold, the drops of water which adhere to having been alloyed or melted by the pevvterers. A
its fides calcine it, and reduce it to a green calx. The better method, however, feems to be that propofed by 23-
air and the cretaceous acid (fixed air), he fays, alfo M. Folie of-Rouen, to ufe veflels of forged iron co-Zinc re¬
contribute greatly to this calcination ; for by diililling vered over , on the inflde with zinc, which, he fays, comniendi
the ruft of copper fixed air has been obtained. have already been ufed with advantage by certain per-C<1
In order to prevent the pernicious effe&s of copper, fons and it were to be wiihed that its ufe might be-t*11‘
Of the tir
ning of
copper.
the vefftls made of it are ufually covered with tin
theinfide. To tin copper-veffels, they are firft feraped
clean and bright ; after which, they aie rubbed with
fsl ammoniac to clean them more perfectly. They are
then heated and fprinkled with powdered refin, which
prevents the furface of the copper from being calcined ;
after which the melted tin is poured on and fpread a-
come more general.
Copper is alfo ufed in mixture with other metals. Various
particularly tin and zinc, in enamel-painting, dyeing, mixtures of
&c. Mixed with tin in confiderable quantity, it pro- copperwith
duces Bell-metal; with afmaller proportion Bronze ;othcr mc'
with zinc it forms BrasS, Pinchbeck, or Similor^*'
Manheim gold, &c. according to the proportion ; it
S' being.
COP [ 440 1 COP
being always olifervable, that the compounds moil rear- or fee-tail, for life, years, or at will, according to the (
ly refembling gold in colour have the leaiiduftility and cuftom of the inanor by copy of court-roll; but isge- '—
are moll brittle. See thefe articles, and Chemistry- nerally where the tenant has fuch edate either in fee
Index. ' or for three lives. ^
With regard to the poifonous qualities of copper Covr-Right, the right which an author may be fup-
when taken into the body, much lefs danger feerns to pofed to have in his own original literary compoli-
arife than from thofe of arfenic, on account of its eafy tions; fo that no other perfon, without his leave,
folubility; nor indeed have we met with any well ail- may publilh or make profit of the copies. When a
thenticated inftance of a perfon who has died in con- man by the exertion of his rational powers has pro-
fequence of fwallowing even verdigreafe itfelf. In one duced an original work, he has clearly a right to
cafe, where an unlucky boy had fwallowed fome bits difpofe of that identical work as he pleafes; and any
of this fubftance thrown out of a chemift’s laboratory, attempt to take it from him, or vary the difpofition
the fymptoms were only violent ficknefs and vomiting, he has made of it, is an invafion of his right of pro-
from which he recovered by drinking warm water perty- Now the identity of a literary compofition
largely ; and probably nothing elfe would be requifite confifts entirely in the fentiment and the language;
in any cafe, though Mr Fourcroy advifes emetics, abun- the fame conceptions, clothed in the fame words,
dance of water, liver of fulphur, alkalis, &c. The muft neceflarily be the fame compofition: and whatever
ufe of emetics in fuch a'cafe, however, feems altoge- method be taken of conveying that compofition to the
ther fuperfluousj fince verdigreafe, in the quantity of ear, or to the eye of another, by recital, by writing, or
a grain or a grain and a half, has been ordered by by printing, in any number of copies, or at any pe-
fome medical writers in the cafe of poifon fwallowed riod of time, it is always the identical work of the
otherwife, as the emetic moft quick in its operation author which is fo conveyed; and no other man (it
that could be thought of. hath been thought) can have a right to convey or
COPPERAS, a name given to the faftitious green transfer it without his confent, either tacitly or ex-
vitriol. See Chemistry-JW;*. prefsly given. This coufent may perhaps be tacitly
COPPERPLATE. See Engraving. given when an author permits his work to be publifh-
COPPICE, or Copse, a little wood, confiding of ed without any referve of right, and without ftamp-
under-woods, or fuch as may be raifed either by fow- ing on it any marks of ownerfhip; it is then a prefent
ing or planting. - to the public, like the building of a church, or the lay-
COPTOS (anc. geog.), a famous trading town of ing but a new highway: but in cafe of a bargain for
the Thebais, inhabited by Egyptians and Arabs, forr.e a fingle impreffion, or a total fale or gift of the copy*
difiance from the Nile; others place it in a finall ifland right; in the one cafe the reverfion hath been thought
in the Nile, on which, however, it had a port. Here to continue in the original proprietor; in the other
Ifis, on hearing of the death of Ofiris, cut one of her the whole property, with its exclufive rights, to be
locks and put on mourning ; and hence the name Cop~ perpetually transferred to the grantee. On the other
tos, fignifying privation. A proof this of the anti- hand, itis urged, that though the exclufive right of the
quity of the place. And for this reafon the Ifiaci, manufeript, and all which it contains, belongs un-
or priefts of Ifis, were bald, according to Juvenal. doubtedly to the owner before it is printed or pub*
COPULATION, the a<5t of generation, or the con- lifiied; yet from the inftafit of publication, the exclu-
grefs of the male and female, otherwife called coition, five right of an author or his afligns to the foie com-
See Generation. munication of his ideas immediately vaniihes and eva-
COPY, in a law fenfe, a tranfeript of a writing or porates; as being a right of too fubtile and unfub*
inftrument, made for the ufe and fatisfa&ion of fome ftantial a nature to become the fubjeft of property
of the parties concerned, or in order to preferve the at the common law; and only capable of being, guard*
memory thereof. ed by pofitive ftatute and fpecial provifions of the ma-
Copy is alfo ufed for an imitation of any original giftrate-
work; particularly a painting, draught, figure, &c. The Roman law adjudged, that if one man wrote
Copy, among printers, denotes the manufeript or any thing, though ever fo elegantly, oh the paper or
original of a book given to print from. parchment of another, the writing fhould belong to
-Copr-Hold, a tenure for which a tenant has no- the original owner 'of the materials on which it was
thing to firow but the copy of the rolls made by the written : meaning certainly nothing more thereby
fleward of the lord’s court. than the mere mechanical operation of writing, for
It is called a bafe tenure ; becaufe the tenant holds which it direfted the feribe to receive a fatisfadlion ;
the land at the will of the lord. However, it is not efpecially as, in works of genius and invention, fuch
fimply at the will of the lord, but according to the cu- as a pifture painted on another man’s canvas, the
Horn of the manor by which fuch eftate is defcendible, fame law gave the canvas to the painter. We find
and the tenant’s heirs may inherit it; and a copy-holder, no other mention in the law of 'any property in the
fo long as he does his fervices, and does not break the works of the underftanding, though the fale of litera-
cuftom, cannot be ejefted by the lord ; and if he be, ry copies, for the purpofes of recital or multiplication,
he (hall have trefpafs againft him. See the articles is certainly as ancient as the times of Terence, Mar-
Tenure and Villenage. tial, and Statius. Neither with us in Britain hath
Corr-Holder, one who is admitted tenant of lands there been (till very lately) any final determination
or tenements v^ithin a manor, wdiich time out of mind, upon the right of authors at the common law. It was
by ufe and cuftom of the manor, have been demifable, determined in the cafe of Miller u. TayloY in B. R.
and demifed to fuch as will take them in fee*fimple Pajcb.cj Geo. III. 1769, that an exclufive copy-right
N39i. 4 in
COR i 44i ] COR
Coquw Jn authors fubfifted by the common law. But after-
Cor meille war<^s» in ^he cafe of Donaldfon i>. Bechet, before the
. ' ^ houfe of lords, which was finally determined 2 2d
February 1774, it was held that no copy-right fub-
fifts in authors, after the expiration of the feveral
terms created by the llatute 8 Ann c. 19. This fta-
tute declares, that the author and his alfigns fhall
have the whole liberty of printing and reprinting his
works for the term of 14 years, and no longer ; and
alfo prote&s that property by additional penalties and
forfeitures; dife&ing farther, that if at the end of
that term the author himfelf be living, the right fhall
then return to him for another term of the fame dura¬
tion.
COQUES (Gonzalo), an efteemed painter of por¬
traits and converfations, was born at Antwerp in 1618,
and was a difciple of the old David Ryckaert; under
whofe direction he applied himfelf diligently to cul¬
tivate thofe promifing talents which he poflelfed ; not
only by praftifing the beft rules adminiilered to him
by his inftructor, but alfo by ftudying nature with
fingular attention.—-He was a great admirer of Van-
dyck; and fixing on the manner of that great artift as
his model, had the happinefs of fo far fucceeding, that
next to him he was efteemed equal to any other pain¬
ter of his time.—In the fchool of Ryckaert he had
been accuftomed to paint converfations, and he fre¬
quently compofed fubje&s of fancy like Teniers, O-
ftade, and his mafter; and by that habit, he intro¬
duced a very agreeable ftyle of portrait painting, in a
kind of hiftorical gpnverfations, which feemed much
more acceptable to perfons of tafte than the general
manner of painting portraits, and procured him great
reputation and riches. In that way he. .ompofed fe¬
veral fine pi&ures for king Charles I. and likewife fe¬
veral for the archduke Leopold, and the prince of
Orange; which latter prince, as a mark of refpedt,
prefented Coques with a rich gold chain, and a gold
medal on winch the bull of that prince was imprefled.
He died in 1684.—He had an excellent pencil; his
portraits were well defigned, with eafy natural atti¬
tudes ; he difpofed the figures in his compofition fo
as to avoid confufion or embarrafthaent; he gave an
extraordinary clearnefs of colour t# his heads and
hands ; and his touch was free, firm, and broad, a
circumftance very uncommon in works of a fmall fize.
COQUIMBO, a port-town of Chili, in South Ame¬
rica, fituated at the mouth of a river of the fame
name, which difeharges itfelf into the Pacific ocean.
W- Long. 75. io. N. Lat. 30. o.
COR caroli, in aftronomy, an extraconftcllated
ftar in the northern hemifphere, fituated between the
coma Berenices, and urfa major; fo called by Dr Hal¬
ley in honour of king Charles.
Cor Hydr<r, a fixed ftar of the firft magnitude, in
the conftellation of 'hydra.
Cor Leonis, in aftronomy, a fixed ftar of the firlf
magnitude, in the conftellation Leo.
CoR-meille, a noted plant, common in the High¬
lands of Scotland. Its roots dried are the fup^ort of
the highlanders in long journeys, amidft the barren
hills deftitute of fupports of life; and a fmall quantity,
like the alimentary powders, will for a long time re¬
pel the attacks of hunger. Infufed in liquor it is an
Von. V. Part II.
agreeable beverage, and like the Nepenthe of the Ooraciai.
Greeks, exhilarates the mind. From the fimilitude  
of found in the name, it feems to be the fame'with
chara, the root difeovered by the foldiers of Caefar at
Dyrrhachium, which fteeped in milk was fuch a relief to
the familhed army. Or we may reafonably believe it
to have been the Caledonian food deferibed by Dio,
of which the quantity of a bean would prevent both
hunger and thirft: and this, fays the hiftorian, they
have ready for all oceafions.
CORACIAS, the Roller, in ornithology ; a ge¬
nus of birds of the order of picae, the charadters of
which are: The bill is ftraight, bending towards the
tip, with the edges cultrated : the noftrils are narrow
and naked ; the legs for the moft part ftiort; the toes
placed three before and one behind, and divided to
their origin. This genus is not confined to one fpot
of the globe, as one or other of the different fpecies
may be met with in all the four quarters of it.
1. The garrula, or garrulons roller, is about the
fize of a jay; the bill black, and at the bafe befet with
briftles, but do not cover the noftrils: the head, neck,
breaft, and belly, are of a light bluifti green ; back
and fcapulars, reddifti brown ; coverts on the ridge of
the wing rich blue, beneath them pale green ; upper
part and tips of the quills dufky ; the lower parts of a
fine deep blue ; rump, of this laft colour : tail forked,
of a light blue ; the outer feather tipped with black
above, and beneath with deep blue, as is the cafe with
fuch part of the quill feathers as is black above ; the
other tail feathers are dull green : the legs are ftiort,
and of a dirty yellow. Mr Pennant obferve.s that
thefe birds are frequent in feveral parts of Europe, in
moft parts of which it is a bird of paffage. Mention
is nfade of them in Sweden and Denmark on the one
hand, and as far as Africa on the other; not that they
are found in all the paits between, nor in the fame
plenty. Willoughby tells us, that in Germany, Si¬
cily, and Malta, they are fo common as to be fold in
the markets, and in poulterers ftiops. Adanfon fays,
that it “ comes to refide for fome moijths of the fum-
mer in the fouthern parts of Europe, and goes back
to fpend the remainder of the year in Senegal,” ha¬
ving fiiot one on board the Ihip, on its paffage, in A-
pril. Frifch obferves, that it makes its neft in woods,
where there is birch; that it does not come to its co¬
lour till the fecond year ; flies in troops in autumn ;
often feen in tilled grounds, with rooks and other
birds, fearching for worms, fmall feeds, and roots.
Its flefli taftes like that of a turtle. It is faid alfo
fometimes to make the neft in holes in the ground,
in one of which nefts two eggs were found. The neft
is generally filthy, from the young evacuating their
excrements therein ; whence by fome it was faid to
make the neft of excrements. We are told in the
Britiftr Zoology, that it has been twice flrot in Eng¬
land, and is remarkable for making a chattering noife,
whence its name.
2. The blue-ftriped roller is in length eight inches; Piate
the bill three quarters of an inch long, bent at the CXI'1X*
tip, and of a black colour : the irides are red : the
general colour of the plumage deep blue-black, dalhed
with ftreaks of greenifh blue: the tail and legs are
black. It inhabits New Caledonia.
3 K
3- The
COR [ 442 1 COR
Caraco 3. The Chinefe roller i$ of the fize of a jay : The of fmall glands adhering to them; and from thefe tubes Corail In*;
Cor'llina an<^ ’r^es are re(l: the head, hind part of the
. u ^ neck, back, rump, and upper tail coverts, are green:
through the eyes on each fide is a black ftripe : the
under parts of the body, from chin to vent, are yel-
lowifti white, tinged with green ; but the thighs are
grey: the wing coverts are olive brown ; quills the
fame, with a mixture of chefnut in fome ; and others,
neareft the body, tipped with white: the tail is five
inches in length, and wedge-fiiaped, the outer fea¬
thers (hortening by degrees like that of a magpie ; all
of them are more or lefs green, verging to black near
the ends ; the tips of all are white : the legs and
claws are of a pale red, and longer than in other rol¬
lers. It inhabits Qhina, and is called at Canton Sau-
ta-hoang. It is not very common.
There are 13 other fpecies enumerated by ornitho-
logifts; though many of them doubtful, and fuppofed
to be only varieties.
CORACO-brachialis, in anatomy, the name of
a mufcle in the arm, ferving to raife it upwards.
COR AGO IDES, in anatomy, a fmall lharp prd-
cefsof the fcapula. See Anatomy, n°47.
CORACOMANTES, in antiquity, perfons who
foretold events from their bbfervations on crows.
CORALLINA, or Coral, in zoology, a genus be¬
longing to the order of vermes zoophyta. The trunk
is radicated, jointed, and calcareous. The fpecies are
eight, diftinguilhed by the form of their branches,
and are found in the ocean adhering to ftones, bones,
fiiells, &c. The corals were formerly believed to be
vegetable fubftances hardened by the air; but are
• now known to be compofed of congeries of animals,
which are even endued with the faculty of moving
fpontaneoufly.
The iflands in the South-fea are moflly coral rocks
covered over with earth. The little creatures, which
have fcarce fenfation enough to diltinguifh them from
plants, build up a rocky ftrudlure from the bottom
of that fea, too deep to be meafured by human art,
till it reaches the furface. Some of thefe coralline if-
lands appear to be of a much older date than others;
particularly the Friendly ifiands: and it is probable
that as thefe fubmarine works are continually going on,
new illands may by that means frequently be produced.
M. de PylTbnnel of Marfeilles, in confequence of a
feries of experiments and obfervations from about the
year 1720 to 1750, feems to have been the firft who
threw a proper light upon the nature and production
of coral and fimilar marine fubftances. Thofe bodies,
which the count de Marfigli imagined to be flowers,
this ingenious naturalift difcovered to be infedls inha¬
biting the coral; for upon taking branches of it out
of the water, the flowers, which proceeded from a
number of white points anfwering to the holes that
pierced the bark, and the radiation of which refembled
the flower of the olive-tree, entered into the bark and
difappeared; but upon being again reftored to the
water, they were fome hours after perceptible. Thefe
flowers fpread on white paper loft their transparency,
• and became red as they dried. The holes in the bark
correfpond to fmall cavities upon the fubftance of the
coral; and when the bark is removed, there may be
feen an infinite quantity of little tubes conne&ing the
bark with the inner fubftance, befides a great number
and glands the milky juice of coral iffues forth: the ~
holes in the bark are the openings through which the
infects that form thefe fubftanccs for their habitation
come forth ; and thofe cavities which are partly in the
bark and partly.in the fubftance, are the cells which
they inhabit. The organs of the animal are contained
in the tubes, and the glandules are the extremities of
its feet, and the milky liquor is the blood and juice
of the animal, which are more or lefs abundant in
proportion to its health and vigour. When the in¬
fers are dead, they corrupt, and communicate to the
water the fmell of putrid fifh. This juice or liquor
runs along the furrows perceived upon the proper
fubftance or body of coral, and flopping- by little and
little becomes fixed and hard, and is changed into
ftone; and being flopped in the bark, caufes the co¬
ral to increafe proport ionably and in every direction.
In forming coral, and other marine productions of
this clafs, the animal labours like thofe of the tefta-
ceous kind, each according to his fpecies; and their
productions vary according to their feveralforms, mag¬
nitudes, and colours.
The coral infeCfc, or polype, M. Peyflbnnel obferves„
expands itfelf in water, and contracts itfelf in air, or
when it is touched with the hand in water, or acid li¬
quors are poured upon it: and he actually faw thefe
infeCts move their claws or legs, and expand thenv-
felves, when the fea-water containing coral was placed
near the fire, and keep them in their expanded ftate
when feparated from the coral in foiling water. Bro¬
ken branches of coral have been obferved to fallen
themfelves to other branches, and have continued to
grow ; and this is the cafe when they are connected
with detached pieces of rock and other fubftances,,
from which no nourilhment could be derived. The
coral infefts in their cells, not having been injured,,
continue their operations; and as they draw no pou-
rilhment from the ftone of the coral, they are able to
increafe 'in a detached and feparate ftate. Coral was
found to be equally red in the fea as out of it; and it
was more (hining when juft taken out of the water
than even when it is polilhed.; and the bark by being
dried' becomes •omewhat pale. M. Peyflbnnel found
that it grows in different direClions, fometimes per¬
pendicularly downwards, fometimes horizontally, and
fometimes upwards; and in the caverns of the fea, o-
pen to every expofure.
This fyftera was little regarded, though, firft com-
municated to the Academy of Sciences at Paris in
1727, till Mr Trembley’s difcovery of the frelh-water
polype; but fince that time, it has ,been confirmed by-
the obfervations of M. Bernard de Juffieu on the fea-
coafts of Normandy, and thofe of M. de Reaumur near
Rochelle. M.Donati of Turin has alfo adopted the fame
hypothefis, viz. that coral is a mafs of animals of the
polype kind; and inftead of reprefenting the polype
beds and cells which they contain as the work of po¬
lypes, he thinks it more juft to fay, that coral and
othev coralline bodies have the fame relation to the po¬
lypes united to them, that there is between the fliell
of a fnail and the fnail itfelf, or the bones of an ani¬
mal and the animal itfelf.
The fame fyftem has alfo been excellently illuftrated
and eftablilhed by Mr Ellis, in anfwer to the objec¬
tions-
r ■
COR
-Corallina, tions of Dr Barter of Zealand, and Dr Pallas of Ber-
CoraL jjn> wj1Q fl-Qj refer corallines to the vegetable king-
;ir ^ ' * dom.
There are properly but three kinds of coral; red,
•white, and black: the black is the rareft, and moll
efteemed; but the red was formerly ufed in medicine.
It muft be chofen thick, fmooth, and fhiipng, and of
a beautiful red, not covered with any tartareous mat¬
ter. However, this fubftance is now fcarce ever pre-
fcribed by any intelligent pra&itioner.
When coral is newly taken up out of the fea, the
fmall protuberances on its furface are foft, and yield,
on being pre0ed, a milky juice which effervefces with
acids. The cortical part with' which the coral is all
over covered is hot near lb compaft as the internal,
and may eafily be taken off whilft frefh ; and from
this part it is ufually freed before it comes to the mar¬
ket. The greateft coral trade is in Genoa and Leg¬
horn. ! The fmall fprigs unfit for ornamental ufes are
in the Ihops levigated into a fubtile pqwder; which,
however, has no medicinal virtues fuperior to the com¬
mon teftacea. Coral is not unfrequently imitated by
artificial compofitions, fome of which are made to re¬
ferable it exadly ; but the abufe may be difcovered
by fire, the counterfeit not affording the alkaline earth
which is afforded by the genuine coral. The colour-
ing ingredients in the artificial coral are cinnabar and
minium, both of which are eafily difcovered. The
natural coral feems to receive its colour from iron;
for fpirit of vitriol acquires from it a ferruginous
tafte ; and on calcining the coral, fome particles are
found among the aihes that are attracted by the mag¬
net. Sixteen ounces of coral, according to Neumann,
when diffilled in an open fire, yield about fix fcruples
and an half of volatile alkaline fpirit, with two or three
gir.'ns of an empyreumatic oil: from the caput mor-
tuum calcined, five fcruplea and a half of fixed fait
may be extrafted. In former times, many extraordi¬
nary virtues were expefted from this fubftance, on
account of its fine red colour; and therefore a great
number of methods were tried to extract this colour
by means of fpirit of wine. None of thefe, however,
fucceeded. A red colour was indeed fometimes ob¬
tained, but it turned out the fame whether any coral
was ufed in the operation or not. In fome of thefe
proceffes, however, the coral lofes its colour. One me¬
thod of making the tinfture is by diffolving a pound of
fugar in a little water, and then adding half a pound
of wax. A pound of coral boiled in this mixture lofes
its rednefs, but is found to be unaltered in other re-
fpefts. In order to prepare the tin&ure, the wax and
fugar muft be diifi lved in fpirit of wine.
CORAL Fishery. Red coral is found in the Me¬
diterranean, on the ftrores of Provence, from Cape de
la Gouronne to that of St Tropez ; about the ifles of
Majorca and Minorca ; on the fouth of Sicily ; on the
coafts of Africa; and, laftly, in the Ethiopic ocean,
about cape Negro. The divers fay, that the little
branches are found only in the caverns whofe fituation
is parallel to the earth’s furface, and open to the fouth.
The manner of fifhing being nearly the fame where
ever coral is found, it will fuffice to inftance the me¬
thod ufed at the baftion of France, under the dire&ion
of the company eftabliihed at Marfeilles for that fifhery.
Seven or eight men go in a boat commanded by the
COR
patron or proprietor ; and when the net is thrown by Coral,
the carter, the reft work the veffel, and help to draw Corallines.
the net in. The net is compofed of two rafters of ‘ v
wood tied crofs-wife, with leads fixed to them : to thefc
they fallen a quantity of hemp twilled loofely round,
and intermingled with fome large netting. This in-
ftrument is let down where they think there is coral,
and pulled up again when the coral is ftrongly intang-
led in the hemp and netting. For this purpofe, fix
boats are fometimes required ; and if in hauling in,
the rope happens to break, the filhermen run the ha¬
zard of being loll. Before the fifliers go to fea, they
agree for the price of the coral, which is fometimes
more, fometimes lefs, a pound ; and they engage, on
pain of corporal punifhment, that neither they nor
their crew {hall embezzle any, but deliver the whole to
the proprietors. When the filhery is ended, which
amounts one year with another to twenty-five quintals
for each boat, it is divided into thirteen parts ; of
which the proprietor hath four, the carters two, and
the other fix men one each, the thirteenth belongs
to the company for payment of the boat furniftied
them.
CoRAL-Stone, a name for a kind of red and white
agate which breaks in "veins, and is found in Italy and
fome parts of Saxony. That of Rochlitz in Saxony
is the moft celebrated, and is found in globules which
have a kind of cruft: about them.
CORALLINES, in natural hiftory, were former¬
ly reckoned a genus of plants, and Mr Tournefort
enumerates 36 fpecies of them ; but in the Linnaean
fyftern they belong to the clafs of zoophytes, and are
defined by modern naturaliils to be fubmarine plant¬
like bodies, that confift of many {lender finely divided
and jointed branches, refembling fome fpecies of mofs;
or animals growing in the form of plants, having their
ilems fixed to other bodies: thefe llems are compofed
of capillary tubes, whofe extremities pafs through a
calcareous cruftj and open into pores on the furface.
The branches are often jointed, and always fubdivided
into fmaller branches, which are either loofe and un-
conneiled, or joined as if they were glued together.
They are dittinguiftied from plants by their texture
and hardnefs : they alfo yield in diftillation a- confide-
rable quantity of volatile fait; and their fmell, in burn¬
ing, refembles that of burnt horns and other animal
fubftances. Many of the corallines feem to confift of a
fingle tube, containing a {ingle parent animal. Every
branch emitted contains an offspring of this parent de¬
pendent upon it, and yet capable of producing its like
in the emiffion of a new branch. Others confift of
many fhch tubes united, rifing up together, and en¬
circling the defei ted tubes of their progenitors, whofe
exuviae become the fubftraturA of a rifing geneiation.
Mr Ellis diftributes corallines into the vejiculated, tu¬
bular, celliferous, and articulated kinds.
Viftculated corallines are diilinguiftied by their horny
hollow ramifications : moft of them are furniftied with
little denticles on their branches, like leaves on moffes;
and at certain feafons of the year they are furniftied
with fmall bodies like bladders,'proceeding from their
ftems and branches, and differing in form according
to the different fpecies. Their colour, when dry, is
of a yellowifti or pale brown, and their nature is ela-
ftic. They are found adhering to rocks, {hells, and
3 K 2 fucufes,
[ 443 1
COR
L 444 1
COR
Coralline?, fucufes, by fmall root-like tubes : they recover their
*r~~* form in water, after having been dried ; and when put
into vinegar, they caufe no effervefcence. See Plate
CXLVII. fig. i. where a reprefents the fea-tamarilk
in its natural fize, and A in which the denticles are
magnified. Fig. 2. b, B, is the fea-cyprefs; fig. 3.
c d, CD, the fniall climbing coralline with well fhaped
cups.
Tubular corallines are compofed of a number of fubftance.
Befides the above, Mr Ellis enumerates other gene- Cora’lodetj-
ra of marine productions; as the keratophyta, efcha- drou
ra, fponges, and alcyonium ; all which are the nefts coranich
or matrices of fea-animals. See Polype. The lait
clafs of marine bodies is formed like fungufes of va¬
rious figures, and with different forts of covering : fome
having a gritty, and fome a callous ikin, with a fpon-
gy fubftance in the infxde : other fpecies are of a flelhy
Ample tubes, growing up nearly together ; or of fuch
branched ones as have neither denticles nor veficles.
Thefe are horny and elaftic like the former, and reco¬
ver their original form in water. Some of them ap¬
pear wrinkled like the wind-pipe, and others like the
inteftine's of fmall animals. See fig. 4, E.
Celliferous corallines are thofe which appear, when
magnified, to be fine thin cells, the habitations of fmall
animals connected together, and difpofed in a variety
CORALLODENDRON, in botany. See Ery-
THRINA.
CORALLOIDES (f^tices.) See Eschara
and Keratophyta.
CORAM (Captain Thomas), a gentleman remark¬
ably diftinguiihed by his humanity, was born about
the year 1668, and fpent the early part of his life in
the ftation of mafter of a veffel trading to our colonies.
Afterwards refiding in the eaftern part of the metro-
of elegant forms like branches. Thefe effervefce polis, among feafearing people, where bufmefs often
with acids. See fig. 5, F f, with part (G H) magni¬
fied.
Articulated corallines confift of fhort pieces of a ftony
or cretaceous brittle matter, whofe furface is covered
with pores or cells, which are joined by a tough, mem¬
branous, flexile fubftance, compofed of many fmall
tubes of the like nature compacted together. The
Plate ftQny part is foluble in vinegar, and the other part re-
CXCVlll. mains entire, a. A, (fig. 6.) is the coralline of the
ftiops. It is fixed to rocks and (hells by ftony joints,
Which, as they rife, are united to others by extremely
fine and (lender tubes : Thefe may be difcovered by a
good eye, or a common magnifier. As the ftems ex¬
tend themfelves,they become pennated by fide-branches
Which come out oppofite to each other, and are joint¬
ed in the fame manner ^ the joints of this fpecies are
like the upper part of an inverted cone, but a little
compreffed : The whole furface is covered over with
very minute circular-lhaped cells like pores ; fee B, and
B 1, where they are higher magnified. B 2, (hows a
crofs feftion highly magnified. If a branch of this
obliged him to come early into the city and return
late, he frequently faw young children expofed in the
ftreets through the indigence or cruelty of their pa¬
rents, This excited his compafilon, and induced him
to projedt the foundation of an hofpital for foundlings.
In this humane defign he laboured with indefatigable
diligence for feventeen years ; and by his application
procured a number, of the nobility and gentry to pa¬
tronize and carry the fcheme into execution, and at
length obtained the royal charter for it. He wras alfo
highly inftrumental in promoting the trade of Ameri¬
ca, by procuring a bounty upon naval (lores imported
from our colonies. He wras likewife eminently con¬
cerned in fetting on foot the colonies of Georgia and
Nova Scotia. His laft charitable defign, in wdiich he
lived to make fome progrefs, was a fcheme for uniting
the North American Indians more clofely to the Rri-
ti(h intereft, by an eilablifhment for the education of
Indian girls. In (hort, he fpent the greateft part of
life in labouring for the public, and experienced a fate
too common in thofe who devote their talents to fuch
coralline is put into vinegar, thefe cells are diffolved laudable purpofes ; being at laft indebted for fubfiftence
with the whole cretaceous furface ; inftead of which *■"
there appear row's of minute ramifications, which feem
to have communicated with each of thefe cells. Up¬
on fome fpecimens of this coralline, we may obferve
little fmall figures like feed-veffels, wfith which the
blanches frequently terminate : They are alfo found on
the fides, as may be feen at A, where they are magni¬
fied.—When a branch is rendered foft by being fteep-
ed in vinegar, there may be fqueezed out from the
to the voluntary fubfcriptions of fome public-fpirited
perfons, at the head of whom was the late Frederic
Prince of Wales. Captain Coram died in 1751 : and
was interred, at his own defire, in a vault under the
chapel of the Foundling Hofpital.
CORAN, or Alcoran. See Alcoran.
CORAX, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of Corvus.
CORANICH, among the Scotch and Irifh, the cu-
little knobs at the ends and fides, fmall twilled fi- (lorn of finging at funerals, anciently prevalent in thofe
gures, like thofe at A 1, which are magnified high- countries, and dill praclifed in feveral parts. Of this
«r at A 2.—We frequently find this coralline of dif¬
ferent colours, as red, green, a(h, and white ; but all
of it, by being expofed to the fun and air on the (hore,
becomes white.
The ancients have faid great things of the virtues
©f the common coralline. Diofcorides preferibes it for
mitigating the pain of the gout, and for preventing
ftagnations of the humours in any part; he fays no¬
thing of its virtues againll worms, which are what we
alone efteem it for. We give it in powder from 10
grains to a fcruple or half a dram twice a day in thefe
cafes/ and that with a coniiderable good effedt..
cuftom Mr Pennant gives the following account. “ I
had not the fortune to be prefent at any in North-
Britain ; but formerly aflifted at one in the fouth of
Ireland, where it was performed in the fulnefs of hor¬
ror. The cries are called by the Irifti the ulogohne and
hullulu; two words very expreffive of the found uttered
on thefe occafions; and being of Celtic (lock, etymo-
logifts would fwear to be the origin of the o\o\Yiyui of
the Greeks and ululatus of the Latins. Virgil is very
fond of ufing the laft whenever any of his females are
diftreffed ; as are others of the Roman poets, and ge¬
nerally on occafions fimilar to this. It was my fortune
COHALIitKKt1.
Plate. CXT.N’K.
Vi, SXCITX.ATEJ)
CF/Ii J ilFEll or ^
Tlate . CXLVUI
C VYRATXi 01015 S
CoilALIimE
* /
f
COR [ 445 ] COR
Coranich to arrive at a certain town in Kerry at the time that
l[ a perfon of fome diitinftion departed this life: my cu-
, Co‘'b‘'‘' . riofity led me to the houfe, where the funeral feemed
condudfed in the purelt claiBeal form.
Quodcunque afpiceret luSus, ^emitufque fonabant,
Homiaquc non tacit! fmeris intus or at.
In (hort, the conclamatio was fet up by the friends in the
fame manner as Virgil defcribes that confequential of
IJido’s death;
Lament's, (emitnque, 55* feminea ululatu
Tetda frcsHiint.
Immediately after this followed another ceremony,
fully defcribed by Cambden in his account of the man¬
ners of the ancient Ivilh ; the earnelt expoftulations
and reproaches given to the deceafed for quitting this
world, where Ihe enjoyed fo many bleffings, fo good
a hufband, and fuch fine children. This cuftom is alfo
of great antiquity, for Euryalus’s mother makes the
fame addrefs to her dead fon.
 Tune ilia fene&ec
Sera meet rcquics ? poiuijli relinquere folam,
Crudelis?
•But when the time approached for carrying out the
corps, the cry was redoubled,
Tremulis ululatibus athera complent;
a numerous band of females waiting in the outer court
to attend the hearfe, and to pay in chorus the laft tri¬
bute of their voices. The habit of this forrowing
train, and the negleft of their perfons, were admirably
fuited to the occafion ; their robes were black and
flowing, refembling the ancient Palla; their feet naked,
their hair long and dilhevelled : I might truly fay,
Ut qiti condudi plornnt in finer a, dicunt
Et faciunt propc plura doleutibui eranimo.
The corpfe was carried flowly along the verge of a
moll beautiful lake, the ululatus was continued, and
the whole proceflion ended among the venerable ruins
of an old abbey.”
CORE AN, in Jewilh antiquity, were thbfe offerings
which had life, in oppofition to the minchaby or thofe
which had not. It is derived from the word karab,
which fignifies “ to approachbecaufe the vi&ims
were brought to the door of the tabernacle. The corban
were always'..looked upon as the molt facred offerings.
The Jews are reproached with defeating, by means of
the corban, the precept of the fifth commandment,
which enjoins the refpedl due to parents. For when
a child had no mind to relieve the wants of his father
or mother, he would fay to them, “ It is a gift (cor¬
ban) by whatfoever thou mighteft be profited by me;”
i.e. “ I have devoted that to God which you afk of
me, and it is no longer mine to give.”
*- Corban is alfo a ceremony which the Mahometans
perform at the foot of mount Arrarat in Arabia, near
Mecca. It confifts in killing a great number of flieep,
and dillributing them among the poor.
CORBEILS, in fortification, little balkets, about
a foot and a half high, eight inches wide at the bot¬
tom and twelve at the top ; which being filled with
earth, are frequently fet one again ft another upon the
parapet or elfewhere ; leaving certain port-holes, from
whence to fire upon the enemy under covert without
being feen by them.
CORBEL, in archite&ure, the reprefentation of a
bafket, fometimes feen on the heads of caryatides. The Corbet
word is alfo ufed for the vafe, or tambour, of the Co- W
rinthian column ; fo called from its refemblance of a ° ce et‘
balket, or becaufe it was lirll formed on the model of
a balket.
Corbel, or Corbil, is alfo ufed, in building, for a
fliort piece of timber placed in a wall, with its end
flicking out fix or eight inches, as occafion ferves, in
manner of a Ihouldering-piecc. The under part of the
end thus flicking out is fometimes cut into the form of
a boultin ; fometimes of an ogee, and fometimes of a
face, &c. according to the workman’s fancy ; the up¬
per fide being plain and flat.
Corbel is alfo ufed by fome architedls for a niche
or hollow left in walls for images, figures, or llatues to
Hand in.
CORBET ^Richard), bilhop of Norwich, and an
eminent poet, was born at Ewell in Surry, toward
the latter end of the 16th century ; and educated at
Oxford, where he was efteemed one of the moll ce¬
lebrated wits of the univeriity. Entering into holy
orders, he became a popular preacher, and was made
chaplain to King James I.: when, after feveral pre¬
ferments in the church, he was, in 1629, made bifliop
of Oxford; and, in 1632, was tcanllated to the fee
of Norwich. He was very hofpitable, and always a
generous encourager of public defigns. He died in
1635. There have been feveral editions of his poems
publilhed under the title of Poemata Stromata.
CORBEY, a town of Picardy in France, with a fa¬
mous abbey of Benedidtine monks. It is feated on the
river Somme, 10 miles call of Amiens, and 75 north
of Paris. E. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat. 49. yy.
CORCELET, in natural hillory, that part of the
fly-clafs which is analogous in its lituation to the breall
in other animals. Many have called it the breall in
thefe alfo, but improperly ; becaufe the breall of other
animals is the place of the lungs and trachea, but
thefe organs are'in the fly-dafs diilributed through the
whole body. The wings are affixed to this part of
the fly-clafs; and there are fome diftindlions of great
confequence in regard to the arrangement and dillribu-
tion of thofe animals into genera. Some flies have a
double corcelet, or one divided into two parts; and
this is the cafe of the fly produced from the formica
leo, which therefore does not carry its only dillindlion
in the figure of its antennae. One pair of the legs of
this fly are attached to the firll or anterior corcelet,
which is alfo capable of moving on the other.
The corcelets of fome flies are alfo much more ele¬
vated than thofe of others; and in fome this elevation
is carried fo far, that the head is forced by it to be
bent downward, and the creature is plainly made
hump-backed by it. The great kind, and the tlpuhr,
furnilh inilances of this elevated and hump-backed
corcelet.
A feries of flies of two wings are known by a very-
particular armament which they carry on the corcelet,.
ufually called their breajl. This con fills of two long,
flender, fliarp-pointed prickles, which are immoveable
in their infertions, and feem meant as offenfive or de-
fenfive weapons ; but in what manner they are ufed it
is not eafily to be determined.
All thefe flies are produced from long water-worms
with
Corcelet
II
Cnrculum.
COR f 446 3 COR
with open and funnel-fafhioned tails, or furniflied with
their aperture for refpiration at the hinder extremity.
There are three known fpecies of this fort of fly,
with armed corcelets, which differ much in fize, but
are all produced of worms of this kind. The largeft
of thefe flies are produced from the largeft and longeft
worm, and are fomething longer than the bee. The
fmalleft are produced of worms very fmall and flender,
and are themfelves extremely minute: and the third
kind is of a middle fize between th,efe, and produced
from a proportionably fmaller worm than that of the
firft, and propertionably larger than that of the fecond
fpecies.
All thefe fpecies have their wings but little diftin-
guilhable at their firft production from the fhell; they
appear indeed only like two flender filaments laid acrofs
their bodies,- but they quickly (how, that in this ftate
.they were only very nicely folded together; and foon
expand, and fliow their full extent and proportion.
When firft produced from the ihell, thefe flies are
-of a pale green .colour. The under part of their belly
in many continues green, but in the greater number
it becomes of a pale dead brown. Some of t^iem have
the outfide of their -bodies of a deep brown, approach¬
ing to black, with lines of a dead brown between the
commiffures of the rings. The back of. fome others
has only a biackifti brown band, which runs ftraight
;down from the corcelet to the end of the body, the
whole body befide being of a dead brown. The cor-
vcelet in thefe flies is brown, and the prickles are yel-
•lowiih near their infertions, but nearly black at their
.points. They have three of the fmall gloffy eyes dif-
pofed in the ihape of a triangle on the back part of
their -head; and their reticular eyes are brown, and at
fome diftance from one another.
CORCHORUS, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
37th order, Columns#. The corolla is pentapetalous ;
the calyx pentaphyllous and deciduous; and the cap-
fule many-valved and many-celled.
There are eight fpecies; of which the moft re¬
markable is the olitorius, an annual, * and a native
of Alia, Africa, and America. It rifes with a
round, ftriated, upright, branched ftalk, to near two
feet, which is furniihed with leaves differing in ftiape;
fome being oval, fome cut off ftraight at their bafe,
and others almoft heart-ftiaped. They are of a deep
green colour, and have a few teeth on the margins
of their bafe, that end in briftly, reflexed, purplifli
filaments. The flowers come out at- the fides of the
branches oppofite to the leaves. They Hand fingly
on very fhort peduncles; are compofed of five fmall
yellow petals, and a great number of ftamina furround-
ing an oblong germen, which becomes a long, rough,
fliarp-pointed capfule, opening in four parts, each fill¬
ed with greenifh angular feeds.—This plant is fown
by the Jews about Aleppo, and is therefore called Jews
mallow. The leaves are a favourite fallad among thefe
people, and they boil and eat them with their meat.
CORCULUM, a diminutive from cor, “ the heart,”
little heart; the effence of a feed, and principle of
life of the future plant, attached to anci contained
within the lobes. It confifts of two parts, termed by
Linnaeus Plumule and Rostellum. The former
is the radicula of Grew and other naturalifts. The
corculum is in facl the embryo of the future vegetable';
and is attached by two trunks of veffels to the lobes
at their union. The firft of its two parts mounts up¬
ward, and becomes the trunk. The other ftrikes into
the ground, and is the rudiment of the root. The
lobes and heart of the feed are diftinftly vifible in the
bean, and other feeds of that clafs, efpecially after re¬
maining fome time in water or earth.
The principle of life is feated either at the fummit
or bafe of the feed. From this circumftance are con-
ftrucled the two firft claffes in Csefalpinus’s method,
containing trees and Ihrubs only.
CORCYRA (anc. geog,), an ifland in the Ionian
Sea, oppofite to Tbefprotia, a di ft rift of Epirus, cal¬
led Scheria and Phteacia by Homer. In Callimachus
it is called Drepane", its moft ancient name, according
to the Scholiaft, from the curvity of its figure. Fa¬
mous for the ihipwreck of Ulyffes and the gardens of
Alcinous. Now Corfu.
CorcyrA, a cognominal town of the ifland; formerly
powerful, and capable of coping with mighty ftates ;
fituated about the middle of the eaft fide of the ifland,
called The Town of thePheacians by Homer. Now Corfu,
from the of the middle age, the name of the
citadel. It was a colony of Corinthians ; Corcyrai,
the people. E. Long. 19. 48. Lat. 39. 50.
Corctra Aigra, an ifland in the Adriatic, on the coaft
of Dalmatia (Pliny); called Melma by the Greeks, to
diftinguiih it from the ifland in the Ionian Sea. The
epithet Nigra was added, from its woods of tall trees
with which it is almoft covered. Now Cur tool a.
CORD, or Chord, an affemblage of feveral threads
of hemp, cabled or twilled together by means of a
wheel. See Cordage. The word comes from the
Greek which properly fignifies an inteftine or
gut, of which cords may be made. See Chord.
Magical Cord, an inftrument in great ufe among
the Laplanders, and by them fuppofed to be endued
with a number of virtues. It is a cord or rope with
three knots tied in it. They ufe. many magical rites
and ceremonies in the tying of this cord ; and, when
thus prepared, it is fuppofed to have power over the
winds; and they will fell, by means of it, a good wind,
or at leaft the promife of one, to a fliip. If they untie
only one of thefe knots, a moderate gale fucceeds; if
two, it is much ftronger; and jf three, a ftorm is fure
to follow.
Cord of Woodi a certain quantity of wood for burn¬
ing, fo called becaufe formerly meafured with a cord.
The .dimenlions of a ftatute cord of wood are eight feet
long, four feet high, and four feet broad.
CoRD-Wood, is new wood, and fuch as, when brought
by water, comes on board a veffel, in oppofition to
. that which is floated.
CORDAGE, a term ufed in general for all forts of
cord, whether fmail, middling, or great. See Rope.
The naval cordage of the earlier ages was in all
probability only thongs of leather. Thefe primitive
ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the third
century. The nations to the north of the Baltic had
them in the ninth or tenth centuries : and the inha¬
bitants of the vveftern ifles of Scotland make ufe of
them at prefent; cutting the (kin of a feal, or the raw
and failed hide of a cow, into long pieces, and faften-
ing the plough to their horfes with them, or even twitt¬
ing them into ftrong ropes of 20 or 30 fathoms length,
2 But
COR T 447 J COR
Cordage But thefe, in the fouth of our ifland, and on the con-
11 tinent, were early fuperfeded by the life of iron chains.
^Corde ier.^ maritime and commercial nation of the Ve-
neti, that were fo intimately conne&ed with the Belgae
of Britain, ured iron^chains for their cables in the days
of Caefar. But in the more diftant and refined coun-
ti ies of the fouth, both thongs and thefe had long
given place to the ufe of vegetable threads, and the
arts of combining them into ftrength. In this manner
the Greeks appear to have ufed the common ruflies of
their country, and the Carthaginians the fpartum or
broom of Spain. And as all the cordage of the Ro¬
mans was made of thefe materials at their laft defcent
on our illand, fo the art of manufadhiring them would
neceflarily be introduced with the Roman fettlements
among the Britons. Under the direction of Roman
artifts their thongs of leather would naturally be laid
afide, and the junci, or tufiies of the plains, worked
up into cordage. And what remarkably coincides with
this opinion is, that the remains of old cables and ropes
are ftill diftinguifhed among the Britifli failors by the
name of old junk*
The nations of Roman Britain, and the tribes of
Caledonia and Ireland, had inherited, from their ear-
lieft anceftors, many of the ruder arts of navigation.
Their fhips were large open boats, framed of light
timbers ribbed with hurdles and lined with hides.
Thefe were furnifhed with malls and fails. The lat¬
ter were formed of hides, as the tackle was of thongs.
They were actually of hides among the Veneti as late
as the days of Caefar; and they were never furled,
but only bound to the mall. But thefe flight fea-boats,
and their rude furniture, would foon be difmiffed by
the provincials for the more fubllantial vefiels and
more artificial fails of the Romans. The Roman fails,
which were compofed of flax in the days of Agricola,
were afterwards made of hemp ; and our own are
therefore denominated cannabis or canvas by our mari¬
ners at prefent. And about the fame period afiuredly
did the junk of the Britilh cordage give way to the
fame materials; the ufe of hempen ropes upon land,
and of hempen nets for hunting, being very common
among the Romans in the firft century.
CORDATED, an appellation frequently given by
naturahfts to things fomewhat refembling a heart.
CORDED, in heraldry. A crofs corded, fome au¬
thors take for a crofs wound or wrenched about with
cords: others, wfith more probability, take it for a crofs
made of two pieces of cord.
CORDEEERAS, mountains-of South. America,
otherwife called Andes.
CORDELIER, a Francifcan, or religious of the
order of St Francis. The Cordeliers are clothed in
thick grey cloth, with a little cowl, a chaperon, and
cloak, of the fame; having a girdle of rope or cord
tied with three knots : w hence the name.—They are
otherwife called Minor Friars, their original name.
The denomination Cordelier is faid to have been firft
given them in the war of St Louis againft the infidels;
wherein the Friars Minor having repulfed the barba¬
rians, and that king having inquired their name, it
was anfwered, they were people cprdelie-z, “ tied wtfh
ropes.” The Cordeliers are to a man proft-fled
Scotifts..
CORDEMOI (Geral de), a learned philofopher and Corde
hiftorian, born at Paris, made htmfelf known to M. ^ l!
BofFuet, who placed him about the dauphin in the qua-  
lity of reader. He inftru&ed that young prince with
great afliduity ; and in 1675 was received into the
French academy. He wrote a general hiftory of France
during the firft races of the French kings, in 2 vols-;
and fix difeourfes on the Diftindtiqn between Body and
Soul, which were primed together in 1 702 in quarto.
He died in 1684. M. Cordemoi followed the principles
of Defcartes.
CORDIA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 41ft
order, Afperlfolitt. The corolla fs funnel-fhaped;
tjie ftyle dichotomous or divided into two threads, and
each of thefe divided into, other two.
There are five fpecies, of w’hich the principal are
the myxa and febeftena. 1. The myxa, or Aflyrian
plum, grows wild in .Affyria and Egypt, and alfo on
the coaft of Malabar. It rifes to the height of a mid¬
dling plum-tree.; and its branches are furnifhed with
oval, woolly leaves, ilanding witliout order. The
flowers are produced in bunches ; are white, and' cofv-
iift of one tubular petal, and a like calyi, nearly of
an equal length, and both are cut into five parts at
their brims. In their centre are five very fmall ftami-
na, and one flender ftyle crowmed with an. obtufe ftig-
ma. The germen is roundifli, and fwells to a plum
of the fame form, and about the lize of a damfon, of
a dark brown colour, a fweet tafte, and very glutinous.
Thefe plums were formerly kept in the (hops; and
were accounted good for obtunding acrimony, and
thereby flopping defluxions of rheum upon the lungs:
but at prefent they are little ufed for thefe purpofes.
la fome parts of Turky they cultivate this tree in great
abundance, not only for the fake of the fruit to eat,
but to make birdlime of, which is a vaft article of
trade in a town called Seld. — 2. The febeftena, or
rough-leaved febeften, grows naturally in both the In¬
dies, and fends forth feveral fhrubby ftalks eight or ten
feet high. The young leaves ace ferrated, but the full
grown ones are not. They are of an oblong-oval
form, rough, of a deep green on the upper fide, and
ftand alternately on fliort footftalks. The flowers ter¬
minate the branches in. large clufters, are nearly of the
ftiape and colour of thofe of the marvel of Peru, and
make a moft beautiful appearance. Each has five fta-
mina and one bifid, ftyle. The plums.are.much of the
lhape of thofe of the myxa, and are eaten in the fame
manner. The fruit of this tree is lefs valuable than
the wood, a fmall piece of which thrown upon a
clear fire wdll perfume a room with a moft agreeable
odour.
CORDIAL, in medicine, whatever raifes the fpirits,
and gives them a fudden ftruigth and cheerfulnefs; as
wine, fpirits, the.effluvia of flowers, fruit, and many-
other fubftances.
CORDON, in fortification, a row of ftones, made
round on the outfide, and fet between the wall of the
fortrefs which.lies aflope, and the parapet which ftands
perpendicular, after fuch a manner, that this difference
may not be offenfive to the eye ; w-hence the cordons -
fexve only as an ornament, ranging round about the
place,,
COR
-Cotdu^a, plac<*, being only ufed in fortifications of fione-work :
'CoHn;q-i. £or jn tj,0fe made with earth the void fpace is filled up
with pointed flakes. '
CORDUBA (anc. geog.), an illuftrious city of
Baetica, on the right or north fide of the Bnstis. Built
by Marcellus, according to Strabo ; but which Mar-
cellus, is not fo clear. It was the firft colony fent
into thofe parts by the Romans; and furnamed Pa¬
tricia, becaufe at firft inhabited by principal men, both
of the Romans and natives. It is. mentioned by
Sil. Italicus in the fecond Punic war; and hence it is
probable the firft Marcellus was the founder, and not
the Marcellus engaged in the civil war between C as far
.and Pompey. It was famous for the birth of the two
.Senecas and of Lucan (Martial), and for its rich pro¬
duce in oil (Statius, Martial). Still retaining its name
a little altered. W. Long. 5. Lat. 37. 45.
CORDOUA, or Cordova, a city of Andalufia in
Spain, fituated on the river Guadelquiver, in a very
extenfive plain. The circumference is large; but it is
not peopled in proportion to- its extent, for there are
a great many orchards and gardens within the walls.
There are many fuperb ftruftures, palaces, churches,
afid religions houfes; particularly the cathedral, which
is very magnificent: it was formerly a mofque when
the Moors poflefTed the town ; for which reafon it ftill
retains the name of Mexquita, which has the fame
meaning. This cathedral is very rich in plate ; four
of the filver candlefticks coft L. 850 a-piece. The re¬
venue of the fee amounts to L. 3500 per annum; but as
the bifhops cannot devife by will, all they die pofTeffed
of efcheats to the crown. The fquare called the PI an, a
Major is furrounded with very fine houfes, under which
are piazzas. The trade is flourifhing on account of
the river; and confifts of wine, filk, and Cordovian
leather. In the neighbourhood of this place are a vaft
number of orange and lemon trees, which renders their
fruits exceeding cheap. The beft horfes in Spain come
from hence.
Cordova was the ancient CorJula mentioned in the
preceding article. After the fall of the Roman em¬
pire, it was fubjefted to the dominion of the Goths;
but in the eighth century it was raifed by the Mooriih
princes to a ftate of fplendor unequalled in any other
art of the world. In the year 755, Abdoulrahman, only
eir-male of the Ommiad line, having paffed over from
Africa at the head of a few defperate followers, found
means to raife a rebellion in Spain; when, after a
battle fought on the banks of the Guadclquiver, in
which he overthrew the lieutenant of the Abaffid Ca¬
liph of Damafcus, he became king of all the Moorifh
poffeflions in the fouth of Spain, and in 759 fixed
his royal refidence at Cordova. Then began thofe
flourifhing ages of Arabian gallantry and magnificence
which rendered the Moors of Spain fuperior to all their
cotemporaries in arts and farms, and made Cordova
one of the moft fplendid cities of the world. Agri¬
culture and commerce profpered under the happy fway
of this hero; and the face of the country was changed
from a fcene of defolation, which the long wars and
harfh government of the viceroys had brought on,'into
a moft populous flourifhing ftate, exceeding in riches,
number of inhabitants, a&ivity, and induftry, any
prior or fubfequent era of the Spanifh hiitory. He
added new fortifications to the town, built himfelf a
N° 92, 1
COR
magnificent palace with-delicious gardens, laid caufe- Cordon*,
ways through the marfhes, made excellent roads to open l—
ready communication between the great towns, and
in 786 began the great mofque, which he did not live
to finifli.
During the courfe of two centuries, this court con¬
tinued to be the refort of all profeffors of the polite
arts, and of fuch as valued themfelves upon their mili¬
tary and knightly accomplifhments ; while the reft of
Europe was buried in ignorance, debafed by brutality
of manners, or diftra&ed by fuperftitious difputes.
England, weakened by its heptarchy, was too incon-
fiderable even to be mentioned in the political hiftory
of the times : France, though it had a gleam of repu¬
tation under Charlemagne, was flill a barbarous un-
polifhed nation : and Italy was in utter confufion ; the
frequent revolutions and change of mailers rendering
it impofiible for learning, or any thing good, to ac¬
quire a permanent footing in fo unllable a foil: Greece,
though ftill in pofieflion of the arts and luxury of an¬
cient Rome, had loft all vigour, and feemed abforbed
in the moft futile of all purfuits ; viz, that of fchola*
ftic argument and religious fubtilties.
The refidence of the Ommiad Caliphs was long con-
fpicuous for its fupreme magnificence, and the crowds
of learned men who were allured to it by the protec¬
tion offered by its fovereigns, the beauty of the coun¬
try, the wholefomenefs of the climate, and the variety
of pleafures that returned inceflantly in one enchanting
round.
Cordova became the centre of politenefs, induftry,*
and genius. Tilts and tournaments, with other coftly
fhows, were long the darling pallimes of a wealthy
happy people ; and this was the only kingdom in the
weft where geometry, aftronomy, and phyfic, were
regularly ftudied and pra&ifed. Mufic was no lefs
honoured ; for we find, that in 844 a famous mufician
called alii Zeriab came to fettle at Cordova, and form¬
ed feveral pupils, who were fuppofed to equal the moft
celebrated performers that were ever known even in
the Eaft. That architefture was greatly encouraged,
we need no other proof than the great and expen-
five fabrics undertaken and completed by many of
thefe Spanifh monarchs. Whatever faults may be
juftly condemned in their manner by the connoiffeur,
accuftomed to the chafte noble graces of the Grecian
proportions, certainly nobody can behpld what remains
of thefe Moorifh edifices, without being ftrongly im-
preffed with a high idea of the genius of the artifts, as
well as the grandeur of the prince who carried their
plans into execution.
Thefe fultans not only gave the moft diftinguifhed
prote&ion to arts and fciences, and to the perfons
learned in any of them, but were themfelves eminently
verfed in various branches of knowledge. Alkehem II.
collecled fo immenfe a quantity of manuferipts, that
before the end of his reign the royal library contained
no lefs than 600,000 volumes, of which the very cata¬
logue filled 40 huge folios. The univerfity of Cordo¬
va was founded by him, and under fuch favourable au-
fpices rofe to the higheft pitch of celebrity.
Abdoulrahman was fucceeded by his fon Hiffem,
whofe paffion for glory and architecture was not in the
lead inferior to that of his father. He put the finifh-
ing hand to the mofque, which the plunder of the
fouthern
[ 448 ]
COR f 449 1 COR
Oardoua foutKern provinces of France enabled him to complete
Cordwaln ,'n courfe of a few years. The bridge over the
o™- Guadelquiver was a work, of Hiifem’s after his own
u—plan.
Alkahem fucceeded Hiflem.
Abdoulrahman II. was alfo pafllonat-cly fond of
building. He was the firft that brought the fupplies
of water to Cordova by means of leaden pipes laid up¬
on aquedu&s of ftone. The quantity was fo confider-
able, that every part of the palace, the mofques, baths,
fquares, and public edifices, had all of them their
fountains conftantly playing. A great many of thefe
works ftill fubfift. He paved the whole city, and erec¬
ted feveral mofques.
After him reigned Mahomet Almundar, Abdallah,
and Abdoulrahman III. who furpaffed all his predecef-
fors in fplendor, riches, and expence. His fubjedts vied
with each other in profufion and magnificence. This
monarch was fucceeded by his fon Alkahem II. who left
a minor to fucceed him, and the kingdom to be govern¬
ed by the famous vifir Mahomet Abenamir, firnamed
Jllmanzor or “ the defender,” from his great vidfories
and wife condudt. His defcendents inherited from him
the vifirihip, and a power as abfolute as if they had
been caliphs, until the weaknefs of the fovereigns en¬
couraged, and the infolence of the miniilers provoked,
the grandees to difturb the (late with their jealoufies
and difienfions. Thefe broils occafioned fuch a feries
of civil wars and anarchy, as overthrew the throne of
Cordova, and deftroyed the whole race of Abdoulrah¬
man. Thus the glorious edifice, founded by the va¬
lour and prudence of that conqueror, and cemented by
fimilar virtues in many of his fucceffors, funk into no¬
thing as foon as the fceptre devolved upon weak ener¬
vated princes, whofe indolence and incapacity tranf-
ferred the management of every thing to a vifir.
Many petty kingdoms fprang up out of the ruins of
this mighty empire ; and the Chriftians foon found op¬
portunities of deftroying, by feparate attacks, that tre¬
mendous power, which when united had proved an
overmatch for their utmoft force.
New Cordu/!, a confiderable town of South Ame¬
rica, in the "province of Tucuman, with a bifhop’s fee,
175 miles from St Jago. W. Long. 62. 5. S. Lat.
32. 10. -
CORDUAN, a Famous pharos or light-houfe of
France, in Guienne, at the mouth of the river Girond.
The archite&ure is extremely fine ; and is placed
there to hinder veffels from running on the fand-banks
at the mouth of the river. W. Long. 1. 9. N. Lat.
45 • 36.
CORDUS (Valerius), a learned botanift, was the
fon of Ericius Gordus, a phyfician and poet of Ger¬
many. Having learnt the languages, he applied him-
felf to the ftudy of botany ; in ■ the profecution of
which, he examined the mountains of Germany, and
travelled into Italy; but being wounded in the leg
by the kick of a horfe, died at Rome in 1544. He
wrote Remarks on Diofcorides, and other works.
CORDWAINERS, orCoRDiNERS, the term where¬
by the flatutes denominate Jloemakers. The word is
formed from the French cordonmer, which Menage
derives from cordouan, a kind of leather brought from
Cordoua, whereof they formerly made the upper-
. Vox,. V. Part II.
leathers of their fiioes. Others derive it from eorife, Cores.
“ rope,” becaufe anciently (hoes were made of cords; v—*™
as they ftill are in fome parts of Spain, under the name
of alpargates. But the former etymology is better
warranted: for, in eiTeff, the French workmen who
prepare the corduas are ftill called cordouanniers.
In Paris they have two pious focieties under the
titles of freres cordonnters, “ brothers fhoemakers,”
eftablifhed by authority towards the middle of the 17th *.See ^"7-
century; the one under the proteflion of StCrifpin*,^*'
the other of St Crifpianus, two faints who had former¬
ly honoured the profeffion. They live in community,
and under fixed ftatutes and officers; by which they
are directed both in their fpiritual and fecular con¬
cerns. The produce of their (hoes goes into a com¬
mon ftock, to furniffi neceffaries for their fupport;
the reft to be diftributed among the poor.
COREA, a peninfula lying to the north-eaft of
China, between 99 and 109 degrees of E. Long, and
between 32 and 46 of N. Lat. It is divided into 8
provinces, which contain 40 cities of the ift rank, 51
of the 2d, and 70 of the 3d. The capital of the whole
is Hanching, where the king refides. The Jefuits
fay, the people are well made, of a fweet and trqc*
table difpoiition, and fond of learning, mufie, and dan¬
cing, and in general refemble the Chinefe. Their
houfes are mean, being covered with thatch; and they
have no beds, but lie on the floor. They have little
filk, and therefore make ufe of linen-cloth in its room.
Their trade confifts in white paper, pencils, gingfeng,
gold, filver, iron, yellow varnilh, fowls whofe tails
aie three feet long, horfes no more than three feet in
height, fable-ikins, caftor, and mineral fait. In ge¬
neral it is a fertile country, tho’ abounding in moun¬
tains. It is tributary to China.
Mr Grofier relates an obfervation concerning the
natural hiftory of Corea, which, in his opinion, fur-
nifhes a new proof of the revolutions which the furface
of our globe has undergone. An ancient Chinefe
book afferts, that the city where Kipe, the king of
Corea, eftablilhed his court, was built in a place which
forms at prefent a part of the territories of Tong-
ping-fou, a city of the firft clafs in the province of
Petcheli. “ If this (fays he) be admitted as a fad:,
we may from thence conclude that thefe territories
formerly belonged to Corea; and that the gulf of
Lax-tong, which at prefent feparates this kingdom
from the province of Petcheli, did not then exift, and
that it has been formed fince ; for it is not probable
that a fovereign would have fixed his refidence with¬
out the boundaries of his kingdom, or in a place where
he was feparated from it by a wide and exteniive fea.
This conje&ure is confirmed by certain fads admitted
by the Chinefe. Thus when Tu, furnamed the Greats
undertook to drain and carry off the waters which
had inundated the low grounds of feveral provinces, he
began by the river Hoang-ho, the overflowing of
which caufed the greateft devaftation. He went in
fearch of its fource to the bofom of Tartary, from
whence he direded its courfe acrofs the provinces of
Chan-fi, Cben fi, Flonan, and Petcheli. Towards its
mouth, in order to weaken the rapidity of its waters,
he divided them into nine channels, through which he
caufed this river difeharge itfelf into the eaftern fea
.3 L near
COR
Corea near the mountain of Kie-che-chan, which ,then formed
~ a promontory. Since that time to the prefent, that is
about 3950 years, the river Hoang-ho has departed
fo much from its ancient courfe, that its mouth at
prefent is about fix degrees farther fouth. We muft
alfo remark, that the mountain Kie-che-chan, which
was formerly united to the main land of Yong-pong-
fou, ft^nds at prefent in the fea at the diftance of about
50 leagues to the fouth of that city. If the fea has
been able to cover with its waters that extent of terri¬
tory which at prefent forms part of the gulph of Lea-
tong, may we not be allowed to fuppofe that like in-
[ 4J° ]
COR
and become excellent foldiers. Their arms are crofs-
bows and long fabres. Men of learning are diftinguiih-
ed from other claffes of people by two plumes of fea- _
thers in their caps ; and when merchants prefent the
Coreans with any books for fale, they drefs themfelves
in their richeft attire, and burn perfumes before they
treat concerning the price.
The Coreans mourn three years, as in China, for a
father or mother : but the time of mourning for a
brother is confined to three months. Their dead are
not interred until three yeays after their deceafe ; and
when the ceremony of interment is performed, they
undations may have formed fuccefiively the whole of place around the tomb the clothes, chariot, and horfes
that gulph, the ancient exiftence of which feems fo ill
to agree with the refidence of the kings of Corea in
the territories of Yong-ping-fou ? It is true, the Chi-
nefe hiftory makes no mention of fo confiderable a
phyfical revolution ; but it is equally filent with re¬
gard to the 500 lys (50 leagues) extent of ground
which is at prefent covered by the fea beyond the moun¬
tains of Kie-che-chan. Befides, of all the ch^ges
which the furface of our globe experiences, thofeonly
are mentioned in hiftory which happen fuddenly, and
which confequently make more impreffion on the minds
of men.
Corea chiefly produces wheat, rice, and sginfeng,
with a kind, of palm-tree which yields a gum capable
of producing a yellow varnifh little inferior to gilding.
Hence alfo are exported caftor and fable fluns; alfo
gold, filver, iron, and foffil fait; a kind of fmall brufnes
for painting, made of the hair of a wolf’s tail, are like-
wife manufactured here, which are exported to China
and highly efteemed there. The fea-coafts abound in
fifli, and great numbers of whales are found there every
year towards the north-eaft. Several of thefe, it is
faid, have in their bodies the harpoons of the French
and Dutch, from whom they, have efcaped in the nor¬
thern extremities of Europe; which feems to indicate
of the deceafed, with whatever elfe he (bowed the
greateft fondnefs for while alive ; all which they leave
to be carried off by the affiftants. Their houfes, as in
China, confift only of one ftory, and are very ill built;
in the country being compofed of earth, and in cities
generally of brick, but all thatched with draw : the
walls of their cities are conftrufted after the Chinefe
manner, with fquare turrets, battlements, and arched
gates. Their writing, drefs, religious ceremonies, and
creed, as well as the greater part of their cuftoms, are
borrowed from the Chinefe. Their women, however,
are lefs confined, and have the liberty of appearing in
public with the other fex, for which they are often ri¬
diculed by their neighbours. They differ from the
Chinefe alfo in their ceremonies of marriage, and in
the manner of contra&ing it; the parties in this coun¬
try taking the liberty to choofe for themfelves, with¬
out confulting the inclinations of their parents, or
fuffering them to throw any obftacles in their way.
COREIA, in antiquity, a feftivai in honour of Pro-
ferpine, named Core, which in the Moloffian dia¬
led! fignifies a beautiful woman.
CORELLI (Arcangelo), the famous Italian mu-
fician and compofer, a native of Fufignano, in the ter¬
ritory of Bologna, was born in 1653. He entertain-
: paffage from the European into the Afiatic feas ed an early propenfity to the violin ; and as he advan-
round the continents of Europe and Afia.
A confiderable quantity of the paper of Corea is
annually imported into China; indeed the tribute due
ced in years, laboured inceffantly in the practice of
that inftrument. About the year 1672, his curiofity
led him to vifit Pans, probably with a view to attend
to the emperor is partly paid with it every year. , the improvements which were making in mufic under
It'is made of cotton, and is as ftrong as cloth, being *l-~ :~a r —j:—1 —1 ~
written upon with a fmall hair-brufh or pencil; but
Biuft be done over with alum-water before it can be
written upon in the European manner. It is not pur-
chafed by the Chinefe for writing, but for filling up
the fquaresof their fafh-wi.ndows; becaufe, when oiled,
k refifts the wind and rain better than that of China.
It is ufed likewife as wrapping paper; and is fervice-
able to the.taylors, who rub it between their hands
until it becomes as foft and flexible as the fineft cotton
the influence of cardinal Mazarine, and in confequence
of the eftabliftiment of a royal academy ; but, not-
withftanding the chara&er which he brought with him,
he was driven back to Rome by Lully, whofe jealous
temper could not brook fa formidable a rival as this
illuftrious Italian. In the year 1680 he vifited Ger¬
many, and met with a reception fuitable to his merit
from moft of the German princes, particularly the
eleftor of Bavaria ; in, whofe fervice he was retained,
and continued for fome time. After about five years
floth, inftead of which it is often employed in lining ftay abroad, he returned again to Rome, and there
clothes. It has alfo this Angular property, that if it purfued his ftudies with great afliduity.
be too thick for the purpofe intended,it maybe eafily The proficiency of Corelli on his favourite inftru-
fplit into two or three leaves, each of which are even ment the violin was fo great, that the fame of it reach-
ftronger than the beft paper of China. ed throughout Europe. The ftyle of his performance
The Coreans are well made, ingenious, brave, and was learned, ^elegant, and pathetic; and his tone firm
tra&able ; are fond of dancing, and (how great do- and even. Mr Geminiani, who was well acquainted:
cility in acquiring the fciences, to which they apply with, and had ftudied it, was ufed to refemble it to a
with great ardour, and honour in a particular manner, fweet trumpet. A perfon who had heard him per-
The northern Coreans are larger fized and more ro- form fays, that, whilft he was playing on the violin,,
bull than thofe of the fouth; have a tafte for arms, . it was ufual for his countenance to be diftorted, his
3; CXeS
COR [ 45i ] COR
Corelli, eyes tt> become as red as fire, and his eye-balls to roll The compofitions of Corelli are celebrated for the
v ' as in an agony. harmony refulting from the union of all the parts;
Corelli was highly favoured by that great patron but the finenefs of the airs is another diftinguifhing
of poetry and mufic, cardinal Ottoboni. Crefcembini charafteriftic of them : the allemand in the 10th folo
fays, that he regulated the mufical academy held at is as remarkable for fpirit and force, as that in the
the palace of his eminence every Monday afternoon, nth is for its enchanting delicacy: his jigs are in a
Here it was that Mr Handel became acquainted with ftyle peculiarly his own ; and that in the 5th folo was
him ; and in this academy a ferenata of Mr Handel, never equalled. In the gavot-movements in the 2d
entitled,. .// Trjonfo del 'Tempo, was performed, the and 4th operas, the melody is diftributed with great
overture to which was in a ftyle fo new and lingular, judgment among the feveral parts. In his minuets
that Corelli was confounded in his firft attempt to alone he feems to fail; Bononcini, Mr Handel, and
play it. Giufeppe Martini, have excelled him in this kind of
During the refidence of Corelli at Rome, befides airs,
thofe of his own country, many perfons were ambi- It is faid there is in every nation a ftyle both ia
tious of becoming his difciples, and learning the prac- fpeaking and writing, which never becomes obfolete ;
tice on the violin from the greateft mafter of that in- a certain mode of phrafeology, fo confonant and con-
ftrument the world had then heard of. Of thefe it is genial to the analogy and principles of its refpe&ive
faid the late lord Edgecumbe Was one ; and that the language, as to remain fettled and unaltered. This,
fine mezzotinto print of Corelli by Smith was feraped but with much greater latitude, may be faid of mufic;
from a picture painted by Mr Hugh Howard at Rome and accordingly it may be obferved of the compofi-
for that nobleman. tioijs of Corelli, not only that they are equally intelli-
Corelli died at Rome in 1713 ; and was buried in gible to the learned and unlearned, but that the im-
the church of the Rotunda, otherwife called the Pan- prdfions made by them have been found to be as du-
theon, in the firft chapel, on the left hand of the en- rable in general. His mufic is the language of na-
trance. Over the place of his interment is a fepul- ture ; and, for a feries of years, all that heard it be-
chral monument to his honour, with a marble bull came fenfible of its effefls: of this there cannot be a
thereon, erefted at the expence of Philip-William, ftronger proof than that, amidft all the innovations
count palatine of the Rhine, under the care and direc- which the love of change had introduced, it continued
tion of cardinal Ottoboni. to be performed, and was heard with delight in
For many years after his deceafe, this excellent mu- churches, in theatres, at public folemnities and fe’fti-
fician was commemorated by a folemn mufical per- vities, in all the cities of Europe for near 40 years,
formance in the Pantheon, on the anniverfary of his Men remembered, and would refer to paffages in it as
death. In the year 1730 an eminent mafter, now li- to a clafiic author ; and even at this day, the mafters
ving, was prefent at that folemnity, who relates that of the fcience do not hefitate to pronounce of the com¬
at it the third and eighth of his concertos were per- pofitions of Corelli, that, of fine harmony and elegant
formed by a numerous band, among whom were many modulation, they,are the moft perfedt examplars.
who had been the pupils of the author. He adds, that COREOPSIS, tickseeded sunflower: A genus
thefe two pieces were performed in a flow, diftindt, of the polygamia fruftanea order, belonging to the fyn-
and firm manner, without graces, and juft as they are genefia clafs of plants; and in the natural method
wrote; and from hence concludes, that this was the ranking under the 49th order, Compojita. The recep-
manner in which they were played by the author him- tacle is paleaceous ; the pappus two-horned; the ca-
felf. lyx eredt and polyphyllous, furrounded with patent ra-
He died poflefled of about 60001. fterling. He dialed leaflets at the bafe. There are 1 x fpecies, moft
was a paffionate admirer of pittures, and lived in an of them herbaceous perennials. They are very flowery,
uninterrupted friendftxip with Carlo Cignani and Carlo and rife from three to eight feet ftature ; termina-
Marat: thefe two eminent painters were rivals for ted by clufters of compound radiated flowers of a
his favour ; and for a feries of years prefented him at yellow colour. They have all perennial fibrous roots,
times with pictures, as well of other mafters as of their and annual ftalks, which rife in the fprlng, flower from
own painting. The confequence was, that Corelli be- July to Odtober, and decay to the root in November,
came pofiefledof a large and valuable colledtion of orb The'flowers are all (haped like fun-flowers, but fmal-
ginal paintings; all which, together with the fum a- ler, and are very ornamental. They are ealily pro-
bove mentioned, he bequeathed to his dear friend and pagated by flipping or dividing the roots in autumn,
patron cardinal Ottoboni, who, referving the pictures when the ftalks decay; planting the flips at once
to himfelf, generoufly diftributed the reft of the ef- where they are to remain; after which they will re¬
fers among the relations of the teftator. quire no farther trouble than to be kept free from
Corelli is faid to have been remarkable for the weeds, and have the decayed ftalks cut annually in au-
mildnefs of his temper and the modefty of his deport- tumn.
ment: neverthelefs, he was not infenfible of the re- CORFE-castle, a borough-town in Dorfetfliire in
fpeft due to his fltill and exquifite performance. Cib- England. It takes its name from a ftrong caftle, be-
ber, sn the Apology for his Life, p. 340. relates, that longing to the crown, that Hood there, but is now
when he was playing a folo at cardinal Ottoboni’s, he ruined. It fends two members to parliament. W.
difeovered the cardinal and another perfon engaged Long. 2. 8. N. Lat. yo. 33.
in difeourfe, upon which he laid down his inftrument; CORFU, an ifland in the Ionian fea, at the mouth
and being afked the reafon, gave for anfwer, that he of the gulph of Venice, formerly called Corcyra and
feared the mufic interrupted their convufation. Phaacia, fomous for the gardens of Alcinous. It be-
3 L 2 longs
COR [ 452 ] COR
longs at prefent to the Venetians ; and forms the bul¬
wark of Chriftendom againft the Turks, who have
often attempted to reduce it, but without fuccefs. It
is well fortified, and has 50 caftles ; and the number of
the inhabitants is faid to be about 50,000. The inhabi¬
tants are of the Greek church; and the Venetians fend
them agovernorand magiftrates, which are changed every
twoyears. The foil is very fruitful, and produces^ great
deal of wine, olives, and feveral other fruits, particu¬
larly figs, which are exceedingly good. The chief city
is likewife called Corfu ; fee the following article.
Corfu, a city of the ifland of that name, belonging
to the Venetians. It is a large pl^ce, ftrongly forti¬
fied and defended by a garrifon of about 10,000 men;
which, however, in the opinion of a late traveller, do
not appear adequate to the extent of the fortifications.
A number of very excellent brafs and iron cannon are
mounted on the different forts, which, he obferves, are fo
divided, that it would take treble the number of their
garrifon to defend them. However, the republic of
Venice is generally at peace with the different Euro¬
pean nations, and the ancient power of the Turks be¬
ing much decayed, they have little to apprehend ; tho’
to prevent any fudden furprife, the Venetians keep a
formidable fquadron in the harbour of Corfu, and the
works have been much improved by Major General
Paterfon.—In the late war they had with the Turks,
this-town was attacked by an army of 80,000 men,
and attempted to be flormed feveral times by the ene¬
my ; but the garrifon, which confifted of 12,000 men
under the command of Count Schulenburg, made fo
brave and gallant a defence, that they always repulfed
them, and obliged them to raife the fiege, and aban¬
don the place with confiderable lofs. For this piece
of fervice the republic has caufed a magnificent fiatue
to be ere&ed in memory of the Count, with an ele¬
gant Latin infcription, fetting forth the many emi¬
nent ferviceg of his military atchievements. The cir¬
cumference of the city is about four miles; the num¬
ber of inhabitants on the whole ifland are computed
at about 50,000, the greatefl part of whom are
Greeks.
This ifland is the refidence of the governor-general,
whofe j urii'di£tion extends over all the iflands fubjeft
to the republic of Venice, in the Levant feas, and is
confidered as one of the greateft honours they can con¬
fer on a fubjeft. He is always a nobleman of the fir ft
rank, and has his appointment for three years only, in
which time he makes a tolerable addition to his for¬
tune, and on his return to Venice is generally advanced
to the honours of the fenate. In the city are many
handfome Greek churches, the principal of which is
that of St Speridione, or the cathedral: It is embel-
lifhed with fome excellent paintings, and moft fuperb-
ly ornamented. The body of the faint from whom it
was named, is preferred entire in a rich fhrine within
the church. The Greeks are moft of them fuch fana¬
tics as to be continually offering their devotions at this
fhrine, believing that through the interceffion of the
faint they will obtain all their wants ; and that by of¬
ferings of money their fins will be forgiven them; by
which means the church has amaffed an immenfe trea-
fure. The relic of the faint is depofited in a filver
coffin, richly decorated with precious ftones. It is in
an amazing flats of prefervation j he having died in
4
the illand of Cyprus upwards of 700 years ago ; and Com
after remaining 40C) years there, was tranfported to ij ..
this place. Beiides the grand fleet, the Venetians have , Coriana
another of galleys, that are manned by convicts whofe "v
crimes are not of fuch a nature as to merit death.
The chief diverlions of this place in the winter are
operas; they have always a company of comedians for
the feafon from Naples. In the fummer they pafs their
time in walking upon the ramparts : few except the
governor and great officers of ftate are permitted to
keep carriages. The Corfu people perfeftly refemble
the Zanteots in their manners (fee Zante) ; though;
it mull be obferved in praife of the former, that aflaf-
finations are uncommon among them, their laws being
too fevere to permit fuch practices with impunity. ,E.
Longfig. 48. N. Lat. 39. 50.
CORIA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon-
and province of Eflremadura, towards the confines of
Portugal, with a bifhop’s fee. It is feated on a little
river called Alagon, in a very fertile plain. There is-
nothing remarkable but the cathedral church, except at
a little dillance a river without a bridge, and a bridge
without a river. This was eaufed by an earthquake^,
which turned the river another way.. W. Long. 6. 46*
N. Lat. 39. 59,
CORIANDRUM, coriander: A genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method, ranking under the.
45th order, Umbellate. The corolla is radiated the
petals inflexed-emarginated ; the involucrum univerfal
and raonophyllous ; the partial involucra halved ; the
fruit fpherical. There are only two fpecies, both of
them herbaceous annuals, the leaves of which are ufe-
ful for the kitchen, and the feeds for medicine. Both. '
fpecies have divided fmall leaves, fomewhat refem-
bling parfley: but there is but one fpecies generally
cultivated ; namely, the fatlvum. This hath a fmall.
fibrous white root, crowned by many parted leaves, ha¬
ving broadifh fegments ; and in the centre an upright,
round, branchy flalk, two feet high, having all the
branches terminated by umbels of flowers, which are
fucceeded by globular fruit. It is propagated by feed,,
which when a good crop is wanted, ought to be fown.
in March, either in drills a foot afunder, or by broad-
call, and then raked in. When the plants are an inch,
or two high, they fhould be hoed to fix or eight inches
dillance. The feeds when frelh have a llrong dif-
agreeable frnell, which improves by drying, and be¬
comes fulficiently grateful: they are recommended as
carminative and llomachic. They are alfo much ufed.
by the brewers both in England and Holland, to give
a flavour to their llrongelt beer. The undents had a
notion, that the juice of coriander would deprive people.
of their fenfes, and even of life. The leaves are fome-
times ufed for culinary purpofes in foups, and as an.
ingredient in falads; but as they are of a fetid fmell,,
they are held in no great elleem in this country.
CORIARIA, the Tanner's or myrtle-leafed Su¬
mach : A genus of the decandria order, belonging to .
the dioecia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 54th order, Mifcellaner. The male
calyx is pentaphyllous ; the corolla pentapetalous, very
like the calyx, and united with it; the antherae bipar¬
tite. The female, calyx is pentaphyllous ; the corolla,
like that of the male ; the ft vies five, feeds, five, cover-
COR [ 453 1 COR
Ccridor ed with a like number of fuccuient petals, forming alto-
;i gether the reiembkmce of a berry. There are two
C'Qn''t:‘ ‘ fpecies, the myrtifolia and the foemina. They are both
natives of the fouth of France, but the former is moft
commonly cultivated in this country. It is a pretty
ornamental plant, with a Ihrubby pithy brown Hem,
clofely branching from the bottom, and forms a buihy
head three or four feet over, thickly garnilhed with ob¬
long, pointed, bright green leaves, having fmall fpikes
of whitifh flowers at the ends of the branches. It is
eafily propagated by fuckers from the root, which it
affords plentifully, and may be taken off with fibres
every autumn or winter. It may be alfo propagated by
layers in autumn, which will take root in a year. It
is much ufed in the fouth of France, where it natiu-
rally grows, for tanning of leather, whence its name of
tanner’s fumach. It alfo dyes a beautiful black colour.
The berries are dangerous, and when eaten generally
occafion vertigoes and epilepfies. The old leaves have
the fame effect upon cattle that eat them, but the
young leaves are innocent.
CORIDOR, or Corridor, in fortification, a road
or way along the edge of the ditch, without-iide ; en-
compaffing the whole fortification. The word comes
from the Italian cor'tdore, or the Spanifh coridor.
It is alfo called the covert-way; becaufe covered
with a glacis, or efpkmade, ferving it as a parapet. The
coridor is about 20 yards broad.
Coridor is alfo ufed in architecture, for a gal¬
lery or long ifle around a building, leading to fe-
veral chambers at a difiance from each other, fome-
times wholly inclofed, and fometimes open on one
fide.
CORINNA, a Grecian lady, celebrated for her
. beauty and poetic talents, was born at Theffu a city
of Bceotia, and was the difciple of Myrtis another Gre¬
cian lady. Her verfes were fo efteemed by the Greeks,
that they gave her the name of the lyric mufe. She li¬
ved in the time of Pindar, about 495 years before
Chriitj and is faid to have gained the prize of lyric
poetry from that poet; but Paufanias obferves that her.
beauty made the judges partial;
CORINTH, a celebrated city of antiquity, for
fome time the molt illuftrious of all the Greek cities.
It is faid to have been founded 1514 years before
Chrift, by Sifyphus the fon of Eolus, and grandfather
of Ulyffes. Various reafons are given for its name, but
moft authors derive it from Corinthus the fon of Pe-
lops. It was fituated in the fouth part of the Ifthmus
which joins the Peloponnefus, now the Morea, to the
continent. It confifted of a citadel built upon an emi¬
nence, and thence named Acrocorinthus ; befides which,
it had two maritime towns fubject to it, named Le-
cheum and Cenchrea. The whole ftate extended fcarce
half a degree in length or breadth; but fo advan-
tageoufly were the above-mentioned ports fituated,
that they might have gained the Corinthians a fupe-
riority, if not a command, over all Greece, had not
their advantageous fituation inclined them to com¬
merce rather than war. For their citadel was almoft.
impregnable ; and, commanding both the Ionian and
iligean feas, they could eafily cut off all communica¬
tion. from one half of Greece with the other ; for
which reafon this city was called one of the fetters of
Greece.
But as the genius of the Corinthians led them to Corinth,
commerce rather than martial exploits, their city be- /■*"■*■
came the fineft in all Greece. It was adorned with
the moft fumptuous buildings, as temples, palaces,
theatres, porticoes, &c. all of them enriched with a
beautiful kind of columns, which from the city were
called Corinthian. But though the Corinthians feldom
or never engaged in a war with a view of enlarging,,
but rather of defending, their little ftate, they did
nofeibrget to cultivate a good difeipline both in time
of peace and of war. Hence many brave and expe¬
rienced generals have been futniftied by Corinth to the
other Grecian cities, and it was not uncommon for the
latter to prefer a Corinthian general to any of their
owm.
, This city continued to preferve its liberty till the
year before Chrift 146, when it was pillaged and burnt
by the Romans. It was at that time the ftrongeft place
in the world; but the inhabitants were fo diftiearten-
ed by a preceding defeat, and the death of their ge¬
neral, that they had not prefence of mind enough even
to flmt their gates. The Roman conful, Mummius,
was fo much furprifi d at this, that at firft he could
fcarce believe it; but afterwards fearing an ambufeade,
he advanced with all poffible caution. As he met with
no refiftancc, his foldiers had nothing to do but de-
ftroy the few inhabitants who bad not fled, and plun¬
der the city. Such of the men as had ftaid, were all
put to the fword, and the women were fold for flaves.
After this the city was ranfacked by the greedy fol¬
diers, and the fpoils of it are faid to have been im-
menfe. There were more veffels of all forts of metal,
more fine pidtures, and ftatues done by the greateff
mailers, in Corinth, than in any other city in the
world. All the princes of Europe and Afia, who had
any tafte in painting and fculpture, furnilhed.them-
felves here with their richeft. moveables; here were
call the fineft ftatues for temples and palaces, and all
the liberal arts brought to their greatell perfedion.
Many ineftimable pieces of the moft famous painters-
and llatuaries fell into the hands of the ignorant fol¬
diers, who either deftroyed them.or parted with them
for a trifle. Polybius the hiftorian was an eye-witnefs-
to this barbarifm of the Romans. He had the morti¬
fication to fee two of them playing at dice on a famous
pidure of Ariftides, which was accounted one of the
wonders of the world. The piece was a Bacchus, fo
exquifitely done, that it was proverbially faid of any
extraordinary performance, “ It is as well done as
the Bacchus of Ariflides.” This mafterly piece of
painting, however, the foldiers willingly exchanged
for a more convenient table to play upon but when,
the fpoils of Corinth were put up to fale, Attalus
king of Pergamua offered for it 60.0,00.0 fefterces, near
50001. of our money. Mummius, was furprifed at
fucb a high price offered for a pidure, and imagined
there mull be fome magical virtue in it. He therefore
interpofed his authority, and carried it to Rome, not-
withilanding the complaints of Attains. Here this
famous pidure was lodged in the temple of Ceres„
where it was at laft deftroyed by fire, together with
the temple. Another extraordinary inftance of the
ftupidity of Mummius is, that when the pidures were
put en board the tranfports, he told the matters o£
the. veffels very feriaufly, that if any of the things were
either?
COR t 454 1 COR
Cgrinlh. either loft or fpoiled, he would oblige them to find
‘“’■’V""'”' others at their own coft ; as if any other pieces could
have fupplied the lofs of thofe indlimable originals,
done by the greateft mafters in Greece. When the
city was thoroughly pillaged, fire was fet to all the
corners of it at the fame time. The flames grew more
violent as they drew near the centre, and at laft unit¬
ing there made one prodigious conflagration. At this
time the famous metalline mixture is faid to have been
made, which could never afterwards be imitated, by
art. The gold, filver, and brafs, which the Corin¬
thians had concealed, were melted, and ran down the
ftreets in ftreams, and when the flames were extin-
guifhed, a new metal was found, compofed of feveral
different ones, and greatly efteemed in after ages.
The town lay defolate until Julius Csefar fettled
there a Roman colony ; when, in moving the rubbifli
and digging, many vafes were found of brafs or earth
finely emboffed. The price given for thefe curiofities
excited induftry in the new inhabitants. They left no
burying-place unexamfned; and Rome, it is faid, was
filled with the furniture of the fepulchres of Corinth.
Strabo was at Corinth foon after its reftoration by
the Romans. He defcribes the fite as follows. “ A
lofty mountain, in perpendicular height as much as
three ftadia and a half (near half a mile), the afcent
30 ftadia (3J miles), ends in a pointed fummit called
Acrocorinthus. Of this the portion to the north is the
moft fteep'; beneath which lies the city on a level area,
at the foot of the Acrocorinthus. The circuit of the
city alone has been40 ftadia (5 miles), and as much
of it as was unlheltered by the mountain has been
walled about. Within the inclofure was comprehend¬
ed alfo the Acrocorinthus, where the mountain was ca¬
pable of receiving a wall; and as we afcended, the ve-
ftiges were plain ; fo that the whole circumference ex¬
ceeded 85 ftadia (near 11 miles). On the other fides,
the mountain is lefs fteep, but rifes very high, and is
vifible all around. Upon the fummit is a fmall temple
of Venus; and below it the fpring Pirene, which does
not overflow, but is always full of pellucid and pot¬
able water* They fay it unites with fome other hid¬
den veins, and forms the fpring at the mountain foot,
running into the city, and affording a fufficient fupply
for the ufe of the inhabitants. In the city is plenty of
wells, and in the Acrocorinthus, as they fay, for we
did not fee any. There they relate the winged horfe
Pegafus was taken as he was drinking, by Bellerophon.
Below Pirene is the Sifypheum, fome temple or pa¬
lace of white ftone, the remains not inconfiderable.
From the fummit is beheld to the north Parnaffus and
Helicon, lofty mountains covered with fnow; and below
both, to the weft, the Criffean gulph bounded by Pho-
cis, by Bceotia and the Megaris, and by Corinthia and
Sicyonia oppofite to Phocis. Beyond all thefe are the
mountains called the Oneian, ftretching as far as Boeo-
tia and Cithasron from the Scironian rocks on the road
to Attica/’ Strabo faw likewife Cleonae from thence.
Cenchreae was then a village. Lechaeum had fome in¬
habitants.
New Corinth had flouriihed 217 years when it was
vifited by Paufanias. It had then a few antiquities,
many temples and ftatues, efpecially about the Agora
or market-place, and feveral baths. The Emperor
Hadrian introduced water from a famous fpring at
Stymphalus in Arcadia ; and it had various fountains
alike copious and ornamental. The ftream of one if-
fued from a dolphin, on which was a brazen Nep¬
tune ; of another, from the hoof of Pegafus, on
whom Bellerophon was mounted. On the right
hand, coming along the road leading from the market¬
place toward Sicyon, was the Odeum and the theatre,
by which was a temple of Minerva. The old Gymna-
fium was at a diftance. Going from the market-place
toward Lechaeum was a gatfe, on which were placed
Phaeton and the Sun in gilded chariots. Pirene enter¬
ed a fountain of White marble, From which the cur¬
rent paffed in an open channel. They fuppofed the
metal called Corinthian brafs to have been immerged
while red hot in this water. On the way up to the
Acrocorinthus were temples, ftatues, and altars; and
the gate next Tenea, a village with a temple of Apol¬
lo fixty ftadia, or feven miles and a half diftant, on the
road to Mycenae. At Lechaeum was a temple and a
brazen image of Neptune. At Cenchreae were tem¬
ples ; and by the way from the, city a grove of cy-
prefs-trees, fepulchres, ahd monuments. Oppofite was
the Bath of Helen, water tepid and frit, flowing plen¬
tifully from a rock into the fea. Mummius had ruin¬
ed the theatre of Corinth, and the munificence of the
great Athenian Atticus Herodes was difplayed in an
edifice with a roof inferior to few of the moft cele¬
brated ftrudtures in Greece.
The Roman colony was referred to fuffer the fame
calamity as the Greek city, and from a conqueror more
terrible than Mummius, Alaric the favage deftroyer
of Athens and univerfal Greece. In a country ha-
raffed with frequent wars, as the Peloponnefus has
fince been, the Acrodorinthus was a poft too confe-
quential to be neglected. It was belieged and taken
in 1459 by Mahomet II-; the defpots or lords of the
Morea, brothers of the Greek emperor who was kill¬
ed in defending Conftantinople, refufing payment of
the arrears of the tribute, which had been impofed by
Sultan Morat in 1447. The country became fubjedt
to the Turks, except fuch jinaritime places as were in
the poffeifion of the Venetians; and many of the
principal inhabitants were carried away to Conftanti¬
nople. Corinth, with the Morea, was yielded to the re¬
public at the conclufion of the war in 1698, and again
by it to the Turks in 1715.
Corinth retains its old name, and is of confiderable
extent, Handing on high ground, beneath the Acro¬
corinthus, with an eafy defcent toward the gulph of
Lepanto ; the houfes fcattered or in parcels, except
in the Bazar or market-place. Cypreffes, among
which tower the domes of mofques, with corn-fields,
and gardens of lemon and orange-trees, are interfper-
fed. The air is reputed bad in fummer, and in au¬
tumn exceedingly unhealthy. Wheler relates, that
from the top of the Acrocorinthus or Citadel, he en¬
joyed one of the moft agreeable profpe&s which this
world can afford. He gueffed the walls to be about
two miles in compafs, inclofing mofques, with houfes
and churches moftly in ruins. An hour was confumed
in going up on horfeback. It was a mile to the foot
of the hill; and from thence the way was very fteep,
with many traverfes. The families living below were
much infefted by corfairs, and on every alarm flocked
up to the caftle.
According
Corinth
II
Coris.
COR L 455 ] COR
According to Dr Chandler, Corinth has preferved
but few monuments of its Greek or Roman citizens.
The chief remains, he informs us, are at the fouth-
weft corner of the town, and above the bazar or mar¬
ket ; 11 columns fupporting their architraves, of the
Doric order, fluted, and wanting in height near half
the Common proportion to the diameter. Within
them, toward the weftern end, is one taller, though
not entire, which it is likely contributed to fuftain the
roof. They have been found to be ftone, not marble;
and appear brown, perhaps from a cruft formed on the
outfide. The ruin he judges to be of very remote
antiquity, and a portion of a fabric ere&ed not only
before the Greek city was deftroyed, but before the
Doric order had attained to maturity. He fufpe&s
it to have been the Sifypheum mentioned by Strabo.
North of the Bazar ftands a large mafs of brick-work,
a remnant, it may be conje&ured, of a bath or of the
Gymnafium.
The inhabitants are moft of them Chriftians of the
Greek church, who are allowed liberty of confcience
by the Turks. E, Long. 28. 13. N. Lat, 38. 14.
Corinth, (the ifthmus of), in the Morea, is a neck
of land which joins the Morea to Greece, and reaches
from the gulph of Lepanto to that of Egiria. Julius
Casfar, Caligula, and Nero, attempted to cut a chan¬
nel through it, but in vain ; and they therefore af¬
terwards built a wall acrofs it, which they called Hexa-
milium, becaufe it was fix miles in length. This was
demolifhed by Amurat II. and aftenvards rebuilt by
the Venetians, but was levelled a fecond time by Ma¬
homet II.
CORINTHIAN, in general, denotes fomething
belonging to Corinth : thus we fay, Corinthian brafs,
Corinthian order, &c.
Corinthian Brafs. See Brass and Corinth.
Corinthian Order, in architecture, the fourth or¬
der of architefture, according to Scamozzi; but Mr
Le Clerc makes it the fifth, being the moft noble
and delicate of all the other five. See Architec¬
ture, n° 47.
CORIO (Bernardine), an hiftorian, born of an il-
-tuftrious family at Milan, in the year 1460.' He was
fecretary of ftate to that duchy; and the Duke of La-
vis Storza appointed him to write the hiftory of Mi¬
lan. He died in 1500. The beft edition of liis hiftory
is that of 1503, in folio. It is printed in Italian, and
is very fcarce.
CORIOLANUS (C. Maicius), a famous Roman
captain, took Corioli a town of the Volfci, whence he
had his furname : at laft, difgufting the people, he
was banifhed Rome by the tribune Decius. He went
to the Volfci, and, perfuading .them to take up arms
againft the Romans, they encamped within four miles
of the city. He would not liften to propofals of peace
till he was prevailed upon by his wife Veturia, and his
mother Volumnia, who were followed by all the Ro¬
man ladies in tears. He was put to death by the
Volfci as a traitor that had m^de them quit their con-
queft: upon which the Roman ladies went into mourn¬
ing ; and in the fame place where his blood was fpilled
there was a jemple confecrated to Feminine Virtue.
CORIS, in botany: Agenus of the monogynia order,
belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and in the
natural method ranking with thofe of which the order is
doubtful. The corrolla is monopetalous and irregular ;
the calyx prickly ; the capfule quinquevalved fuperior.
There is only one fpecies, viz. the monfpelienfis, or
blue maritime coris. There are two varieties of this
plant, one with a red, and the other with a white flow¬
er ; but thefe are only accidental, and arjfe from the
fame feeds. They grow wild about Montpelier, and
in moft places in the fouth of France: they feldorq
grow above fix inches high, and fpread near the fur-
face of the ground like heath ; and in June, when
they are full of flowers, make a very pretty appearance.
They may be propagated by fowing their feeds in a
bed of frefh earth, and afterwards removing the young
plants, fome into pots, and others into a warm bor¬
der. They generally bear our winter colds well e-
nough, but fevere frofts will fometimes deftroy them ;
for which reafon it is proper to k« ep fome of them in
pots,' which (hould be put under a hot-bed frame in
winter. As they feldom produce good feeds in this
country, they may, in want of thefe, be propagated
by flips and cuttings, which will take root if planted
on a very gentle hot-bed, (haded from the fun, and
duly watered.
Coris is alfo ufed in the Eaft-Indies for a kind of
(hells which pafs for money.
CORISPERMUM, tickseed : A genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 12th or¬
der, Holoracee. There is no calyx ; two petals, and
one oval naked feed. There are two fpecies; but
none of them are remarkable for their Beauty or any
other quality.
CORITANI, (anc. geog.) a people of Britain, occu¬
pying widely the inland parts, as Northampton, Lei-
cefter, Rutland, Lincoln, Nottingham, and Derby
jhires, (Camden).
CORK, the bark of a tree of the fame name, a
fpecies of Quercus. See Quercus.
To take off the bark they make an incifion from
the top to the bottom of the tree, and at each extre¬
mity another round the tree, perpendicular to the firft.
When (tripped from the tree, which does not there¬
fore die, the bark is piled up in a pond or ditch, and
loaded with heavy (tones to flatten it, and reduce it
into tables: hence it is taken to be dried ; and when
fufficiently dry, put in bales for carriage. If care be
not taken to (trip the bark, it fplits and peels off itfelf ;
being puftied up by another bark formed underneath.
The bark of cork, as well as the acorn, are of fome
ufe in medicine ; being both reputed aftringents, after
being burnt and powdered when ufed externally ; but
the chief employ of the former is, to put in (hoes, flip¬
pers, &c. and to flop bottles. The Spaniards burn
it to make that kind of light black we call £/>a-
nijh black, ufed by painters. Cups made of cork,
are faid by fome to be good for he&ical perfons to
drink out of. The Egyptains made coffins of cork;
which being lined with a refinous compofition, prefer¬
ved dead bodies uncorrupted. The Spaniards line
ftone-walls with it, which not only renders them very
warm, but corre&s the moifture of the air.
FoJU-Cork, a name given to a kind of ftone. It
feems to be a fpecies of amianthus, confifting of flexi¬
ble
COR [4i€] CO R
ble fibres loofely Interwoven, and fomewbat rcfembling
vegetable cork. It is the lighteft of all ftones ; by
fire it is fufible, and forms a black glafs. It poffeffes
the general qualities of amianthus. See that article.
Cork, in Latin comitatus Corcagienjis, a county of
the province of munfter ill Ireland. It is the moft po¬
pulous and confiderable county of the kingdom next
to that of Dublin ; containing near a million of acres,
and being divided into 15 baronies. It is bounded on
the north-eaft by the county of Waterford ; on the
weft by Kerry ; by Limeric on the north ; and by the
fea on the fouth and fouth-eaft. Including Defmond
it is 85 miles in length and 50 in 'breadth ; but is
very unequal both ways. Though a confiderable part
of the country is boggy, mountainous, and barren ;
yet by the induftry of the inhabitants it is pretty well
cultivated and improved, and contains feveral good
towns and harbours.
Cork, a city of Ireland, and capital of the county
Of that name. It is art epifcopal fee ; and is the largeft
and moil populous of any in the kingdom, Dublin
alone excepted. It is fituated on the river Lee, 15
miles from its mouth. It is a place of great trade,
the harbour here being one of the fineft in the world.
Though fmaller veffels can come up to the key, yet
the larger generally ride at a place called Pajfage.
This city, together with its liberties, makes a county.
It was built, or rather fortified, by the Danes, in the
ninth "century. The greateft part of it Hands on a
marlhy ifland furrounded by the river Lee, which alfo
runs through the city, and divides it into feveral
canals. On this account fome have thought the air
very moift and unwholefome. Complaints have alfb
been made againft the water as impure ; but, from
comparing the bills of mortality with thofe of other
cities, it appears that the city of Cork is far from be*
ing unhealthy. This hath been accounted for from the
influx of the tide, by which a ftagnation of air is pre¬
vented. The firft charter of Cork was beftowed by
Henry III. and afterwards ratified by Edward I. Ed¬
ward II. and Edward III Edward IV. granted a
new charter ; and the city received many favours from
the fucceeding monarchs. King James I. gave the
citizens a new and ample charter ; and king Charles I.
what is called the Great Charter, by which, among
others, a claufe in king James’s charter was enforced,
making this city a county of itfelf. The fee of Cork
is reputed worth L.2700 a-year. The chapter con-
fifts of a'dean, chanter, chancellor, treafurer, arch¬
deacon, and twelve prebendaries. The church is de¬
dicated to St Barr or Finbarr ; and the diocefe is di¬
vided into five deaneries. There is very little to be
found in ancient writers concerning the foundation of
the Cathedral of Cork; yet it is generally afcribed to
St Barr in the feventh century. Many of its bifhops
have been great benefaftors to it. Through length of
time, the church became quite ruinous; but it hath
lately been completely rebuilt, and is now an elegant mo¬
dern ftrufture. To defray the expence, the parliament
laid a tax on all coals confumed in the city of Cork.
The deanery is reputed to be worth L.4C0 a-year.
Cork is much improved and enlarged, feveral broad
llreets have been lately added, by filling up the canals
that formerly ran through them, and are now built
up with elegant houfes j the parade is very fpacious,
N°92.
and is adorned with an equeftrian ftatue of king
George II. It hath the largeft export in the king-'
dom, particulaily of beef, hides, tallow, butter, fifti,
and other provifions. It is partly fituated on feveral
iflands, formed by the river Lee, which are banked
and quayed in, fomewhat like the towns in Holland ;
and partly on rifing grounds, on the north and fouth
fides of the river. The earl of Marlborough befieged
and took it from king James’s army in 1690 ; when
the duke of Grafton, who ferved as a volunteer, was
flain in an attack. It contains about 8600 houfes,
and upwards of 70,000 inhabitants. It hath twelve
companies of foot quartered in the barracks. Befides
a ftately cathedral, built from the foundation, between
1725 and 1735, by the produce of a duty upon coals,
as above noticed, it is adorned with feveral handlbme
parifh churches. It has alfo an elegant exchange for
the merchants, a new and beautiful cuftom-houfe, a
town-hall, feveral fine hofpitals, and various other
public ftru&ures. The city pofieffes an annual reve¬
nue of about 1300I. out of which the mayor enjoys
for his falary and the fupport of his dignity 500I. The
wealth and grandeur of Cork arife from its capacious
and commodious haven, where almoft any number of
ftiips may lie with eafe and fafety. According to
fome accounts, when there has been no war, 1200
veflels have reforted hither in a year. Ships from
England, bound to all parts of the Weft Indies, take
in here a great part of their provifions; and on the
fame account the haven of Cork is vifited by thofe al¬
fo of moft other nations. The flaughtering feafon
continues from the month of Auguft to the latter end
of January; in which fpace it has been computed, that
they kill and cure feldom fewer than 100,000 head of
black cattle. The reft of their exports confift of but¬
ter, candles, hides raw and tanned, linen cloth, pork,
calves, lambs, and rabbit-flcins, tallow, wool for Eng¬
land, linen and woollen yarn, and worfted. . The
merchants of Cork carry on a very extenfive trade to
almoft all parts of the known world; fo that their
commerce is annually increafing. The produce of the
cuftoms fome years fince exceeded 6o,oool. and the
number of fhips that they employ is double to what
it was forty years ago. The only thing that feemed
to be wanting to the fecurity of the port of Cork was
fupplied in the earl of Chefterfield’s memorable admi-
niftration, by building a fort on the great ifland, to
command, the entrance of the haven. The outlets of
Cork are cheerful and pleafant. The country around
the city, on both fides of the river, is hilly and pidfu-
refqtte ; and the harbour called the Cow, is -one of
the belt in the world; the entrance is fafe, and the
whole navy of England might ride in it, fecure from
every wind that l?lows. Ships of burden, however,
are obliged to unload at Pafiage, five miles and a half
from Cork, the channel not admitting vtflels of above
150 tons.
Cork Jacket, or IVaificoat, is an invention of one
Mr Dubouig„a gentleman very fond of fwiinming,
but fubjeft to the cramp, which led him to confider
of fome method by which he might enjoy his favour¬
ite diverfion with fafety. The waiftcoat is-compo-
fed of four pieces of cork, two for the breafts and
two for the back; each pretty near in length aaid
breadth to the quaiters of a .waiftcoat without flaps;
COR [ 457 ] COR
CnrmiifcW the whole is covered with coarfe canvas, with two
Corn ^°^es to Put arm* through: there is a fpace left be-
. tween the two baclc-pieces, and the fame betwixt each
back and breaft-piece, that they may fit the eafier to
the body. Thus the waiftcoat is only open before,
and may be faftened on the wearer with firings, or, if
it fhould be thought more fecure, with buckles and
leather ftraps. This waittcoat does not weigh above
12 ounces, and may be made up for about 5 or 6 (hil¬
lings expence. Mr Dubourg tried his waiftcoat in the
Thames, and found that it not only fupported him on
the water, but that two men could not fink him, tho’
they ufed their utmofl: efforts for that purpofe. If
thofe who ufe the fea occafiorially, and efpecially thofe
who are obliged to be almoft eonftantly there, were
to have thofe waiftcoats, it would be next to impof-
fible that they fhould be drowned. It would alfo be
of vafi: fervice to thofe that, for the fake of health,
bathe in the fea; and even the moft delicate'and timo¬
rous young lady might by the help of one of thefe
jackets venture into a rough fea. See AiR-Jacket, and
BjMBoo-Habh.
CORMANDEL. See Coromandel.
COR-MASS, the name of a grand proceffion, faid
to have been eftablifhed at Dunkirk during the domi¬
nion of Charles V. and renewed on St John’s day,
the twenty-fourth of June. After the celebration of
high mafs, the proceffion, confifting of the feveral
tradefmen of the town, begins. Each perfon has a
burning taper of wax in his hand ; and after each
company comes a pageant, followed by the patron-
faint, ufually of folid filver, richly wrought and adorn¬
ed. The companies are followed by mufic; and af¬
ter the muficians, the friars in the habits of their or¬
der, the fecular priefls, and then the abbot magnifi¬
cently adorned, and preceded by the hoft. Machines
like wife of various fantaftical forms and devices, and as
varioufly accoutred, form a part of the (how on this occa-
fion; which is defcribed as one of the moft fuperb and
magnificent in the world, by an eye-witnefs, in 1755.
CORMORANT, a corruption of corvorant, in or.
nithologv- See Pklicanus.
CORN, in country affairs, the grain or feeds of
plants feparated from the fpica or ear, and ufed for
making bread.
There are feveral fpecies of corn, fuch as wheat,
rye, and barely, millet and rice, oats, maize and lentils,
peaie, and a number of other kinds ; each of which
has its ufefulnefs and propriety.
Europe, in every part of it; Egypt, and feme o-
ther cantons of Africa, particularly the coafts of Bar¬
bary ; and feme parts of America cultivated by the
Europeans, particularly New England, New France,
and Acadia; are the places which produce corn. O
ther countries have maize and rice in lieu of it; and
fome parts of America, both in the iflands and con¬
tinents, fimple roots, fuch as potatoes and manioc.^—
Egypt was anciently the moft fertile of all other coun¬
tries in corn ; as appears both from facred and pro¬
fane hiftory. It furniftied a good part of the people
fubjeft to the Roman empire, and was called the dry
nurfe of'Rome and Italy. Britain, France, and Poland,
‘ feem now in the place of Egypt, and with their fuper-
fiuities fupport a good part of Europe.
For the firft difeovery and culture of cora, authors
Vol V. Part II.
are much divided : the common opinion is, that in the Corn-
fifft ages men lived on the fpontaneous fruits of the —v—“
earth ; as acorns, and the nut or maft produced by
the beech; which, they fay, took its name fagus,
from the Greek / eat. It is added, that they
had not either the- ufe of corn, nor the art of prepa¬
ring or making it eatable.
Ceres has the credit of being the firft that fhowed
the ufe of corn, on which account (he was. placed a-
mong the gods; others give the honour to Triptole-
mus; others fhare it between the two, making Ceres
the firft difeoverer, and Triptolemus the firft planter
and cultivator of corn. Diodorus Siculus aferibes the
whole to Ids; on which Polydore Virgil obferves, he
does not differ from the reft; Ids and Ceres being,
in reality, the fame. The Athenians pretend it was
among them the art began; and the Cretans or Can-
diots, Sicilians, and Egyptians, lay claim to the fame.
Some think the title of the Sicilians bed fupported, that
being the country of Ceres : and authors add, (he did
not teach the fecret to the Athenians, till (he had firft
inftrufted her own countrymen. Others fay, Ceres
paffed firft into Attica, thence into Crete, and, laft
of all, into Sicily: many of the learned, however,
maintain it was in Egypt the art of cultivating corn
(lift began; and it is certain there was corn in Egypt
and the Eaft long before the time of Ceres.
Com is very different from fruits, with refpeft to
the manner of its prefervation ; and is capable of be¬
ing preferved in public granaries, for prefling occa-
fions, and of being kept for feveral centuries.—A lit¬
tle time after the liege of Metz, under Henry II. of
France, in the year 1578, the due d’Efpernon laid
up vaft ftores of corn in jhe citadel; which was pre¬
ferved in good plight to the year 1707, when the
French king and his retinue, pafling that way, eat
bread baked thereof.
The chief thing that contributes to the prefervation
of corn is, a cruft which forms on its furface, by the
germination of the grain next underneath, to the
thicknefs of an inch and a half. On that at Metz
people walked, without its giving the lead way. At
Sedan was a granary cut in a rock, wherein a heap of
corn was preferved a hundred and ten years : it was
covered with a cruft a foot thick.
For the prefervation of corn, the firft method is to
let it remain in the fpike ; the only expedient for.con-
veying it to the iflands and provinces of America. The
inhabitants of thofe countries fave it in the ear, and
raife it to maturity by that precaution: but this me¬
thod of preferving it is attended with feveral incon¬
veniences among us; corn is apt to rot or fprout, if
any the lead moifture is in the heap ; the rat& likewife
infeft it, and our want of draw alfo obliges us to fepa-
rate the grain from the ear. The fecond is to turn out
and winnow it frequently ; or to pour it through a
trough or mill-hopper, from on^ floor to another; be¬
ing thus moved and aired every 15 days, -for the firft
6 months, it will require lefs labour for the future, if
lodged in a dry place : but if, through negledt, mites
(hould be allowed to Aide into the heap, they will foon
reduce the corn to a heap of dull: this muft be avoid¬
ed by moving the corn anew, and rubbing the places
adjacent with oils and herbs, whofe ftrong odaur may
chace them away; for which garlic and dwarf-elder
3 M are
COR
[ 458 ]
COR
very effectual: they may likewife be expofed to phyficians, he carefully fought for the writings of the Cornaro*.
Cornaruis t^ie °Pen ^un’ w^*ch immediately kills them. When
» the corn has been preferved from all impurities for the
fpace of two years, and has exhaled all its fires, it may
be kept for 50 or even 100 years, by lodging it in pits
covered with ftrong planks, clofely joined together :
but the fafer way is to cover the heap with quick'
1 T rva - -1 > . 1-. 1 J J 1 fT'.    J 1 P — 1_1*    I*.  
beft phyficians of Greece, and employed about 15 years M
in tranflating them into Latin, efpecially the works of L'or”ei Le’.
Hippocrates, Aetius, Eginetes, and a part " of thofe
of Galen. Meanwhile he pradtifed phyfic with repu¬
tation at Zwickow, Francfort,. Marpurg, Nordhaufen,
and Gena, where he died of an apoplexy in 1558,
lime, which (hould be diffolved by fprinkling it over aged 58. He alfo wrote fome medicinal treatifes;
with a fmall quantity of water; this caufes the grains publilhed editions of fome poems of the ancients o‘n
to fhoot to the depth of two or three fingers; and medicine and botany; and tranfiated fome of the works
inclofes them with an incruftation, as above men- of the fathers, particularly thofe of Bafil, and a part
tioned, through which neither air nor infefts can pe- of thofe of Epiphanius.
netrate. CORNARO (Lewis), a Venetian of noble extrac-
fndian Corn or maize. See Zfa. tion, memorable for having lived healthful and active
CORN-ButterJly, method of deftroying it. See A- to above too years of age by a rigid courfe of tempe-
gricultur-e, n° 8o. ranee. By the ill condudl of fome of his relations he
CoRN-Crale. See Rallus. was deprived of the dignity of a noble Venetian ; and
Corn-Alill, a water-engine for grinding of corn, feeing himfelf excluded from all employments under
See Mechanics. the republic, he fettled at Padua. In his youth, he
CORNS, in furgery, hard excrefcences, confifting of was of a weak conilitution ; and by irregular indul-
indurations of the Ikin arifing on the toes, and fome- gence reduced himfelf, at about 40 years of age, to
times on the fides of the feet, where they are much
expofed to the prefiure of the (hoes. By degrees they
prefs themfelves farther down between the mufcular
fibres on thefe parts, and by their irritation occafion
the brink of the grave, under a complication of dif-
orders; at which extremity he w’as told that he had
no other chance for his life, but by becoming fober
and temperate. Being wife enough to adopt this.
extreme pam. Many cures have been prefcribed, but wholefome counfel, he reduced himfelf to a regimen
the total removal of them is always found to be at- of which there are very few examples. He allowed
tended with great difficulty. It has been recommend- himfelf no more than 12 ounces of food and 14 ounces
ed to foften them with plafters, and then to pull them of liquor each day ; which became fo habitual to him,,
up by the roots, to apply cauftic, &c. A piece of that when he was above 70 years of age, the experi-
raw beef laid on by way of plafter, and frequently drift- ment of adding two ounces to each by the advice of
ed, is alfo faid to be effeftual; but the beft cure is to his friends, had like to have proved fatal to him. At
bathe them frequently in warm warer, and pare aw>ay 83, he wrote a treatife which has been tranfiated in-
as much as poffible of the indurated (kin without draw- to Englifir, and often printed, intitled, Sure and cer-
ing blood. tqjn Methods of attaining a Long and Healthful Life
Corn, in farriery. See Farriery. in which he relates his own ftory, and extols temper-
CORNAGE, an ancient tenure, the fervicc where- ance to a degree of enthufiafm. At length,, the yolk,
of was to blow a horn when any invafion of the Scots of an egg became fufficient for a meal, and fometimes
s perceived. This tenure was very frequent in the for two, until he died with much eafe and compofure
northern counties near the Pifts wall; but by ftat.
Car. II. all tenures are converted into free and com¬
mon focage.—An old rental calls cornage, ncwtgeldt,
q- d. neat-geld. Lord Coke fays, in old books it is
called horngeld.
in 1566. The writer of the Spe&ator, n° 195. con¬
firms the fa& from the authority, of the Venetian am-
bafiador at that time, who was a defcendant of the
Cornaro family.
CORNAVII (Ptolemy), a people of Britain, be-
CORNARISTS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the dif- ginning in the very heart of the ifland, and extending^
ciples of Theodore Coinhert, an enthufiaftic fecretary to Chefter. Now Warwick, Worcejler, Salop, Stafford
©f the dates of Holland. He wrote at the fame time (hires, and Chejhire (Camden).
againft the Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinifts. He CORNEA tunica, in anatomy, the fecondcoat of
maintained that every religious communion needed re- the eye; fo called from its fubftance refembling the horn
formation ; .but he added, that no perfon had a right of a lantern, in Latin cornu. See Anatomy, nci42.
to engage in accompliftiing it, without a miffion fup- CORNEILLE (Peter), a celebrated French poet,.
ported by miracles. He was alfo of opinion, that a per¬
fon might be a good Chriftian without being a mem¬
ber of any vifible church.
CORNARIUS, or HAG.uENBOT,(John),a celebra-
born at Rouen in the year 1606. He was brought
up to the bar, which he attended for fome little time;
but formed with a genius too elevated for fuch a pro
feffion, and having no turn for bufinefs, he foon de
ted German phyfician, born at Zwickow in Saxony, ferted it. An affair of gallantry occafioned his wri
His preceptor made him change his name of Haguen- ting his firft piece, intitled Melite; which had prodi-
bot to that of Cornarius, under which he is mod gious fuccefs. Encouraged by the applaufe of the
known. At 20 years of age he taught grammar, and
explained the Greek and Latin poets and orators to
hisfcholars; and at 23 was licentiate in medicine.
He found fault with moft of the remedies provided
public, he wrote the Cid, and the other tragedies that
have immortalized his name. In his dramatic works
he difeovers a majefty, a ftrength and elevation of ge¬
nius, fcarce to be found in any other of the French
by the apothecaries; and obferving, that the greateft poets; and, like our immortal Shakefpeare,. feems
part of the phyficians taught their pupils only what is better acquainted, with nature than with the rules of
to be found in Avicenna, Rafis, and the other Arabian critics. Corneille was received into the French aca-
1 demy
COR [ 459 1 COR
■Corneille demy in 1647, and died dean of that academy in 1684, enemies, who had been proferibed, were deprived of Cornelia
ii „ aged 78. Belides his dramatic pieces, he wrote a the privilege of Handing for. any office in the ftate.  H
. 0,"€ia- tranflation, in French verfe, of the “ Imitation of Another, r/e magijiratibus, by the fame, in 673. It Cornet-
Jefus Chrift,” &c. The bell edition of his works is ordained, that no perfon ffiould exercife the fame office 'r~~‘
that of 1682, in 4 vols i2mo. within ten years diflance, or be invefted with two dif-
Corneille (Thomas), brother of the former, was a ferent magiftracies in one year. Another, de man[h-a-
member of the French academy and of that of inferip- tibus, by the fame, in 673. It diverted the tribunes
tions. He difeovered in his youth a great inclination of the privilege of making laws, interfering, holding
to poetry; and at length publilhed feveral dramatic aflemblies, and receiving appeals. All fuch as'had been
pieces in 5 vols i2mo, fome of which were applauded tribunes were incapable of holding any other office in
by the public, and a&ed with fuccefs. He alfo wrote, the ftate by that law.— Another, de majejlate, by the
1. A tranflation of Ovid’s Metamorphofes, and of fome fame, in 670. It made it treafon to lend an army out
of Ovid’s Epiftles ; 2. Remarks on Vauglas ; 3. A of a province, or engage in a war without orders to
Diftionary 'of Arts, 2 vols folio; and, 4. An uni- influence the foldiers to fpare or ranfom a captive*ge-
verfal, geographical, and hiftorical Didionary, in 3 vols neral of the enemy, to pardon the leaders of robbers
folio. or pirates, or for the abfence 9f a Roman citizen to a
Corneille (Michael); a celebrated painter, was foreign court without previous leave. The punifhment
born at Paris in the year 1642 ; and was inftruded by was aqua & ignis interdiclio.—Another by the fame. It
his father, who was himfelf a painter of great merit, gave the power to a man accufed of murder, either by
Having gained a prize at the academy, young Corneille poifon, weapons, or falfe accufations, and the fetting
obtained a penfion from Louis XIV.; and was fent to fife to buildings, to choofe whether the jury that tried
Rome, where that prince had founded a fchool for him ftiould give their verdid clam or palam, viva voce
young artifts of genius. Having ftudied there fome or by ballot. Another by the fame; which made it
time, he gave up his penfion, and applied to the an- aqua & ignis inkrdiaio to fuch as were guilty of forge-
tique with great care. He is faid to have equalled ry, concealing and altering of wills, corruption, falfe
Carache in drawing, but in colouring he was deficient, accufations, and the debafing or counterfeiting of the
Upon his^return from Rome, he was chofen profeflbr public coin. All fuch as were acceflary to this offence
in the academy of Paris; and was employed by the were deemed as guilty as the offender. Another de
above prince in all the great works he was carrying on pecuniis repetundis; by which a man convided of pecu-
at Verfeilles and Trianon, where are ftill to be feen lation or extortion in the provinces was condemntd to
fome noble efforts of his genius. fufter the aqua & ignis interdiclio.—Another by the
CORNEL tree, in botany. See Cornus. fame ; wljich gave the power to fuch as were fent into
CORNELIA, daughter of Scipio African us, was the provinces with any government, of retaining their
the mother of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. She was command and appointment without a renewal of it by
courted by a king, but fire preferred being the wife the fenate, as was before obferved.—Another by the
of a Roman citizen to that of a monarch. Her vir- fame ; which ordained, that the lands of proferibed
tues have been defervedly commended, as well as the peffons fhould be common, efpecially thofe about Vo-
wholefome principles fire inculcated in her two fons. laterrae and Fefulse in Etruria, which Sylla divided
When a Campanian lady made once a fhow of her among his foldiers.—Another by C. Cornelius tribune
jewels at Cornelia’s houfe, and entreated her to favour of the people, in $86. It ordained, that no perfon
her wijh a fight of her own, Cornelia produced her Ihould be exempted from any law according to the ge-
two fons, iayrng, “ Thefe are the only jewels of which neral cuftom, unlefs 200 fenators were prefent in the
I can boaft.” < fenate ; and no perfon thus exempted could hinder
Cornelia Lex, de civitate, was ena&ed, in the year the bill of his exemption from being carried to the
of Rome 670, by L. Corn. Sylla. It confirmed the people for their concurrence.—Another by Naffica, in
Sulpician law, and required that the citizens of the 582, to make war againft Perfeus, fon of Philip k'ino-
eight newly elefted tribes ftiould be divided among the of Macedonia, if he did not give proper fatisfa&ion to
35 ancient tribes.—Another, dejudiciis, in 673, by the the Roman people,
fame. It ordained, that the praetor (hould always ob- CORNELIAN. See Carnelian.
lerve the fame invariable method in judicial proceed- CORNER, in a general fenfe, the fame with
frigs, and that the procefs ftiould not depend upon his Angle.
will.—Another, de fumptibus, by the fame. It limited CORNET, in the military art of the ancients an
the expences which generally attended funerals.—Ano- inftrument much in the nature of a tiumpet; which
ther, de religione, by the fame, in 677. It.reftoredto when it only founded, the enfigns were to march alone
the college of priefts the privilege of choofing the without the foldiers ; whereas, when the trumpet only
priefts, which by the Domitian law had been lodged founded, the foldiers were to move without the enfig-ni
in the hands of the people.—Another, de municipiis, by The cornets and buccinae founded the charge and re-
the fame; which revoked all the privileges which had treat; and the cornets and trumpets founded durinu-
been fome time before granted to the feveral towns the courfe of the battle. See Plate CL.
that had affified Marius and Cinna in the civil wars.— Cornet, in modern military ceconomy, denotes an
Another, de magijiratibus, by the fame ; which gave officer in the cavalry who bears the enfipm or colours
the power of bearing honours, and being promoted be- of a troop.
fore the legal age, to thofe who had followed the in- The cornet is the third officer in the company, and
tereft of Sylla; while the fons and partizans of his commands in the abfence of the captain and lieutenant.
3 M 2 ‘ H J
COR [ 460 ] COR
Comeu* He takes his title from his enfign, which is fquare ;
Cornuco anc^ *s t0 be called by that name from cornu,
0piaUC°" becaufe placed on the wings, which form a kind of
v—v—_ points or horns of the army.—Others derive the name
from coronet; alleging, that it was the ancient cuftom
for thefe officers to wear coronets or garlands on their
heads.
CORNEUS, the name by which Linnaeus calls a
kind of tin-ore, found in black columns, with irregular
lidts, and terminating in prifms.
CORNICHE, Cornish, or Cornice, in architec¬
ture, the uppermoft member of the entablature of a
column, as that which crowns the order. See Archi¬
tecture, Chap. I. and the Plates.
Corniche, is alfo ufed, in general, for all little
projeftures in mafonry or joinery, even where there
are no columns, as the corniche of a chimney, beau-
fet, &c.
Cornichf Ring, a piece of ordnance, is that next
from the muzzle-ring, backward.
CORNICULARIUS, in antiquity, an officer in
the Roman army, whofe bufinefs was to aid and affift
the military tribune in quality of a lieutenant.
The cornicutarii went the rounds in lieu of the tri¬
bune, vifited the watch, and were nearly what the aids
major are in the French army.
The denomination cornicularius was given them from
a little horn, called corniculum, which they ufed in
giving orders to the foldiers: though Salmafius de¬
rives it from corniculum, the creft of an head-piece; it
being an obfervation of Pliny, that they wore iron or
brafs horns on their helmets ; and that thefe were
called cornicula.
In the Notitia Imperii we find a kind of fecretary or
regiiter of the fame name. His bufinefs was to attend
the judge, and enter down his fentences and decifiogs.
The critics derive the word, in this fenfe, from cor~
nicuhm, a little horn to put ink in.
CORNICULUM (anc. geog.), a town of the Sa¬
bines, to the eail of Cruftumerium, towards the Anio.
It was burnt down by Tarquin ; but reftored again,
after the expulfion of the kings, (Florus). Now in
ruins, called il Monte Gennaro, (Holllcniys).
CORNISH diamond, a name given by many peo¬
ple to the cryftals found in digging the mines of tin in
Cornwall. See Cornwal, p. 462. col. 2.
CORNIX, in ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of Corvus.
CORNU. See Horn.
Cornu jimmonis, in natural hillory, foffile fhells,
called alfoferpent-Jtones%oxfnale-Jlones.
They are found of all fizes, from the breadth of a
fixpence, to more than two feet in diameter; fome
of them rounded, others greatly compreffed, and
lodged in different ftrata of ftones and clays; fome a-
gain are fmooth, and others ridged in different man¬
ners, their ftrise and ridges being either ftraight, irre-
gularly crooked, or undulated. See SwAKE-Stone.
Cornu Cervi. See Hartshorn.
CORNUCOPIA, among the ancient poets, a horn
out of which proceeded plenty of all things; by a par¬
ticular privilege which Jupiter granted his nurfe, fup-
pofed to be the goat Amalthea. The fable is thus
interpreted; That :n Lybi,' there is a little territory
ffiaped not unlike a bullock s horn, exceeding fertile,
given by king Ammon to his daughter Amalthea, Cormico-
whom the poets feign to have been Jupiter’s nurfe. P>*
In archite&ure and fculpture, the cornucopia, or r ■ .
horn of plenty, is reprefented under the figure of a. ornutia,f
large horn, out of which iffue fruits, flowers, &c. On *
medals, F. Joubert obferves, the .cornucopia is given
to all deities.
CORNUCOPIfE, in botany: A genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the triandria dafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 4th or¬
der, Gramina. The involucrum is monophylloue, fun-
nel-lhaped, crenated, and multiflorous; the calyx -bi-
valved; Corolla one valved.
CORNUS, Cornel-tree, Cornelian cherry,
or Dog-wood: A genus of the monogynia order,
belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants; and in
the natural method ranking under the 47th-order,
Steliata. The involucrum is moil frequently tetra-
phyllous ; the petals above the receptacle of the fruit
four ; the fruit itfelf a bilocular kernel.
Species. Of this genus there are five fpecies; the
moll remarkable are the following, j. The mas, or
cornelian cherry-tree, hath an upright tree-fiem, riling
20 feet high, branching, and forming a large head,
garniflied with oblong leaves, and fmall umbels of
yellowiflx-green flowers at the fides and ends of the
branches, appearing early in the fpring, and fuccecd-
ed by fmall, red, cherry-like, eatable, acid, fruit.
2. The fanguinea, bloody-twig, or common dog¬
wood : hath an upright tree-ftem, branching 1 o or 12
feet high, having blood-red Ihoots, garniflied with ob¬
long pointed nervous leaves two inches long ; and all
the branches terminated by umbellate white flowers
fucceeded by black berries: of this there is a kind with
variegated leaves. 3. The florida, or Virginian dog¬
wood, hath a tree-ftem branching 12 or 15 feet high,
and fine red (hoots gamifhed with large heart-fhaped
leaves; and the branches terminated by umbellate
white flowers, having a large involucrum fucceeded by
dark red berries. Of this fpecies there are feveral va¬
rieties, chiefly diftinguiftied by the colour of their
berries, which are red, white, or blue.
Culture. All the fpecies may be propagated by
feeds, which ought to be fown in autumn, otherwife
they will lie a year in the ground. When the plants
come up, they fliould be duly watered in dry weather,
and kept clean from weeds. The following autumn,
they may be tranfplanted into the nurfery; and having
remained there two or three years, they may then be
removed to the places where they are to remain. They
may alfo be propagated by fuckers, of which they
produce great plenty, or by laying down the young
branches.
CORNUTIA, in botany: A genus of the angiofper-
mia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants 5
and in the natural method ranking under the 40th or¬
der, Perfonatee. The calyx is quinquedentated; the
ftamina larger than the corolla ; the ftyle very long ;
the berry monofpermous. There is but one fpecies,
viz. the pyramidata, with a blue pyramidal flower,
and hoary leaves. It grows plentifully in feveral of
the iflands of the Weft Indies, alfo at Campeathy,,
and at La Vera Cruz. It rifes to the height of iq.
or 12 feet, with rude branches, the leaves being placed
oppofite. The flowers are produced in fpikes at the
COR [ 461 ] COR
Cornwal. end of the branches, and are of a fine blue colour.
v——v They ufually appear in autumn, and will fometimes
remain in beauty for two months or more. It is pro¬
pagated either by feeds or cuttings, and makes a tine
appearance in the ftove ; but is too tender to bear
the open air in this country.
CORNWAL, the moft wefterly county of England,
bounded by the Englifh channel on the fouth, St
George’s channel on the weft, the Briftol channel on
the north, and on the call by the river Tamar, which
feparates it from Devonfhire. Its name is fuppofed by
fome to be compounded of earn, fignifying “ a rock”
, in the Brititli language, and Gauls, or IVaules, the
name the Saxons gave to the Britons. Others, how¬
ever, think it is derived from the Latin cornu, or the
Britilh kern, “ a hornon account of its running out
into the feafomewhat in the form of a horn. Hither
the ancient Britons (as well as in Wales) retired on
the intrufion of the Saxon's, where they oppofed their
further conquefls. In this part of the ifland they
formed a kingdom that exifted for many years after,
under different princes, amongft whom were Ambro-
fius Aurelius, and the juftly celebrated Arthur; nor
were they fubdued till the middle of the 7th century,
from which time Cornwal was confidered as fubject
to the Weft Saxon kings, who begun their fovereign-
ty in 519, and continued it till 828, under 18 fove-
reigns, the 1aft of whom was the great Egbert, who
fubdued all the others ; and by uniting them, formed
the kingdom of England, when this county was in¬
cluded in the county of Devon,, then the 9th divifion ;
and that accounts for Alfred’s not mentioning Corn¬
wal, which on forming the circuits after the Norman
conqueft, is included in the weftern circuit. In 1337,
Edward III. erefted it into a dukedom, and invefted
with it Edward the 'Black Prince. But this, according
to the exprefs words of the grant, is limited to the
firft-born fon and heir, on which account Richard II.
was created duke of Cornwal by charter. So was
Henry V. by his father Henry IV. Henry VI. de¬
livered the duchy to his fon prince Edward, and Ed¬
ward IV. created his fon Edward V. duke of Cornwal,
as did Henry VII. his fon, afterwards Henry VIII.
upon the death of his elder brother Arthur. James I.
created his fon Henry duke of Cornwal, which title
on his deceafe came to his brother Charles. The el-
deft fons of fucceeding kings have enjoyed this title by
inheritance. Thefe not only appoint the fheriff, but all
writs, deeds, &c. are in their name, and not in the
king’s ; and they have alfo peculiar royalties and pre¬
rogative diftinft from the crown, for which they ap¬
point the officers. This county is 80 miles long, 40
broad, and 250 in circumference; containing 960,000
acres, and 126,000 inhabitants. It is divided, into
9 hundreds; has 27 market towns, w’ss. Launcefton,
Truro, Falmouth, Helfton, Saltafti, Bodmyn, St Ives,
Tregony, Camelford, Fowey, St Germains, Penryn,
Callington, St Auftle, Eaft Looe, Padftow, St Co-
lomb, Penfance, Grampond, Lefkard, Leftwithiel, St
Mawes, St Michael, Newport, Market Jew, Stratton,
and Redruth ; 1230 villages, 161 parifties, 89 vica¬
rages, provides 640 men to the militia, and pays 8 parts
of the land-tax. Its chief rivers are the Tamer, Fale,
Cober, Looe, Camel, Fowe, Haile, Lemara, Kenfe,
5
and Aire. Its principal capes or head-lands are the CornvyaL
Land’s-end, the Lizard, Cape Cornwal, Deadman’s- v—'
head, Rame-head, &c. and a clufter of iflands, 145 in
number, called the Sc illy IJles, fuppofed formerly to
have been joined to the main land, though now 30
miles diftant; abounding with antiquities, particularly
druidicft.
As Cornwal is furrounded by the fea on all ftdes
except the eaft, its climate is fomewhat different from
that of the other parts of Britain. The reafons of
this difference will be eafily underftood from what is
obferved concerning the climate of America. The
fummers in Cornwal art lefs hot, and the winters lefs
cold, than in other parts of England, and the fpring
and harveft are obferved to be more backward. High
and fudden winds are alfo more common in this than
in other counties of England. The county is rocky
and mountainous ; but the mountains are rich in me¬
tals, efpecially tin and copper. The valleys are very
pleafant and fertile, yielding great plenty both of corn
and pafture. The lands near the fea-coaft are ma¬
nured and fertilized with fea-weed, and a kind of fand
formed by the particles of broken ffidls as they are
dallied againft each other by the fea. Cattle of all
forts are fmaller here than in the other counties of
England ; and the wool of the Iheep, which are moftly
without horns, is very fine, and the flelh, both of them
and of the black cattle, extremely delicate. The coun¬
ty is well fupplied with filh from the fea and the many
rivers with which it is watered. The moft noted of
the fea-fifti is the pilchard; of which prodigious quan¬
tities are caught from July to November, and export¬
ed to different parts, efpecially to Spain. It is faid that
a million have been fometimes taken at a fingle draught.
The natives are remarkable for their ftrength and ac¬
tivity, as well as their dexterity in wreftling, in which
exercife the Cornilh hug is highly extolled.
This county abounds in mines of diffeient metals
and femimetals; but the principal produce is tin.
The Phenicians early vifited thefe coafts for this ar¬
ticle, fome think 400 or 450 years before Chrift ; and
the mines continued to be wrought with various fuc-
cefs at different periods. In the time of king John
they appear to have yielded no great emolument; the
right of working tliem being wholly in the king as
earl of Cornwal, and the mines farmed by the Jews-
for 100 marks; and according to this proportion the
10th of it, L.6. 13 s. 4d. is at this day paid by the
crown to the biffop of Exeter. In the time of Rich¬
ard king of the Romans and earl of Cornwal, the tin-
mines were immenfely rich, the Jews being farmed out
to him by his brother Henry III. what intereft they
had was at his difpofal. The Spanilh tin-mines being
flopped by the Moors,, and none difeovered in Ger¬
many, the Malabar coaft, or the Spanifh Weft Indies,,
Cornwal and its earls had all the trade of Europe for
it. The Jews being banifhed the kingdom, 18 Edw. I.
they were again neglefted till the gentlemen of Black-
more, lords of feven tithings beft ftored at. that time
with tin, obtained of Edmund earl of Cornwal, fon of
Richard king of the Romans, a charter under his own ,
feal, with more explicit grants of privileges, courts,
pleas, parliaments, and the toll-tin or -^th of all the
tin raifed. At this time too the right of bounding or
dividing
COR [ 462 ] COR
• dividing tin-grounds into feparate partitions for the adventurers, is ftamped and worked at the mill; and Cormvat.
encouragement of fearching for it feems to have been being thus dreffed is carried under the name of black  
firft appointed, or at leaft adjufted. This charter was tin to the melting-houfe, where it is melted by Welih
confirmed 33 Edward I. and the Cornifh feparated pit-coal, and poured into blocks of 3201b. weight, and
from the Devonfhire tinners. Their laws, particular- carried to the coinage town. Mundic, a fcarce metal
ly recited in Plowden’s Commentaries, p. 237, were
further explained 50 Edw. III. confirmed and* en¬
larged by parliament, 8 Rich. II. 3 Ed. IV. 1 Ed. VI.
1 and 2 P. and M. and 2 Eliz. and the whole fo-
ciety divided into four parts under one general warden,
to do juftice' in law and equity, from whofe fentence
lies an appeal to the duke of Cornwal in council, or
for want of .a duke of Cornwal to the crown. The
or mineral ore, of a white, brafly, or brown colour, is
found in large quantities, intermixed with tin, copper,
and lead, and fometimes by itfelf. Iron ore is found
in Ccfl-nwal, but the working it does not anfwer.
There is no richer copper, nor a greater variety any
where than in this county. Silver, if really found
here in the reigns of Edward I. and II. has been rare¬
ly found fince, nor do the lead-mines airfwer. Very
lord-warden appoints a vice-warden to determine all late difcoveries have proved that Cornwal has more
ftannary difputes every month : he alfo conftitutes four gold than was formerly imagined. What is called the
ftewards, one for each of the precin£ts before men- Cornijh diamond is a figured cryftal generally hexagonal
tioned, who hold their courts every three weeks, and and pyramidical, or columnar, or both, of a fine clear
decide by juries of fix perfons, with an appeal referved water, and of all our baftard diamonds in this nation
to the vice-warden, lord-warden, and lord of the prince’s efteemed the beft, and fome of different colours, black,
council. In difficult cafes the lord-warden, by com- yellow, See. The clearer thefe are, the better they will
miffion, iffues his precept to the four principal towns bear engraving for fe'als.
of the flannary diftri&s, who each choofe fix members. In privileges and language Cornwal feems to be
and thefe twenty-four ftannators conftitute the parlia- another kingdom. By 21 Elizabeth it was ordered
ment of tinners. Each ftannator choofes an affiftant, that all duty on Cornifh cloth exported ffiould be re¬
making a kind of {landing council in a different a- uiitted to every Engliihman within the duchy of Com¬
partment to give information to the prince. What- wal. This was firft granted by the black pr;—
ever is enadled by the body of tinners muft be figned
by the ftannators, the lord-warden, or his deputy, and
by the duke or the king, and thenceforward has with
regard to tin affairs all the authority of an a6l of the
whole legiflature. Five towns are appointed in the
moft convenient parts of the county for the tinners to
bring their tin to every quarter of a year. Thefe are
.Lefkard, Leftwithiel, Truro, Helfton, and Penfance,
in confideration of their paying 4.S. for the coinage of
every hundred of tin ; whereas Devonfhire pays no
more than 8d. They have alfo by grant from Richard
earl of Cornwal, confirmed 45 Henry III. freedom to
take fand out of the fea and carry it through the
country for manure; whereupon in the following
reign, on an inquifition made, we find a complaint
that Saltafh had lately taken 12 s. yearly for each
the laft added by Charles II. for the conveniency of barge that carried fand up the Tamar; whereas
the weftern tinners. In the time of Henry VIII. nothing ought to be demanded*. They ftill continue
there were but two coinages, at Midfummer and Mi- this ancient method of improving their land, carrying
chaelmas : two more at Chriftmas and Lady-day were it ten miles up into the country, and great part of
added, for which the tinners pay an acknowledgment the way on horfes backs. Mr Ray fuppofes the vir-
ealled Pojl groats, or qr/. for every hundred of white tue of this fand depends chiefly on the fait mixed
tin then coined. The officers appointed by the duke with it, which is fo copious that in many places fait
affay it; and if well purified ftamp it by a hammer is boiled up out of a lixivium made of the fea fand ;
with the duchy feal, the arms of Richard earl of Corn- and the reafon why fand when it has lain long in the
wal, a lion rampant G. crowned O. within a bordure fun and wind proves lefs enriching and ufeful is, that
of bezants S ; and this is a permiffion to the coiner to the dews and rain evaporate great part of its fait,
fell, and is called coining the tin. Every hundred of They had likewife a privilege of trading to all parts
white tin fo coined pays to the duke 4s. The tin of of the world, granted them by Charles I. in recom-
the whole county, which, in Carew’s time, in the laft pence of their loyalty.
century, amounted to 30 or 40,000!. yearly, has for The number of boroughs in this fmall county was
24 years laft paft amounted one year with another to furprifingly increafed by Edward VI. who added feven
L. 180,000 or 190,000 fterling. Qf this the duke of to the original fix, Mary two, Elizabeth fix, making
Cornwal receives for his 4s. duty on every hundred of in all 21, fending 40 members befides the county two.
white tin above L. 10,000 yearly : the bounders or pro- Eight of thefe boroughs had an immediate or re-
prietors of the foil about -g-th at a medium clear, or mote connexion with the demefne lands of the duchy;
about L. 30,000 yearly; the remainder goes to the the reft belonged to religious houfes, or powerful fa-
adventurers in the mine, who are at all the charge of milies, or were old boroughs, which had legal immu-
working. Tin is found collected and fixed in lodes niiies granted to them by their princes or lords,
and floors, or in grains and bunches in the natural The Corniih language'is a dialect of that which
rock, or loofe and detached in fingle feparate {tones till the Saxons came in was common to all Britain,
called Jhodes or Jlreams, or in a continued courfe of fuch and more anciently to Ireland and Gaul; but the in-
ftones called the beuheyl or living Jlream, or in an are- habitants of this ifland being difperfed before' thofe
naceous pulverized ftate, It is moft eafily difeovered conquefts, and driven into Wales and Cornwal, and
by tracing the lodes by the fcattered fragments of them thence into Bretagne, the fame language, for want of
called Jhodes, by leave of the lord of the foil or the frequent intercourfe, became differently pronounced
Bounder. The tin being divided among the lords and and written, and in different degrees mixed with dif¬
ferent
COR [ 46.1 ] CO R
Corody ferent languages. Hence came the Welfli, the Cor-
II ni/h, and the Armoric diale&s, whofe radicals are fo
c<*”“an' much alike that they are known and admitted by the
1 ^ . inhabitants of either country; but the grammar fo
varied that they cannot converfe. The Cornifh is
reckoned the moil; pleafmg of the three. It was fpo-
ken fo generally here down to the reign of Henry VIII.
that Dr John Moreman, vicar of Mynhinet, is faid to
have been the iirft who taught his pariihioners the
Lord's prayer, the creed, and ten commandments in
Engliih, and at the Reformation the natives defired
the fervice in Engliih. The older people in fome pa-
riihes retained their original language to the middle of
. the lail century : and the laft fermon was preached in
it in 1678. When Mr Ray was here, 1662, he could
find but one perfon who could write this language;
and it is now fo nearly extinft, that Mr Barrington, in
1768, could only find one old woman who could fcold
in it, and ihe is fince dead.
CORODY. See Revenue.
COROLLA, among botaniils, the moil confpicuous
part of a flower, furrounding the organs of generation,
and compofed of one or more flower-leaves, moil com¬
monly called petals, to diilinguiih them from the leaves
of the plant; according as there is one, two, or three
of thefe petals, the corolla is faid to be monopetalous,
dipetalous, tripetalous, &c.
COROLLARY is a confequence drawn from fome-
thing already advanced or demonilrated: thus, it
being demonilrated that a triangle which has two
equal fides, has alfo two angles equal; this corollary
will follow, that a triangle which has three fides equal,
has alfo its three angles equal.
COROLLISTiS, a name by which Linnseus di-
ilinguiihes thofe fyilematic botaniils who have ar¬
ranged vegetables from the regularity, figure, number,
and other circumftances, of the petals, or beautiful co¬
loured leaves of the flower. The bell fyilems of this
kind are thofe of Rivinus and Tournefort. The for¬
mer proceeds upon the regularity and number of the
petals; the latter, with much more certainty, on their
regularity and figure.
COROLLULA, a term'ufed by botaniils to ex-
prefs the little partial flowers which make up the com¬
pound ones.
COROMANDEL, the eailern coail of the penin-
fula en this fide the Ganges in Afia. It is bounded on
the north by Golconda, en the eailby the bay of Ben¬
gal, on the fouth by Madura, and on the well by Bif-
uagar. This coail fo much refembles that of Orixa,
that the Abbe Raynal choofes to confider them as one,
and gives to both the general name of Coromandel.
Here an exceflive heat reigns from the beginning of
May to the end of October. It begins at nine in the
morning, and continues till nine in the.evening. Du¬
ring the night it is allayed by a fea-breeze from the
fouth-eaft ; and moil commonly this refreihing gale
begins at three in the afternoon. The air is lefs in¬
flamed during the reit of the year, though in all fea-
fons it is very hot. It rains almoil continually during
the months of November and December. This immenfe
tradl is covered with a parched fand for the extent of
two miles, and fometimes only one mile along the
coail.
This country was at firil negle&ed by the Europe¬
ans for many reafons. It was feparated by inaccef- Coroman -
fible mountains from Malabar, where thefe bold ad- ^ 
venturers endeavoured to fettle themfelves. Spices '"' _v
and aromatics, which were the principal objedts of
their attention, were not to be found there. In Ihort,
civil diffentions had banilhed from it tranquillity, fecu-
rity, and induftry. At that period the empire of
Bifnagar, to which this vafl country was fubjecl, was
falling to ruin. The governments of Vifapour, the
Carnatic, Golconda, and Orixa, threw off their depen¬
dence, and affumed the title of kings. Thofe of
Madura, Tanjore, Myfore, Gingi, and fbme others,
likewife ufurped the fovereign authority, though they
retained their ancient title of Naick. This revolution
had juft happened when the Europeans appeared on
the coaft of Coromandel. The foreign trade was at
that time inconfiderable; it confifted only of diamonds
from Golconda, which were carried to Calicut and
Surat, and from thence to Ormus or Suez, whence
they were circulated through all Europe and Afia.
Maflulipatan, the richeft and moll populous city of
thefe countries, was the only market that was known
for linens ; they were purchafed at a great fair an¬
nually holden there by the Arabian and Malayan vef-
fels that frequented that bay, and by caravans arrived
from diftant parts. The linens were exported to the
fame places with the diamonds. The fondnefs for the
manufactures of Coromandel which began to prevail
here, infpired all the European nations trading to the
Indian feas with the refolution of forming fettlements
there. They were not difcouraged either by the dif¬
ficulty of conveying goods from the inland parts of the
country, where there was no navigable river; by
the total want of harbours, where the fea at one fea-
fon of the year is not navigable ; by the barrennefs of
the coafts, for the moll part uncultivated and uninha¬
bited ; nor by the tyranny and fludluating.ftate of the
government. They thought that filver would be in-
duftrioufly fought after; that Pegu would furnilh tim¬
ber for building, and Bengal corn for fubfiftence ’r
that a profperous voyage of nine months would be
more than fuflicient to complete their ladings; and
that by fortifying themfelves they fliould be fecure
againft the attacks of the weak tyrants that opprefled
thefe countries.
The firft European colonies were eftablifhed near
the ftiore. Some of them obtained a fettlement by
force ; moft of them were formed with the con feat
of the fovereigns ; and all were confined to a very
narrow trail of land. The boundaries of each were
marked out by a hedge of thorny plants, which was-
their only defence. In proeefs of time fortifications
were railed; and the fecurity derived from them,
added to the lenity of the government, foon increafed
the number of colonifts. The fplendor and indepen¬
dence of thefe-fettlements feveral times railed the jea-
loufy of the princes in whofe dominions they were
formed ; but their attempts to demolilh them proved,
abortive. Each colony increafed in profperity in pro¬
portion to the riches and the wifdom of the nation
that founded it. None of the companies that exer-
cifed an exclufive privilege beyond the Cape of- Good
Hope had any concern in the trade of diamonds. This
was always left to private merchants, and by degrees
fell entirely into the hands of the Engliih, or the Jews
and!
COR
Ceroman- and Armenians that lived under their prote&ion. At
. de1, prefent this grand objeCt of luxury and induilry is much
V' y reduced. The revolutions that have happened in In-
doftan have prevented people from reforting to thefe
rich mines ; and the anarchy in which this unhappy
country is plunged, leaves no room to hope that they
■will be again attended to. The whole of the com¬
mercial operations on the coaft of Coromandel k con¬
fined to the purchafe of cottons. The manufacturing
of the white cottons bought there, differs fo little from
ours, that it would be neither interefting nor inftruc-
tive to enter into a minute defcription of it. The
[ 464 ]
COR
farther into the country. The Indian merchants fet- Coroman,
tied in the European factories have always the ma- - de1,
nagement of this bufinefs. The quantity and quality " '
of the goods wanted are fettled with thefe people :
the price is fixed according to the patterns: and at
the time a contraft is made, a third or a fourth part
of the money agreed on is advanced. This arrange¬
ment is owing to the necefiity thefe merchants them-
felve are under of advancing money to the workmen
by the partners or agents who are difperfed through
the whole country : of keeping a watchful eye upon
them, for fear of lofing what they have advanced; and
procefs ufed in making their printed cottons, which of gradually leffening the fum, by calling for the cot-
was at fir ft. fervilely followed in Europe, has fince tons as fall as they are worked off. Without thefe
been rendered more Ample, and brought to greater precautions, nothing could be depended on in an op-
perfe&ion by our manufacturers. The painted cot- preffive government, where the weaver cannot work
tons which are bought there, we have not yet attempt- on his own account, either becaufe his circumftances
ed to imitate. Thofe who imagine we have been will not permit, or becaufe he dares not venture to
prevented from undertaking this branch merely by difcover them for fear of exaftions. The companies
the high price of labour among us, are miftaken. Na- that have either fuccefs or good management, con-
ture has not given us the wild fruits and drugs necef-
fary for the compofition of thofe bright and indelible
colours which conftitute the principal merit of the In¬
dian manufadlures ; nor has fhe furnifhed us with the
waters that ferve to fix them. The Indians do not
ftantly keep the flock of one year in advance in their
fettlements. By this method they are fure of having
the quantity of goods they have occafion for, and of
the quality they choofe, at the moft convenient time ;
not to mention that' their workmen, and their mer-
univerfally obferve the fame method in painting their chants, who are kept in donflant employment, never
cottons ; either becaufe there are fome niceties pecu- leave them. Such nations as want money and credit
liar to certain provinces, or becaufe different foils pro- cannot begin their mercantile operations till the ar-
duce different drugs for the fame ufes. We fhould rival of their fhips. They have only five or fix months
tire the patience of our readers were we to trace the at moft to execute the orders fent from Europe. The
Bow and painful progrefs of the Indians in the art of goods are manufactured and examined in haite ; and
painting their cottons. It is natural to believe that they they are even obliged to take fuch as are known to be
owe it to length of time, rather than to the fertility bad, and would be rejected at any other time. The
of their genius. What feems to authorife this conjee- neceffity they are under of completing their cargoes.
ture is, that they have flopped in their improvements,
and have not advanced a Angle flep in the arts for
many ages 5 whereas we have proceeded with ama¬
zing rapidity. Indeed, were we to confider only the
want of invention in the Indians, we fjiould be tempt¬
ed to believe, that, from time immemorial, they have
received the arts they cultivate from fome more in-
.duftrious nation; but when it is remembered that
thefe arts have a peculiar dependence on the mate¬
rials, gums, colours, and productions of India, we
cannot but be convinced that they are natives of that
country. It may appear fomewhat furprjfing that
cottons painted with all forts of colours fhould be fold
at fo moderate a price, that they are almofl as cheap
as thofe that have only two or three. But it mufl be
•obferved, that the merchants of the country fell to all
the companies a large quantity of cottons at a time ;
and that the demand for cottons painted with various
colours makes but a fmall article in their affortments,
as they are not much efteemed in Europe.
Though cottons of all forts are in fome degree ma-
nufaftured through the whole country of Indoftan,
which extends from Cape Comorin to the banks of the
Ganges; it is obfervable, that the fine forts are made
in the eaflern part, the common ones in the centre,
and the coarfe ones in the moft weftern parts. Ma-
nufadlures are eftablifhed in the European colonies,
and upon the coaft: they are more frequent at the
diflance of five or fix leagues from the fea, where cot¬
ton is more cultivated, and provifions are cheaper.
and fitting out their veffels before hurricanes come on,
leaves no room for nicety of infpedlion. It would be
a mi flake to imagine that the country agents could be
prevailed upon to order goods to be made on their
account, in hopes of felling them with a reafonable
advantage to the company with whom they are en¬
gaged. For, befides that the generality of them
are not rich enough to embark in fo large an under¬
taking, they would not be certain of finding their ac¬
count in it. If the company that employ them fhould
be hindered by unforefeen accidents from fending the
lifual number of fhips, thefe merchants would have no
vent for their commodities. The Indians, the form
of whofe drefs requires different breadths and lengths
from thofe of the cottons fabricated for our ufe, would
not purchafe them ; and the other European compa¬
nies would be' provided, or certain of being provided,
with whatever the extent of their trade required, and
their money enabled them to purchafe. The plan of
procuring loans, which was contrived to remedy this
inconvenience, never has, nor can be ufefnl. It has
been a cuflom, time immemorial, in Indoftan, for
every citizen who borrows money, to give a written
inftrument to his creditor. This deed is of no force
in a court of judicature, unlefs it is ligned by three
witneffes, and bears the day of the month and the
year when it was made, with the rate of interefl a-
greed upon by the parties. If the borrower fails to
fulfil his engagements, he may be arrefted by the
lender himfelf. He is never imprifoned, becaufe
The purchafes made there are carried 3c or 40 leagues there is no fear of his making his efcape. He would
flo y2. .> not
COR [ 465 ] C O II
Coreman- not even eat, without obtaining leave of his creditor.
^ .del, The Indians make a three-fold diviiion of intereft :
. Qron‘t• , one Jtind they call vife ; another neither vice nor vir¬
tue ; and a third, they fay, is virtue. The firft is four
per cent, a month; the fecond two ; and the third
one. The laft is, in their opinion, an aft of bene¬
ficence that only belongs to the moil heroic minds.
Yet, though the Europeans, who are forced to bor¬
row, meet with this treatment, it is plain they can¬
not avail themfelves of the indulgence without being
involved in ruin.
The foreign trade of Coromandel is not in the Tiands
of the natives. In the weftern part, indeed, there
. are • Mohammedans known by the name of Chalias,
who, at Naour and Porto-Nuovo, fend out flips to
Acken, Merguy, Siam, and the eaftern coaft. Befides
veffels of confiderable burden employed in thefe voy¬
ages, they have fmaller embarkations for the coafting
trade for Ceylon and the pearl fifhery. The Indians
of Maffulipatan turn their attention another way.
They import* from Bengal white callicoes, which they
dye or print, and fell them again at the places from
whence they had them, at 35 or 40. per cent, advan¬
tage. Excepting thefe tranfaftions, which are of very
little confequence, the whole trade is veiled in the
Europeans, who have no partners but a few Banians
and Armenians fettled in their colonies. The quanti¬
ty of callicoes exported from Coromandel to the dif¬
ferent ports of India, may be computed at 3500 bales.
Of thefe the French carry 800 to Malabar, Mocha,
and the ifle of France ; the Englilh, 1200 to Bombay,
Malabar, Sumatra, and the Philippine Illands ; and the
F)atch 1500 to their different fettlements. Except
500 bales deftined for Manila, each of the value of 100
guineas, the others are of fuch an ordinary kind that
they do not exceed 30 guineas at prime coll; fo that
the whole number of bales do not amount to more than
about L. 150,000.
Coromandel furnifhes Europe with 9500 bales800
of which are brought by the Danes, 2500 by the
French, 3000 by the Englilh, and 3200 by the Dutch.
A confiderable part of thefe callicoes are dyed blue,
or llriped blue and red for the African trade. The
others are fine muflins, printed callicoes, and handker¬
chiefs from Maffulipatan, or Paliacate. It is proved
by experience that each of thefe bales colls only about
L. 42 Sterling ; confequently they ought to bring in
to the manufaftory where they are wrought near
L. 360,000. The payments are not entirely made in
fpecie, either in Europe or Alia ; we give in exchange,
cloths, iron, lead, copper, coral, and fome other ar¬
ticles of lefs value. On the other hand, Alia pays
with fpices, pepper, rice, fugar, corn, and dates. All
thefe articles taken together may amount to about
L. 21*0,000; and from this calculation it follows, that
Coromandel receives annually from Europe about
L. 300,000 in money. The Britilh, who have acquir¬
ed the fame fupenority on this coall that They have
elfewhere, have formed on it feveral fettlements.
CORONA, among anatomifts, denotes that edge of
the glans penis where the preputium begins.
Corona, or Halo, in optics, a luminous circle, fur¬
rounding the fun, the moon, the planets, or fixed liars.
Sometimes thefe circles are white, and fometimes co¬
loured, like the rainbow. Sometimes one only is vi-
Vol. V. Part II.
lible, and fometimes feveral concentric cotonas make Corona.
their appearance at the fame time. Thofe which have 1 v—-
been feen about Sirius and Jupiter were never more
than three, four, or five degrees in diameter; thofe
which furround the moon are, alfo, fometimes no more
than three or five degrees; but thefe, as well as thofe
which furround the fun, are of very different magni¬
tudes, viz. of 12° o', 220 35', 30'' o', 38° o', 41°
2 > 450_0,> 46° 24', 470 o', and 90°, or even larger
than this. Their diameters alfo fometimes vary du¬
ring the time of obfervation, and the breadths both of
the coloured and white circles are very different, viz.
of 2, 4, or 7 degrees.
The colours of thefe coronas are more dilute than
thofe of the rainbow ; and they are in a different or¬
der, according to their lize. In thofe which Newton
obferved in 1692, they were in the following order,
reckoning from the infide. In the innermolt were
blue, white, and red ; in the middle were purple, blue,
green, yellow, and pale red ; in the outermoft, pale
blue and pale red. Mr Huygens obferved red next
the fun, and a pale blue outwards. Sometimes they
are red on th^ inlide and white on the outfide. M.
Weidler obfei ved one that was yellow on the infide
and white on the outfide. In France, one was obfer¬
ved in 1683, 'the middle of which was white; after
which followed a border of red ; next to it w^s blue,
then green, and the outermoft circle was a bright red.
In 1728, one was i^n of a pale red outwardly, then
followed yellow, and then green, terminated by a
white.
Thefe coronas are very frequent. In Holland, M.
Mufchenbroeck fays, 50 may be feen in the day-time,
almoft every year ; but they are difficult to be obfer- *
ved, except the eye be fo fituated, that not the body
of the fun, but only the neighbouring parts of the
heavens can be feen. Mr Middleton fays, that this
phenomenon is very frequent in North America ; for
that there is generally one or two about the fun every
week, and as many about the moon every month.
Halos round the fun are very frequent in Ruffia. M.
^Epinus fays, that from the 23d of April 1758, to the
20th of September, he himfelf had obferved no lefs
than 26, and that he has fometimes feen twice as ma¬
ny in the fame fpace of time.
Coronas may be produced by placing a lighted can¬
dle in the midft of fteam in cold weather. Alfo, if
glafs windows be breathed upon, and the flame of a
candle be placed fome feet from it, while the fpefta-
tor is alfo at the diftance of fome feet from another
part of a window, the flame will be furrounded with
a coloured halo. And if a candle be placed behind a
glafs receiver, when air is admitted into the vacuum
within it, at a certain degree of denlity, the vapour
with which it is loaded will make a coloured halo
round the flame. This was obferved by Otto Gue¬
ricke. In December 1756, M. Mufchenbroeck ob¬
ferved, that when the glafs windows of his room
were covered with a thin plate of ice on the infide,
the moon appearing through it was furrounded with
a large and varioully coloured halo ; and, opening
the window, he found that it arofe intirely from that
thin plate of ice, for none was feen except through
Similar, in fome lefpefts, to the halo, was the re-
3 N markable
COR [ 466 ] COR
Gerona. markable appearance which M. Bouguer defcribes, as
V”™*1 obferved by himfelf and his companions on the top of
Mount Pichinca, in the Cordilleras. When the fun
was juft rifing behind them, fo as to appear white,
each of them faw his own ftiadow projected upon it,
and no other. The diftance was fuch, that all the
parts of the lhadow were eafdy diftinguiftiable, as the
arms, the leg, and the head ; but what furprifed them
moft was, that the head was adorned with a kind of
glory, confifting of three' or four fmall concentric
crowns, of a very lively colour, each exhibiting all
the varieties of the primary rainbow, and having the
circle of red on the outfide. The intervals between
thefe circles continued equal, though the diameters of
them all were conftantly changing. The laft of them
was very faint, and at a confiderable diftance was ano¬
ther great white circle, which furrounded the whole.
As near as M. Bouguer could compute, the diameter
of the firft of thefe circles was about 5^- degrees, that
of the fecond 11, that of the third 17, and fo on ;
but the diameter of the white circle was about 76 de¬
grees. This phenomerion never appeared but in a
cloud confifting of frozen particles, and never in drops
of rain like the rainbow. When the fun was not in
the horizon, only part of the white circle was vifible, as
M. Bouguer frequently obferved afterwards.
Similar alfo to this curious appearance was one that
was obferved by Dr M'Fait in Scotland. This gen¬
tleman obferved a rainbow round his lhadow in the
mift, when he was upon an eminence above it. In
this fituation the whole country round feemed, as it
were, buried under a vaft deluge, and nothing but the
tops of diftant hills appeared here and there above the
flood ; fo that a man would think of diving down in¬
to it with a kind of horror. In thofe upper regions
the air, he fays, is at that time very pure and agree¬
able to breathe in. At another time he obferved a
double range of colours round his fhadow in thefe cir-
cumftances. The colours of the outermoft range were
broad and very diftinft, and every where about two
feet diftant from the lhadow. Then there was a
darkilh interval, and after that another narrower range
of colours, clofely furrounding the lhadow, which was
very much contra&ed. This perfon feems to think
that thefe ranges of colours are caufed by the inflec¬
tion of the rays of light, the fame that occafioned the
ring of light which furrounds the lhadows of all bo-
* TJ' Ef <^es’ °kferve^ by Maraldi, and this author*. But
fays-, *VoL i. the prodigious variety with which thefe appearances
11.198. are exhibited fe'ems to {how that many of them do not
refult from the general laws of reflexion, refraftion, or
inflexion, belonging to tranfparent fubftances of a
large mafs; but upon the alternate reflexion and
tranfiniffion of the different kinds of rays, peculiar to
fubftances reduced to the form of thin plates, or con¬
fifting of feparate and very minute parts. But where
the dimenfions of the coronas are pretty conftant, as
in the ufual and larger halo, which is about half the
diameter of the rainbow, they may, perhaps, be ex¬
plained on the general principles of refraftion only.
Defcartes obferves, that the halo never appears when
it rains : from which he concludes that this phenome-
i non is occafioned by the refraftion of light in the
round particles of ice, which are then floating in the
atmofphere ; and though thefe particles are flat when
they fall to the ground, he thought they mull be p/o- Corona.-
tuberant in the middle, before their defcent; and ac- —ir™-
cording to this protuberancy he imagined that the di¬
ameter of ,the halo would vary.—In treating of me¬
teors, Gaffendi fuppofed that a halo is the fame thing
with the rainbow, the rays of light being in both
cafes twice refrafted and once reflefted within each'
drop of rain or vapour, and that all the difference
there is between them arifes from their different fitu¬
ation with refpeft. to the obferver.. For, whereas,-
when the fun is behind the fpeftator, and confequent-
ly the rainbow before him, his eye is in the centre of
the circle ; when he views the halo, with his face to¬
wards the fun, his eye is in the circumference of the
circle ; fo that according to the known principles of
geometry, the angle under which the objeft appears
in this cafe, muft be juft half of what it is in the other.
Though this writer fays a great deal upon the fubjeft,
and endeavours to give reafons why the colours of the
halo are in a different order to thofe of the rainbow,
he does not defcribe the progrefs of the rays of light
from the fun to the eye of the fpeftator when a halo
is formed by them,, and. he gives no figures ttrexplain
his ideas.
Dechales, alfo, endeavours to (how that the gene¬
ration of the halo is fimilar to that of ther ainbow. If,
fays he, a fphere of glafs or cryftal, AB, (n° 1.) full of piate CL.
water, be placed in the beams of the fun Ihining from
G, there will not only be two circles of coloured light
on the fide next the fun, and which conftitute the two
rainbows ; but there will alfo be another on the part
oppofite to the fun, the rays belonging to' which meet¬
ing at E, afterwards diverge, and form the coloured
circle G, as will be vifible, if the light that is tranf-
mitted through the globe be received on a piece of
white paper. The colours alfo will appear to an eye
placed in any part of the furface of the cone FEG.
Meafuring the angle FEH, he found it to be 23 de¬
grees. They were only the extreme rays of this cone
that were coloured like thofe of the rainbow.
This experiment he thought fufficiently illuftrated
the generation of the halo ; fo that whenever the tex¬
ture of the clouds is fuch, as not entirely to intercept
the rays of the fun or moon, and yet have fome de¬
gree of denfity, there will always be an halo round
them, the colours of the rainbow appearing in thofe
drops which are 23 degrees diftant from the fun or
moon. If the fun be at A, and the fpeftator in B,
the halo will be the circle DFE, DBE being 46 de¬
grees, or twice 23.
The reafon why the colours of the halo are more
dilute than thofe of the rainbow, he fays, is., owing
principally to their being formed not in large drops of
rain, but in very fmall vapour; for if the drops of
water were large, the cloud would be fo thick, that
the rays of the fun could not be regularly tranfmitted
through them ; and, on the other hand, he had obfer-.
yed, that when the rainbow is formed by very thin
vapours, the colours hardly appear. As for thofe cir¬
cles of colours which are fometimes feen round candles,
it was his opinion that they are owing to nothing
but moifture on the eye of the obferver ; for that he
could never produce this appearance by means of va¬
pour only, if he wiped his eyes carefully; and he had
obferved that fuch circles are vifible to fome perfons
3 and
COR [ 467 J COR
Corona, and not to others, and to the fame perfons at one time For the fame reafon, every other of thefe fdobules Corona.
and not another.
The moft confiderable of all the theories refpefting
halos, and that which has met with moft favourable
and the longeft reception, is that of Mr Huygens.
Sir Ifaac Newton menrions it with refpedt, and Dr
Smith, in his Complete Syftem of Optics, does not fo
much as hint at any other. Theoccafion of M. Huy¬
gens publifhing his thoughts on this fubjecft, was the
appearance of a halo at Paris, on the 12th of May
1667, of which he gave an account in a paper read at
the Royal Academy in that city, which was afterwards
tranflated, and publifhed in the Englifh Philofophical
TfanfaCtions, and which may be feen in Lowthorp’s
Abridgment, Vol.II. p. 189. But this article contains
nothing more than the heads of a difcourfe, which he
afterwards compofed, but never quite finiflied, on this
fubje&; and which has been tranflated, with fome ad¬
ditions, by Dr Smith, from whom the following ac¬
count is chiefly extracted.
Our philofopher had been firft engaged to think
particularly upon this fubjedt, by the appearance of
five funs at Warfaw, in 1658 ; prefently after which,
he fays, he hit upon the true caufe of halos, and not
long after of that of mock funs alfo.
To prepare the way for the following obfervations,
it muft be remarked, that if we can conceive any kind
of bodies ii^ the atmofphere, which, according to the
known laws of optics, will, either by means of reflec¬
tion or refradfion, produce the appearance in queftion,
when nothing elfe can be found that will do it, we
muft acquiefce in the hypothefis, and fuppofe fuch bo¬
dies to exift, even though we cannot give a fatisfadfory
account of their generation. Now, two fuch bodies
are aflumed by Mr Huygens ; one of them a round
ball, opaque in the centre, but covered with a tranfpa-
rent fliell; and the other is a cylinder, of a fimilar
eompofition. By the help of the former he endea-
votirs to account for halos, and by the latter for thofe
appearances which are called mock funs. Thofe bo¬
dies which Mr Huygens requires, in order to explain
thefe phenomena, are not, however, a mere aflump-
tion ; for fome fuch, though of a larger fize than his
purpofe requires, have been actually found, confifting
of fnow within and ice without. They are particu¬
larly mentioned by Defcartes.
The balls with the opaque kernel, which he fup-
.pofed to have been the caufe of them, he imagines
not to exceed the fize of a turnip-feed; but, in order
to illuftrate this hypothefis, he gives a figure of one, of
a larger fize, in ABCDEF, (n° 3.) reprefenting the
kernel of fnow in the middle of it. If the rays of
light, coming from GH, fall upon the fide AD, it is -
manifeft they will be fo refradted at A and D, as to
bend inwards; and many of them will ftrike upon
the kernel EF. Others, however, as GA and HD,
will only touch the fides of the kernel; and being
again refra&ed at B and C, will emerge in the lines
BK, CK, croffing each other in the point K, whofe
neareft diftance from the globule is fomewhat lefs than
its apparent diameter. If, therefore, BK and CK be
produced towards M and L, (n°4.) it is evident
that no light can reach the eye placed within the angle
LKM, but may fall upon it when placed out of that
a*gle, or rather the cone reprefented by it.
will have a fhadow behind it, in which the light of the
fun will not be perceived. If the eye be at N, and
that be conceived to be the vertex of a cone, the fides
of which NR, NQ^ are parallel to the fides of the
former cone KL, KM, it is evident that none of the
globules within the cone QNR can fend any rays of
the fun to the eye at N. But any other globule out
of this cone, as X, may fend thofe rays, which are
more refradted than XZ, J.o the eye ; fo that this
will appear enlightened, while thofe within the cone
will appear obfcure. It is evident from this, that
a certain area, or fpace, quite round the fun, muft
appear dark; and that the fpace next to this area
will appear luminous, and more fo in thofe parts that
are neareft to the obfcure area; becaufe, he fays, it
may eafily be demonftrated, that thofe globules which
are neareft to the cone QNR exhibit the largeft image
of the fun. It is plain, alfo, that a corona ought to
be produced in the fame manner whatever be the
fun’s altitude, becaufe of the fpherical figure of the
globules.
To verify this hypothefis, our philofopher advifes
us to expofe to the fun a thin glafs bubble, filled with
water, and having fome opaque fubftance in the cen¬
tre of it; and he fays we (hall find, that we (hall not
be able to fee the fun through it, unlefs at a certain
diftance from a place oppofite to the centre of it; but
as foon as we do perceive the light, the image of the
fun will immediately appear the brighteft, and coloured
red, for the fame reafon as in the rainbow.
Thefe coronas, he fays, often appear about the
moon ; but the colours are fo weak as to appear only
white. Such white coronas he had alfo feen about
the fun, when the fpace within them appeared fcarce
darker than that without. This he fuppofes to hap¬
pen when there are but few of thofe globules in the
atmofphere ; for the more plentiful they are, the more
lively the colours of the halo appear; at the fame time
alfo the area within the corona will be the darker.
The apparent diameter of the corona, which is gene¬
rally about 45 degrees, depends upon the fize of the
dark kernel; for the larger it is with refpeft to the
whole globule, the larger will be the dark cone be¬
hind it.
The globules that form thefe halos, Mr Huygens fup¬
pofes to have confifted of foft fnow, and to have been
rounded by continual agitation in the air, and thawed
on their outfides by the heat of the fun.
To make the diameter of the halo 45 degrees, he
demonftrates that the femidiameter of the globule muft
be to the femidiameter of the kernel of fnow very near¬
ly as 1000 to 480 ; and that to make a corona of 100
degrees, it muft be as 1000 to 680.
Mr Weidler, in his Commentary on parhelia, pub-
liftied at Wirtemburgh in 1733, obferves that it is
very improbable that fuch globules as Mr Huygens’s
hypothefis requires, with nuclei of fuch a precife pro-,
portion, (hould exift; and if there were fuch bodies,
he thinks they would be too fmall to produce the ef¬
fects aferibed to them. Befides, he obferves that ap¬
pearances exactly fimilar to halos are not uncommon,
where fluid vapour alone are concerned ; as when a
candle is placed behind the fteam of boiling water in
frofty weather, or in the midft of the vapour iffuing
3 N 2 copioufly
COR [ 468 ] C
Corona, copioufly from a bath, or behind a receiver when the the following obfervation
*" v" 1 air is fo much rarefied as to be incapable offupporting
the' water it contains. The rays of the fun twice re-
fiefted and twice refracted within fmall drops of water
are fufficient, he fays, without any opaque kernel, to
produce all the appearances of the halos that have the
red light towards the fun, as may be proved by experi¬
ment. That the diameter of the halos is generally half
of that of the rainbow, he accounts for as Gaffendi did
before him. „
M. Marriotte accounts for the formation of the fmall
O R
halos and parhelias. “ The Corona,
light which come through drops of rain by two re- v—J
fractions, without any reflexion, ought to appear the
11 rouge ft at the diftance of about 26 degrees from
the fun, and to decay gradually both ways as the di¬
ftance from him increafes. And the fame is to be uu-
dei-ftood of light tranfmitted through fpherical hail-
ftones : and if the hail be a little flatted, as it often
is, the tranfmitted light may be fo ftrong, at a little
lefs ciftance than that of 26 degrees, as to form a halo
about the fun or moon ; which halo, as often as the
coronas by the tranfmifilon of light through aqueous Inil-ftones are duly figured, may be coloured, and then
vapours, where it fuffers two refractions, without any
in;ermediate refleftion. He (hows that light which
■ comes to the eye, after being refradted in this man¬
ner, will be chiefly that which falls upon the drop
nearly perpendicular ;. becaufe more rays fall upon
airy given quantity of furface in that iituation, fewer
of them are reflected with fmall degrees of obliquity,
and they are not fo much fcattered after refradtion.
The red will always be outermoft in thefe coronas,
as confifting of rays which fuffer the leaft refradtion.
And whereas he had feen, when the clouds were dri¬
ven brifldy by the wind, halos round the moon, vary¬
ing frequently in their diameter, being fometimes of
two, fometimes of three, and fometimes of four de¬
grees ; fometimes alfo being coloured, fometimes only
white, and fometimes difappearing entirely ; he con¬
cluded that all thefe variations arofe from the differ¬
ent thicknefs of the clouds, through which fometimes
more and fometimes lefs light was tranfmitted. He
ftappofed, alfo, that the light which formed them
might fometimes be reflefted, and at other times re-
fradted. As to thofe coronas which confift of two or¬
ders of colours, he imagined that they were produced
by fmall pieces of fnow, which when they begin to
diffolve, form figures which are a little convex towards
their extremities. Sometimes, alfo, the fnow will be
melted in different fhapes; and in this cafe, the co¬
lours of feveral halos will be intermixed and confufed ;
and fuch, he fays, he had fometimes obferved round
the fun.
M. Mariotte then proceeds to explain the larger co¬
ronas, namely thofe that are about 45 degrees in dia¬
meter, and for this purpofe he has recourfe to equi¬
angular prifms of ice, in a certain pofition with re-
fpedt to the fun ; and he takes pains to trace the pro-
grefs of the rays of light for this purpofe : but this hy-
pothefis is very improbable. In fome cafes he thought
that thefe large coronas were caufed by hail-ftones,
it muft be'red within by the leaft refrangible rays,
and blue without by the moft refrangible ones ; efpe-
cially if the hail-ftones have opaque globule^ of fnow
in their centres to intercept the light within the halo,,
as Mr Huygens lias obferved, and make the infide of
it more diltinftly defined than it would other wife be.
For fueh hail-ftones, though fpherical, by terminating
the light by the fnow, may make a halo red within,,
and colourlefs without, and darker within the red than
without, as halos ufe to be. For of thofe rays which
pafs clofe by the fnow, the red-making ones will be
the lealt refra&ed, and fo come to the eye in the
ftraighteft lines.”
Some, farther thoughts of Sir Ifaac Newton’s on the
fubjeft of halos we find fubjoined to the account of
his experiments oh the colours of thick plates of glafs,
which he conceived to be fimilar to .thofe which are
exhibited by thin ones.. “ As light refiedled by. a lens
quick-filvered on the back fide makes the rings of the
colours above deforibed, fo (he fays) it ought to make.
the like rings in palling through a drop of water. At
the firft reflexion of the rays within the drop, fome
colours ought to be tranfmitted, as in the cafe of a
lens, and others to be reflefted back to the eye. For
inftance, if the diameter of a finall drop or globule of
water be about the jocdth part of an inch, fo that a
red-making ray, in palling through the middle of this
globule, has 250 fits of eafy tranfmiffion within the
globule, and all the red-making rays which are at a
certain diftance from this middle ray round about it
have 249 fits within the globule, and all the like rays
at a certain farther diftance round about it have 248
fits, and all thofe at ascertain farther diftance 247 fits
and fo on, thefe concentric circles of rays, after their
tranfirnflion* falling on a white paper, will make con¬
centric rings of red upon the paper; fuppoling the
light which paffes thrpugh one Tragic globule ftrong
enough to be fenfible, and in like manner the rays of
of a pyramidal figure ; hecaufe after two or three of other colours will make rings of other colours. Sup-
them had been feen about the fun, there fell the fame
day feveral fuch pyramidal hail-ftones. M. Mariotte
explains parhelia by the help of the fame fuppofitions.
See Parhelia.
Sir Ifaac Newton does not appear to have given
any particular attention to the fubjeft of halos, but he
has hinted at his fentiments concerning them occafio-
nally ; by which we perceive that he oonfidered the
larger and lefs variable appearances of this kind as
produced according to the common laws of refraftion,
but that the lefs and more variable appearances de-
pofe now that in a fair day the fun (hould ftiine through
a thin cloud of fuch globules of water or hail, and that
the globules are all of the'lame fize, the fun feen
through this cloud ought to appear furrounded with
the like concentric rings of colours, and the diameter
of the firft ring of red fhould be 7^ degeees, that of the
fecond. io~, that of the third 120 33', and according
as the globules of water are bigger or lefs, the ring
Ihould be lefs or bigger.”
This curious theory our author informs us was con¬
firmed by an ©bfervation which he made in 1692. He
pend upon the fame eaufe with the colours of thin faw by reflexion, in a veffel of ftagnating water, three
plates. halos, crowns, or rings of colours about the fun, like
He concludes his explication of the rainbow with three little rainbows concentric to his body. The co-
2. lours
COR I! 469 J COR
louis of the firft, or innermoft crown, were blue next Corona, among botanifts, the name given by fome Corona,
the fun, red without, and white in the middle, between to the circumference or margin of a radiated com- H , .
the blue and red. Thofe of the fecond crown were pound flower. It correfponds to the radius of Lin- Coronelil'
purple and blue within, and pale red without, and nasus; and is examplified in the flat, tongue-ftiaped v J
green in the middle. And thofe of the third were petals which occupy the margin of the daify or fun-
jwle blue within, and pale red without. Thefe crowns flower.
inclofed one another immediately, fo that their colours Corona Aujlralh, or Meridional'll, Southern Crown,
proceeded in this continual order from the fun out- .a conflellation of tire fouthern hemifphere, vvhofe ftars
ward ; blue, white, red; purple, blue, green, pale in Ptolemy’s catalogue are 13, in the Britifli catalogue
yellow, and red; pale blue, pale red. The diameter 12.
of the fecond'1 crown, meafured from the middle of Corona Borealis, the Northern Crown, or Garland^
the yellow and red on One fide of the fun, to the in aftronomy, a conftellation of the northern hemi-
rniddle of the fame colour on the other lide, was 9-j- fphere, whole ftars in Ptolemy’s catalogue are eight,,
degrees or thereabouts. The diameters of the firft in Tycho’s as many, and in Mr Flamftead’s 21.
and third he had not time to meafure ; but that of the Corona Imperialu, in conchyology, a name given by
firft feemed to be about five or fix degrees, and that fome authors to a hind of voluta, differing from the
of the third about twelve. The like crowns appear other {hells of that family, by having its head orna-
fometimes about the moon : for in the beginning of mentcd with a number of points, farming a fort of
the year 1664, on February igth at night, he faw two crown. See Voluta.
inch crowns about her. The diameter of the firft, CORONAL, in anatomy, the firft future of the
or innermoft, was about three degrees, and that of fkull. See Anatomy, n°i3.
the fecond about five degrees.and a half. Next about CORONALE os, thefame withthe os frontis. See
the moon was a circle of white ; and next about that Anatomy, n0 12.
the inner crown, which was of a bluiflr green within, CORONARY vessels, in anatomy, certain vef--
next the white, and of a yellow and red without; fels which furnilh the fubftance of the heart with>
and next about thefe colours were blue and green on blood.
the infide of the outer crown, and red on the outlide Coronary Arteries, are two arteries fpringing out
of it. of the aorta, before it leaves the pericardium. See
At the fame time there appeared a halo at the di- Anatomy, n° 122, and 123.
ftance of about 22° 35' from the centre of the moon. Coronary Vein, a vein diffufed over the exterior
Itwas elliptical; and its long diameter was perpendi- furface of the heart. See Anatomy, n° 122.
cular to the horizon, verging below fartheft from the Stomachic Coronary, a vein inferted into the trunk-
moon. He was told that the moon has fometimes of the fplenic vein, which, by uniting with the me*
three or more concentric crowns of colours encompaf- fenteric, forms the vena porta, See Anatomy, n° 123.
fing one another next about her body. The'more CORONARI/E, in botany, the 10th order of.
equal the globules of water or ice are to one another, plants in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a natural method,
the more crowns of colours will appear, and the co- Under this name, inftcad of the more obvious one IP
lours will be the more lively. The halo, at the di- bacea, Linnaeus coftedfs a great number of genera, moft
ftance of 22t degrees from the moon, is of another of which furnifh very beautiful garden-flowers, viz. al-
fort. By its being oval, and more remote from the buca, cyanella,i fritillaria, helonias, hyacinthus, hypo-
moon below than above, he concludes that it was xis, lilium, melanthium, ornithogalum, fcilla, tulipa,
made by refradtion in fome kind of hail or fhow floating agave, aletris, aloe, anthericum, afphodelus, bromelia,
in the air in an horizontal pofture, the refrafting angle burmannia, hemerocallis, polianthes, tillandfia, vera *
being about 50 or 60 degrees. Dr Smith, however,, trum, yucca.
makes it fufficiently evident, that the reafon why this CORONATION, the ceremony of invefting with
halo appeared oval, and more remote from the moon, a crown, particularly applied to the crowning of kings,
towards the horizon, is a deception of fight, and the upon their fucceeding to the fovereignty. See Kzng.
fame with that, which makes, the moon appear larger CORONAL (anc. geog.), a town of Boeotia, near
in the horizon. mount Helicon, and the lake Copais, fituated on an
Dr Kotelnihow, having, like Dr Flalley, made very eminence; famous for the defeat of the Athenians
accurate obfervationS to determine the number of pof- and Boeotians by Agefilaus.—Another Coronas of
fible rainbows, confiders the coloured halo which ap- Theflaly; having Narthacium to the eaft, and Lamia
pears about a candle as the fame thing with one of near the Sperchius, to the north, (Ptolemy),
thefe bows which is formed near the body of the fun,. CORONE (anc. geog.), a town of Meffenta, fita-
but which is not vifible on account of his exceffive ated on the fea, giving name to the Sinus Coronasus,
fplendor. - (Piiny): now Golfo di Cor on. Paufanias takes it to
Laftly, M. Mufchenbroeck concludes his account of be the Aepea of Homer; but Strabo Thuria, and Pliny
coronas with obferving, that lame denfity of vapour, Pedafus, now Caron, in the territory of Belvideie, in
or fome thicknefs of the plates of ice, divides the light the Morea. E. Long. 22, Lat. 36. 30.
in its tranfmiffion through the fmall globules of water, CORONELLI (Vincent), a famous geographer,
or their interftices, into itsfeparate colours: but what born at Venice. His fkill in the mathematics having
that denfity was, or what was the fize of the particles brought hiuf to the knowledge of the count d’Eftreer,
which compofed the vapour, he could not preteml to his eminence employed him in making globes for
determine. Louis XIV. With this view Corondli fpeht fi in^
time
COR
/Coroner. ^ time at Paris; and left a great number of globes
there, which are efteemed. In 168^, he was made
C 47° 1
COR
cofmographer to the republic of Venice : and four the franchife, by this death ; and muft certify the
ther it be murder or not, he muft inquire whether Coronet,
any deodand has accrued to the king, or the lord of II
the franchife, by this death : and muft certify the. CorPorl1;
years after, public profefibr of geography. He found¬
ed an academy of cofmography at Venice ; and died
in that city in 1718. He publiihed above 400 geo¬
graphical charts, an abridgement of cofmography, fe-
veral books on geography, and other works.
CORONER (coronator), an ancient officer in Eng-
whole of this inqufition to the court of king’s-bench,
or the next affixes. Another branch of his office is to
inquire concerning fhipwrecks; and certify whether ,
wreck t>r not, and who is in poffiffion of the goods.
Concerning treafure-trove, he is alfo to inquire con¬
cerning the finders, and where it is, and whether any
 1 • _ r j  1 , '
land, fo called becaufe he hath principally to do with one be fufpe&ed of having found and concealed a
pleas of the crown, or fuch wherein the king is more treafure ; “ and that may well be perceived (faith the
‘mmediately concerned. And in this light, the lord old ftatute of Edw. I.), where one liveth riotoufly,
chief juftice of the king’s bench is the principal coro¬
ner in the kingdom; and may, if he pleafes, exercife
the jurifdidtion of a coroner in any part of the realm.
But there are alfo particular coroners for every county
of England ; ufually four, butfometimes fix, and fome-
times fewer. Tms officer ss of equal authority with
haunting taverns, and hath done fo of long time 5”
whereupon he might be attached and held to bail up¬
on this fufpicion only.
The minifterial office of the coroner is only as the
ffieriff’s fubftitute. For when juft exception can be
taken to the Iheriff, for fufpicion of partiality (as that
the ffieriff; and was ordained, together with him, to he is interefted in the fuit, or of kindred to either
keep the peace ,when the earls gave up the wardfhip plaintiff or defendant), the procefs muft then be a-
of the county. warded to the coroner, inltead of the Iheriff, for exe-
He is chofen by all the freeholders of the county cution of the king’s writs,
court; and by the ftatute of Weftminfter 1. it was e- CORONET. See Crown.
nadted, that none but lawful and difcreet knights fhould Coronet, or cornet, of a horfe, the loweft part
be chofen: but it feems now fufficient if a man have of the paftern, which runs round the coffin, and is di¬
lands enough to be made a knight, whether he be really ftinguiffied by the hair joining and covering the upper
knighted or not: for the coroner ought to have an
eftate fufficient to maintain the dignity of his office,
and anfwer any fines that may be made upon him for
part of the hoof.
CORONILLA, jointed podded Colute a: A genus
of the decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs
his miibehaviour; and, if he hath not enough to an- of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
u. ~ -u     jzd order, Papilionacea. The calyx is bilabiated, with
two fegments above coalited ; the vexillum fcarce any
fwer, his fine fhall be levied on the county, as a pu-
nirtiment for eledting an infufficient officer. Now,
indeed, through the culpable negledt of gentlemen of longer than the alas; the legumen much contradted be-
property, this office has been fuffered to fall into dif- tween the feeds. To this genus Linnasus alfo joins
repute, and get into low and indigent hands ; fo that the emerus, or fcorpion fena; though Mr Miller makes
although formerly no coroners would be paid for fer-
ving their country, and they were by the aforefaid
ftatute of Weftminfter 1. exprefsly forbidden to take
a reward under pain of great forfeiture to the king ;
yet for many years paft they have only defired to be
chofen for the fake of their perquifites ; being allow¬
ed fees for their attendance by the ftatute 3 Hen. VII.
c. 1. which Sir Edward Coke complains of heavily,
though fince his time thofe fees have been much en¬
larged.
The coroner is chofen for life; but may be removed,
it a dilliridt fpecies. There are 11 fpecies, all of them
plants of confiderable beauty, with very bright yellow
flowers. All of them, however, are rather too ten¬
der for this climate, except the emerus. This fpecies
rifes with a ftirubby ftem, branching numeroufly fix or
eight feet high, clofely garniflied with winged leaves
of three pair of lobes, terminated by an odd one;
and, at the fides of the branches, numerous long flower-
ftalks, each fupporting two or three large yellow
flowers of the papilionaceous kind, fucceeded by long-
iflr pods; it is eafily propagated by feeds, and like-
cither by being made iheriff or chofen verderor, which wife by layers or cuttings. The leaves of this plant are
are offices incompatible with the other; and by the efteemed laxative, and ufed as a fubftitute for common
ftatute 25 Geo. II. c. 29. extortion, negledt, or mifbe- fena in fome parts of Europe. A dye is procured by
1—:  ,ir« vw.„,t fermentation from the leaves, like that of indigo.
CORONOID, and Condyloid, proceffes. See
Anatomy, n°26.
CORPORA cavernosa, in anatomy, two fpon-
haviour, are alfo made caufes of removal.
The office and power of a coroner are alfo, like
thofe of the iheriff, either judicial or minifterial; but
principally judicial. This is in great meafure afcer-
tained by ftatute 4 Edw. I. De officio coronatoris; and gious bodies, called alfo corpora nervofa and corpus
confifts, firft, in inquiring, when anyperfon is flain, or fpongiofum. See Anatomy, p. 738, col. 2.
dies fuddenly, or in prifon, concerning the manner of Corpora Pyramidalia, are two protuberances of the
his death. And this muft be fuper vifum corporis ; for under part of the cerebellum, about an inch long ; fo
if the body is not found, the coroner cannot fit. He called from their refemblance to a pyramid. See A-
muft alfo fit at the very place where the death hap- natomy, n° 134.
pened. And his inquiry is made by a jury from four, Corpora Striata. See Anatomy, p. 758, col. t.
five, or fix of the neighbouring towns, over whom he CORPORAL, an inferior officer under a fergeant,
is to prefide. If any be found guilty by this inqueft in a company of foot, who has charge over one of the
of murder, he is to commit to prifon for farther trial, divifions, places and relieves centinels, and keeps good
and is alfo to inquire concerning their lands, goods, order in the corps de garde: he alfo receives the
and chattels, which are forfeited thereby: but whe- word from the inferior rounds, which paffes by his
corps
COR [ 471 T COR
Corporal, corps de garde. This officer carries a fufee, and is
Corpora- comnionly an old foldier: there are generally three
. tlon' , corporals in each company. t.
* " ' Corporal of a Ship of War, an officer under the ma¬
tter at arms, employed to teach the officers the ex-
ercife of fmall arms, or of mufketry ; to attend at the
gang-way, on entering ports, and obferve that no fpi-
rituous liquors are brought into the fhip, unlefs by ex-
prefs leave from the officers. He is alfo to extinguifh
the fire and candles at eight o’clock in winter and
nine in fummer, when the evening gun is fired ; and
to walk frequently down in the lower decks in his
watch, to fee that there are no lights but fuch as are
under the charge of proper centinels.
Corporal (Corporale), is alfo an ancient church-
term, fignifying the facred linen fpread under the cha¬
lice in the eucharift and mafs, to receive the fragments
of the bread, if any chance to fall. Some fay, it was
pope Eufebius who firft enjoined the ufe of the corpo¬
ral ; others afcribe it to St Silvefter. It was the cuf-
tom to carry corporals, with fame folemnity, to fires,
and to heave them againft the flames, in order to ex¬
tinguifh them. Philip de Comines fays, the pope
made Louis XI. a prefent of the corporate, whereon
my lord St Peter fung mafs.
CORPORATION, a body politic or incorporate,
fo called, becaufe the perfons or members are joined
into one body, and are qualified to take, grant, &c.
Of corporations there is a great variety fubfifling,
for the advancement of religion, of learning, and of
commerce; in order to preferve entire and for ever
thofe rights and immunities, which, if they were
granted only to thofe individuals of which the body
corporate is compofed, would upon their death be ut¬
terly loft and extindh To fhow the advantages of
thefe incorporations, let us confider the cafe of a col¬
lege in either of our univerfities, founded adJludtndum
et orandum, for the encouragement and fupport of re¬
ligion and learning. If this was a mere voluntary af-
fembly, the individuals which compofe it might in¬
deed read, pray, ftudy, and perform fcholaftic exer-
cifes together, fo long as they could agree to do fo:
but they could neither frame, nor receive, any laws or
rules of their conduft ; none at leafl which would
have any binding force, for want of a coercive power
to create a fufficient obligation. Neither could they
be capable of retaining any privileges or immunities:
for, if fuch privileges be attacked, which of all this
unconnedted afiembly has the right or ability to de¬
fend them ? And, when they are difperfed by death
or otherwife, how (hall they transfer thefe advanta¬
ges to another fet of ftudents, equally unconnedted as
- themfelves? So alfo, with regard to holding eftates
or other property, if land be granted for the purpofes
of religion or learning to 20 individuals not incorpo¬
rated, there is no legal way of continuing the pro¬
perty to any other perfons for the fame purpofes, but
by endlefs conveyances from one to the other, as of¬
ten as the hands are changed. But when they are
confolidated and united into a corporation, they and
their fucceffors are then confidered as one perfon in
law : as one perfon, they have one will, which is col-
ledted from the fenfe of the majority of the indivi¬
duals : this one will may eftablifh rules and orders for
the regulation of the whole,, which are a fort of mu¬
nicipal laws of this little republic; or rules and fta- Corpora-
tutes may be prefcribed to it at its creation, which are tlQn~
then in the place of natural laws: the privileges and
immunities, the eftates and pofieffions, of the corpo- Comment,
ration, when once vetted in them, will be for ever
vetted, without any new conveyance to new fuccef-
fions; for all the individual members that have exift-
ed from the foundation to the prefent time, or that
ftiall ever hereafter exift, are but one perfon in law,
a perfon that never dies : in like manner as the river
Thames is ftill the fame river, though the parts which
compofe it are changing every inttant.
The honour of originally inventing thefe political
conftitutions entirely belongs to the Romans. They
were introduced, as Plutarch fays, by N-uma; who
finding, upon his acceflion, the city torn to pieces by
the two rival fa&ions of Sabines and Romansy thought
it a prudent and politic meahwe to fubdivide thefe
two into many fmaller ones, by inftituting feparate
focieties of every manual trade and profelfion. They
Were afterwards much confidered by the civil law, in
which they were called univerfttates, as forming one;
whole out of many individuals; or collegia, from be-
ing gathered together : they were adopted alfo by the
canon law, for the maintenance of ecclefiaftical diffir-
pline ; and from them ourj fpiritual corporations are
derived. But our laws have confiderably refined and
improved upon the invention, according to the ufual
genius of the Englilh nation : particularly with regard'
to foie corporations, confifting of one perfon only, of
which the Roman lawyers had no notion; their maxinv
being that “ tres faciunt collegiumthough they
held, that if a corporation, originally confitting of
three perfons, be reduced to one, “ fi univerfitas ad
unum redit,” it may ftill fubfift as a corporation, “ et
ftet nomen univerfitatis.”
As to the feveral forts of corporations, the firft di-
vifion of them is into aggregate and foie. Corporations
aggregate confift of many perfons united together into
one fociety, and are kept up by a perpetual fuccdfion
of members, fo as to continue for ever : of which kind
are the mayor and commonalty of a city, the head and
fellows of a college, the dean and chapter of a cathe¬
dral church. Corporations foie confift of one perfon
only and his fucceflbrs, in fbme particular ftation, who
are incorporated by law, in order to give them fome
legal capacities “and advantages, particularly that of
perpetuity, which in their natural perfons they could
not have had. In this fenfe the king is a foie corpora¬
tion : fe is a bifliop : fo are fome deans and prebenda¬
ries, dittinft from their feveral chapters: and fo is every
parfon and vicar. And the necdfity, or at leaft ufe,
of this inftitution will be very apparent, if we confider
the cafe of a parfon of a church.. At the original en¬
dowment of parifti-churches, the freehold of the church,
the church-yard, the parfonage-houfe, the glebe, and
the tithes of the parilh, were vetted in the then par¬
fon by the bounty of the donor, as a temporal recom-
pence to him for his fpiritual care of the inhabitants,
and with intent that the fame emoluments (hould ever
afterwards continue as a recompence for the fame care.
But how was this to be effefted ? The freehold was
vetted in the parfon ; and, if we fuppofe it vetted in
his natural capacity, on his death it might defcend to
his heir, and would be liable to his debts and incum¬
brances a
COR [ 472 1 C O R
Corpora- brances : or at belt the heir might be compellable, at
, tl0a~ fame trouble and exper.ce, to convey thefe rights to
ElacW t^e fucceed’ng incumbent. The law therefore has wife-
■Covmcnt ^7 ordained, that the parfon, quatenus parfon, (hall ne¬
ver die, any more than the king ; by making him and
his fucceiTors a corporation. By which means all the
original rights of the parfonage are preferved entire to
the fucceffbr : for the prefent incumbent, and his pre-
deceffor who lived feven centuries ago, are in law one
and the fame perfon ; and what was given to the one
was given to the other alfo.
Another divifion of corporations, either foie or ag¬
gregate, is into ecclefiaftical and lay. Ecclefiaftical cor¬
porations are where the members that compofe it are
entirely fpiritual perfons; fuch as bilhops ; certain deans
and prebendaries ; all archdeacons, parfons, and vicars ;
which are foie corporations: deans and chapters at
prefent, and formerly prior and convent, abbot and
monks, and the like, bodies aggregate. Thefe are
ere&ed for the furtherance of religion, and perpetu¬
ating the rights of the church.—Lay corporations are
of two forts, civil and eleemofynary. The civil are fuch
as are erected for a variety of temporal purpofes. The
king, for inflance, is made a corporation to prevent in
general the poffibility of an interregnum or vacancy of
the throne, and to preferve the poffeffions of the crown
entire ; for, immediately upon the demife of one king,
his fucceffor is in full poffeffion of the regal rights and
dignity. Other lay corporations are eredfed for the
good government of a town or particular diftrift, as a
mayor and commonalty, bailiff and burgeffes, or the
like : fome for the advancement and regulation of ma-
mifaftures and commerce; as the trading companies
of London and other towns : and fome for the better
carrying on of divers fpecial purpofes ; as church-war¬
dens, for confervation of the goods of the parifh ; the
college of phyficians and company of furgeons in Lon¬
don, for the improvement of the medical fcience 5 the
royal fociety for the advancement of natural know¬
ledge ; and the fociety of antiquarians for promoting
the ftudy of antiquities. The eleemofynary fort are
fuch as are conflituted for the perpetual diftribution of
the free alms, or bounty, of the founder of them to
fuch perfons as he has dire&ed. Of this kind are all
hofpitals for the maintenance of the poor, fick, and
impotent; and all colleges, both in our univerfities and
.■(rut of them : which colleges are founded for two pur¬
pofes: l. For the promotion of piety and learning by
proper regulations and ordinances. 2. For imparting
affiftance to the members of -thofe bodies, in order to
enable them to profecute their devotion and ftudies
with greater eafe and affiduity. And all thefe elee-
mofynavy corporations are, ftridlly fpeaking, lay, and
not ecclefiaftical, even though compofed of ecclefialti-
cal perfons, and although they in fome things partake
of the nature, privileges, and reftri&ions of ecclefi-
xtftical bodies.
Having thus marfhalled the feveral fpecies of cor¬
porations, let us next proceed to confider, x. How
corporations in general may be created. 2. What are
their powers, capacities, and incapacities. And, 3. How
they may be diflblved.
I. Corporations, by the civil law,- feem to have
been created by the mere aft and voluntary afibcia-
Nc 92.
tion of their members ; provided fuch convention was Corpora
not contrary to law, for then it was iUkitum collegium. tlbn-
It does not appear that the prince’s,, confent was ne-
cdfary to be aftually given to the foundation of them ; cement
but meiely that the original founders of thefe volun- * i
tary and friendly focieties (for they were little more
than fuch ) fhould not eftablifli any meetings in oppo-
filion to the laws of the ftate.
But in England the king’s confent is abfolutely ne-
ceffary to the ereftion of any corporation, either im¬
pliedly or exprefsly given. The king’s implied con¬
fent is to be found in corporations which exift by force
of the common law, to which our former kings are
fuppofed to have given their concurrence ; common
law being nothing elfe but cuftom, arifing from the
univerfal agreement of the whole community. Of
this fort are the king himfelf, all bifhops, parfons, vi¬
cars, church-wardens, and fome others ; who by com¬
mon law have ever been held (as far as our books can
fhow us) to have been corporations, virlute officii: and
this incorporation is fo infeparably annexed to their
offices, that we cannot frame a complete legal idea of
any of thefe perfons, but we muft alfo have an idea of
a corporation, capable to tranfmit his rights to his fuc-
ceffors, at the fame time. Another method of impli¬
cation, whereby the king’s confent is prefumed, is as
to all corporations by prefertption, fuch as the city of
London, and many others, which have exified as cor¬
porations, time whereof the memory of man runneth
out to the contrary ; and therefore are looked upon in
law to be well created. For though the members
thereof can ffiow no legal charter of incorporation,
yet in cafes of fuch high antiquity the law pre-fumes
there once was one ; and that by the variety of acci¬
dents, which a length of time may produce, the char¬
ter is loft or deftroyed. The methods by which the
king’s confent is exprefsly given, are either by aft -of
parliament or charter. By aft of parliament, of which
the royal affent is a neceflary ingredient, corporations
may undoubtedly be created : but it is obfervable, that
moft of thofe ftatutes, which are ufually cited as ha¬
ving created corporations, do either confirm fuch as
have been before, created by the king ; as in the
cafe of the college of phyficians, erefted by charter
10 Hen. VIII. which charter was afterwards confirm
ed in parliament; or, they permit the king to ereft a
corporation in futuro with fuch and fuch powers; as is
the cafe of the bank of England, and the fociety of the
Britifh fiffiery. So that the immediate creative aft is
ufually performed by the king alone, in virtue of his
royal prerogative.
All the other methods therefore whereby corpora¬
tions exift, by common law, by prefeription, and by
aft of parliament, are for. the moft part reducible to
this of the king’s letters patent, or charter ef incor¬
poration. The king’s creation may be performed by
the words creamus, erigimus, fundamus, incorporamus, or
the like. Nay it is held, that if the king grants to a
fet of men to have gildeem mercatoriam, “ a mercantile
meeting or aflembly,” this is alone fufficient to incor¬
porate and eftabliih them for ever.
The king (it is faid) may grant to a fubjeft the
power of erefting corporations, though the contrary
was formerly held : that is, he may permit the fub-
jeft
COR l 473 1 COR
Corpora- je& to name the perfons and powers of the corporation
^on' at his pleafure ; but it is really the king that ere&s,
v and the fubjeft is but the iriftrument; for though none
Comment ^ut t^e ^'nS can ma^e a corporation, yet qmfactt per
alium, facit per fe. In this manner the chancellor of
the univerfity of Oxford has power by charter to ereft
corporations ; and has actually often exerted it in the
ereftion of feveral matriculated companies, now fub*
filling, of tradefmen fubfervient to the Undents.
When a corporation is ere&ed, a name mull be gi¬
ven to it; and by that name alone it muft fue and be
fued, and do all legal a£ts.'
II. After a corporation is fo formed and named, it
acquires many powers and rights, which we are next
to confider. Some of thefe. are necelfarily and infe-
parably incident to every corporation ; which incidents,
as foon as a corporation is duly erefted, are tacitly an¬
nexed of courfe. As, i. To have perpetual fuccef-
fion. This is the very end of its incorporation: for
there cannot be a fucceflion for ever without an incor¬
poration ; and therefore all aggregate cpfporations
have a power neceflarily implied of ele&ing members
in the room of fuch as go off. 2. To fue or be fued,
implead or be impleaded, grant or receive, by its cor¬
porate name, and do all other afts as natural perfons
may. 3. To purchafe lands, and hold them, for the
benefit of themfelves and their fuccelfors: which two
are confequential to the former. 4. To have a com¬
mon feal. For a corporation, being an invifible body,
cannot manifeft its intentions by any perfonal aft or
oral difcourfe : it otherwife afts and fpeaks only by
its common feal. For though the particular members
may exprefs their private eonfents to any aft, by words,
Or fignihg their names, yet this does not bind the cor¬
poration ; it is the fixing of the feal, and that only,
which unites the feveral affents of the individuals who
compofe the community, and makes one joint affent
of the whole. 5. To make by-laws or private ftatutes
for the better government of the corporation ; which
are binding upon themfelves, unlefs contrary to the
laws of the land, and then they are void. But no
trading company is with us allowed to make by-laws
which may affeft the king's prerogative or the com¬
mon profit of the people, under penalty of L. 40, un¬
lefs they be approved by the chancellor, treafurer,
and chief juftices, or the judges of affize in their cir-
. cuits: and even though they be fo approved, {till, if
contrary to law, they are void. Thefe five powers
are infeparably incident to every corporation, at leaft
to every corporation aggregate : for two of them,
though they may be praftifed, yet are very unnecef-
fary to a corporation foie ; viz. to have a corporate
feal to teftify his foie affent, and to make ftatutes for
the regulation of his own conduft.
Corporations have a capacity to purchafe lands for
themfelves and fucceflbrs; but they are excepted out
of the ftatute of wills; fo that no devife of lands to a
corporation by will is good ; 'except for charitable ufes,
by ftatute 4 t Eliz. c. 4. which exception is again great¬
ly narrowed by the ftatute 9 Geo. II. c. 36. And alfo,
by a great variety of ftatutes, their privilege even of
purchafing from any living granter is much abridged ;
fo that now a corporation, either ecclefiaftical or lay,
muft have a licence from the king to purchafe, befom
they can exert that capacity which is veiled in than
Vol. .V. Part II.
by the common law : nor is even this in all cafes fuf- Corpora-.
ficient. Thefe ftatutes are generally called the ftatutes. tl0n‘ f
of mortmain. See Mortmain. B/.in
The general duties of all bodies politic, confidered Comment-.
in their corporate capacity, may, like thofe of natural
perfons, be reduced to this fingle one; that of afting
up to the end or defign, whatever it be, for which
they were created by their founder.
III. How corporations may be diflblved. Any par¬
ticular member may be disfranchifed, or lofe his place
in the corporation, by afting contrary to the laws of
the fociety, or the laws of the land: or he may refign
it by his own voluntary aft. But the body politic may
alfo itfelf be diflblved in feveral ways; which diffblu-
tion is the civil death of the corporation : and in this
cafe their lands and tenements (hall revert to the per-
fon, or his heirs, who granted them to the corpora¬
tion : for the law doth annex -a condition to every
fuch grant, that if the corporation be diflblved, the
granter ftiall have the lands again, becaufe the caufe
of the grant faileth. The grant is indeed only during
the life of the corporation ; which may endure for
ever: but when that life is determined by the diflb-
lution of the body politic, the granter takes it back by
reverfion, as in the cafe of every other grant for life.
The debts of a corporation, either to or from it, are
totally extinguilhed by its diflblution ; fo that the
members thereof cannot recover, or be charged with
them, in their natural capacities: agreeable to that
maxim of the civil law, Si quid univerjitati deletur, Jin-
gulis non deletur ; nec, quod debet univerjitas, Jinguli de¬
bent.
A corporation may be diflblved, 1. By aft of par¬
liament, which is boundleis in its operations. 2 By
the natural death of all its members, in cafes of an ag¬
gregate corporation. 3. Byfurrender of its franchifes
into the hands of the king, which is a kind of fuicide.
4. By forfeiture of its charter, through negligence or
abufe of its franchifes ; in which cafe the law judges
that the body politic has broken the condition upon
which it was incorporated, and thereupon the incor¬
poration is void. And the regular courfe is to bring
an information in nature of a writ of quo <warrantoi
to inquire by what warrant the members now exer*
cife their corporate power, having forfeited it by fuch
and fuch .proceedings. The exertign of this aft of
law, for the purpofes of the ftate, in the reigns of king
Charles and king James II. particularly by feizing the
charter of the city of London, gave great and juft of¬
fence ; though perhaps, in ftriftnefs of law, the pro¬
ceedings in moft of them were fufficiently regular : but
the judgment againft that of London was reverfed by
aft of parliament after the revolution ; and by the fame
ftatute it is enafted, that the franchifes of the city of
London fliall never more be forfeited for any caufe
wl.atfoever. And becaufe by the common law cor¬
porations were difiblved, in cafe the mayor or head
officer was not duly elefted on the day appointed in the
charter or eftabliftied by prefcription, it is now pro¬
vided, that for the future no corporation (hall be diffbl-
ved upon that account; and ample direftions ar<. gi¬
ven for appointing a new officer, in cafe there be no
eleftion, or a void one, made upon the charter or pre-
fcriptive day.
Corporation is that which prevents any perfon
3 O from
COR [ 474 ] COR
Corporeal from being legally elected into any office relating to
c the government of any city or corporation, unlefs
t - ^ . within a twelvemonth before he has received the facra-
ment of the Lord’s flipper, according to the rites of
the church of England ; and which enjoins him to take
the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy when he takes
the oath of office; otherwife his election is void.
CORPOREAL, thofe qualities which denominate
a body. See Incorporeal.
CORPOREITY, the quality of that which is cor¬
poreal, or his body ; or that which conilitutes or de¬
nominates it fuch.—The corporeity of God was the
capital error of the Anthropomorphites. Some authors
reproach. Tertullian with admitting a corporeity in the
Deity; but it is manifeft, by body he means no more
than JulJlance. — The Mahometans reproach the Sa¬
maritans at this day, with a belief of the corporeity of
Gocb Many of the ancients believed the corporeity of
angels.
CORPSE, a dead body.
If any one, in taking up a dead body, fteals the
fhrowd, or other apparel, it will be felony. Stealing
only the corpfe itfelf is not felony ; but it is puniihable
as a mifdemeanor by indi&ment at common law.
CORPS, in archite&ure, is a term borrowed from
the French, fignifying any part that projefts or ad¬
vances beyond the naked of a wall; and which ferves
as a ground for feme decoration or the like.
Corps de Bataille, is the main body of 'an army drawn
up for battle.
Corps de Garde, a pod in an army, fometimes under
covert, fometimes in the open air, to receive a body
ef foldiery, who are relieved from time to time, and
are to watch in their turns, for the fecurity of a quar¬
ter, a catnp, ftation, &c.—The word is alfo ufed for
the men who watch therein. It is ufual to have, befide
the great, a little corps de garde, at 3'good dittance
before the lines; to be the more readily advertifed of
the approach of the enemy.
CORPULENCY, the date of a perfon too much
loaded with defh or fat.
Corpulency is the occafion of various difeafes, and
particularly the apoplexy. It was held infamous among
the ancient Lacedazmonians.
Sennertus mentions a man that weighed 600 pounds,
and a maid 36 years of age who weighed 450. Bright
of Malden, who died at the age of 29 years in lyyo,
weighed 616 pounds. Chiapin Vitelli, Marquis of Ce-
fona, a noted Spaniih general in his time, from an
exceffive corpulency, is laid to have reduced him-
felf, by drinking of vinegar, to fuch a degree of lean-
nefs, that he could fold his flein feveral times round
him.
Cadile foap, in the form of a bolus, an ele&uary,
pills, or difiblved in a gill or more foft water, from one
to four drachms, taken at bed-time, is drongly recom¬
mended with a view of reducing corpulency, in a dif-
®ourfe on its nature, caufes, and cure, by Malcolm Fle-
myng, M. D. Lend. 1760. • See Medic in £-/»</«<•.
CORPUS, in anatomy, is applied to feveral parts
of the animal drudlure ; as corpus callofum, corpus ca-
vernofum. See. See Anatomy, p. 739,and p. 740.
C orpus is alfo ufed in matters of learning, for fe¬
veral works of the fame nature colledted and bound to¬
gether..
Gratian made a collection of the canons of the Corpus
church, called corpus canonum. The corpus of the civil II
law is compofed of the diged, code, and inditutes.Curreiaisn-
We have alfo a corpus of the Greek poets; and another
of the Latin poets.
Corpus Chrijli, afedival of the church of England,
kept on the next Thurfday after Trinity-funday, in-
dituted in honour of the-eucharid ; to which alfo one
of the colleges in Oxford is dedicated.
CORPUSCLE, in Phyfics, a minute particle, or
phyfical atom, being fuch as a natural body is made up
of. By this word is not meant the elementary particles,
nor the hypodatical principles of chemids ; but fuch
particles, whether of a fimple or compound nature,
whofe parts will not be diflolved nor diffipated by or¬
dinary degrees of heat.
CORPUSCULAR philosophy, that way of phi-
lofophifing which endeavours to explain things, and to
account for the phenomena of nature; by the motion,
figure, red, pefition, &c. of the cor.pufcles, or the mi¬
nute particles of matter.
Mr Boyle fums up the chief principles of the corpuf-
cular hypothelis, which now flourirties under the me¬
chanical philofophy in thefe particulars :
1. They fuppofe that there is but one catholic or
univerfal matter, which is an extended, impenetrable,
and divifible fubdance, common to all bodies, and ca¬
pable of all forms. 2. That this matter, in order to
form the vad variety of natural bodies, mud have mo¬
tion in fome or all its affignable parts ; and that this
motion was given to matter by God the Creator of all
things, and has all manner ofdireftions and tendencies.
3. Matter mud alfo be a&uaily divided into parts, and
each of thefe primitive particles, fragments, or atoms
of matter, mud have its proper magnitude or fize,
as alfo its peculiar figure or diape. 4. They fup¬
pofe alfo, that thefe differently fized and (haped par-
tjcles may have as different orders and pofitions, where¬
of great variety may arife in the compofition of bo¬
dies.
CORRADINI de Sezza (Peter Marcellinus), a
learned civilian and cardinal, born at Sezza, in 1658,
acquired the edeem and confidence of Clement XI.
and died at Rome in 1743. He was the author of a
learned and curious work entitled “ Verus Latium pro-
fanum & facrum,” 2 vols folio; and a hidory of Sez¬
za, in 410.
CORRADO (Sebadian), an Italian grammarian o£
the 16th century, taught the Greek and Latin tongues
at Reggio, where he formed an academy of polite li¬
terature; and at length removed to Bologna, in or¬
der to be profefibr of thofe languages. He wrote fe¬
veral works, the mod edeemed of which are, “ Qj^e-
ftura in qua Ciceronis Vita refertur,” an excellent
performance; and, “ de Lingua Latina.” He died in
155*6.
CORRECTION, in printing, the a& of re¬
trenching the faults in a work ; or the reading which
the corre&or gives the fird proofs, to point out and
amend the faults, to be re&ified by the compofitor.
The corrections- are placed on the margin of each,
page, right againd the line where the faults are found.
There are different characters ufed to exprefs different
corrections, as D or 6, dele, for any thing to be effa¬
ced or left out. When any thing is to be inferted,
the.
COR [ 475 ] COR
Corredlor the place is marked in the line with a caret A» and the
li infertion added in the margin. When a word, fyl-
Ccrn ive . jaye> g£C> jg altered, it is- erafed out of the
• proof, and that to be put in its room written in the
margin ; always obferving, if there be feveral miftakes
• in the fame line, that the corre&ions in the margin be
feparated by little bars, or ftrokes, | . If a fpace.be
omitted, its place is marked with a caret, and the
margin with If a {pace be wrong placed, as in
the middle of a word, the two parts are connefted
with a cu rve, and the fame chara&er put in the
margin. If a letter be inverted, it is expreffed on the
margin with If any thing be tranfpofed, it is
marked thus: The fhorteft \are the\f°^leA bejl; for the
/hortefl follies are the bejl; and in the margin is added tr.
in a circle. If Homan charadters are to be changed for
Italic, or vice verfa, a line is drawn under them thus,
and Roman or Italic added in the margin ; if to capi¬
tals, a double line. If a word or fentence is entirely
omitted, the place is marked with a caret, and in the
margin is inferted the word out. If the letters of
a word ftand too far afunder, a line is drawn under
them, and in the margin is put a crooked line or
hook, thus  
CORRECTOR, in general, denotes fomething that
mends the faults or bad qualities of others.
Corrector of the Staple, a clerk belonging to the
ftaple, whofe bufinefs is to write down and record the
bargains thst merchants make there.
Corrector, in medicine or pharmacy, an ingre¬
dient in a compofition, which guards againft or abates
the force of another.
CORREGIDOR, the name of an officer of ju-
ftice in Spain, and countries fubjeft to the Spanifh
government. He is the chief judge of a town or
province.
CORREGGIO. See Allegri.
CORRELATIVE, fomething oppofed to another
in a certain relation. Thus, father and fon are cor¬
relatives. Light and darknefs, motion and reft, are
correlative and oppofite terms.
CORRIGIOLA, in botany: A genus of the trigy-
( nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ;
mnd in the natural method ranking under the 54th or¬
der, Mifcellanetc. The calxy is pentaphyllous ;^the pe¬
tals five; and one three-cornered feed.
CORROBORANTS, or Corroborative Medi¬
cines. See Strengtheners.
CORROSION, in a general fenfe, the aftion of
gnawing away, by degrees, the continuity of the parts
of bodies.
Corrosion, in chemiftry, an a&ion of bodies, by
means of proper menftruums, that produces new com¬
binations, and a change of their form, without convert¬
ing them to fluidity.
CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE MERCURY. SeeCHE-
MiSTRY-/«r/i?;ic.
CORRUGATOR muscle. See Anatomy, Ta¬
ble of the Mufcles.
CORROSIVES, in furgery, are medicines which
corrode whatever part of the body they are applied to:
fuch are burnt alum, white precipitate of mercury,
white vitriol, red precipitate of mercury, butter of an¬
timony, lapis inferealis, &c.
CORRUPTICOLdE, a fe& who rofe out of the Corruptt-
Monophyfites in Egypt about the year 519, under COi;E»
their chief Severus, the pretended patriarch of Alex- tion.P
andria.
Their diilinguifhing doftrine, whence they derived
their name, was, that the body of Jefus Chtift was
corruptible; that the fathers had owned it; and that
to deny it was to deny the truth of our Saviour's
paffion.
On the other hand, Julian of Halicarnaflus, another
Eutychian, a refugee, as well as Severus, in Alexan¬
dria, maintained that the body of Jefus Chrifthad been
always incorruptible ; that to fay it was corruptible,
was to make a1 diftin&ion between Jefus Chrift and the
Word, and by confequence to make two natures in Je¬
fus Chrift.
The people of Alexandria were divided between the
two opinions ; and the partifans of Severus were call¬
ed corrupticola, q. d. wor/hippers of fomething cor¬
ruptible : fometimes they were denominated corrup-
tibiles; and the adherents of Julian incorruptibiles or
phantafcfhz. The clergy and fecular powers favoured
the firit; the monks and the people the latter.
CORRUPTION, the deftrudfion, extin&ion, or
at leaft ceflation for a time, of the proper mode of
exiftence of any natural body. See Putrefaction.
Corruption of Blood, in law, one of the confequen-
ces of an attainder ; and is both upwards and down¬
wards ; fo that an attainted perfon can neither inherit
lands or other hereditaments from his anceftors, nor
retain thofe he is already in poffeffion of,-nor tranfmit
them by defeent to any heir; but the fame fhall efeheat
to the lord of'the fee, fubjedt to the king’s fuperior
right of forfeiture; and the perfon attainted ftiall alfo
obltrudf all defeents to his pofterity, wherever they are
obliged to derive a title through him to a remoter an-
ceftor. Se Attainder.
This is one of thofe notions which our laws have tyacljt,
adopted from the feodal conftitmions, at the time o{Comme>tt,
the Norman conqueft ; as appears from its being 'un¬
known in thofe tenures which are indifputably Saxon,
or Gavel kind : wherein, though by treafon, according
to the ancient Saxon laws, the land is forfeited to the
king, yet no corruption of blood, no impediment of
defeents, enfues; and on judgment of mere felony, no
efeheat accrues to the lord. But, by the law of Eng¬
land, derived as above, a man’s blobd is fo univerfally
corrupted by attainder, that his fons can neither inhe¬
rit to him nor to any other anceftor, at leaft on the part
of their attainted father.
This corruption of blood cannot be abfolutely remo¬
ved but by authority of parliament. The king may
exenfe the public punifhment of an offender ; but can¬
not abolifh the private right which has accrued, or may
accrue, to individuals as a confequtnce of the crimi¬
nal’s attainder. He may remit a forfeiture in which
the intereft of the crown is alone concerned ; but he
cannot wipe away the corruption of blood ; for there¬
in a third perfon hath an interett, the lord who claims
by efeheat. I f therefore a man hath a fon, and is at¬
tainted, and afteiwards pardoned by the king; this
fon can never inherit to his father-, or father’s ance¬
ftors ; becaufe his paternal blood, being once thorough¬
ly corrupted by his father’s attainder, muft continue
fo: but if the fon had been born after the pardon, he
3 Q 2 might
COR [ 476 1 COR
Corfalr might Inherit; becaufe, by the pardon, the father is
II made a new man, and may convey hew inheritable
Corfica , blood to his after-born children.
v ' This corruption of blood, thus arifing from feudal
principles, but perhaps extended farther than even
thefe principle's will warrant, has been long looked upon
as a peculiar hardfhip : becaufe the oppreflive parts of
the feudal tenures being now in general abolilhed, it
feems unreafonable to referve one of their moil ine¬
quitable confequences; namely, that the children Ihould
not only be reduced to prefent poverty (which, how¬
ever fevere, is fufficiently jullified upon reafons of pub¬
lic policy), but alfo be laid under future difficulties of
inheritance, on account of the guilt of their anceftors.
And therefore in moft (if not all) of the new felonies
treated by Parliament fince the reign of Henry VIII.
it is declared that they ffiall not extend to any cor¬
ruption of blood : and by the ilatute 7 Anne c. 21.
(the operation of which is poftponed by the ftatute
17 Geo. II. c. 39.) it is enafted, that, after the death
of the late pretender and his fons, no attainder for
treafon ffiall extend to the difinheriting any heir, nor
the prejudice of any perfon, other than the offender
himfelf: which provifions have indeed carried the re¬
medy farther than was required by the hardffiip above
complained of; which is only the future obftru&ion of
defcents, where the pedigree happens to be deduced
through the blood of an attainted anceitor.
CORSAIR, a pirate or perfon who fcours the
feas, efpecially the Mediterranean, with a veffel armed
for war, without commiffion from any prince or power,
to plunder merchant-veffels. The word comes from
the Italian carfare, of corfo, or a curfibus, by reafon
of their courfes, or excurfions—The name is com¬
monly given to the piratical cruifers of Barbary, who
had their rife about the beginning of the 16th cen¬
tury,
A corfair is diftinguiffied from a privateer in this,
that the latter does it under a commiffion, and only
attacks the veffels of-thofe at war with the ftate whence
his commiffion is derived. The puniffiment of a cor¬
fair is to be hanged, without remiffion ; whereas pri¬
vateers are to be treated as prifoners of war. All cor¬
fair veffels are good prizes.
CORSELET, a little cuirafs; or, according to o-
thers, an armour or coat made to cover the whole bo¬
dy, anciently worn by the pike-men, ufually placed in
the front and flanks of the battle, for the better refill¬
ing the enemy’s affaults, and guarding the foldiers pla¬
ced behind them.
CORSICA,(anc.geog.)an ifland fituatedin that part
of the Mediterranean anciently called the Sea of
na, in length from north to fouth 150 miles, and where
broadeft 50, (Pliny). The ancient inhabitants were
the Phocenfes, (Herodotus); from which they remo¬
ved to Maffilia. To them fucceeded the Ligurians
and Hifpani, as appears from the fimilitude of rites
and cuftoms : afterwards two Roman colonies, one by
Marius, the other by Sylla To the fouth it is fe-
parated from Sardinia by a narrow ftrait called , or
Foffa, (Pliny); fixty ftadia or about fevea miles in
breadth, (Strabo). It was famous for its barren
rocks, its woods, and its honey ; which laft was rec¬
koned noxious, from the great plenty of yew-treesj,ac-
cording to Diodorus Siculus and Virgil. Corfi was
the name of the people, (Livy) ; Cyrnaeus, the epi¬
thet, (Virgil).—The ifland ft ill retains its ancient
namzCorfca; fituated between 8 and 10 degrees of
eaft longitude, and between 41 and 43 degrees of
north latitude. It was formerly fubjedl to Genoa;
though the natives for many years difputed their right.
The ifland is now in the hands of the French; and
have lately, in confequence of the revolution in France,
been admitted to a participation of all the rights and
privileges of free citizens.
CORSNED, or Morsel of Execration, a fpe-
cies of trial or purgation * anciently in ufe among us, ’
and which probably arofe from an abufe of revelation
in the dark ages of funerftition. It confided of a piece
of cheefe or bread, about an ounce in weight, which
was confecrated with a form of exorcifm ; defiring of
the Almighty that it might caufe convulfions and pale-
nefs,. and find no paffage if the man was really guil¬
ty; but might turn to health and nouriffiment if ht
was innocent; as the water of jealoufy among the Jews
was, by God’s efpecial appointment, to caufe the belly
to fwell, and the thigh to rot, if the woman was guil¬
ty of adultery. This corfned was then given to the
fufpedled perfon, who at the fame time alfo received
the holy facrament: if indeed the corfned was not, as
fome have fufpefted, the facramental bread itfelf; till
the fubfequent invention of tranfubftantiation prefer-
ved it from profane ufes with a more profound refpeA
than formerly. Our hiftorians afl’ure us, that God¬
win, Earl of Kent, jn the reign of King Edward the
Confeflor, abjuring the death of the king’s brother, at
laft appealed to his corfned, “ per buccellam deglutien-
dam abjuravit,” which ftuck in his throat and killed
him. This cuftom has been long fince gradually abo-
liffied, though the remembrance of it itill fublifts in
certain phrafes of abjuration retained among the com¬
mon people; as, “ I wdll take the facrament upon it;
May this morfel be my laft;” and the like.
CORT (Cornelius), a celebrated engraver, was bora
at Hoorn in Holland in 1536. After having learned
the firft principles of drawing and engraving, he went
to Italy to complete his ftudies, and vilited all the pla¬
ces famous for the works of the great mafters. At
Venice he was courteoufly received by Titian; and en¬
graved feveral plates from the pi&ures of that admi¬
rable painter. He at laft fettled at Rome, where he
died 1578, aged 42. According to Bafan, he was
“ the beft engraver with the burin or graver only that
Holland ever produced. We find in his prints,” adds
he, “ corre&nefs of drawing, and an exquifite tafte.”
He praifes alfo the tafte and lightnefs of touch with
which he engraved landfcapes, and that without the
affiftance of the point. It is no fmall honour to this
artift, that Agoftino Carracci was his fcholar, and imi¬
tated his ftyle of engraving rather than that of any
other mafter. His engravings are veiy nuffierous (151
according to Abbe Marolles), and by no means unr
common.
CORTES of Spain, a term purely Spaniffi, fignit
fying the courts, i. e. the ftates,. or affembly of the
ftates, at Madrid.
Cortes, or Cortez, (Ferdinand), a Spaniffi ger
neral,. famous, for the conqueft of Mexico, and other
victories-
Corfned
See ‘Trial,
COR L 477 ] COR
Cortex viftories over the natives of South America ; but infa-
Cinufa mous ^or' t^ie CIuelties he compiitted upon the van-
ortu a~ , quilhed, without regard to rank, age, or fex. It pro¬
bably was on this account he was but coolly received
on his return to Europe by his royal mafter Charles le
Quint: it is even afferted that the emperor allied him
who he was ? to which Cortez replied; “ I am the
man who have given you more provinces than your an-
ceftors have left you towns.” Died in 1554, aged 63.
See Mexico.
CORTEX, in botany; the rind or coarfe 6ute
bark of plants. The organization of the outer and
inner baiks, which differ principally in the finenefs of
their texture, is particularly explained under the article
Plants.
Wounds of the bark, and its reparations from the
wood, whether naturally or artificially made, are eali-
ly cured, and made to unite again by proper care. If
feitions be made in the rinds of the afh and fycamore
of a fquare figure, three fides cut, and the fourth un¬
cut, and the whole be afterwards bound round with a
pack-thread, it will all unite again, only leaving a fear
in each of the three fides where it was cut. If feveral
parts of the bark of either of thefe trees be cut off, and
entirely feparated from the tree ; fome lhallower, lea¬
ving a part of the bark on, and others deeper, to the
wood itfelf; thefe pieces being again put into their
places, and bound on with pack-thread, will not in¬
deed unite, but a frefh bark will grow in their
places, and thruft them away : but if they be firit
carefully laid on in the exaft direction in which they
originally grew, and then the whole part beyond the
wound on every fide covered with a large plafter of
diachylon, or the like, and this bound over with pack¬
thread to keep all firmly in their places, the pieces of
bark, whether cut off fhallower or deep down to the
very wood of the tree, will firmly unite themfelves to
the places where they originally grew. This cure will
be performed in about three weeks: but the outer rind
of the feparated pieces will not be plump, but fome-
what fhrivelled ; the edges alfo will recede fomewhat
from their original place ; fo that there remains a fort
of fear all round. Thefe experiments are beft made
in the fpring feafon ; for in the autumn and winter,
the fap arifing but weakly, the parts that fhould unite
wither before that is brought about. The fucccfs
of thefe experiments has made fome think that the
whole branch of a tree feparated and bound on again
might unite with the reft. But the experiments that
have been made in the moft favourable manner for fuch
a trial have all proved vain, the branch cut off wither¬
ing always in a few days, however well united and
carefully kept on.
Cortex Peruvianus. See Cinchona.
Cortex W'mteranus. See Winter A.
CORTONA (Pietro da). See Berretini.
Cortona, a very ancient town of Italy, men¬
tioned by many of the Roman hiftorians. It was ori¬
ginally called Cortoriy and lay to the northward of the
lake Thrafymenus. It ftill retains the name of Cor¬
tona. E. Long. 13. o. N. Lat. 43. 15.
CORTONESE (Pietro Palo) See Gobbo.
CORTUSA, bear’s-ear sanicle ; Agenus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentaudria clafs of
plants, and in the natural method ranking under the Corninna
21 ft order, Precite. The corolla is wheel-(haped, with c ^
its throat like an elevated ring ; the capsule unilocular,
oval, and quinquevalved at the top. There are two _/
fpecies, both of them very low, flowery, herbaceous
perennials, crowned by umbels of monopetalous, wheel-
fhaped flowers, of a fine red colour. They are native*
of mountainous rocky parts abroad, fo muft have a dry.
lean foil ; or they may be kept in pots of dry fandy
earth placed in the ftiade, and in fummermuft be duly
watered ; and their propagation here is by flipping the
roots in Oftobef.
CORRUNNA, or Groyne, a port-town of Gal-
licia in Spain, fituated on a fine bay of the Atlantic
ocean, about 32 miles north of Compoftella: W. Long.
9. o. and N. Lat. 43. o.
CORUS, Omer, Homer, or Chomer, in the
Jewifh antiquities, a meafure containing to baths or
75 gallons and 5 pints, as a meafure of things liquid,
and 32 pecks and 1 pint as a meafure for things dry.
The corns or omer was moft commonly a meafure for
things dry ; and the greateft that was ufed among the
Jews. It contained, according to the rabbins, to e-
phahs or 30 fata or feahs. Corns is the moft ufual
term in the hiftorical writers, and omer or chomer a-
mong the prophets.
Cores is alfo ufed in fome of our old writers for
eight bufhels or a quarter ; decern coros tritici, Jive de¬
cern quarteria.
CORUSCATION, a glittering or gleam of light
ifluing from any thing. It is chiefly ufed for a flafh
ef lightning darting from the clouds in time of thun¬
der.
There is a method of producing artificial cqrufca-
tions or fparkling fiery meteors, which will be vifible
not only in the dark but at noon-day, and that from,
twm liquors a&ually cold. The method is this. Fif¬
teen grains of folid phofphorus are to be melted in
about a drachm of water; when this is cold, pour upon
it about two ounces of oil of vitriol; let thefe be
ftiaken together, and they will at firft heat, and after¬
wards they will throw up fiery balls in great number,
which will adhere like fo many- ftars to the fides of
the glafs, and continue burning a confiderable time ;
after this, if a fmall quantity of oil of .turpentine is
poured in, without fhaking the vial, the mixture will
of itfelf take fire, and burn very furioufly. The vef-
lel ftrould be large, and open at the top.
Artificial corufcations may alfo be produced by means
of oil of vitriol and iron, in the following manner.
Take a glafs body capable of holding three quarts;
put into this three ounces of oil of vitriol and twelve
ounces of water; then warming the mixture a little,,
throw in, at feveral times, two ounces, or more, of
clean iron filings: upon this an ebullition and white
vapours will arife : then prefent a lighted candle to
the mouth of the veffel, and the vapour will take fire,,
and afford a bright fulmination or flafti like light¬
ning. Applying the candle in this manner feveral
times, the effeft will always be the fame ; and fome-
times the fire will fill the whole body of the glafs, and
even circulate to the bottom of the liquor; at others,,
it will only reach a little way down its neck. The
great caution to be ufed in making this experiment is;
COR
Corvorant, the making the vapour of a proper heat: for, if too
Corvus. cai(j) few vapours will wife; and, if made too hot,
they will arife too fail, and will only take fire in the
neck of the glafs, without any remarkable corufca-
tion.
CORVORANT, formerly written Cormorant.
See Pelicanus.
CORVUS, the Raven or Crow kind, in ornitho-
[ 478 1
COR
choughs were included: Every hamlet was to provide
crow-nets for ten years; and all the inhabitants were "
obliged at .certain times to alfemble during that fpace
to confult of the proper means for extirpating them.
But though the crow abounds thus in Britain, it is fo
rare in Sweden, that Einuaeus fpeaks of it only as a
bird that he once knew killed there. It lays the fame
number of eggs as the raven, and of the fame colour :■
legy ; a genus of birds of the,order of picse, the di- immediately after deferting their young they go in
ftinguifhing chara&ertftics of which are thefe : The pairs. Both thefe birds are often found white or pied;
beak is convex and cultrated; the noftrils are covered
with briftly feathers; the tongue is forked and carti¬
laginous ; and the feet are of the walking kind. The
fpecies are 19. The moft remarkable are :
1. The corax, or raven of Englilh authors, weighs
three pounds, and is about two feet two inches in
length ; the colour is black, finely gloffed with a rich
blue ; the belly excepted, which is of a dulky colour.
They are very docile birds, and may be trained up to
an accident that befals black birds more frequently
than any others. Mr Pennant fays, he has obferved
one entirely of a pale brown ■colour, not only in its plu¬
mage, but even in its bill and feet. The crow weighs
about 20 ounces. Its length is 18 inches; its breadth
two feet tv^o inches.
Concerning thefe birds, we have the following cu¬
rious anecdote in Mr Edward’s natural hiftory*. “ The ' Vol. ^
reverend Mr Robinfon rector of Oufby in Weftmore- xs
fowling like hawks; to fetch and carry like fpaniels ; land and Cumberland, fays, ‘that birds are natural
they maybe taught to fpeak like parrots; and, what is planters of all forts of wood and trees. They diffemi-
moll extraordinary of all, they may be taught to imi- nate the kernels upon the earth, which like nurfe-
tate the human voice in finging. They have a great ries brings them forth till they grow up to their natu-
propenfity to pilfer, often hiding things of value to the ral ftrength and perfedfion.’ He fays, ‘About 25
great lofs of the owner, without ufe to themfelves. They years ago, coming from Rofecaftle early in the morn-
frequent the neighbourhood of great towns, where they ing, I obferved a great number of crows very buly at
are ufeful in devouring the carcafes and filth which would their work upon a declining ground of a moffy fur-
otherwife prove a nuifance. They, however, alfo de-
ftroy many living aniipals; fuch as, rabbits, young
ducks, and chickens, and not unfrequently lambs
which have been dropped in a weak ftate. In clear
face; I went out of my way on purpofe to view their
labour, and I found they were planting a grove of
oaks. The manner t>f their planting was thus: they
firft made little holes in the earth with their bills, go-
weather they fly in pairs to a great height, making a ing about and about till the hole was deep enough ;
deep loud noife, different from the common croaking, and then they dropped in the acorn, and covered
Their fcent is remarkably good ; and they are very it with earth and mofs. The feafon was at the lat-
long lived. The quills, of ravens fell for 12 §.per hun- ter end of autumn when all feeds are full ripe.’ Mr
dred, being of great ufe in tuning the lower notes of Robinfon feems to think that Providence had given
an harpfichord when the wires are fet at a confiderable the crows this inflinft iblely for the propagation
diftance from the flicks.—The raven makes its nett
early in the fpring, laying 5 or 6 eggs, of a pale
of trees ; but I imagine it was given them principally
for their own prefervation, by hiding provifion in time
bluifh-green colour fpotted with brown. With us it of plenty, in order to fupply them in a time of fcarci-
builds in trees; but in Greenland and Iceland makes ty : for it is obferved in tame pies and daws kept a-
its nett in the holes of rocks, compofing it of roots and bout houfes, jhat they will hide their meat when they
twigs, together with the bones they have picked, and have plenty of it, and fetch it from their hiding-places
lining it with hair, mofs, &c. The flefh of thefe birds, when they want. So that fuch an inftir.ft in thefe
rank and unfavoury as we may well fuppofe it, is eaten birds may anfwer a double purpofe ; both their own
in Greenland by many of the natives, who alfo ufe iupport in times of need, and the propagation of the
the fkins as a warm under-covering. trees they plant: for wherever they hide a great num-
2. The Corone, or carrion-crow, in the form of its her of nuts or grain in the earth, we cannpt fuppofe
body agrees with the raven ; alfo in its food, which they find them all again; but that as many will remain
is carrion and other filth. It will alfo eat grain and in the plot of ground they make ufe pf, as can well
infefts ; and like the raven will pick out the eyes: grow by one another.”
for which reafon it was formerly diftinguilhed from the 3. The frugilegus, or rook, is the corvus of Virgil;
rook, which feeds entirely on grain and infe&s, by the no other fpecies of this kind being gregarious,
name of the j-or, or gor-croiv. Virgil fays that il
croaking foreboded rain:
n cornix plena pluviam
It was alfo thought a bird of bad omen, efpecially if thefe birds to their nefts.
it happened to be feen on the left hand :
S*pe fmiftra cava prsedixit ab ilice cornix.
£ pajlu iccedens agminc magno
Corvorum increpuit denjis cxercitus alls.
A very natural defeription of the evening return of
T^he rook differs not greatly in its form from the
carrion crow ; the moft remarkable difference is in the
England breeds more of this kind of birds than any noftnls and root of the b.ll; wh.ch parts m the crow
other country in Europe. In the 24th of Henry VIIL are well clothed w.th feathers, but m the rook are
Sey were grown fo-numerous, and thought to be fo hare, or covered only with fome bnftly hans_ Tins
prejudical to the farmer, that they were confidered anfes from its thrufting tfte bill into the earth conti-
as In evil worthy of parliamentary redrefs; an aft nually, after the various worms and erucae of mfe<as,
was paffed for their deftrudlion, in which rooks and on which it feeds; for it does not live on carrion, like
COR [ 479 1 COR
Corvus. the laft fpecies and ravens. Befides infefts, it alfo
'Ll » ' ‘ feeds on all forts of grain, to fame inconvenience per¬
haps to the hufoandman, but no doubt doubly repaid
by the good done him in extirpating the maggot of
the chaferbeetle, which in fome feafons deftroys whole
crops of corns by feeding on the roots. The rook is
a gregarious bird, fometimea being feen in immenfe
flocks, fo as to almoft darken the air. Thefe flights
they regularly perform morning and evening, except
in breeding-time, when the daily attendance of both
male and female is required for the ufe of incubation,
or feeding the young ; for it is obferved that they do
both by turns. As thefe birds are apt to form them-
felves into focieties, fuch places as they frequent du¬
ring the breeding-time are called rookeries; and they
generally choofe a large clump of the tailed trees for
this purpofe ; but make fo great a litter, and fuch a
perpetual chatter, that nothing "but fwibit and a length;
of time can reconcile one to the noife. The eggs
are like thofe of crows, but lefs, and the fpots larger.
They begin to build in March, and after the breed-
ing-feafon forfake their neft trees, going to rood elfe-
where, but have been obferved to return to them in
Angud: in October they repair their neds. In Bri¬
tain they remain the whole year ; yet we are told that
both in France and Silefia they are birds of paffage.
Whether they migrate or not in Sweden, we arenottold;
but Linnaeus talks of their building there. The young
birds are accounted good eating, efpeoially if Ikinned
and put in a pie.
4. The cornix, or roydon crow, pretty much re-
fembles the rook, feeding on infefts, and dying to¬
gether in great flocks. In England it is a bird of paf¬
fage, viliting that kingdom in the beginning of win¬
ter, and leaving it with the woodcocks. In the ma¬
ritime parts they feed on crabs and fliell-fifli. They
are very common in Scotland in many parts of the
Highlands, and in all the Hebrides, Orknies, and
Shetland, it is the on!^ fpecies of genuine crow ; the
carrion and rook being unknown there. It breeds
and continues in thofe parts the whole year round. In
the Highlands,, they breed indifferently in all kinds of
trees: lay fix eggs: have a fhriller note than the com¬
mon crows ; are much more mifchievous; pick out
the eyes of lambs, and even of horfes when engaged
in bogs. They are, therefore, in many places pro*
foribed, and rewards given for killing them. For
want of other food thefe birds will eat cran-berries or
other mountain berries.
Plate 5. The dauricus, or wliite-breafted crow, is in length
CXLIX, about 12 inches: the bill is black;, the head and
throat are black, glofied with blue; the neck and
breaft white; the reft of the body, wings, and tail.
Hue black; the legs of a -lead-colour; the claws
black. The fpecimen figured by Buffon came from
Senegal; but it is by no means confined to that quar¬
ter. Pallas defcribes the fame fpecies, which he fays
come early in the fpring in great flights from China,,
and the fouthern Monguls country, into the parts a-
bout the lake Baikal, but molt frequent! about the
towns and villages on the river Lena, in which part the
jackdaws apd Royfton crows are very feldom feen. It
is faid they are likevyife found in vaft numbers in the
ifland of Johann, where they live chiefly on infedls and
fruits* and make their neils in trees.
6. The monedula, or jack-daw, weighs nine oun* Corvus^
ces ; the length thirteen inches, the breadth twenty- *
eight. The head is large in proportion to its body;
which, Mr Willoughby fays, argues him to be ingeni¬
ous and crafty. The irides are white : the breaft and
belly are of a dufky hue inclining to afh-colour: the
reft of trie plumage is black, (lightly gloffed with blue:
the claws very fining and hooked. It is a docile and
loquacious bird. Jack-daws breed in fteeples, old
callles, and in High rocks, laying five or fix eggs.
Sometimes they have been known to breed in hollow-
trees near a rookery, and join thofe'-birds in their fo¬
raging parties. In fome parts of Hampfhire, they
make their nefts in rabbit holes : they alfo build in the
interftices between the upright and tranfum flones of
Stonehenge ; a proof of the prodigious height of that
flupendous antiquity, for their nefls are placed beyond
the reach of the fhepherd boys, who are always idling
about this fpot. They are gregarious birds; and feed
on infers, grain, and feeds.—Thefe birds are frequent¬
ly brought up tame : they have a praflice of hiding
that part of their food which they cannot eat; and of¬
ten, alongft with it, they fecret fmall valuables, thereby
fomedmes occafioning injurious fufpicions of theft in
fervants or others not guilty.
7. The glandarius, or jay, is one of the mofl beau¬
tiful of Britifh birds. The weight is between fix
and feven ounces : the length x 3 inches. The fore¬
head is white ftreaked with black; the head is covered
with very long feathers, which it can ereil at pleafure
into the form of a cretl: the whole meek, back, bread,
and belly, are of a faint purple dafhed with grey ; the
covert-feathers of the wings are of the fame colour.
The frrft quill-feather is black ; the exterior webs of
the nine next are afh,coloured ; the interior webs duf¬
ky ; the fix next are black, but the lower fides of
their exterior webs are white tinged with blue; the
two next wholly black; the lad of a fine bay colour
tipt with black. The lefler coverts are of a light
bay: the greater covert feathers mod beautifully
barred with a lively blue, black, and white : the
reft are black : the rump is white. The tail con-
fids of twelve black feathers. The feet are of a
pale brown ;. the claws large and hooked.—Jays build
chiefly in woods, making their ned of flicks, fibres of
roots, and tender twigs ; and lay five or fix eggs, of the
fize of a pigeon’s, cinereous olive, marked with pale
brown. The young keep with the old ones till the
neit pairing time in fpring ; when they choofe each
his mate to produce their future progeny. In gene¬
ral they feed on acorns, nuts, feeds, and fruits of all
kinds; but will fometimes dedroy young chickens and
eggs* and will alfo take away birds that have been
caught in a trap or entangled with birdlime. They
are often kept in cages, and will talk pretty well; but
then lofe all their beauty fo cohfpicuous in the wild
date.
8. The caryocata&es, or nutcracker, is fomewhat
lefs than the jack-daw : the bill is drong, draight, and'
black :. the colour of the whole head and neck, bread
and body, of a rudy brown : the crown of the head;
and rump are plain ; the other parts marked with tri¬
angular white fpots : the wings are black; the coverts
fpotted in the fame manner as the body: the tail is-
rounded at the end, black tipt with white: the vent-
feathery-
COR [ 480 T COR
€orvte. feathers are white; the legs dufky. We find thefe
' ’ birds fcattered in many parts of Europe, but no-where
fo plenty as in Germany ; they are found alfo in Swe¬
den and Denmark, where they frequent the moun¬
tainous parts. Sometimes they come in vaft flocks in¬
to France, efpecially Burgundy. They vifit England
very feldom; are alfo found in North America, but
not near the fea-coafts. One has been brought from
Kamtfchatka by the late voyagers.—In manners this
bird is faid to refemble the jay, laying up a (lore of
acorns and nuts. In fome parts it keeps chiefly in
the pine forefts, on the kernels of which it then feeds;
but is faid frequently to pierce the trees like the wood¬
pecker, for which the bill feems not unapt. It makes
its neft in holes of trees. Klein mentions two varie¬
ties, one fmaller than the other; the largeft, he fays,
breaks the nuts to pieces, and the other pierces them.
Both feed at times on wild berries and infefts.
9. The pica, or magpie, is* in length above 18 inch¬
es, and weighs 8 or 9 ounces. The bill is black : the
irides are hazel: the fcapulars, and all the under parts
from the breaft, are white ; the reit of the plumage*
wings, and tail, black, gloffed with green, purple, and
blue, in different lights; the eleven firft quills are white
in the middle on the inner web, leflening-by degrees
asthey advance inwards: the tail is very cuneiform, the
two middle feathers being near 11 inches in length,
and the outmoft only 5 inches and a half: the legs are
black. We can form no judgment of the beauties of
this bird, from thofe dirty mutilated fpecimehs which
we fee, expofed daily in a wicker cage at every flail.
It is only in a ftate of nature that they can be found;
and whoever views them in this ftate, will do fo with
aftoniihment: for though the colours, at adiftant view,
feem to be mere black and white, yet the fplendor
that meets in every new fitUation the eye of the be¬
holder, will oblige him to own that there is not a
more beautiful bird in Britain. In thefe parts it is
every where common. Mr Latham has been able to
trace this bird no farther fouth than Italy on the Eu¬
ropean continent; and to the north, Sweden, and
Denmark. Forfter met with it at Madeira ; and it is
alfo feen in America, but not common, and is a bird
of paffage in thofe parts. At Hudfon’s Bay it is call¬
ed by the Indians Oue-ta-kee-ajhe, which fignifies Heart-
Bird; but for what reafon does not appear. In man¬
ners it approaches o the crow, feeding almoft on
every thing in turn, both animal and vegetable; and
like that will kill young ducks and chickens, and fuck
the eggs. It builds its neft with art, making a thorny
cover at top, leaving a hole on the fide for admittance :
lays fix or feven pale greenifti eggs, thickly fpotted
with black. It is a crafty bird in every ftate, and if
brought up young, becomes exceedingly familiar, and
will talk a great many fentences, as well as imitate
every noife within hearing, like a parrot, but not near
fo plain.
10. The graculus, or red-legged crow, is but thinly
fcattered over the northern world : no mention is made
of it by any of the Faunifts ; nor do we find it in other
parts of Europe except Britian and the Alp; It is
produred in the ifland of Canadia in Afia ; and it vifits
Eg1: towards the end ■ i the inundations of-thc Nile.
Exc n Egypt, it affe&s mountainous and rocky
Ny 92.
places; builds its neft in high cliffs or ruined towers; Corvus. ^
and lays four or five eggs, white fpotted with a dirty * ~ ’" *
yellow. It feeds on infedb, and alfo on new-fown
corn. They commonly fly high, make a fliriller noife
than the jack-daw, and may be taught to fpeak. It is
a very tender bird, and unable to bear very fevere wea¬
ther ; is of an elegant, flender-make; adfive, reftlefs,
and thieving; much taken with glitter, and fo med¬
dling as not to be trufted where things of confequence
lie. It is very apt to catch up bits of lighted flicks j
fo that there are inftances of houfes being fet on fire
by its means; on which account Cambden calls it in-
cendiarla avis. It is found in Cornwal, Flintftrire,
Caernafvonlhire, and Anglefea, in the rocky cliffs along
the firores. It is alfo found in Scotland as far as Strath-
navern, and in fome of the Hebrides. Its colour is
wholly black, beautifully gloffed, over with blue and
purple : the legs and bill are of a bright orange colour .
inclining to red : the tongue is almoft as long as the bill,
and a little cloven : the claws are large, hooked, and
black.
11. The criftatus, or blue jay, is much fmaller than
tne common'jay. The bill is black and above an inch
long: the head is crefted and blue: a ftieak of the
fides of the head and throat are of a bluifti white, and
there is a fpot of the fame over the eye: hind pait of
the neck and back is blue : the wings and tail are the
fame ; all the feathers of the laft, except the two
middle ones, tipped with white; the feathers of both
it and the wings elegantly barred with black, and the
greater coverts and fecund quills tipped with white :
the breaft is of a bloffom colour; the belly and under
tail-coverts white : the legs are d-ulky brown : the tail
is nearly as long as the reft of the bird. The colours
of the female are lefs bright than thofe of the male —
This fpecies is faid to be peculiar to North America,
but not feen farther north than the town of Albany.
It builds in fwamps, and has aToft delicate note. Its
food is hazel-nuts, chefnuts, and fuch like, which it ,
breaks by placing between the feet, and pecking with
the' bill till the flu-ll gives way. It is alfo very fond of
maize ; and being a gregarious bird, often unites into
flocks of 20,000 at leaft, which alighting on a field of
10 or 12 acres foon lay wafte the whole: hence it is
reckoned the moil deftruftive bird in that country.
They will often take up with fnails and vermin thro’
necefiity, but not while any thing they like better is to
be got at. They are not accounted good to eat.
/ 12. The canadenfis is in length 9 inches, and
weighs two ounces. The bill is blackiflr, and not quite
an inch long : the irides are black : the forehead and
throat are of a dirty yellowifn white ; the hind head
and fides of blackiflr brown : the ilpper parts of the
body are brown; beneath pale aflr, paleft on the breaft :
the quills and tail are brown, tipped with white : tail
is a little Wedged: the legs and claws are blackifh.'Thefe
-birds inhabit Canada ; and are frequent near Hudfon’s
Bay, where they are called Whifkljohn and Wh'i/hijack.
They breed early in the fpiing; build in pine-trees;
and have two, rarely three, young at a time. The
eggs are blue. They are not gregarious. Their food
is black mofs, Worms, and flefti. They are very bold
pilfering biros, Healing from the traveller even fait
meat, and devouring often the bait from the traps fet
4 for
Plate CXL1X.
'ot/ertc.
une
COR [ 481 ] COR
Corvus for the martins, as foon as the perfons who fet them
II turn their backs. They lay up ftores for winter; at
Coryban- time they are feldom feen unlefs near habita-
v . , tions. They do not bear confinement well. What
natural note they have, we are not told ; but they are
faid to aft the mocking bird, in imitating that of
others.—There are near 30 other fpecies.
Corvus (Raven), in aftronomy, a conftellation of
the fouthern hemifphere ; whofe ftars in Ptolemy’s
Catalogue are 7; in Tycho’s as many; in the Britannic
Catalogue 9. ....
Corvus, in Roman antiquity, a military engine, or
rather gallery, moveable at plea Cure by means of pul-
lies; chiefly ufed in boarding the enemy’s (hips to co¬
ver the men. The c»nftru£tion of the corvus was
as follows: They erefted on the prow of their veffels
a round piece of timber of about a foot and an half
diameter, and about 12 feet long: on the top of which
they had a block or pulley. Round this piece of tim¬
ber they laid a ftage or platform of boards, four feet
broad, and about 18 feet long, which was well framed
and fattened with iron. The entrance was long-ways,
and it moved about on. the above mentioned upright
piece of timber as on a fpindle, and could be hoifted
up within fix feet of the top : about this was a fort
of parapet knee-high, which was defended with up¬
right bars of iron fliarpened at the end, and towards
the top there was a ring, by the help of which and a
pulley or tackle, they raifed or lowered the engine at
pleafure. With this moveable gallery they boarded
the enemy’s veffels (when they did not oppofe fide
to fide), fometimes on their bow, and fometimes on
their ftern, as occafion beft ferved. When they had
grappled the enemy with thefe iron fpikes, if they
happened to fwing broadfide to broadfide, then they
entered from all parts; but in cafe they attacked them
on the bow, they entered two and two by the help
of this machine, the foremott defending the foreparts,
and thofe that followed the flanks keeping the bofs
of their bucklers level with the top of the parapet.
CORY ATE (Thomas), a very extraordinary per-
fonage, who feems to have made himfelf famous by
his whimfical extravagancies, was the fon of a clergy¬
man, and born at Oldcombe in Somerfetlhire in 1577.
He acquired Greek and Latin at Oxford; and coming
- to London, was received into the houfehold of Hen¬
ry prince of Wales. If Coryate was not over witty
himfelf, he got acquainted with the wits of that time,
and ferved to exercife their abilities, having moie learn¬
ing than judgment. He was a great peripatetic: for, in
1608, he took a long journey on foot; and after he re¬
turned, publilhed his travels under the following ftrange
title. Crudities hajiily gobbled up in Jive months Travels
in France, Savoy, Italy, Rhetia, Helvetia, fame parts of
High Germany, and the Netherlands, Lond. 1611, qto.
In 1612 he fet out again with a refolution to fpend
ten years in travelling: he went firtt to Conftantinople;
and after travelling over a great part of the Eaft, died
of a flux at Surat in the Eaft Indies. Some of the
accounts of his peregrinations are to be found in Pur-
chas’s Pilgrimages.
CORYBANTES, in antiquity, priefts of Cybele,
who danced and capered to the found of flutes and
drums. See Crotalum.
Catullus, in his poem called Htys, gives a beautiful
Vol. V. Part II.
defcription of them, reprefenting them as madmen. Ceryban-
Accordingly Maximus Tyriusfays, that thofe poflefled ^
with the fpirit of Corybantes, as foon as they heard corylus.
the found of a flute, were feized with an enthufiafm,
and loft the ufe of their reafon. And hence the
Greeks ufe the word *opuC«*Tf“'> to corobant’rze, to fignify
a perfon’s being tranfported or pofleffed with a devil.
See Enthusiasm.
Some fay that the Corybantes were all eunuchs;
and that it is on this account Catullus, in his Atys,
always ufes feminine epithets and relatives in fpeaking
of them.
Diodorus Siculus remarks, that Corybas, fon of Ja-
fon and Cybele, palling into Phrygia writh his uncle
Dardanus, there inftituted the worlhip of the mother
of the gods, and gave his own name to the priefts.
Strabo relates it as the opinion of fame, that the Co¬
rybantes were children of Jupiter and Calliope, and
the fame with the Cabiri. Others fay the wrord had
its origin from this, that the Corybantes always walked
dancing (if the expreffion may be allowed) or tofiing
the head, MpuirrovTis (tunouv.
CORYBANTICA, a feftival held in Crete, in me¬
mory of the Corybantes, who educated Jupiter when
he was concealed in that ifland from his father Saturn,
who would have devoured him.
CORYCEUM, in antiquity, that part of the gym-
nafium where people undrefled. It was otherwife call¬
ed apodyterion.
CORYCOMACHIA, among the ancients, was a
fort of exercife in which they pulhed forwards a ball,
fufpended from the ceiling, and at its return either
caught it with their hands, or fuffered it to meet their
body. Oribafius informs us it was recommended for
extenuating too grofs bodies.
CORYDALES, in botany, an order of plants in
the Fragmenta Method's Naturalis of Linnseus, contain¬
ing the following genera, vim. epimedium, hypecoum,
leontice, melianthus, pinguicula, and utricularia.
CORYDALIS, in botany. See Fumaria.
CORYLUS, the Hazle : A genus of the polyan-
dria order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 50th
oxfer, Amentacece. The male calyx is monophyllous,
fcale-like, trifid, and uniflorous ; there is no -corolla ;
the ftamina eight in number: The female calyx di-
phyllous and lacerated; no corolla; two ftyles; and
an egg-lhaped nut. Mr Miller reckons three fpecies,
though other botanifts make only two. They are all
of the large flirub kind, hardy and deciduous; and have
feveral varieties valuable for their nuts, as alfo for
their variety in large wilderncffes and fhrubbery works.
They will profper in almoft any foil or fituation, and
turn out to good account when growing in coppices
to cut as underwood, and as poles for various ufes, as
hoops, fgars, hurdles, handles to huftmndry implements,
walking fticks, fiflring rods, &c. for which purpofes
they may be cut every 5th, 7th, or 8th year, accord¬
ing to the purpofes for which they are defigned. The
beft method of propagating them is by layers, though
they may alfo be raifed from the nuts.
The kernels of the fruit have a mild, farinaceous,
oily tafte, agreeable to moft palates. Squirrels and
mice are fond of them, as well as fame birds, fuch as
jays, nutcrackers, See. A kind of chocolate has been
3 P prepared
COR [48
CbrynVbife* prepared from them, and there are InJlances of their
r® having been formed into bread. The oil exprefled
Corypha. ^r<>m them is little inferior to the oil of almonds ; and
w—y—. is ufcd by painters, and by chemifts, for receiving and
retaining odours. The charcoal made of the wood is
tifed by painters in drawing. Some of the Highland¬
ers, where fuperftition is not totally fubfided, look up¬
on the tree itfelf as unlucky ; but are glad to get two
of the nuts naturally conjoined, which is a good omen.
Thtfe they call cm chomhlaich, and carry them as an
efficacious charm againft witchcraft.
Evelyn tells us, that no plant is more proper for
thickening of copfes than the hazle, for which he di-
redls the following expeditious method. Take a pole
of hazle (alh or poplar may alfo be ufed), of 20 or 30
feet in length, the head a little lopped into the ground,
giving it a chop near the ground to make it fuccumb;
this faftened to the earth with a hook or two, and co¬
vered with fome frefh mould at a competent depth,
(as gardeners lay their carnations), will produce a
great number of fuckers, and thicken and fumilh a
copfe fpeedily.
CORYMBIFERjE, in botany, the name of an or¬
der or divifion of the compound flowers adopted by
Linmeus after Ray and Vaillant, in the former editions
of his Fragments of a Natural Method. This title in
the later editions is changed for Difcoidea, another
name borrowed from Ray’s Method, but ufed in a
fomewhat different fenfe.
CORYMBIUM, in antiquity, an ornament of hair
worn by the women. Its form was that of a corym-
bus.
Corymbium, in botany: A genus of the monoga-
Biia order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 49th
order, Compojita. The calyx is diphyllous, uniflorous,
and prifmatical; the corolla monopetalous and regular;
there is one woolly feed below each floret.
CORYMBUS, properly fignifies a clufter of ivy
berries. Among botanifts, it is a mode of flowering
in which the leffer or partial flower-ftalks are produ¬
ced along the common ftalk on both fides; and, though
of unequal lengths, rife to the fame height, fo as to
form a flat and even furface at the top. See Bota¬
ny, n° 273.
CORYNOCARPUS, in botany: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. The calyx is a pentaphyllous perianthium;
the corolla confifts of five roundifh, eredt, and hollow
petals"; the ftamina five fubulated filaments arifing
from the bafe of the petals ; the antherse are ereft and
oblong; the perica-pium a monofpermous, turbinat-
elavated nut.
CORYPHA, Mountain Palm, or Umbrella
in botany : A genus of the order of Palma, belong¬
ing to the moncecia clafs of plants. The corolla is
tripetalous ; the ftamina fix, with one piftil; the fruit
a monofpermous plum. There is only one fpecies,
the umbracula, a native of the Weft Indies, where
it i? called codda-pana. It rifes to a confiderable height,
and produces at the top many large palmated, plaited
leaver the lobes of which are very long, and are placed
regularly round the end of a long fpiny footftalk, in a
manner reprefenting a large umbrella. The flowers
are produced on a branched fpadix, from a compound
2 1 COS
fpatha or ffieath; they are hermaphrodite, and each Cmyihana
confifts of one petal, divided into three oval parts, and -il
contains fix awl-fhaped ftamina, furrounding a ftort f'8' ,
flender ftyle, crowned with a Ample ftigma. The
germen is nearly round, and becomes a large globular
fruit of one cell, including a large round ftone. Thefe
plums having a pleafant flavour are held in efteem by
the Indians.
CO RYFH7ENA, in ichthyology, a genus belong¬
ing to the order of thoracici. The head is declined
and truncated ; the branchioftege membrane has fix
rays; and the back-fin runs the whole length of the
back. There are twelve fpecies, moil of them natives
of foreign feas. The moll remarkable are the blue
and parrot fifties, deferibed' by Mr Cate/by.—The
head of the firft is of an odd ftrudture, refembling that
of the fpermaceti whale: the mouth is fmall, each
mandible armed with a Angle row of even teeth, fo
clofely joined that they feem entire bones; the iris
of the eye is red. On the back is a long pliant fin,
fomewhat indented on the edge ; behind the gills are
two fins, one under the abdomen and another behind
the anus. The tail is forked; and the whole fifli en*
tirely blue. They are taken on the coafts of the Ba¬
hama Iflands, and in moll of the feas between the
tropics.—The parrot-fifh hath a large mouth, paved as
it were with blunt teeth, clofely connedled, after the
manner of the lupus marinus. The body is covered
with large green feales; the eyes are red and yellow;
the upper part of the head brown, the lower part and
the gifts blue, bordered with a dulky red : a llreak of
red extends from the throat behind the gills, at the
upper end of which is a bright yellow fpot. The fins
are five in number, one extending almoft the length of
the back, of a bay or cinnamon colour ; there are two
behind the gifts, blended with black, green, and pur-
plilh colours, with the upper edge verged with blue:
under the abdomen is another red fin verged with
blue : under the anus extends another long narrow
green fin, with a lift of red through the middle of it i
at the balls of the tail on each fide is a large yellow
fpot. The tail is large, forked, and green, with a
curved red line running through the middle parallel
to the curve, and ending in two points. This filh is
more efteemed for beauty than the delicacy of its
tafte. They are taken on the coafts of Hifpaniola,
Cuba, and the Bahama Iflands.
CORYPHAEUS, in the ancient tragedy, was the
chief or leader of the company that compofed the cho¬
rus: (See Chorus).- The word is formed from the
Greek *-ogv<p*, «< tip of the head.” The coryphaeus
fpoke for aft the reft, whenever the chorus took part
in the a&ion, in quality of a perfon of the drama, du¬
ring the courfe of the adls. Hence coryphaeus had
pafied into a general name for the chief or principal
of any company, corporation, feft, opinion, &e. Thus
Euftacius of Antioch is called the corypbaus of the
council of Nice ; and Cicero calls Zeno the coryphaus
of the ftoics.
CORYZA, in medicine, a catarrh of the nofe. See
Medicine-Index.
CORZOLA, or Curscola, an ifland in the gulph
of Venice, divided from Ragufa in Dalmatia by a nar¬
row ftrait. E. Long. 18. o, N. Lat. 42. 35.
COS, or Coos, (anc. geog.), a noble ifland on the
coai
C ° S [483
Co* coaft of Carla, in the Hither Afia, fifteen miles to the
II weft of HalicarnafTus, a hundred in compafs, called
.Coicna^e. Merapis; and hence Thucydides joins both names to-
T gether, Cos Meropis: it had a cognominal town Cos,
but originally called AJiypalaea, mentioned by Homer;
witli a port locked or walled round, (Scylax, Mela).
The ifland was fruitful, and yielded a generous wine,
(Strabo). It boafted of Hippocrates and Apelles;
each at the head of his feveral profeffion. It was the
country of Philetas, an excellent elegiac poet, who
flourifhed in the time of Philip and Alexander; the
preceptor of Ptolemy Philadelphus : fo thin and light
that he was obliged to wear lead to prevent the being
blown away by a puff of wind (Aelian, Athenasus) ;
much commended by Propertius. The wjles Com,
made of filk, were famous for their finenefs and co¬
lour, (Horace, Propertius, Tibullus), In thefuburbs
of Cos ftood the temple of jEfculapius, a noble ftruc-
ture, and extremely rich.
COS, the whetstone, in natural hiftory, a genus
of vitrefeent ftones, confifting of fragments of an inde¬
terminate figure, fub-opaque, and granulated.
Of this genus there are feveral fpecies, fome con¬
fifting of rougher, and others of fmoother, or even of
altogether impalpable particles ; and ufed not only for
whet-ftones, but alfo for mill-ftones, and other the like
purpofes.
COS turcica, Turhy-Jlone, a fpecies of ftones of
the garnet kind, belonging to the filiceous clafs. It
is of a dull white, and often of an unequal colour;
fome parts appearing more compaft than others. Its
fpecific gravity is 2598: it ftrikes fire with fteel, and
effervefces with acids. Mr Kirwan found that 100
parts of it contain 25 of mild calcareous earth, and no
iron. Cronftedt is of opinion that there are probably
two forts of ftones known by this name, as that de¬
fer ibed by Wallerius neither gives fire with fteel nor
effervefces with acids. It is ufed as a whetftone; and
thofe of the fineft grain are the beft hones for the
moft delicate cutting tools, and even for razors, lan¬
cets, &c.
COSCFNOMANCY, the art of divination, by
means of a fieve. The word comes from xovxnro,, cl-
brum, “ a fieve;” and p-htux, divination. The fieve
being fufpended, after rehearfing a formula of words,
it is taken between two fingers only; and the names
of the parties fufpedted repeated : he at whofe name
the fieve turns, trembles, or {hakes, is reputed guilty
of the evil in queftion.
This muft be- a very ancient praftice : Theocritus,
in his third Idyllion, mentions a woman very fleilful in
it. It was fometimes alfo praftifed by fufpending the
fieve by a thread, or fixing it to the points of a pair of
flieers, giving it room to turn, and naming, as before,
the parties fufpedted; in which laft manner cufcinomancy
is ftill pradftifed in fome parts of England. It appears
from Theocritus, that it was not only ufed to find out
perfons unknown, but alfo to difeover the fecrets of
thofe that were known.
CO-SECANT, in geometry, the fecant of an arch
which is the complement of another to 90°. See
Geometry.
COSENAGE, in law, a writ that lies where the
trefail, that is, the tritavus, the father of the befail, or
great grandfather, being feized in fee at his death of
] COS
certain lands or tenements, dies; a fibanger enters, Celening
and abates ; then (hall his (heir have this writ of cofe- ^
nage; the form of which fee in Fitzh. Nat. Br. fob 221.
COSENING, in law, an offence whereby any v—v-—J
thing is done deceitfully; in or out of contrails, which
cannot be fitly termed by any efpecial name. In the
civil law' it is calledJlellionatus. See Stelhonate.
COSENZA, the capital of the Hither Calabria, in
the kingdom of Naples. E. Long. 16. 35. N. Lat,
39. 15. It is an archbifhop’s fee.
COSHERING, in the feudal cuftoms, a kind of
right of the lords to lie and feaft themfelves and their
followers at their tenants houfes. The word co/htring
may perhaps be derived from the old Englifti word
cofie, a cot or cottage.
CO-SINE, in trigonometry, the fine of an arch
which is the complement of another to 90°. SeC
Geometry.
COSMETIC, in phyfic, any medicine or prepara¬
tion which renders the {kin foft and white, or helps to
beautify and improve the complexion ; as lip-falves,
cold creams, cerufs, &c.
COSMICAL, a term in aftronomy, exprefling one
of the poetical rifings of a ftar : thus a ftar is faid to
rife cofmically when it rifes with the fun, or with that
point of the ecliptic in which the fun is at that time t
and the cofmical fetting is when a ftar fets in the weft
at the fame time that the fun rifes in the eaft.
COSMOGONY, in phyfics, fignifies the feience of
the formation of the univerfe. It is formed of
the world, and / am born.
In our conjectures about the formation of the world
there are two principles which we ought never to lofe
fight of. 1. That of creation; for certainly matter
could not give itfelf exiftence, it muft have received it.
2. That of a Supreme Intelligence direfting this creation,
and the arrangement of the parts of matter, in confe-
quence of which this world was formed. See Crea¬
tion and Earth.
COSMOGRAPHY, the defeription of the world ;
or the art which teaches the conftru&ion, figure, dif-
pofition, and relation of all the parts of the world, with
the manner of reprefenting them on a plane. The word
comes from xoa-^o?, world, and Ideferibe.
Cofmography confifts chiefly of two pai s. AJlro-
nomy, which {hows the ftruCture of the heavens, and
the difpofition of the ftars; and Geography, w’hich
ftiowTs thofe of the earth.
COSMOLABE (from xoo-w, world, an 1 /
tdke'), an ancient mathematical inftrument, ferving to
meafure diftances, both in the heavens and on earth.
The cofmolabe is in great meafure the fame with the
aftrolabe. It is alfo called pentacojm, or the univerfal
injlrument, by L. Morgard, in a treatife written ex-
prefsly upon it, printed in 1612.
COSMOLOGY (from world, and dif-
courfe), the fcienceof the world in general. ThisWolfius
calls general, or tranfeendented cofmology, and has written
a treatife on the fubjeft, wherein he endeavours to ex¬
plain how the world arifes from Ample fubftances; and
treats of the general principles of the modifications of
ttiaterial things, of the elements of bodies, of the laws
of motion, of the perfe&ion of the world, and of the
order and courfe of nature.
COSMOPOLITE, or Cosmopolitan, a term
3 P 2 fomc-
COS r 484 ] cos
Ckffacks. fometimes ufed to fignify a perfon who has no fixed to bring them into fubjeftion, as we have feen in the Coflacks.
v"—'' living or place of abode, or a man who is a ftranger no- hiftory of Poland. In 1648 the Coflacks gained great •—y~—*
where. The word comes from the Greek xoov*©-, advantages over them, and next year came to an ac-
“ world,” and “ city.”—One of the ancient commodation, in which they not only preferved their
philofophers being interrogated what countryman he old immunities, but obtained additional privileges,
w’as? anfwered, he was a cofmopolite, i. e. an inhabi- The refult of all was, that thefe Coflacks remained
tant or citizen of the world. under the prote&ion of Ruflia ; and as their former
COSSACKS, a name given to the people inhabiting country was entirely laid wafte in the late wars, they
the banks of the rivers Nieper and Don, near the fettled in the Ruffian Ukraine, upon receiving formal
Black Sea and borders of Turky. The word implies aflurances from the court of Rulfia, that no alteration
irregular troops of horfe. Thefe people are divided fliould be made in their political conflitution, and that
into European and Afiatic Coflacks. The firft con- no taxes whatever fhould be laid upon them. The
fill of the Zaporog, who dwell below the cataraft of Coflacks, on the other hand, were always to keep in
the Dnieper, fome on the fide next to Rulfia, and readinefs a good body of-troops for the fervice of
others on the oppofite fide of that river ; the Lower Rulfia : but in the year 1708 Mazeppa, their hettman ,
and Upper Coflacks; the Bielogorod Coflacks ; and a or chief, went over from the Ruffians to the Swedes;
part of the Don Coflacks. The Afiatic Goflacks are upon which Peter I. refolved to prevent fuch revolts
compofed of the reft of the Don Coflacks, the Grebin for the future, ^o this end, after the battle of Pul-
Coffacks, the Yaik Coflacks, and the Weftern Cal- towa, he fent a ftrong detachment into thefabove men-
muks, who retiring from thofe that inhabited the tioned little ifliftids in the Dnieper, whither the Cof-
fouth borders of Siberia under Yaiuki Can, fettled facks had fled, with their wives and children, and all
upon the Wolga, and are dependent upon Rulfia. their effefts; and ordered them all to be put to the
The Coflacks were known by that name ever fince fword without diftin&ion, and the plunder to be di-
the 948th year of Chrift. They dwelt upon mount vided among his foldiers. He likewife fent a great
Caucafus, in the place now called Cabardy; and were number of men into their country, and caufed feveral
reduced to the Ruffian dominion by prince Mftiflaw thoufands of the Coffacks to be carried to the coafts
in the year 1021. Many Ruffians, Poles, and others, of the Baltic, where they were put to all forts of hard
who could not live at home, have, at different times, labour; by which means he in a manner extirpated the
been admitted among the Coffacks ; but the latter, whole nation.
abftratted from thefe fugitives, mull have been an an- What diftinguilhes the Zaporog Coffacks from all
cient and well governed nation. other people is, that they never fuffer any women in
Towards the beginning of the 16th century, the their fettlements, as the Amazons are faid not to have
Zaporog Coffacks fixed their habitations on the fpa- fuffered any men among them. The women of thefe
cious plains that extend along the banks of the Dnie- Coffacks live in other illands of the Dnieper. They
per. They had undergone confiderable hardlhips from never marry, nor have any family : all their male chil-
the incurfions of the Tartars, for which they after- dren are inrolled as foldiers, and the females are left
wards found means to avenge themfelves in an ample with their mothers. The brother often has children
manner. The Poles being fenfible how ferviceable the by his filler, and the father by his daughter. They
Coffacks might be in defending them from the ravages know no laws but thofe which cuftom has introduced,
of the Tartars, and even of the Ruffians, propofed to founded on their natural wants; though they have
them terms of alliance. In 1562, they folemnly took among them fome priefts of the Greek perfuafion.
them under their prote&ion, and engaged to pay them They ferve in the armies as irregulars; and woe lo¬
an annual fubfidy ; in return for which, the Coffacks thofe who fall into, their hands.
were to keep on foot a fufficient body of troops for The country or thefe Coffacks, who are an affem-
the defence of the Polilh dominions. With a view to blage of ancient Roxelans, Sarmatians, and Tartars, is
bind them Hill more llrongly by ties of intereft, the called the Ocraine or Ukraine. It lies upon the bor-
Poles gave them the whole country between the rivers ders of Ruffiaand Poland, Little Tartary, and Turky,
Dnieper and Neifter, and the borders of Tartary. and was anciently a part of Scythia. By virtue of the
The Coffacks applied themfelves with great induftry laft treaty fettled between Rulfia and Poland, in 1693,,
to the cultivation of this fertile fpct; fo that in a fliort the latter remains in poffeffion of all that part of the
time it was interfperfed with large towns and hand-
fome villages. Befides they continually haraffed the
Turks, and did them great damage by their incur¬
fions ; and in order to prevent the latter from pur¬
ging them, or making reprifals, they poffeffed them¬
felves of feveral fmall illands in the Dnieper, where
Ukraine which is iituated on the weft fide of the Dnie¬
per, and is now but poorly cultivated. That on the
eaft fide, inhabited by the Coffacks, is in a much bet¬
ter condition, and extends about two hundred and
fixty miles in length, and as many in breadth. It is
e continued fertile plain, watered by a great num-
they kept their magazines, &c. The hettman, or ber of fine rivers, diverfified with pleafant woods, and.
general of the Coffacks, was not in the leaft fubordinate yields fuch plenty of all forts of grain, pulfe, tobacco,
to the field-marlhal of Poland ; but a died in concert honey, and wax, as to fupply a.great part of the Ruf-
vvith him as an ally, and not as a fubjecl of that re- flan empire with thofe commodities. Its paftures are
public. But this alliance, though of fuch manifeft exceeding rich, and its cattle very large ; but the in-
advantage to both parties, was not of long duration, habitants are greatly plagued by locufts, which infeft
The Poles, feeing the vaft improvements made by the this fine country. The houfes in the Ukraine are,
Coffacks in the country they had given up to them, like thofe of the Ruffians, moftly built with tim-
became envious of them, and adlualljnnade an attempt ber.
cos [ 485 1 cos
Ceflacks. The Cofiacks are tall and well made, generally hawk-
‘■'—v nofed, and of a good mien. They are hardy, vigorous,
brave, and extremely jealous of what is moil valuable
in life, their liberty; fickle and wavering, but fociable,
cheerful, and fprightly. They are a very powerful
people, and their forces confiil wholly of cavalry.
Their dialeft is a compound of the Poliih and Ruffian
language; but the latter is the moil predominant.
They were formerly Pagans or Mahometans ; but upon
their entei-ing into the Poliffi fervice, they were bap¬
tized Chriilians-of the Romiffi communion ; and now
that they belong to Ruffia, they profefs themfelves
members of the Greek church.
Each of their towns, with the diilriil belonging
to it, is governed by an officer called ettomann or at-
tamann.
The Don-Coffacks, fo called from their refidence
upon the banks of the river Don, greatly refemble
thofe already deferibed. In the year 1559, when the
czar Iwan Bafilowitz was emperor of Ruffia, they vo¬
luntarily put themfelves under his protection, and are
at this time on a pretty equal footing with the other
Ruffian fubjefts. They have ieveral towns and vil¬
lages upon the banks of the Don ; but are prevented
from extending themfelves farther up the country, by
the fcavcity of frefh water and wood in many places.
Their chief fupport is grazing and agriculture, and oc-
cafionally robbing and plundering, for which they
want neither capacity nor inclination. Every town is
governed by a magillrate called tamann; and the ta-
manns, with their towns, are under the jurifdidlion of
two ottomanns, who refide at Tffierkalky. The troops
of thefe Coffacks likewife confift entirely of cavalry.
In this country all the towns and villages are fortified
and encompaffed with palifades, to defend them againil
the incurfions of the Calmucs and Kuban Tartars, with
whom they are continually at war. The Cofiacks, in
general, are of great fervice to garrifon towns by way
of defence, or to purfue an enemy ; but are not fo
good at regular attacks. ,
The Sietfii Cofiacks, who are alfo called Haidamach,
have their particular hettman. They inhabit the Ruf¬
fian, Polifii, and Turkifti dominions, "along the banks
of the Dnieper.
The Yaik Cofiacks dwell on the fouth fide of the
river Yaik; and upon the fuccefs of the Ruffian arms
in the kingdom of Aftracan, voluntarily fubmitted to
them. In ftature they greatly refemble the other Cof¬
facks; though by their booriih manner of living, and
intermarriages with the Tartars, they have not the
fiiape and air peculiar to the reft of their countrymen.
Their natural difpofitions and cuftoms are, however,
nearly the fame. Hufbandry, filhing, and feeding of
cattle, are their principal employments ; and, like the
other tribes, they let flip no opportunity of making
depredations on their neighbours. Their continual
wars with the Kara-Kalpacs and the Kafatfiiaia-Horda
oblige them to keep their towns and villages in a Hate
of defence. They are indeed fubjedl to Ruffian wai-
wodes, to whom they pay an annual tribute in corn,
wax, honey, and cattle ; but they have alfo their par¬
ticular chiefs, who govern them according to their an¬
cient cuftoms. Though the generality of the Yaik
Cofiacks profefs the Greek religion, yet a great many
relifts of Mahometanifm and Paganifm are ilill found
among them. Being naturally bold and hardy, they Ccfle-
make excellent foldiers; and they are not fo turbulent r J* ,
as the other Coflacks. They live entirely at peace Co ard'
with the Calmuks and their other neighbours, and
even maintain a commercial intercourfe with them.
COSSE de Geniste, an order of knighthood in-
ftituted in 1234, by Louis IX. at his marriage with
Margaret of Provence. The motto on th® collar of
this order was, exalt at humilis.
COSSET, among farmers, a colt, calf, or Iamb,
brought up by hand without the dam.
COSTA (Chriftopher a), a celebrated botanift of
the 16th century, was born in Africa, of a Portuguefe
father, and went into Afia to perfedl himfelf in the
knowledge of fimples, where he was taken prifoner,
but found means to make his efcape, and after feveral
voyages, praftifed phyfic at Bourgos. He wrote,
1. ATreatife on Indian Drugs and Medicines. 2. His
Voyages to the Indies. 3. A book in praife of Wo¬
men ; and other works.
COSTAL, an appellation given by anatomifts to fe¬
veral parts belonging to the fides : thus we meet with
coital mufcles, vertebras, &c.
COSTANZO (Angelo di), an Italian hiftorian and
poet, lord of Catalupo, was born in 1507, of a noble
and ancient family of Naples, and died about 1591.
He wrote, 1. A Hiftory of Naples, from 1250 to
1489 ; -the beft edition of which is that of Aquila, in
1582, in folio, very fcarce. 2. Italian Poems, which
are efteemed, and have had feveral editions.
COSTA-ricca, a province of North America in
New Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala, bound¬
ed on the north-eaft by the northern ocean, on the
fouth-weft by the fouth fea, on the north-weft by Ni¬
caragua, and on the fouth-eaft by Veragua. The foil
is not very fertile, though there is plenty of cattle.
Carthage is the capital town.
COSTARD (George), a clergyman of the church
of England, and author of feveral learned wqrks, was
born about the year 1710. He was educated at Wad-
ham College, Oxford ; and took the degree of M. A.
in 1733. The firft ecclefiaftical fituation in which he
was placed was that of curate of Ifiip in Oxfordfhire.
In 1747 he publiftied, in 8vo, Some Obfervations tend¬
ing to illuftrate the Book of Job. In-1750 he pub-
lilhed Two Diflertations: I. On the 'meaning of the
Word Kejitah, mentioned in Job, chap. xlii. ver. 11.
II. On the Signification of the Word. Hermes. In 1 75s
he publifhed, in 8vo, at Oxford, Dijfertatienesll. Critico-
Sacr/e, quarumprima explicatur Ezek. xiii. 18. Altera vero,
2 Reg. x. 22. In 1755 he wrote a letter to Dr Birch,
which is preferred in the Britifti Mufeum, refpe6ling the
meaning of the phrafe fphara barlarica. Some time after
thishe undertook to publifhafecond editionof Dr Hyde’s
Hifloria Religieuis veterum Perjarum, eorumque Magorum}.
and which was accordingly printed, under his infpec-
tion, and with his correftions, at the Clarendon Prefs
at Oxford, in 4to, in 1760. Mr Coftard’s extenfive
learning having now recommended him to the notice
of Lord Chancellor Northington, he obtained, by the
favour of that nobleman, in June 1764, the vicarage
of Twickenham in Middlefex; in which fituation he
continued till his death. In 1767 he publiftied, in one
volume quarto. The Hiftory of Aftronomy, with its
application to Geography, Hiftory, and Chronology;;
acca-
COS [ 4-36 ] COT
Coftivenefs; occafionally exemplified by the Globes. This work
Collus w as chiefly inten^e<l f°r tke ufe of ftudents, and con-
^ ' tains a full and diftinft view of the feveral improve¬
ments made in geography and aftronomy. Mr Coftard
has fhown, “ by a gradual deduftion, at what time, and
by whom, the principal difcoveries have been made in
geography and aftronomy ; how each difcovery has
paved the way to what followed; and by what eafy
ileps, through the revolution of fo many ages, thefe
very ufeful fciences have advanced towards their pre-
fent ftate of perfe&ion.” In 1778 he publifhed, in 8vo,
A Letter to Nathaniel Braffey Halhead, Efq; contain¬
ing fome Remarks on his Preface to the Code of Gentoo
Laws. This appears to have been the laft of his pub¬
lications. It contains fome criticifms which were in¬
tended to invalidate the opinion which Mr Halhead had
conceived concerning the great antiquity of the Gentoo
laws; and fome arguments againft a notion which had
been adopted by feveral writers, drawn from the obfer-
vation of natural phenomena, that the world is far more
ancient than it is reprefented to be by the Hebrew
chronology. Mr Coftard died on the xoth of January
1782. He was a man of uncommon learning, and emi¬
nently Ikilled in Grecian and oriental literature. His
private character was amiable, and he was much rer
fpe&ed in the neighbourhood in which he lived for his
humanity and benevolence.—Befides the works already
mentioned, he wrote fome others; and was alfo the
author of learned papers, inferted in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions, on aftronomical and chronological fub-
jefts.
COSTIVENESS, a preternatural detention of the
feces, with an unufual drynefs and hardnefs thereof,
and thence a fupprefiion of their evacuation. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
COSTMARY, the Englifti name of a fpecies of
tanfy. See Tanacetum.
COSTS, in law, imply the expences of a fuit reco¬
vered by the plaintiff, together with damages. Cofts
were not allowed by the common law, the amerce¬
ment of the vanquiflied party being his only punifti-
* BUdft. ment; but they are given by ftatute *. Cofts are al-
Comment. lowed ,in chancery for failing to make anfwer to a bill
-399, exhibited, or making an infufficient anfwer : and if a
firft anfwer be certified by a mafter to be infufficient,
the defendant is to pay 40s.; 3I. for a fecond infuffi¬
cient anfwer; 4I. for a third, &c. But if the anfwer
be reported good, the plaintiff ftiall pay the defendant
40 s. cofts.
COSTUME, a rule or precept in painting, by which
the artift is enjoined to make every perfon and thing
fuftain its proper character, and not only obferve the
ftory, but the circumftances, the fcene of adlion, the
country or place, and take care that the habits, arms,
manners, proportions, and the like, exa&ly corre-
fpond.
COSTUS, in botany: A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the eighth or¬
der, Scitaminea. The corolla is interior, inflated, and
ringent, with the under lip trifid. There is but one
fpecies., vi%. the arabicus, a native of the Indies. The
root was formerly in fome efteem as an attenuant, and
ferviceable in venereal complaints; but it is now rarely
prefcribed or met with in the fhops.
COTA (Rodriguez), a Spanifh poet in the i&h Cota
century, was the author of the Tragi-comedia dt Caltjlo M .
y Melibea, which has been tranflated into Latin by Coterie’
Gafpar Barthius, and into French by James de La-
vardin. The Spaniards fet a grdat value on this per¬
formance.
CO-TANGENT, the tangent of an arch which is
the complement of another to 90°. See Geometry.
COTBUS, a town of Germany in Lower Luface.
It is a ftrong important place, and has been fubjedt to
the king of Pruffia ever fince the year 1645. It is
feated on the river Spree; 60 miles fouth-by-eaft of
Berlin, and 55 fouth-eaft of Wirtemberg. Here are
a great number of French Proteftants, who have intro¬
duced manufatfures; and this place is noted for excel¬
lent beer, pitch, and the cultivation of flax. E. Long.
15. 29. N. Lat. 51. 40. .
COTE, a term ufed in courfing, to exprefs the ad¬
vantage one greyhound has over another when he runs
by the fide of it, and, putting before it, gives the hare
a turn. See Coursing.
CoTE-Gare, a kind of refufe wool, fo clung or clot¬
ted together that it cannot be pulled afunder. By
13 Rich. II. ftat. 1. c. 9. it is provided, that neither
denizen or foreigner make any other refufe of wools
but cote-gare and villein. So the printed ftatute has
it; but in the parliament-roll of that year it is cod-land
and villein. Cot, or cote, fignifies as much as cottage
in many places, and was fo ufed by the-Saxons accord¬
ing to Verftegan.
COTELERIUS (John Baptift), fellow of the Sor-
bonne, and king’s Greek profeffor, was born at Nif-
mes in Languedoc in 1627. He made a collettion of
the fathers who lived in the apoftolic age, which he
publilhed at Paris in two volumes folia in 1672 ; all
reviewed and corre&ed from feveral MSS. with a Latin
tranflation and notes. He alfo publifhed Monumenta
Ecclejta Gneca, in 3 vols; being a collection of Greek
trafts out of the king’s and M. Colbert’s libraries, and
which had never been publjftied before: to thefe he
added a Latin tranflation and notes. He intended a
farther profecution of this work ; but his intenfe ftu-
dies broke his conftitution, and deprived him of life
in 1686. Befides his great /kill in languages and ec-
clefiaftical antiquities, Cotelerius was remarkable for
his probity and candour.
COTERELLUS. Cotarius, and cater ell us, accord¬
ing to Spelman and Du Frefne, are fervile tenant# j
but in Doomfday and other ancient MSS. there ap¬
pears a diftinftion, as well in their tenure and quality
as in their name : for the cotarius hath a free foccage
tenure, and paid a ftated firm or rent in proviiions or
money, with fome occafional cuftomary fervices; where¬
as the coterellus feems to have held in mere viflenage,
and his perfon, iffue, and goods, were difpofable at
the pleafure of the lord.
COTERIE, a term adopted from the French tra¬
ding affociations or partnerfhips, where each perfon
advances his quota of ftock and receives his proportion
of gain ; and which retains its original meaning when
applied to little affemblies or companies affociated for
mirth and good humour, where each one furnifhes his
quota of pleafantry. Here they coin new words not un-
derttood elfewhere, but which it becomes fafhionable
for others to ufe ; and they are thought ridiculous who
2 arc#
COT [ 487 1 COT
Cofe* are ignorant of them. It has been ufed of late to fig-
II nify a club of ladies.
Cott- , COTES (Roger), an excellent mathematician of
' the 18th century. He early difcovered an inclination
to the mathematics ; and at 17 years of age was ad¬
mitted a penfioner of Trinity College, Cambridge. In
1706 he was appointed profeffor of aftronomy in the
profeflbrfhip founded by Dr Plume archdeacon of Ro-
chefter, being chofen the firll in that chair for his great
merit and learning. In the year 1713, at the requeft
of Dr Richard Bentley, he published at Cambridge,
in 4to, a fecond edition of Sir Ifaac Newton’s Princi-
pia, with'all the improvements which the author had
annexed thereto ; to which he prefixed an excellent
Preface. He prepared feveral ufeful books for the
public ; and wrote A Defcription of the great Meteor
which appeared on the 6th of March 1716, publilhed
in the Philofophical Tranfahtions. He lived but a
little while to carry on the difcourfes for which he
was eminently qualified ; dying in the prime of his
age in 1716, to the great regret of all the lovers of
the fciences.
COTESWOLD, feveral Iheep-cotes, and fheep
feeding on hills. It comes from the Saxon cote, i. e.
cafa, “ a cottage,” and wold, “ a place where there is
no wood.”
* COTHURNUS, Buskin, a very high fhoe or
patten railed on foals of cork, wore by the ancient ac¬
tors in tragedy to make them appear taller and more
like the heroes they reprefented ; moft of whom were
fuppofed to be giants. It covered the greateft part of
the leg, and was tied beneath the knee. jEfchylus is
faid to have invented the cothurnus. See Buskin.
COTICE , or Cotise', in heraldry, is the fourth
part of the bend; which with us is feldom or ever
borne but in couples, with a bend between them :
whence probably the name ; from the French cote,
“ fide;” they being borne, as it were, a-lide of the
bend.—A bend thus bordered is faid to be cotifed, cotice.
He bears fable on a bend cotifed argent three cinque¬
foils.
COTILLON, the name of a well-known brilk
dance, in which eight perfons are employed. The term
is French, and fignifies an under-petticoat.
COTRONE, a town in the Hither Calabria, Hand¬
ing on the fite of the ancient Croton, though not oc¬
cupying the fame extent of ground: (See Croton).
It is fortified with fingle walls, and a caftle created by
Charles V. Its private buildings are poor and fordid,
the ftreets difmal and narrow. Cheefe and corn are
the principle commodities. For the llowage of corn,
there are ranges of granaries in the fuburbs ; and the
annual export is about 200,000 tomoti. The cheefe
is tolerably good; but has a great deal of that hot
acrid tafte fo common to all cheefe made with goats
milk. The wine is not unpleafant, and appears fuf-
ceptible of improvement by better management in the
making and keeping.
COTT, a particular fort of bed-frame, fufpended
from the beams of a {hip for the officers to deep in
between the decks. This contrivance is much more
convenient at fea than either the hammocks or fixed
Cabins ; being a large piece of canvas fewed into the
form of a cheft, about fix feet long, one foot deep,
and from two to three feet wide. It is extended by a
iquare wooden frame with a canvas bottom, equal to Cottage,
its length and breadth, to retain it in an horizontal Cottnn'
pofition. v
COTTAGE, Cottagium, is properly a little
houfe for habitation without lands belonging to it j
Hat. 4. Edw. I. But by a later ftatute, 31 Eliz. c. 7.
no man may build a cottage unlefs he lay four acres of
land thereto ; except it be in market-towns or cities,
or within a mile of the fea, or for the habitation of
labourers in mines, failors, forelters, fhepherds, &c.
and cottages erefted by order of juftices of peace for
poor impotent people are excepted out of the ftatute.
The four acres of land to make it a cottage within the
law are to be freehold, and land of inheritance ; and
four acres holden by copy, or for life or lives, or for
any number of years, will not be fufficient to make a
lawful cottage.
COTTON, in commerce, a foft downy fubftance
found on the goffypium, or cotton-tree. See Gossy-
pium.
Cotton is feparated from the feeds of the plant by
a mill, and then fpun and prepared for all forts of fine
works, as {lockings, waiftcoats, quilts, tapeftry, cur¬
tains, &c. With it they likewife make muffin ; and
fometimes it is mixed with wool, fometimes with filk,
and even with gold itfelf.
The fineft fort comes from Bengal and the coaft of
Coromandel.
Cotton makes a very confiderable article in com¬
merce, and is diftinguiftied into cotton-wool and cotton-
thread. The firft is brought moftly from Cyprus, St
John d’Arce, and Smyrna: the moft efteemed is white,
long, and foft. Thofe who buy it in bales ffiould fee
that it has not been wet, moillure [being very prejudi¬
cial to it.
Of cotton-thread, that of Damas, called cotton d’ounce,
and that of Jerufalem, called la-zas, are the moft efteem¬
ed ; as alfo that of the Weft India iflands. It is to be
chofen white, fine, very dry, and evenly fpun. The
other cotton-threads are the half bazas, the rames, the
beledin, and gondezel; the payas and montafiri, the
geneguins, the baquins, the joflelaffars, of which there
are two forts. Thofe of India, known by the name of
Tutucorin, Java, Bengal, and Surat, are of four or
five forts, diilinguiffied by the letters A, B, C, &c.
They are fold in bags, with a deduction of one pound
and a half on each of thofe of Tutucorin, which are
the deareft, and two pounds on each bag of the other
forts. For thofe of Fielebas, Smyrna, Aleppo, and
Jerufalem, the deduclion at Amfterdam is eight in
the hundred for the tare, and two in the hundred
for weight, and on the value one per cent, for prompt
payment.
Cotton of Siam, is a kind of filky cotton in the An¬
tilles, fo called becaufe the grain was brought from
Siam. It is of an extraordinary finenefs, even furpaf-
fing filk in foftnefs. They make hofe of it there pre¬
ferable to filk ones for their luftre and beauty. They
fell from 1 o to 12 and 15 crowns a pair, but there are
very few made unlefs for curiofity.
The manner of packing Cotton as praBifed in the
Antilles. The bags are made of coarfe cloth, of which
they take three ells and a half each; the breadth is
one ell three inches. When the bag has been well
foaked in water, they hang it up, extending the mouth
of
COT L 488 1 COT
Cotton, of it to crofs pieces of timber nailed to polls fixed in
    the ground feven or eight feet high. He who packs
it goes into the bag, which is fix feet nine inches deep,
‘ or thereabouts, and prefles down the cotton, which an¬
other hands him, with hands and feet; obftrang to
tread it equally every where, and putting in but little
at a time. The beft time of packing is in rainy moilt
weather, provided the cotton be under cover. I he
bag fhould contain from 300 to 320 pounds. The tare
abated in the Antilles is three in the hundred. Cotton
being a produftion applicable to a great variety of ma¬
nufactures, it cannot be too much cultivated in our own
plantations that will admit of it. r c .
Cotton-Spinning, the art or procefs of reducing
cotton-wool into yarn or thread.
The mofl fimple method for this pnrpofe, and the
only one in ufe for a long time in this country, was
bv the hand upon the well-known domeftic macnine call¬
ed a one-thread wheel But as the demand for cotton-
goods began to increafe-, other inventions were thought
of for expediting this part of the manufacture. About
56 years ago, one Paul and others of London con-
trived an engine for a more eafy and expeditious me¬
thod of fpinning cotton, and for which they obtained
a patent; but the undertaking did not prove fuccefs-
ful. Some years thereafter, various machines were con-
ftrufted by different perfons for facilitating the fpinning
of cotton; but without producing any very material
or lafting advantage. At length, about the year 1767,
Mr James Hargrave, a weaver in the neighbourhood
of Blackburn in Lancalhire, conftrufted a machine by
which a great number of threads (from 20 to 80) might
be fpun at once, and for which he obtained his Majeffy^s
letters-patent. This machine is called a Jenny, and is
the bell contrivance for fpinning woof ov jhute that has
hitherto appeared. It is now commonly conllruaed
for 84 threads; and with it one perfon can fpm 100
Englifh hanks in the day, each hank containing 840
^ Warding of cotton, as a preparation for fpinning,
ufed formerly to be performed by the hand, with a
fingle pair of cards, upon the knee : but this being a
tedious method, ill fuited to the rapid operations of
the new fpinning machines, other methods were con¬
trived for affording 4 quicker and more adequate fup-
ply. The firft improvement for this purpofe was
Jikewife made by Mr Hargrave; and confiited m ap¬
plying two or three cards to the fame board, and fix¬
ing them to a ftool or Hock; whence they obtained the
name of flock-cards. With thefe, one woman could
perform two or three times as much work, as fire could
do before in the common way. A Hill more expe¬
ditious method of carding, however, by what are com¬
monly called cylinder-cards, was foon afterwards in¬
vented, and is that which is now moll commonly prac-
tifed: but as feveral perfons lay claim to this inven¬
tion, it is not eafy to determine to whom in particular
the merit of it is due.
The next and moft capital improvements which this
branch of manufacture received were from Mr Ark¬
wright, a native of Lancalhire, now Sir Richard Ark¬
wright of Cromford in Derbylhire. He firft brought
forward his new method of fpinning cotton in 1768,
for which he obtained a patent in 17695 ^*e after*
wards, in 1775, obtained a patent for engines which
ISP93.
he had conftru&ed to prepare the materials for fpin- Cottd*.
ning: though-one of thefe patents, being challenged
at law, was fet afide fome years before it expired.
The refult of Mr Arkwright’s different inventions and ?
improvements is a combination of machinery, by which
cotton is carded, roved, and fpun, with the utmoft ex-
aChiefs and equality ; and fuch a degree of perfection
attained in fpinning warp, as is not to be equalled in
any other part of the world. To thefe improve¬
ments this country is entirely indebted for the great
extent of its cotton manufactures; large buildings
having been ereded for that branch both in England
and Scotland, many of which contain feveral thou-
fands of fpindles, each driven by one or more large
water-wheels; and fome of fuch extent as to fpin at
the rate of one thoufand yards of twill or warp yarn
in the minute.
Other machines have been invented at different times,
and a variety of improvements made by different mecha¬
nics and manufacturers; one of which in particular we
mull not omit to mention. It is called a Mule, being a
kind ofmixture of machinery between the war^-machine
of Mr Arkwright and the woo/'-machine or hand-jenny
of Mr Hargrave ; and was alfo invented in Lancalhire.
This machine bids fair to be of great ufe in fpinning
cotton yarn for mullins to a degree of finenefs never
before known in this country, being nearly equal in •
quality to thofe ufually brought from India.
Cotton Mills, are large buildings with peculiar ma¬
chinery for carding, roving, and fpinning cotton : (fee
the preceding article.)—Thefe were entirely unknown in
this country before the different inventions and improve¬
ments of Meffrs Arkwright and Hargrave; fince which
time great numbers have been erefted in England, and
feverjd in Scotland.
The firft ereCtions of the kind were by Meffrs Ark¬
wright and Hargrave, both in the town of Notting¬
ham, and both nearly at the fame time. The engines
were then driven by horfes : but fince that, time they
have been chiefly ereCted upon water-falls in different
parts of the country ; particularly the warp machines,
which are better adapted for being driven by water
than any other. The moft extenfive of thefe is in the
village and neighbourhood of Cromford in Derbylhire,
and under the immediate infpeCtion of Sir Richard
Arkwright. The firft that was ereCted in Scotland
was for Mr Peter Brotherfton, under the infpeClion
and direction of Mr John Hackett from Nottingham ;
and is in the neighbourhood of Pennycuick near Edin¬
burgh.- Since which time feveral have been ereCled in
the neighbourhood of Glafgow, Pailley, Lanark,
Perth, &e.-
General State of the Cotton Manufactory. The fa¬
cilities which the manufacturers of Great Britain had
fudderjy acquired, and the immtnfe capitals which
they have fo recently laid out in expenfxve machinery
and other heavy eftabiilhinents for carrying, on the
cotton trade, are unparalleled in the annals of the
world. Above one hundred and forty cotton-mills are
now built in Great Britain, of which nearly two-thirds
have been ereCted within thefe feven years. Befides
thefe, there are above 20,500 hand-mills or jennies for
fpinning the ihute for the twifted yarn fpun by the
water-mills. .
Above a million of money was, within this time,
. funk
COT
funk m mills, hand engines, and other machines, in-
eluding the grounds and necefl'ary buildings.
Expence of water-mills, - E. 715,000 o o
Ditto of hand-jennies, houfes, build¬
ings, and auxiliary machinery,
fuppofed at leait, - 285,000 0 o
Total, - L. 1,000,000 o o
A power had been alfo created of working nearly
two million of fpindles ; and men, women, and chil¬
dren were trained to this bufinefs, capable of carrying the
cotton manufa&ure almoft to any extent. In 1787,
the power of fpindles capable of being worked was efti-
mated as follows :
In the water-mills, - - 286,000
In the jennies, - - 1,665,100
Totalfpindles, 1,951,100
In the branches applicable to muflin and callico, it
[ 489 1
GOT
extended to the value of L. 15 ; yielding a return of Cotton.
5,900 per cent, on the raw material. ■r~mi
But the Hate of the raw materials, and the progref-.
five and aftonifhing increafe of this manufa&ure, will
be bell explained by what follows :
Cotton Wool lift'd in Sitppofed Value when
the Manufacture. manufactured.
*781, lb. 5,101,920 L.2,000,000
1782, 11,206,810 3,900,000
1783> 9>546»i79 3,200,000
1784, 11,280,238 3,950,000
1785, 17,992,888 6,000,000
1786, 19,151,867 6,500,000
1787, 22,600,000 7,500,000
Such was the progrefs of the Britifh cotton mand-
fa&orytill 1787 ; when, with eftablilhments and mecha¬
nical powers capable of bringing forward immenfe
quantities of goods into the conlumption, this manu-
fa&ure was checked by a great and fudden redu&ion
was calculated that employment was given to 100,000 of the prices of Eaft India goods of the fame fpeciea,
 .... x   1 .. 1. a ^.  1. -i j    .. r ...u- u   r_u   ... . * .
men and women, and at lead 60,000 children ; many of
the latter having been taken from different parifhes and
hofpitals in Great Britain.
The quantity of the raw material of cotton wool
confumed in this manufa&ure, which did not a-
mount to 6,000,000 lb. in 1781, and was only about
11,000,000 lb. fix years ago, had amounted in the
year 1787 to the enormous height of 22,000,000lb.
and upwards ; and the attoniihing rapidity of this in¬
creafe is in fome meafure to be attributed to the exten-
fion of thefe branches to the goods of India, particu¬
larly the callicoes and muflins.
Britifh callicoes were firfl made in Lancafhire about
which were fold above 20 per cent, on an average 1
der the lowed prices at which the Britifh manufafturer
can afford to fell without lofs.
This condu6t in the Ead India Company quickly
operated to the great prejudice of the Britifh manu-
fa&ures ; and there is no faying how far thefe might
be reduced, fhould that company be allowed to
prefs goods upon the market at prices which have no
relation to the original cod, and under circumdances
where the jud laws of competition cannot operate, and
where every idea of prote&ing-duties is annihilated in
the effect of the general fydera.
It is believed, however, that the home-matrufafture
the year 1772, but the progrefs was flow till within of this article, in all its different branches, has of late
thefe laft 12 years. The quantity manufactured has revived, and is likely to be carried on with greater ad-
fince extended from about 50,000 to 1,000,000 of vantage to the manufacturer than ever it was before.
pieces made in the courfe of a Angle year.
Britifh muffins were not fucceisfully introduced un¬
til the year 1781, and were carried to no great extent
until 1785, after which period the progrels during two
yearsdiecame rapid beyond all example. The acquifkion
of cotton wool of a fuperiot quality from Demerara
and the Brazils, and the improvements made in the
fpinning fine yarns upon the mule jennies, had given a
fpring to this branch of the cotton manufa&ory, which
extended it beyond what it was poflxble to have con¬
ceived. Above half a million pieces of muflin of dif¬
ferent kinds, including fhawls and handkerchiefs, were
computed to be annually made in Great Britain ; while
the quantity not only increafed daily with the new ac- A , I    HHHJ
ceffion of powers that were burftrng forth upon the him a baronet. He wrote many things himfelf; but
country, but the quality was exceedingly improved ; and our principal obligations to him are for his valuable li-
Lavender Cotton. See Santolina
Phtlofophlc Cotton, a name given to the flowers of
zinc, on account of their white colour and refemblance
to cotton.
L/ax made to refemble Cotton. See Flax.
Silk Cotton. See Bombax.
CoTTON-lVeed. See Gmaphalium.
Cotton (Sir Robert), a moft eminent Englifh an¬
tiquarian, defeended from an ancient family, was born
in 1570. In his 18th year he began to colled ancient
records, charters, and other MSS. Camden, Selden,
and Speed, acknowledged their obligations to him
in their refpedive works. He was highly diftinguifh-
ed by queen Elizabeth, and by James I. who created
Cnee a yearly fupply of about 300 bales of Eaft Indian
cotton has been obtained by the way of Oftend, yarns
have been fpun, and muflins have been wove, equal to
any from India. Nothing, therefore, but a fine
brary, confifting of curious manuferipts, &c. which
he was forty ye^rs in colle&ing. At his death in 1631*
he left the property of it to his family, though de-
figned for public ufe. A large acceflion was made .to
mateiial appeared wanting to enable the Britifh manu- this library by private benefa&ions before the death of
fadurer to carry this branch to the greateft extent ;
and, of all others, it is that fpecies of cotton goods
which deferves moft to be encouraged, bccaufe of the
immenfe return it makes for labour more than any'
other branch of the cotton manufadory. Eaft India
cotton wool has been fpun into one pound of yarn
worth five guineas; and when wove into muflin, and
afterwards ornamented by children in the tambour, has fixed
Vol. V. Part II.
the founder, and afterwards by the purchafes of his
heirs, and donations of others, who added to it a great
number of books, chiefly relating to the hiftory and
antiquities of our own nation. An ad of parliament
was obtained, at the requeft of Sir John Cotton, in
1700, for preferring it after his deceafe, under the
above denomination, for public ufe. It is now
1 the Britifh Mufeum.
3 Q.
For ftatutes relating;
COT [ 490 ] COT
Cotton to it, fee 12 and 13 W. III. c. 5. and 5 Anne,
H cap. 30.
Cottus Cotton (Charles), a burlefque poet, was defcended
of a good family, and lived in the reigns of Charles II.
and James II. His moft celebrated piece is Scarroni-
des, or Travejlte of the firft'and fourth books of the
^Eneid. But though, from the title, one would be
apt to imagine it an imitation of Scarron’s famous
Traveftie of the fame author, yet, upon examination,
it would be found greatly to excel not only that, but
every other attempt of the fame kind that hath been
hitherto made in any language. He has alfo tranflated
feveral of Lucian’s dialogues, in the fame manner, un¬
der the title of the Scoffer Scoff’d}—and written an¬
other poem of a more ferious kind, entitled the IVon-
ders of the Peak. The exadl period of either Mr
Cotton’s birth or his death, is no-where recorded;
but it is probable the latter happened about the time
of the revolution. Neither is it better known what
his circumftances were with refpeft to fortune; they
appear, however, to have been eafy, if one may judge
from the turn of his writings, which is fuch as feems
fcarcely poffible for any one to indulge whofe mind
was not perfedtly at eafe. Yet there is one anecdote
told of him, which feems to (how that his vein of hu¬
mour could not reftrain itfelf on any confideration,
viz. that in confequence of a fingle couplet in his Vir¬
gil Travejlie, wherein he has made mention of a pe¬
culiar kind of ruff worn by a grandmother of his who
lived in the Peak, he loft an eftate of L.400 per an¬
num ; the old lady, whofe humour and tefty difpofi-
tion he could by no means have been a ftranger to,
being never able to forgive the liberty he had taken
with her; and having her fortune wholly at her dif-
pofal, although fhe had before made him her foie heir,
altered her will, and gave it away to an abfolute
ftranger.
COTTUS, or Bull-head, in ichthyology, a ge¬
nus belonging to the order of thoracici. The head is
broader than the body, and the gill-membrane has fix
rays. There are fix fpecies; the mqft remarkable
are,
1. The gobio, or river-bull head, is very common
in all our clear brooks: it lies almoft always at the
bottom, either on the gravel or under a ftone : it de-
pofits its fpawn in a hole which it forms among the
gravel, and quits it with great relu&ance. It feeds on
water infedls. This filh feldom exceeds the length of
three inches and an half; the head is large, broad,
flat, and ihin at ks circumference, being well adapted
for infinuating itfelf under ftones: on the middle part
of the covers of the gills is a fmall crooked fpine turn¬
ing inwards. The eyes are very fmall: the irides
yellow : the body grows llender towards the tail, and
is very fmooth. The colour of this fifh is as difagree-
able as its form, being duiky, mixed with a dirty yel¬
low ; the belly is whitifh. The take, however, is ex-
eellent.
2. The cataphraftus, armed bull-head, or pogge, is
very common on moft of the Britkh coafts. It feldom
exceeds five i.iches and an half in length; and even,
feldom arrives at that fize. The head is large, bony,
and very rugged: the end of the note is armed with
four (hort uprigst fpines: on the throat are a number
of ftiort white bearas : the body is odtogoeal, ana co¬
vered with a number of ftrong bony crufts, divided Co tula
into feveral compartments, the ends of which projedl „ &
into a lharp point, and form feveral echinated lines ]
along the bock and fides frdm the head to the tail.
3. The fcorpius, or father-lalher, is not uncommon
on the rocky coafts of thisifland; it lurks under ftones,
and will take a bait. It feldom exceeds 8 or 9 inches
in length. The head is large, and has a moft formi¬
dable appearance, being armed with vaft fpines, which
it can oppofe to any enemy that attacks it, by fwelling
out its cheeks and gill-covers to a large fize. The nofe
and fpace contiguous to the eyes are furnifhed with
ftiort lharp fpiries ; the covers of the gills are terminated
by exceeding long ones, which are both ttrong and very
fharp pointed. The mouth is large ; the jaws covered
with very fmall teeth ; the roof of the mouth is furnhh-
ed with a triangular fpot of very minute teeth. This
fpecies is veryfrequent in the Newfoundland feas, where
it is called fcolping : it is alfo as common on the coaft of
Greenland, in deep water near the ftiore. It is a prin¬
cipal food of the natives, and the foup made of it is
faid to be agreeable as well as wholefome.
COTULA, may-wekd : A genus of the polyga-
mia fuperfiua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants. The receptacle is almoft naked; the pap¬
pus marginated ; the florets of the difc quadrifid ; of
the radius frequently none. There are fix fpecies, all
of them herbaceous annuals, rifing fix or eight inches
high, and adorned with yellow flowers. There are
none of them natives of this country, and moft of them
require artificial heat.
Cotula, or Cotyla, a liquid meafure in ufe among
the ancients.
Fannius fays, the cotyla was the fame thing with the
hemina, which was half a fextary.
At cotyla*, guas ft placed, dixlffe licebit
Heminas, recepit geminas fextrrrias unus.
Chorier obferves, that the cotyla was ufed as a dry
meafure as well as a liquid one; from the authority of
Thucydides, who in one place mentions two cotylas of
wine, and in another two cotylae of bread.
COTURNIX, in ornithology. See Tetrao.
COTYLEDON, navel-wort ; a genus of the
pentagynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
13th order, Succulenta. The calyx is quinquefid ; the
corolla monopetalous; there are five nectariferous
fcales at the bafe of the germen, and five capfules.
There are eight fpecies, moft of them hardy'fucculent
perennials ; though feme require to be kept in a ftove,
as being natives of warm climates ' They rife from
half a foot to a yard and an half high, and are adorn¬
ed with yellow flowers growing in umbels. They are
eafily propagated either by feed or cuttings of their
branches.
COTYLEDONES, in anatomy, are certain glan¬
dular bodies, adhering to the chorion of fome animals.
Cotyledones, in botany, the perilhable porous
fide-lobes of the feed, which involve, and for fome
time furnifti nouriihment to, the embryo plant. See
Botany, p 435.
COTYTTO, the goddefs of all debauchery. Her
feftivals called Cotyttia were celebrated by the Athe¬
nians, Corinthians, Thracians, &c. during the night.
Her priefts were called bapta} and nothing but debau¬
chery
C O V E 491 J C O V
Couch cliery and wantonnnefs prevailed at the celebration. A
II feftival of the fame name was obferved in Sicily, where
. 0Vl'nan ’ the votaries of the goddefs carried about boughs hung
with cakes and fruit, which it was lawful for any per*
fon to pluck off. It was a capital punifhment to re¬
veal whatever was feen or done at thefe facred fefti-
vals. It coft Eupolis his life for an unfeafonable re-
fleftion upon them. The goddefs Cotytto is fuppofed
to be the fame as Proferpine,
COUCH, in painting, denotes a lay, or impref-
fion of colour, whether in oil or water, wherewith the
painter covers his canvas, wall, wainfcot, or other
matter to be painted.
The word is alfo ufed for a lay or impreffion on any
thing, to make it firm and confiftent, or to fcreen it
from the weather.
Paintings are covered with a couch of varnifh ; a
canvas to be painted muff firft have two couches of
fize, before the colours be laid ; two or three couches
of white lead are laid on wood, before the couch of
gold be applied: the leather-gilders lay a couch of
water and whites of eggs on the leather, before they
apply the gold 01 filver leaf.
The gold wire-drawers alfo ufe the word couch for
the gold or filver leaf wherewith they cover the mafs
to be gilded or filvered, before they draw it through
the iron that is to give it its proper thicknefs.
The gilders ufe couch for the quantity of gold or
filver leaves applied on the metals in gilding or filver-
ing. Each couch of gold is but one leaf, or two at
moft, and each of filver three to gild : if the gilding
be hatched, there are required from eight to twelve
couches; and only three or four if it be without
hatching. To filver there are required from four to
ten couches, according to the beauty of the work.
CovcH-Grafs,in botany. See Triticum.
COUCH ANT, in heraldry, is underftood of a lion,
or other beaff, when lying down, but with his head
faifed; which diitinguilhes the pofture of couchant
from dormant, wherein he is fuppofed quite ftretched
out and afleep.
COUCHE, in heraldry, denotes any thing lying
along : thus, chevron-couche, is a chevron lying fide-
ways, with the two ends on each fide of the fliield,
which fliould properly reft on the bafe.
COUCHER, or Courcher, in our ftatutes, is
ufed for a fa&or, or one that continues in fome place
Or country for traffic ; as formerly in Gafcoign, for
the buying of wines. Anno 37. Edw. III. c. 16.
Coucher is alfo ufed for the general book in which
any religious houfe or corporation regifter their parti¬
cular afts. Anno 3 and 4. Edw. VI. c. 10,
COUCHING of a Cataract, in furgery. See
Surgery-/??</«c.
COVE, a fmall creek or bay, where boats and fmall
veffels may ride at anchor, Iheltered from the wind and
fea.
COVENAN r, in law, is the confent and agree¬
ment of two or more perfons to do, or not to do, fome
aft, or thing, contrafted between them. Alfo it is
the declaration the parties make, that they will Hand
to fuch agreement, relating to lands or other things ;
and is created by deed in writing, fealed and executed
by the parties, or otherwife it may be implied in the
contraft as incident thereto. And if the per Tons do
not perform their covenants, a writ or aftion of cove- Covenant,
nant is the remedy to recover damages for the breach Coventry-.
of them. v
Covenant, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, denotes a con-
traft or convention agreed to by the Scotch in the
year 1638, for maintaining their religion free from in¬
novation. In 1581, the general affembly of Scotland
drew up a confeflion of faith, or national covenant,
condemning epifcopal government, under the name of
hierarchy, which was figned by James I. and which he
enjoined on all his fubjefts. It was again fubfcribed
in 1590 and 1596. The fubfcription was renewed in
1638, and the fubfcribers engaged by oath to main¬
tain religion in the fame ftate as it was in 1580, and
to rejeft all innovations introduced fince that time.
This oath annexed to the confeffion of faith received
the name of the covenant ; as thofe who fubfcribed it
were called covenanters.
Covenant, in theology, is much ufed in connec¬
tion with other terms ; as, 1. The Covenant of Grace
is that which is made between God and thofe who be¬
lieve the gofpel, whereby they declare their fubjec-
tion to him, and he declares his acceptance of them
and favour to them. The gofpel is fometimes deno¬
minated a covenant of grace, in oppofition to the Mo-
faic law. 2. Covenant of Redemption denotes, a mutual
ftipulation, tacit or exprefs, between Chrift and the
Father, relating to the redemption of finners by him,
previous to any aft on Chrift’s part under the charac¬
ter of Mediator. 3. Covenant of Works fignifies, in
the langurge of fome divines, any covenant whereby
God requires perfeft obedience from his creatures, in
fuch a manner as to make no exprefs provifion for the
pardon of offences to be committed againft the pre¬
cepts of it, on the repentance of fuch fuppofed offend¬
ers, but pronounces a fentence of death upon ihem:
fuch, they fay, was the covenant made with Adam in
a ftate of innocence, and that made with Ifrael at
Mount Sinai.
Solemn League and Covenant, was eftablifhed in the
year 1643, and formed a bond of union between Scot¬
land and England. It was fworn and fubfcribed by
many in both nations 5 who hereby folemnly abjured
popery and prelacy, and combined together for their
mutual defence. It was approved by the parliament
and affembly at Weftminfter, and ratified by the ge¬
neral affembly of Scotland in tfi-ij. King Charles II.
difapproved of it when he furrendered himlglf to
the Scots army in 1646: but in 1650 he declared
his approbation both of this and the national covenant
by a folemn oath; and in Auguft of the fame year,
made a farther declaration at Dunfetmline to the fame
purpofe, which was alfo renewed on occafion of his
coronation at Scone in 1651. The covenant was ra¬
tified by parliament in this year, and the fubfcription
of it required by every member, ^without which- the
conftitution of the parliament was declared null and
void. It produced a feries of diitraftions in the fub-
fequent hiftory of that country, and was voted illegal
by parliament, and provifion made againft it. Stat. 14.
Car. II. c. 4.
slrk of the Covenant, in Jewilh antiquity. See Ark.
COVEN I RY, a town of Warwickftiire, in Eng¬
land, fituated in W. Long. r. 26. N. Lat. 52. 25. It
b an ancient place, and is fuppofed to derive its name
3 from
e o u [ 492 ] c o u
Coventry, from a cenvent formerly fituated here. Leofric,
* v earl of Mercia, who rebuilt the religious houfe after
it had been deftroyed by the Danes, and was lord
of the place about the year ) 040, is faid, upon fome
provocation, to have loaded them with heavy taxes.
Being importuned by his lady, Godiva, to remit them,,
he confented, upon condition that fhe (hould ride na¬
ked through the town, which he little imagined (lie
would ever comply with. But he found himfelf mif-
taken : for (he accepted the offer, and rode through
the town with her long hair fcattered all over her bo¬
dy; having fir-ft enjoined the citizens not to venture,
on pain of death, to look out as ihe paired. It is faid,
however, that a certain taylor could not help peep¬
ing ; and to this day there is an effigy of him at the
window whence he looked. To commemorate this
extraordinary trapfadlion, and out of refpect to the
memory of their patronefs, the citizens make a procef-
Jxon every year, with the figure of a naked woman
on horfeback. After Leofric’s death, the earls of
Chefter became lords of the city, and granted it many
privileges. At length it was annexed to the earldom
of Cornwall; and growing confiderable, had divers
immunities and privileges conferred upon it by feveral
kings; particularly that of a mayor and two bailiffs by
Edward III. ; and Henry VI. made it, in conjunftion
with fome other towns and villages, a diilintt county,
independent of the county of Warwick. But after¬
wards Edward IV. for their difioyalty, deprived them,
of their liberties, which were not reftored till they
had paid a fine of 500 merks. By a charter from
James I. an alderman is allotted to each ward, with
the powers of the juftices of the peace within the city
and its liberties. The walls were ordered to be de-
molifhe'd at the reftoration; and now nothing remains
of them but the gates, which are,very lofty. Coven¬
try is noted for the two parliaments which were held
iu it; the one called the parliament of Duncety and the
other of Devils. The former was fo called on account
of the cxclufion of the lawyers; and the attainders of
the duke of York, the earls of Saliffiury, Warwick,
and March, procured the other the epithet of Devils.
The town-houfe of Coventry is much admired for its
painted windows reprefenting feveral kings and others
that have been benefactors to the city. The chief ma-
cufadtures carried on here are temmies and ribbands,
Coventry fends two members to parliament, and gives
title of earl to an ancient family of the fame name.—
Coventry i? a biffiop’s fee. The bifhoprick is faid to
have been founded by Ofwy king of Mercia, in the
year 6$ 6 or 657 ; and although it hath a double name,
yet, like Bath and Wells, it is a fingle diocefe. It was
fo extremely wealthy, that king Offa, by the favour of
pope Adrian, conftituted it an archiepifcopal fee ; but
this title was laid afide on the death of that king. In
4075, Peter, the 34th biffiop, removed the fee to Che-
fter. In 1102, Robert de Limfey, his immediate fuc-
eelfor, removed it to Coventry; and Hugo Novant,
the 41ft biffiop, removed it back to Litchfield, but
with great oppofition from the monks of Coventry.
The difpute was finally fettled in a manner nearly fi-
milar to that which is mentioned between Bath and
Wells. Here it was agreed that the biffiop ffiould be
fiyled from both places, and that Coventry ffiould
have the precedence ; that they ffiould choofe the bi¬
ffiop alternately ; and that they ffiould both make one Co-verfe#
chapter to the biffiop, in which the prior of Coventry c U.
ffiould be the chief man. Matters continued thus till °^,a* j,
the Reformation, when the priory of Coventry be¬
ing difiblved by king Henry VIII. the ftyle of the bi¬
ffiop continued as before. But an a& of parliament
paffed, 33d of king Henry VIII. to make the dean
and chapter of Litchfield one foie chapter to the bi¬
ffiop. This fee hath given three faints to the church,
and to the nation one lord chancellor, three lord trea-
furers, three prefidents of Wales, one chancellor to the
univerfity of Cambridge, and one mailer of the Ward¬
robe. The old church built by king Ofwy being ta¬
ken down by Roger de Clinton, the 37th biffiop, he
built the beautiful fabric that now Hands in M48, and
dedicated it to the Virgin Mary and. St Chad. Du¬
ring the grand rebellion, the church fuffered much ;
but, foon after the Relloxation, it was repaired and
beautified. This diocefe contains the whole counties'
of Stafford and Derby (except two pariffies of the
former), the largeft part of Warwickffiire, and near
only one half of Shropffiire, in which are 555 parilhes,
of which 250 are impropriate. It hath four archdea¬
conries, viz. Stafford,Derby, Coventry, and Shrewlbury.
It is valued in, the king’s books at L.559: 18: 2J,
and is computed to be worth annually L. 2800. The
clergy’s tenth is L. 599 i 16: nj-. To this cathe¬
dral belong a biffiop, a dean, a precentor, a chancel¬
lor, a treafurer, four aj-chdeacoos, twenty-feven pre¬
bendaries, five prieft vicars, feven lay clerks, or fingingf
men, eight chorifters, and other under officers and
fervants.
CO-VERSED sine, in geometry, the remaining
part of the diameter of a circle, after the verfed fine
is taken from it. See Geometry.
COVERT, in law.—Feme Covert denotes a woman
married, and fo covered by, or under the proteftion of,
her hufband.
CorRm-way, or Corridor, in fortification, a fpace
of ground, level with the field on the edge of the ditch,
three or four fathoms broad, ranging quite round the
half moons and other works toward the country. It
has a parapet raifed on a level, together with its ban¬
quets and glacis. See Fortification.
COVERTURE, in law, is applied to the ftate and
condition of a married woman, who is under the power
of her huftand, and therefore called femme convert.
COUGH; in medicine. See (Index fubjoined to)
Medicine.
Cough, in farriery, See Farriery, § vi.
Cough, called the hulk, is a difeafe to whichyounj*
bullocks are fubjeft. In this diforder the wind-pipe
and its branches are loaded with fmall taper worms.
Farmers count the difeafe incurable ; but fumigations
with mercurials, as cinnabar, or with feetids, as tobac¬
co, might prove ferviceable.
COUHAGE, or stinking-beans ; a kind of kid¬
ney-beans imported from the Eaft Indies, where they
are ufed as a cure for the dropfy. The down growing
on the outfide of the pod is fo pointed as, like a nettle,
to fting the fieffi, though not with fo painful a fenfa-
tion. This, by a corruption of the word, is called
covuitch. The plant is a fpecies of Dolichos.
COVIN, a deceitful compaft or agreement between
two or more to deceive or prejudice a third perfon ;
As,
C O U [ 493 ] C O U
Coving. As, if a tfrant for life confpire with another, that this
Comnril ot^er recc)ver ^ancl which the tenant holds, in
i prejudice of him in reverfon. Dr Skinner takes the
word to be a corruption of the Latin eonventum, and
therefore writes it coven. See Conspiracy.
COVING, in building, is when houfes are built
proje&ing over the ground plot, and the turned pro-
jeftnre arched with timber, lathed and plaftered.
COVINUS, among the ancients, a kind of chariot,
in which the Gauls and Britons ufed to fight in battle*.
COUL, or Cowl. See Cowl.
COULTER, in hufbandry, an iron-inftrument,
fixed in the beam of a plough, and ferving to cut the
edge of each furrow. See Agriculture.
COUNCIL, or Counsel, in a general fenfe, an
aflembly of divers confiderable perfons to concert mea-
fures relative to the Hate.
In Britain, the law> in order to aflift the king in the
difcharge of his duties, the maintenance of his dignity,
and the exertion of his prerogative, hath afiigned him
a diverfity of councils to advife with.
1. The firft of thefe is the high court of parliament.
See Parliament.
2. The peers of the realm are by their birth here¬
ditary counfellors of the crown ; and may be called to¬
gether by the king, to impart their advice in all mat¬
ters of importance to the realm', either in time of par¬
liament, or, which hath been their principal ufe, when
there is no parliament in being. Accordingly, Brac-
ton, fpeaking of the nobility of his time, fays, they
might properly he called “ confules a confulendo ; re-
ges enim tales fibi alTociant ad confulendum.” And in
the law-books it is laid down, that the peers are crea¬
ted for two reafons : J. Jld confuhndum, 2. Ad defen-
dendum, regem : for which reafons the law gives them
certain great and high privileges; fuch as freedom
from arrdls, &c. even when no parliament is fitting;
becaufe the law intends, that they are always affifting
the king with their counfei for the common-wealth,
or keeping the realm in fafety by their prowefs and
valour.
Inftances of conventions of the peers, to advife the
king, have been in former times very frequent ; though
now fallen into difufe, by rcafon of the more regular
meetings of parliament. Sir Edward Coke gives us an
extraft of a record, 5 Henry IV. concerning an ex¬
change of lands between the king and the earl of Nor¬
thumberland, wherein the value of each was agreed
to be fettled by advice of parliament (if any fhould
be called before the feaft of St Lucia), or otherwife
by advice of the grand council of peers, which the king
promifes to afiemble before the faid feaft, in cafe no
JSlactJl. parliament (hall be called. Many other inftances of
Comment, this kind of meeting are to be found under our ancient
kings: though the formal mesimd of convoking them
had been fo long left off, that when king Charles I. in
1640, iffued out writs under the great feal, to call a
council of all the peers of England, to meet and attend
his majefty at York, previous to the meeting of the
long parliament, the earl of Clarendon mentions it as
a new invention, not before heard of; that is, as he
explains himfelf, fo old, that it had not been pra&ifed
in fume hundreds of years. But though there had not
for long before been an inftance, nor has there been
any fince, of affembling them in fo folemn a manner,
yet in cafes of emergency, our princes have at feveral
times thought proper to call for, and confult as many
of the nobility as could eafily be brought together:
as was particularly the cafe with king James II. after
the landing of the prince of Orange ; and with the
prince of Orange himfelf, before he called the conven¬
tion parliament which afterwards called him to the
throne.
Befides this general meeting, it is ufually looked
upon to be the right of each particular peer of the
realm, to demand an audience of the king, and to lay
before him with decency and refpedt fuch matters as
he (hall judge of importance to the public weal. And
therefore, in the reign of Edward II. it was made an
article of impeachment in parliament againft the two
Hugh Spencers, father and fon, for which they were
banifhed the kingdom, “ that they by their evil covin
would not fuffer the great men of the realm, the
king’s good counfellors, to fpeak with the king, or to
come near him ; but only in prefence and hearing of
faid Hugh the father and Hugh the fon, or one of
them, and at their will, and according to fuch things
as pkafed them.”
3- A third council belonging to the king, are, ac¬
cording to Sir Edward Coke, his judges of the courts
of law, for law-matters. And this appears frequently
in the Englifh ftatutes, particularly 14 Edward HI.
c. 5. and in other books of law. So that when the
king’s council is mentioned generally, it muft be de¬
fined, particularized, and underftood, fecundum fubjec-
tam materiem; “ according to the fubjetl matter:”
and if the fubjeft be of a legal nature, then by the
king’s council is underftood his council for matters of
law ; namely, his judges. Therefore, when by ftatute
16 Richard II. c. 5. it was made a high offence to im¬
port into England any papal bulls, or other pro*
ceffes from Rome ; and it was enafted, that the of¬
fenders fhould be attached by their bodies and
brought before the king and his council to anfwer for
fuch offence; here, by the expreffion of king’s council,
were underftood the king’s judges of his courts of juf-
tice, the fubjeft-matter being legal: this being the ge¬
neral way of interpreting the word council.
4. But the principal council belonging to the king
is his privy council, which is generally, by way of emi¬
nence, called the council. For an account of its confti-
tution and powers, fee the article Privy-Council.
Aidic Council. See Aulic.
Common Council, in the city of London, is a court1
wherein are made all bye-laws which bind the citizens.
It conlifts, like the parliament, of two houfes; an up¬
per compofed of the lord mayor and aldermen ; and a
lower, of a number of common-council men, chofen
by the feveral wards, as reprefentatives of the body of
the citizens.
Council of War, an affembly of the principal offi¬
cers of an army or fleet, occafionally called by the ge¬
neral or admiral to concert meafures for their condudfc
with regard to fieges, retreats, engagements, &c.
Council, in church-hiftory, an affembly of prelates
and do&ors, met for the regulating matters relating to
the doftrine or difeipline of the church.
National Council, is an affembly of prelates of a
nation under their primate or patriarch.
Oecumenical or General Council, is an affembly which
reprefen ta
C O U E 494 ] C O U
Council, feprefents the whole body of the univerfal church. The
,-Counfel. Roman;{ts reckon eighteen of them ; Bullinger, in his
' treatife de Conciliis, fix ; Dr Prideaux, feven ; and
bilhop Beveridge has increafed the number to eight,
which, he fays, are all the general councils which have
ever been held fince the time of the firft Chriftian em¬
peror. They are as follows: i. The council of Nice,
held in the reign of Conftantine the Great, on account
of the herefy of Arius. 2. The council of Conftan-
tinople, called under the reign and by the command of
Theodofius the Great, for much the fame end that the
former council was fummoned. 3. The council of
Ephefus, convened by Theodofius the younger at the
fuit of Neftorius. 4. The council of Calcedon, held
in the reign of Martianus, which approved of the Eu-
tychian herefy. 5. The fecond council of Conftanti*
nople, aflembled by the emperor Juttinian, condemned
the three chapters taken out of the book of Theodo*
rus of Mopfueftia, having firft. decided that it was law¬
ful to anathematize the dead. Some authors tell us,
that they likewife condemned the feveral errors of O-
rigen about the Trinity, the plurality of worlds, and
pre-exillence of fouls. 6. The third council of Con-
ftantinople, held by the command of Conftantius Po-
gonatus the emperor, in which they received the defi¬
nitions of the five firft general councils, and particularly
that againftOrigen and TheodorusofMopfueftia. y.The
fecond Nicene council. 8. The fourth council of Con-
ftantinople,aflembledwhenLouisII. was emperor of the
Weft. The regulations which they made are contained in
twenty-feven canons, the heads of which are fet down
by M. du Pin, to whom the reader is referred.
COUNSEL, in a general fenfe, fignifies advice or in-
ftru&ion how to behave in any difficult matter.
CoumEt., or Advocates, in Englilh courts of law, are
of two fpecies or degrees; Barristers and Ser¬
jeants. See thefe articles ; alfo Advocate.
From both thefe degrees fome are ufually fele&ed
to be his majefty’s counfel, learned in the law ; the two
principal of whom are called his attorney-general, and
folicitor general. The firft king’s counfel, under the de¬
gree of ferjeant, was Sir Francis Bacon, who was made
fo honoris caufa, without either patent or fee : fo that
the tirtt of the modern order (who are now the fworn
fervants of the crown, with a ftanding falary) feems to
have been Sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper
®f the Great Seal to king Charles II. Thefe king’s
counfel anfwer, inf >me degree, to the advocates of the
revenue, advocati Jifci, among the Romans. For they
muft not be employed*in any caufe againft the crown
without fpecial licence ; in which reftri&ion they agree
with the advocates of the fife : but, in the imperial
law, the prohibition was carried ftill farther, and per¬
haps was more for the dignity of the fovereign ; for,
excepting fome peculiar caufes, the filcal advocates
were not permitted to be at all concerned in private
Blaeijl. fuits between fubjetft and fubjeft. A cuftom has of
Comment, late years prevailed of granting letters patent of pre¬
cedence to fuch barrifters as the crown thinks proper
to honour with that mark of diftindtion : whereby they
are intitled to fuch rank and preaudience as are affign-
ed in their refpeftive patents; fometimes next after
the king’s attorney-general, but ufually next after his
majefty’s counfel next being. Thefe, as well as the
queen’s attorney and folicitor-general, rank promifeu-
oufly with the king’s counfel; and, together with Counfel
them, fit within the bar of their refpedtive courts : but Co[jnt
receive no falaries, and are not fworn ; and therefore j
are at liberty to be retained in caufes againft the crown.
And all other ferjeants and barrifters indiferiminately,
(except in the court of common-pleas, where only
ferjeants are admitted), may take upon them the pro-
tedlion and defence of any fuitors, whether plaintiff
or defendant; who are therefore called their clients;
like the dependents on the ancient Roman orators.
Thefe indeed pra&ifed gratis, for honour merely, or
at moft for the fake of gaining influence : and fo like¬
wife it is eftablifhed with us, that a counfel can main¬
tain no adtion for his fees ; which are given, not as
locatio vel conduBio, but as quiddam honorarium ; not as
a falary or hire, but as a mere gratuity, which a coun-
fellor cannot demand without doing wrong to his re¬
putation ; as is alfo laid down with regard to advocates
in the civil law, whofe honorarium was diredted, by a
decree of the fe.nate, not to exceed in any cafe 10,000
fefterces, or about L. 80 of Engliih money. And in
order to encourage due freedom of fpeech in the law¬
ful defence of their clients, and at the fame tirhe to
check the unfeemly licentioufnefs of proftitute and il¬
liberal men (a few of whom may fometimes infinuate
themfelves even into the moft honourable profeffions),
it hath been holden that a counfel is not anfwerable for
any matter by him fpoken, relative to the caufe in
hand, and fuggefted in the client’s inftrudtions; altho’
it ihould refled upon the reputation of another, and
even prove abfolutely groundlefs; but if he mentions
an untruth of his own invention, or even upon inftruc-
tions, if it be impertinent to the caufe in hand, he is
then liable to an adion from the party injured. And
counfel guilty of deceit and collufion are punifhable by
the ftatute Weftm- 1. 3 Edw. I. c. 28. with imprifon-
ment for a year and a day, and perpetual filence in the
courts : a puniihment ftill fometimes iaflided for grofs
mifdemeanours in pradice.
COUNSELLOR, in general, a perfon who advifes
another : thus we fay, a cou'nfellor at law, a privy
counfellor, &c.
.Counsellor at Law, a perfon retained by a client
to plead his caufe in a public court of judicature. See
Advocate, Barrister, Counsel, and Serjeant.
Privy-CouNSELLOR. See PRirr-Council,
COUNT, (Gome's), a nobleman who poffeffes a
domain efeded into a county. See Viscount.
Englifti and Scottifh counts we diftinguifh by the
title of earls; foreign ones ftill retain their proper
name. The dignity of a count is a medium between
that of a duke and a baron—According to the modern
ufe, moft plenipotentiaries and ambaffadors affume the
title of counts, though they have no county ; as the
count d’Avaux, &c.
Anciently, all generals, counfellors, judges, and fe-
eretaries of cities under Charlemagne, were called counts;
the diftinguiftiing charader of a duke and count be¬
ing this, that the latter had but one town under him,
but the former feveral.
A count has a right to bear on his arms a coronet,
adorned with three precious ftones, and furmounted
with three large pearls,, whereof thofe in the middle
and extremities of the coronet advance above the
reft.
Counts
C O U [ 495 ] c O U
Counts were originally lords of the court, or of ih«
J emperor’s retinue, and had their name comites, a comi-
tando, or a commeando: hence thofe who were always
in the palace, or at the emperor’s fide, were called
eounti palatine, or comites a latere See Palatine.
In the times of the commonwealth, comites among
the Romans was a general name for all tnofe who ac¬
companied the proeonfuls and propraetors into the pro¬
vinces, there to ferve the commonwealth ; as the tri¬
bunes, praefe&s, fcribes, &c.
Under the emperors, comites were the officers of
the palace. The origin of what we now call counts
feems owing to Anguflus, who took feveral fenators to
be his comites, as Diun obierves, e. to accompany
him in his voyages and travels, and to affilt him in the
hearing of caufes; which were thus judged with the
fame authority as in full fenate. Gallienus feems to
have abolifhed this council, by forbidding the fenators
being found in the armies: and none of his fucceffors
re-eftabli(hed it.
Thefe counfellors of the emperor were really counts,
comites, i e. companions of the prince j and they
fometimes took the title thereof, but always with the
addition of the emperor’s name whom they accom¬
panied : fp that it was rather a mark of their office
than a title of dignity.—Conilantine was the firft who
converted it into a dignity; and under him it was
that the name was firll given abfokitely. The name
once eftablilhed, was in a little time indifferently con¬
ferred, not only on thofe who followed the court, and
accompanied the emperor, but alio on moil kmds of
officers; along lift whereof is given us by Du Cange.
Eufebius tells us, that Conftantine divided the counts
into three claffes: the firft bore the title of illii/lres;
the fecond that of clarijjimi, and afterwards fpetlabiles ;
the third were ca\\e& perfeSiffimi. Of the two firlt claffes
was the fenate compofed ; thofe of the third had no
place in the fenate, but enjoyed feveral other of the
privileges of fenators..
There were counts who ferved on land, others at
fea; fome in a civil, fome in a religious, and fome in
a legal capacity : as comes ararii, comes facrarum largi-
tionum, comes facri conjijlorii, comes curia, comes capeila,
comes archiatrorum, comes commerciorum, comes vejliarius,
comes horreorwn, comes opfoniorum or annona, comes do-
m jlicorum, comes equorum regiorum or comes Jlaluli, co¬
mes domorum, comes excubitorum, comes notariorum, comes
legum 01 profejfor in jure, comes limitum or marcarurn, co¬
mes porius Roma, tomes patrimonii. See.
The Francs, Germans, &c- paffing into Gaul and
Germany, did not abolilh the form of the Roman go¬
vernment; and as the governors of cities and provinces
were called counts, comites, and dukes, duces, they con
tinned to be called fo. They commanded in time, of
war; and in-time of peace they adminiftered juftice.
Thus, in the time of Charlemagne, counts were the
ordinary judges and governors of the cities.
Thefe counts of cities were beneath the dukes and
counts who prefided over provinces; the fiift being
conftituted in the particulai cities under the jurifdic-
tioft of the latter. The counts of provinces were in
nothing mferior to dukes,'who themfelves were only
governors of provinces. Under the laft of the fecond
race c f French kings, they got their dignity rendered
hereditary, and even ufurped the fovueignty when
Hugh Capet came to the crown : his authority was
not lufficient to oppofe their encroachments: and hence
it is they date the privilege of wearing coronets in their
arms ; they affirmed it then, as enjoying the rich’s of
fovereigns in their particular diftrifts or counties.
But, by degrees, molt of the counties became re-uni¬
ted to the crown.
The quality of count fs now become very different
from what it was anciently ; being now no more than
a title, which a king grants upon eredting a territory
into a county, with a referve of jurifdidtion and fove-
reignty to himfelf. At firft there was no claufe in
the patent of erection, intimating the reveifion of the
county to the crown in default of heirs male ; but
Charles IX. to prevent their being too numerous, or¬
dained that duchies and counties, in default of heirs
male, ihould return to the crown.
The point of precedence between counts and mar-
quifes has been formerly much controverted : the rea-
fon was, that there are counts who are peers of France,
but no marquifes: but the point is now given up, and
marquifes take place ; though anciently, when counts
were governors of provinces, they were on a level even
with d”kes.
Will,am the Conqueror, as is obferved by Camden,
gave the dignity of counts in fee to his nobles ; annex¬
ing it to this or that county or province, and allotting
for their maintenance a certain prop irtion of money,
arifing from the prince’s profits in the pleadings and
forfeitures of the provinces. To this purpofe he quotes
an ancient record, thus: Hrn. U Rex Anglia his
verbis comitem creavit; feiatis nos fecijfe Hugonem Bigot
comitem de Norf. itfe. tie tertio denarii de Norwich itf
Norfolk, ficut aliquis comes Anglia, &c.
The Germans call a count, graaf, orgraff; which,
according to a modern critic, properly iignificsjar^e ;
and. is derived from gravio o: grajfo, of >p«tu, / norite^
They have feveral kinds of thefe counts or graffs;
as landgraves, marchgraves, burg-graves, and palf-
graves, or counts palatine. Thefe laft are of two kinds;,
the former are of the number of princes, and have the
inveftiture of a palatinate; the others have only the
title of count palatine without the inveftiture of any pa¬
latinate. Some affert, that by. publicly profeffing the
imperial laws for twenty years, the perfon acquires the
dignity of a count palatine; and there are inftances of
profeffors in law who have affumed the title accord¬
ingly : but there are others who queftion this right.
Count, in law,, denotes the original declaration in
a real aftion ; as the declaration is in a perfonal one :
the libellus of the civilians anfwers to both,--Yet,
count and declaration are fometimes confounded,
and ufed for each other ; as, , count in debt, count in
appeal, &c.
Count-Wheel, in the ftriking part of a clock, a
wheel which moves round once in 12 or 2.4 hours. It.
is fometimes called the locking-wheel. See Clock-Ma¬
king.
COUNTER, a term which enters into the compo-
frtion of divtrfe words of our language, and general¬
ly implies oppolition ;, but when applied to deeds,,
means an exaft copy kept of the contrary party, and.
fometimes frgned by both parties.
CouNTER-Changed, in heraldry, the intermixture, or:
oppohtion of any metaLwith a colour.
4-
CV.v- ■
C O U [ 496 ] c o u
Counter CovwrF.R-Flory, in heraldry, is faid of a treffure body more to one fide than to the other, but continues
Counter- w^°^e fl°wer-de-luce are oppofite to others. See He- in the middle of the faddle, being equally 0
RALDRY,
■j Counter-Drawing, in painting, is the copying
defign, or painting, by means of a fine linen-cloth, an
his llir-
rups, in order to give the horfc the proper and fea-
fonable aids.
COUNTER-potent f Contre potence), in herald-
oiled paper, or other tranfparent matter, where the ry, is reckoned a fur as well as vair and ermine ; but
ftrokes appearing through are followed with a pencil, compofed of fach pieces as reprefent the tops of
with or without colour. Sometimes it is done on crutches, called in Frenchpotences, and in old Englifh
glafs, and with frames or nets divided into fquares patents.
with fiIk or with thread, and alfo by means of inltru- Counter-Proof, in rolling-prefs printing, a print
-ments invented for the purpofe, as the parallelogram. taken off from another frefh printed ; which by being
Counter-Ermine, in heraldry, is the contrary of palled through the prefs, gives the figure of the form-
ermine, being a black.field with white fpots. er, hut inverted. To counter-prove, is alfo to pafs a
COUNTERFEITS, in law, are perfons that ob- defign in black lead, or red chalk, through the prefs,
tain any money or goods by counterfeit letters or falfe after having moiftened with a fponge both that and
tokens, who being convr&ed before juftices of affize the paper on which the counter-proof is to be taken,
or of the peace, &c. are to fuffer fuch punifhment as Counter- Quartered (contre-ecartel-), in heraldry, de-
fhall be thought fit to be infli&ed under death, as im- notes the efcutcheon, after being quartered, to have
prifonments, pillory, &c. each quarter again divided into two.
COUNTER-foil, or Coxtnter-stock,'in the ex- CouNTER-Saliant, is when two beads are borne in
chequer, that part of an ally which is kept by an offi- a coat leaping-* from each other diredily the contrary
cer of the court. way.
CountER-Guard, in fortification, is a work raifed CountF.R-Scarp, in fortification, is properly the ex-
^before the point of a baftion, confiding of two long terior talus or flop of the ditch; but it is often taken
faces parallel to the faces of the baftion, making a for the covered way and the glacis. In this fenfe we
faliant angle: they are fometimes of other fhapes, or fay, the enemy have lodged themfelves on the coun-
otherwife fituated. terfearp. Angle of the counter-fcatp, is that made by
CouNTER-Li^ht, or Counter-jour, a light oppofite to two lides of the counter-fcarp meeting before the mid-
any thing, which makes it appear to difadvantage. A die of the curtain.
fmgle counter-light is fufficient to take away all the Counter Signing, the figning the writing of a fupe-
beauty of a fine painting. rior in quality of fecretary. Thus charters are figned
Counter-March, in military affairs, a change of the by the king, and countei-figned by a fecretary of ftate,
face or wings of a battalion, by which means thofe or lord chancellor.
that were in the front come to be in the rear. It al- CouNTER-Pime, in the manege, is the defence or re-
fo fignifies returning, or marching back again. fiftance of a horfe that interrupts his cadence, and the
Counter-Mine,' in war, a well and gallery drove meafure of his manege, occafioned either by a bad
and funk till it meet the enemy’s mine to prevent its horfeman or by the malice of the horfe.
effeftT Counter, is alfo the name of a counting-board in
CouNTER-Pated, in heraldry, is when the efcutcheon a fhop, and of a piece of metal with a ftamp on it,
is divided into twelve pales parted perfeffe, the two ufed in playing at cards.
colours being counter-changed ; fo that the upper are Counter of a Horfe, that part of a horfe’s fore-
of one colour and the lower of another. hand which lies between the ftioulders and underthe
CouNTER-Part, in mufic, denotes one part to be ap- neck,
plied to another. Thus the bafs is faid to be a coun- Counters in a Ship, are two. I. The hollow arcU-
ter-part to the treble. ing fiom the gallery to the lower part of the ftraight
Counter-Pafant, in heraldry, is when two lions are piece of the ftern, is called the upper-counter. 2. The
in a coat of arms, and the one feems to go quite the lower counter is between the traniom and the lower
contrary way from the other. part of the gallery.
CouNTER-Point, in mufic: a term derived from the Counter, is alfo the name of two prifc.ns in the
Latin prepofition contra and the verb pungere; becaufe city of London, viz. the Poultry and Woodftreet.
the mufical chara&ers by which the notes in each part COUNTORS, Contours, or Counters, has been
are fignified are placed in fuch a manner each with re- ufed for ferjeants at law, retained to defend a caufe,
fpe& to each as to ftiow how the parts anfwer one ana- or to fpeak lor their client in any court of law.
then See Compo’sition. , It is of thefe Chaucer fpeaks :
CoVNTER-Pdmted (Contre-pointe), in heraldry, is = A flieriffhad he been, and a contour,
when two chevrons in one efcutcheon meet in the Was no where fuch a wor hy vavafour.
points, the one riling as ufual from the bafe, and the They were anciently called ferjeant contours.
other inverted falling from the chief; fo that they are COUNTRIES, among the miners, a term or ap-
counter to one another in the points. They may alfo pellation they give to their works under ground,
be counter-pointed when they are founded upon the , COUNTRY', among geographers, is ufed indiffer-
fides of the Ihield, and the points meet that way, call- ently to denote either a kingdom, province, or leffer
ed counter-pointed in ftjfe. diitnTt. But its moft frequent ufe is in contradiftinc-
COUNTERPOISE, in the manege, is the liberty tion to town,
of the a&ion and feat of a horfe-man ; fo that in all CouNTRr-Dance is of Englilh origin, though now
the motions made by the horfe, he does not incline his tranfplanted into almoft all the countries and courts of
^To93* 5 - Eu-
C O U [ 497 I C O U
Coimtjr. Europe. There is no eftablilhed rule for the compo-
v*"-— fition of tunes to this dance, becaufe there is in mufic
no kind of time whatever which may not be meafured
by the motions common in dancing; and there are few
fong tunes of any note within the laft century, that
have not been applied to country-dances.
COUNTY, in geography, originally fignified the
territory of a count or earl, but now it is ufed in the
fame fenfe with {hire ; the one word coming from the
French, the other from the Saxon.-—In this view, a
county is a circuit or portion- of the realm ; into fif-
* ty-two of which, the whole land, England and Wales,
is divided for its better government and the more
eafv adminiftration of juftice.
For the execution of the laws in the feveral counties,
excepting Cumberland, Weftmoreland, and Durham,
every Michaelmas term officers are appointed, under
the denomination of Jherijfs. Other officers of the fe¬
veral counties are, a lord lieutenant, who has the com¬
mand of the militia of the county; cutlodes rotulo-
rum, juftices of peace, bailiffs, high-conltablt, and co¬
roner.
Of the fifty-two counties, there are three of fpecial
note, which are therefore termed counties palatine, as
Lancafter, Chefter, and Durham. See Palatine.
Cov^^rr-Corporate, is a title given to feveral cities,
or ancient boroughs, on which our monarch's have
thought fit to beftow extraordinary privileges; annex¬
ing to them a particular territory, land, orjurifdic-
tion; and making them counties of themfelves, to be
governed by their own fiieriffs and magiftrates.
1 CouNTr-Court, in Englifh law, a court incident to
the jurifdi&ion of the fheriff. It is not a court of re¬
cord, but may hold pleas 'of debt or damages under
the value of 40 s. Over fame of which caufes thefe
inferior courts have, by the exprefs words of the fta-
tute of Gloucefter, a jurifdiftion totally exclufive of
the king’s fuperior courts. For in order to be inti-
tled to fue an aft ion of trefpafs for goods before the
king’s jufticiars, the plaintiff is direfted to make affi¬
davit that the caufe of aftion does really and bone jide
amount to 40 s. which affidavit is now unaccountably
difufed, except in the court of exchequer. The fta-
tute alfo 43 Eliz. c. 6, which gives the judges in many
perfonal aftions, where the jury affefs lefs damages
than 40 s. a power to certify the fame and abridge
the plaintiff of his full cofts, was alfo meant to pre¬
vent vexation by litigious plaintiffs ; who, for pur-
pofes of mere oppreffion, might be inclinable to infti-
tute fuch fuits in the fuperior courts for injuries of a
- trifling value. The county-court may alfo hold plea
of many real aftions, and of all perfonal aftions to any
amount, by virtue of a fpecial writ called jnjlicies ;
which is a writ empowering the ftieriff for the fake of
difpatch to do the fame juffice in his county-court, as
might otherwife be had at Weftminfter. The free-
holders-of the county are the real judges in this court,
and the (heriff is the minifterial officer. The great
conflux of freeholders, which are fuppofed always to
attend at the county-court (which Spelman calls forum
plebeite juflitia et theatrum camitiva potejlatk), is the rea-
fon why all afts of parliament at the end of every fef-
fion were wont to be there publiflied by the fheriff;
why all outlawries of abfeonding offenders are there
proclaimed '; and why all popular eleftions which the
Vol.V. Part 11.
freeholders are to make, as formerly of fheriffs and con-
fervators of the peace, and ftill of coroners, verderors,
and knights of the fhire, muff ever be made in plena co-
mitatu, or in fuH county-court. By the ftatute 2.
Edw. VI. c. 25. no county-court fhdl be adjourned
longer than for one month, confifting of 28 days. And
this was alio the ancient ufage, as appears from the
laws of king Edward the elder: prepoftus (that is, the
fheriff) ad quartam circiter feptimanam frequentem populi
concionem celebtato ; cuique jus dicito; litefque Jingulas di-
rimito. In thofe times the county-court was a court
of great dignity and fplendour, the bifhop and the
ealdorman (or earl), with the principal men of the fhire,
fitting therein to adminifter juftice both in lay and ec-
clefiaftical caufes. But its dignity was much impaired,
when the bifhop was prohibited, and the earl neglec¬
ted to attend it. And, in modern times, as proceed¬
ings are removeable from hence into the king’s fupe¬
rior courts, by writ of pone or recordare, in the fame
manner as from hundred-courts and courts-baron ; and
as the fame writ of falfe judgment may be had, in na¬
ture of a writ of error, this has occafioned the fame
difufe of bringing aftions therein.
COUPAR, the name of a town in Scotland, capi¬
tal of the county of Fife, fituated about 10 miles weft
of St Andrew’s : W. Long. 2.40. N, Lat. 56. 20.-—
Coupar is alfo the name of a village in the fhire of An¬
gus, inhabited chiefly by weavers in the linen trade.
COUPED, in heraldry, is ufed to exprefs the head,
or any limb, of an animal, cut off from the trunk,
fmooth; diftinguifhing it from that which is called,
fed, that is, forcibly torn off, and therefore is ragged
and uneven.
Couped, is alfo ufed to fignifiy fuch croffes, bars,
bends, chevrons, &c. as do not touch the fides of the
efcutcheon, but are, as it were, cut off from them.
COUPEE, a motion in dancing, wherein one leg
is a little bent, and fufpended from the ground; and
with the other a motion is made forwards.
The word in the original French fignifies a cut.
COUPLE-closs, in heraldry, the fourth part of a
chevron, never borne but in pairs, except there be a
chevron between them, faith Guillim, though Bloom
gives an inftar.ee to the contrary.
COUPLET, a divifion of a hymn, ode, fong, &c.
wherein an equal number, or equal meafure, of verfes,
is found in each part 5 which divifions, in odes, are
calledJlrophes.—Couplet, by an abufe of the word, is
frequently made to fignify a couple of verfes.
COURAGE, in ethics, is that quality of the mind,
derived either from conftitution or principle, or both,
that enables men to encounter difficulties and dangers.
See Fortitude.
COURANT, a French term fynonymous with cur¬
rent, and properly fignifies running. See Current.
Courant, is alfo a term in mufic and dancing;
being ufed to exprefs both the tune or air and the dance.
With regard to the firft, courant, or currant, is a piece
of mufic in triple time : the air of the courant is or¬
dinarily noted in triples of minims; the parts to be
repeated twice. It begins and ends when he who
beats the meafure falls his hand; in contradiftinftion
from the faraband, which ordinarily ends when the
hand is raifed. With regard to dancing, the courant
was long the moft common of all the dances praftifed
3 & in
G O U [ 498 1 C O U
Courap, Jn England: it confifts, effentially, of a time, a ftep,
Courayer. a balance, and a coupee ; though it alfo admits of other
v motions. Formerly they leaped their fteps ; in which
point, the courant differed from the low dance and pa-
vades. There are fimple courants and figured cou-
rants, all danced by two perfons.
COURAP, the modern name for a diftemper
very common in Java and other parts of the Eaft-
Indies. It is a fort of herpes or itch on the arm-pits,
groins, breaft, and face: the itching is almoft perpe¬
tual ; and the fcratching is followed by great pain and
a difcharge of matter, which makes the linen flick fo
to the fkin as not eafily to be feparated without tear¬
ing off the cruft. Qourap is a general name for any
fort of itch ; but this diftemper is thus called by way of
eminence. It is f® contagious that few efcape it. For
the cure, gentle and repeated purging Is ufed, and ex¬
ternally the fublimate in a fmall quantity is a good, to¬
pic.
COURAYER (Peter Francis), a Roman Ca¬
tholic clergyman, diftinguifhed by great moderation,
charity, and'temper, concerning religious affairs, as well
as by learning, was born at Vernon in Normandy,
1-681. While canon regular and librarian of the abbey
of St Genevieve at Paris, he applied to our archbifhop
Wake for the refolution of fome doubts,-concerning
the epifcopal, fucceffion in England, and the validity
of our ordinations : he was encouraged to this by the
friendly correfpondence which had palled between the
archbifhop and M. du Pin of the Sorbonne. The arch¬
bifhop fent him exafl copies of the proper records ;
and on thefe he built his “ Defence of Englifh Ordi¬
nations,” which was publifhed in Holland, 1727.
This expofinghim to a profecution in his own country,
he took refuge in England ; where he was well re¬
ceived, and prefented the fame year by the univerfity
of Oxford with a doftor’s degree. As it is fome what
uncommon for a Roman Catholic clergyman to be ad¬
mitted to degrees in divinity by Proteftant univerfities,
the curious may be gratified with a fight of the diplo¬
ma, and the doAor’s letter of thanks, in “ The prefent
State of the Republic of Letters, for June 1728.
In 1736, he tranflated into French, and publifhed,
“ Father Paul’s Hiftory of the Council of Trent,” in
2 vols. folio, and dedicated it to queen Caroline ; who
augmented to 2001. a penfion of tool, a-year, which
he had obtained before from the court. The learned
Jer. Markland, in a letter to his friend Bowyer, Sep¬
tember 1746, fays, “Mr Clarke has given me F.
Courayet’s tranflation of the Hiftory of the Council
of Trent j with whofe preface I am fo greatly pleafed,
that if he be no more a Papift in other tenets than he
is in thofe he mentions (which are many, and of the
moft diftinguifhed clafs), I dare fay there are very few
confiderate Proteftants who are not as good Catholics
as he is.” His works are many, and all in French :
he tranflated Sleidan’s “ Hiftory of the Reformation.”
He died in 1776, after two days illnefs, at the age of
95; and was buried in the cloifter of Weftminfter-
abbey. In his will, dated Feb. 3d 1774, he declares,
that he “ dies a member of the Catholic church, but
without approving of many of the opinions and fu-
perftitions which have been introduced into the Ro-
mifh church, and taught in their fchools and femi-
aaries; and which they have infifted on as articles
of faith, though to him they appear to be not only not Courbartt
founded in truth, but alfo to be highly improbable.” ft
And his pr&Aice was conformable to this declaration ; , Cnllrfe- f
for at London he conftantly went to mafs, and at Eal-
ipg in the country, whither he often retired, as con¬
ftantly attended the fervice of the parifh church ; de¬
claring at all times, that he “ had great fatisfaAion in
the prayers of the church of England.”
COURBARIL. Sye Hymenea.
COURIER, or Currier, (from the French courlr,.
“ to run,”) a meflenger fent poft,.or exprefs, to car¬
ry difpatches. „
Antiquity, too, had its couriers. We meet with
two kinds: 1. Thofe who ran on foot, called by the.
Greeks hemerodromi, q. d. “ couriers of a day.” Pliny,
Corn. Nepos, and Caefar, mention fome of thefe who
would run 20, 30, 36, and in the. circus even 40
leagues per day. 2. Riding couriers (curfores equl-
tantes), who changed horfes, as the modern cou¬
riers do.
Xenophon attributes the firft couriers to Cyrus.
Herodotus fays, they were very ordinary among the
Perfians, and that there was nothing in the world more
fwift than thefe kind of meflengers. “ That jsrince
(fays Xenophon) examined how far a horfe would go
in a day; and built ftables, at fuch diftances from
each other, where he lodged horfes, and perfons to
take care of them j and at each place kept a perfon
always ready to take the packet, mount a frefti horfe,
and forward it to the next ftage : and thus quite
through his empire.”
But it does not appear that either the Greeks or
Romans had any regular fixed couriers till the time
of Auguftus: under that prince they travelled in
cars; though it appears from Socrates they after¬
wards went on horfeback. Under the weftern em¬
pire, they were called viatores; and under that of
Conftantinople, curfores : whence the modern name.
See Post.
COURLAND, a duchy fituated between E. Long.
21. 26. and between N. Lat. 56. 30. and 57. 30. It
is bounded by the river Dwina, which divides it from
Livonia, on the north ; by Lithuania, on the eaft;
by Samogitia, on the fouth ; and by the Baltic fea on
the weft ; being 130 miles long and 30 broad. This
duchy was formerly independent, and eleAed their own
duke ; but is now fubjeA to Rufiia.
COURSE [route), in navigation, the apgle con¬
tained between the neareft meridian and that point of
the compafs upon which a Ihip fails in any particular
direAion.
Course, in architeAure, denotes a continued range
of ftones, level, or of the fame height, throughout the
whole length of the building; and not interrupted by
any apertufc:. It forms a parapet to the interrhedi-
ate fpace between the body of the building and the
wings.
Course of Plinths, is the continuity of a plinth of
ftone or plafter in the face of a building j to mark
the feparation of the ftories.
Course is alfo ufed for the time ordinarily fpent
in learning the principles of a fcience, or the ufual
points and queftions therein. Thus, a ftudent is faid
to have finilhed his courfe in the humanity, in philo-
fophy, &c.
3
Course
C O U t 499 ] C O U
Courfe Course is alfo ufed for the elements of an art ex-
_ H hibited and explained, either in writing or by aftual
. °u experiment. Hence our courfes of philofophy, anato¬
my, chemiftry, mathematics, &c. probably fo called as
going throughout or running the whole ^ length or
Courfe of the art, &C.
. COURSES, a name by which the principal fails of
a fhip are diftinguifhed, viz. the main-fail, the fore¬
fail, and the mizen: the mizen-ltay-.fail and fore-fail
are' alfo fometimes comprehended in this denomina¬
tion ; as are the main-ftay-fails of all brigs and fchoon-
ers. See Sail.
COURSING, among fportfmen. There are three
feveral forts of courfes with gre-hounds : i. At the hare;
2. At the fox ; and, 3. At the deer.
For the deer, there are two forts of courfes; the
one in the paddock, the other either in the foreft
or the purlieu. For the paddock courfe, there muft
be the gre-hound and the terrier, and the mongrel
gre-hound, whofe bufinefs it is to driva away the
deer before the gre-hounds are flipped ; a brace or
a leafh are the ufual number flipped at a time, fel-
dom at the utmoft more than two brace. In cour-
fing the deer in the foreft or purlieu, there are two
ways in ufe : the one is courfing from wood to wood ;
and the other, upon the lawns clofe by the keeper’s
lodge. In the courfing from wood to wood, the way
is to throw in fome young hounds into the wood to
bring out the deer; and if any deer come out that is
not weighty, or a deer or antler which is buck, fore,
or forrel, then you are not to flip your gre-hounds,
which are held at the end of the wood, where the
keepers, who can guefs very well on thefe occafions,
expect that the deer will come out. If a proper deer
, come out, and it is fufpefted that the brace or leafh of
gre-hounds flipped after him will not be able to kill
him, it is proper to waylay him with a couple of frefli
gre-hounds.
The courfing upon the lawn is the moft agreeable
af all other ways. When the keeper has notice ofthis,
he will lodge a deer for the courfe ; and then, by co¬
ming under the wind, the gre-hound may be brought
near enough to be flipped for a fair courfe.
The beft •method of courfing the 1:are, is to go out
and find a hare fitting ; which is eafily done in the
fummer, by walking acrofs the lands, either ftubble,
fallow, or corn grounds, and calling the eye up and
down : for in fummer they frequent thofe places for
fear of the ticks, which are common in the woods at
that feafon; and in autumn the rains falling from the
trees offend them. The reft of the year there is
more trouble required; as the bufhes and thickets
mull be beat to roufe them, and oftentimes they will
lie fo clofe, that they will not ftir till the pole almoft
touches them : the fportfmen are always pleafed with
this, as it promifes a good courfe. If a hare lies near
any clofe or covert, and with her head that way, it
is always to be expefted that Ihe will take to that im¬
mediately on being put up ; all the company are there¬
fore to ride up and put themfelves between her and
the covert before Ihe is put up, that Ihe may take the
other way, and run upon open ground. When a hare
is put up, it is always proper to give her ground, or
law, as it is called ; that is, to let her run 12 fcore
yards, or thereabouts, before the gre-hounds are flip¬
ped at her ; otherwife Ihe is killed too foon, the greater Cpurfi*gr.
part of the fport is thrown away, and the pleafure of *”
obferving the feveral turnings and windings that the
creature will make to get away is all loft. A good
fportfman had rather fee a hare fave herfelf after a fair
courfe, than fee her murdered by the gre-hounds as
foon as (he is up.
In courfing the fox, no other art is required, than
Handing clofe, and in a clear wind, on the outfide of
fome grove where it is expe&ed he will come out;
and when he is come out, he muft have head enough
allowed him, otherwife he will return back to the co¬
vert. The floweft gre-hound will be able to over¬
take him, after all the odds of diftance neceffary ; and
the only danger is the fpoiling the dog by the fox,
which too frequently happens,. For this reafon, no
gre-hound of any value fhould be run at this courfe ;
but the ftrong, hard, bitter dogs, that will feize any
thing.
The laws of courfing eftablilhed byN the duke of
Norfolk, and other fportfmen of the kingdom of Eng¬
land, are thefe:
1. He that is chofen fewterer or letter-loofe of the
dogs, ftiall receive the gre-hounds matched to run
together into his leafti as foon as he comes into the
field ; he is to march next to the hare-finder, or him
who is to Hart the hare, until he come to the form ;
and no horfeman or footman is to go before or fide-
ways, but all Ilraight behind, for the fpace of about 40
yards. 2. A hare ought never to be courfed with
more than a brace of gre-hounds. 3. The hare-
linder is to give the hare three fohoes before he puts
her up from her form or feat, to the end that the dogs
may be prepared and attend her ftarting. 4. If
there be not a particular danger of lofing the hare.
Are Ihould have about twelve fcore yards law. 5. The
dog that gives the firft turn, if after that there be
neither cote, flip, nor wrench, wins the wager. 6. A
go-by, or bearing the hare, is accounted equivalent
to two turns. 7. If neither dog turns the hare, he that
leads to the laft covert wins. 8. If any dog turns the
hare, ferves himfelf, and turns her again, it is as much
as a cote, and a cote ns efteemed as much as two
turns. 9. If all the courfe be equal, he that bears
the hare fhall win ; and if he be not borne, the courfe
fliall then be judged dead. 10. If a dog take a fall
in his courfe, and yet perforin his part, he may
challenge the advantage of a turn more than he
gave. 11. If a dog turn the hare, ferve himfelf,
and give divers cotes, and yet in the end fhall Hand
ftill in the field, the other dog, if he turns home to the
covert, although he gives no other, fhall be adjudged
to win the wager. 12. If by misfortune a dog be rid
over in the courfe, that courfe fhall be adjudged void,
and he that did the mifehief is to make reparation to the
owner. 13. If a dog gives the firft and laft turn, and
there be no other advantage betwixt them, he that gives
the odd turn wins. 14. A cote is when a gre-hound
gees end ways by the fide of his fellow, and gives the
hare a turn. 15. A cote ferves for two turns, and two
trippings or jerkings for a cote ; and if the hair turns
not quite about, flic only wrencheth, in the fportfman’s
phrafe. 16. If there be no cotes given by either of the
gre-hounds, but one ferves the other at turning, then
he that gives the moft turns wins the wager. 17.
3 R 2 Sometimes
C O U [ 500 ] c o u
Court. Sometimes a hare does not turn, but wrenches; for
—r  fhe does not turn except die turns as it were round.
In thefe cafes, two wrenches fland for one turn. 18.
He that conies in firft. at the death of the hare takes
her up, and faves her from breaking ; he cherifhes the
dogs, and cleanfes their mouths from the wool; he is
adjudged to have the hare for his pains.. 19. Finally,
thofe who are judges of the leafh, muft give their judg¬
ment before they depart out of the field, or elfe it is
not to ftand as valid.
COURT, an appendage to a houfe or habitation ;
confifting of a piece of ground inclofed with walls, but
open upwards.
Court is alfo ufed for the palace or place where a
king or fovereign prince refides.
Court, in a law fenfe, is defined to be a place
wherein juftice is judicially adminiftered. And as,
by our excellent conftitution, the foie executive power
of the laws is veiled in the perfon of the king, it will
follow that all courts of juilice, which are the me¬
dium by which he adminiilers the laws, are derived
Bladl. fr°m the power of the crown. For whether created
Comment, by a£t of parliament or letters patent, or fubfifting by
prefcription (the only methods by which any court
of judicature can exift), the king’s confent in the two
former is exprefsly, and in the latter impliedly, given.
In all thefe courts, the king is fuppofed in contem¬
plation of law to be always prefent; but as-that is in
fail impoffible, he is there reprefented by his judges,
whofe power is only an emanation of the royal prero-.
gative.
For the more fpeedy, univerfal, and impartial ad-
miniftration of juftice between fubjedt and fubjedl, the
law hath appointed a prodigious variety of courts,
fome with a more limited, others with a more exten-
five jurifdi&ion ; fome conftituted to inquire only, o-
thers to hear and determine; fome to determine in
the firft inftance, others upon appeal and by way of
review. See Law, n° xcviii. xcxix. c. cxli. clvi. clvii.
clviii. and the refpe&ive articles in the order of the al¬
phabet. One diftindlion may .he here mentioned, that
runs throughout them all; viz. that fome of them are
courts of record, others not of record. A court of re¬
cord is that where the adds and judicial proceedings are
enrolled in parchment for a perpetual memorial and
teftimony : which rolls are called the records of the
court, and are of fuch high and fupereminent authori¬
ty, that their truth is not to be called in queftion. For
it is a fettled rule and maxim, that nothing fhall be a-
verred againft a record, nor. lhall any plea, or even
proof, be admitted to the contrary. And if the exilt-
ence of a record be denied, it fhall be tried by nothing
but itfelf; that is, upon bare infpeftion whether there
be any fuch record or no ; elfe there would be no end
of difputes. But if there appear any miftake of the
clerk in making up fuch record, the court will direft
him to amend it. All courts of record are the king’s
courts, in right of his crown and royal dignity, and
therefore no other court hath authority to fine or im-
prifon; fo that the very ere&ion of a new jurifdie-
tion with power of fine or imprifonment, makes it in-
ftantly a court of record.—A court not of record is
the court of a private man; whom the law will not
intruft with any difcretionary power over the fortune-
or liberty of his fellow-fubjefts. Such are the courts-
baron incident to every manor, and other inferior ju- Court.
rifdiftions: where the procedings are not enrolled or  *-“■
recorded ; but as well their exiftence as the truth of the
matters therein contained fhall, if difputed, be tried
and determined by a jury. Thefe courts can hold no
plea of matters cognizable by the common law, unlefs
under the value of 40s.; nor of any forcible injury
whatfoever, nor having anyprocefs to arreft. the perfon
of the defendant.
In every court there muft be at leaft three, confti-
tuent parts, the actor, reus, and judex : the actor, or
plaintiff, who complains of an injury done ; the reus,
or defendant, who is called upon to make fatisfaftion
for it; and the judex, or judicial power, which is to
examine the truth of the faft, to determine the law
arifing upon that faft, and, if any injury appears to
have been done, to afcertain and by its officers to apply
the remedy. It is alfo ufual in the fuperior courts to
have attorneys, and advocates or counfel, as affiftants.
See Attorney and Counsel.
CounT-Baron, in Englifh law, a court incident to
every manor in the kingdom, to be holden by the
fteward within the faid manor. This court-baron is
of two natures: the one is a cuftomary court, apper¬
taining entirely to the copyholders, in which their
eftates are transferred by furrender and admittance, and
other matters tranfafted relative to their tenures only.
The other is a court of common law, and it is the
court of the barons, by which name the freeholders-
were fometimes anciently called : for that it is held be¬
fore the freeholders who owe fuit and fervice to the
manor, the fteward being rather the regiftrar than the
judge. Thefe courts, though in their nature diftinftr,
are equally confounded together. The court we are
now confidering, viz. the freeholder’s court, was com.-
pofed of the lord’s tenants, who were the pares of each
other, and were bound by their feodal tenure to affift
their lord in the difpenfation of domeftic juftice. This
was formerly held every three weeks ; and its moft im¬
portant bufinefs is to determine, by writ of right, all
controverfies relating to the right of lands within the
manor. It may alfo hold plea of any perfonal aftions,
of debt, trefpafs on the cafe, or the like, where the
debt or damages do not amount to 40s, Which is
the fame fum, or three marks, that bounded the ju-
rifdiftion of the ancient Gothic courts in their loweft’
inftance, or Jierding courts, fo called becaufe four were
inftituted within every fuperior diftrift or hundred.
But the proceedings on a writ of right may be remo¬
ved into the county-court by a precept from the flieriff
called a toll, quia tollit atque eximit caufam e curia baror
num. And the proceedings in all other aftions may
be removed into the fuperior courts by the king’s writs
of pone, or accedas ad curiam, according to the nature
of the fuit. After judgment given, a writ alfo of
falfe judgment lies to the courts at Weftminfter to re¬
hear and review the caufe, and not a writ of error;
for this is not a court of record: and therefore, in
fome of thefe writs of removal, the firft direftion given
is to caufe the plaint to be recorded, recordari facias
loquelam.
Court:-Martial, a court appointed for the puniffiing
offences in officers, foldiers, and failors, the powers of
which are regulated by the mutiny-bill.
For other courts, fee Admiralty, Arches, Bench,
County,
C O U [ 501 ] COW
'Courtefy County, Common-P/m/, Chancery, Ecclesiasti-
! cal, Duchy, Faculty, RsciyESTs, Hustings,
Coutances. cHlvALRY, Forest, Stannary, STAK-Chamler, Pre-
v rogative, University, Legate, Leet, Mayor,
Piepoudre, &c.
COURTESY, or Cvktzsy, of England; a certain
tenure whereby a man marrying an heirefs feized of
lands of fee fimple, or fee-tail general, or feized as
heir of the tail fpecial, and getteth a child by her that
cometh alive into the world, though both it and his
wife die forthwith ; yet, if fhe were in poflefiion, he
lhall keep the land during his life, and is called tenant
per legem Anglia, “ or tenant by the courtefy of Eng¬
land becaufe this privilege is not allowed in any
country except Scotland, where it is called curialitas
Scotia.
COURTESAN, a woman who prollitutes herfelf
for hire, efpecially to people of fuperior rank. Lais,
the famous Theban courtefan, Hands on record for
requiring no lefs than 10,000 crowns for a Angle
night. Of all places in the world, Venice is that where
courtefans abound the moft. It is now 300 years fince
the fenate, which had expelled them, was obliged to re-
cal them; in order to provide for the fecurity of wo¬
men of honour, and to keep the nobles employed left
they Ihould turn their heads to make innovations in the
ftate.
COURTRA.Y, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
fituated on the river Lys, about 23 miles fouth-weft of
Ghent, and 14 eaft of Ypres. E. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat.
50. 48.
COUSIN, a term of relation between the children
of brothers and fifters, who in the firft generation are
called coufn-germans, in the fecond generation fecond-
coufms, &c. If fprung from the relations of the fa¬
ther’s fide, they are denominated paternal coufins; if
on the mother’s,
The word is ordinarily derived from confanguineus ;
though Menage brings it from congenius, or congeneus,
q. d. ex eodem genere.
In the primitive times, it was allowed ooufin-ger-
mans to marry, to prevent their making alliances in
heathen families : but Theodofius the Great prqhi-
bited it, under pain of death; on pretence that they
were, in fome fort,, brothers and fifters with regard to
each other.
Cousin (John), a celebrated French painter, who
excelled in painting on glafs. His pi&ure of the Laft
Judgment, in the veftry of the Minims of the Wood of
Vincennes,, is much admired. He was alfo a good
fculptor. He wrote feveral works on geometry and
perfpe&ive ; and died after the year 1689.
COUSU, in heraldry, fignifies a piece of another
colour or metal placed in the ordinary, as if it were
fewed on, as the word imports. This is generally of
colour upon colour, or metal upon metal, contrary to
the general rule of heraldry.
COUTANCES; a port town of Normandy, and
capital of Coutantin, in W. Long. i. 32. Lat. 49. 10.
This town, anciently called Conjlantia or Cojedia, is
pleafantly fituated among meadows and rivulets about fix
miles diftant from the fea. By the remains of a Ro¬
man aquedudt, and other ancient ruins, it appears to
be a place of great antiquity. It is the fee of a bi-
Ihop luiTragan of Rome; and has a magnificent cathe¬
dral, efteemed one of the fineft pieces of Gothic ar- Couthut-
chitefture in Europe. The trade of this town is very laijgh
inconfiderable, and the fortifications are quite demo- Cowley,
lilhed. They have feveral religious lioufes, and two 1 t ’ 1
parochial churches.
COUTHUI LAUGH, from the Saxon couth,
“knowing” and utlaugh, “ outlaw;” he that wittingly
receives a man outlawed, and cherifhes or conceals him :
for which offence he was in ancient times fubjeft to
the fame puniihment with the outlaw himfelf.
COVERT, in heraldry, denotes fomething like a
piece of hanging, or a pavillion falling over the top of
a chief or other ordinary, fo as not to hide, but only
to be a covering to it.
COW, in zoology. See Bos*
Coir-Burner. See Buprestis.
Sea-Coir, in zoology. See TriChecus.
Coir-Itch, or Couhage, in botany. See Couhage",
and Dolichos.
Coir’s-Lip, in botany. See Primula.
COWARD, in heraldry, a term given to a lion
borne in an efcutcheon with his tail doubled, or turned
in between his legs.
COWEL (Dr John), a learned and eminent civi¬
lian, born about the year 1554. In 1607 he compiled
a Law Dictionary, which gave great offence to Sir
Edward Coke and the common lawyers : fo that they
fir ft accufed him to Jamesl. as afferting that the king’s
prerogative was in fome cafes limited ; and when they
failed in that attempt, they complained of him to the
houfe of. commons, as a betrayer of the rights of the
people, by afferting that the king was not bound by
the laws; for which he was committed to cuftody,
and his book publicly burnt. He alfo publifhed /«-
Jlitutiones Juris Anglicani, in the manner of Juftinian’s
Inftitutes ; and died.of the operation for the ftone, in
1-611,
COWES, a town and harbour on the north-eaft
coaft of the Jfle of Wight, in Hamplhire. It has. no-
market, but is the beft place for trade in the whole
ifland; but as it lies low, the air is accounted unheal¬
thy. It is eight miles fouth-eaft of Portfmouth. W.
Long. 1. 25. N. Lat. 50. 45.
COWL, or Coul, a fort of monkifti habit worn
by the Bernardines and Benedicfines. The word is
formed from cucullus, by confounding the two firft fyl-
lables. into one, as being the fame twice repeated.—
There are two kinds of cowls : the one white, very
large, worn in ceremony, and when they affift at the
office ; the other black, worn on ordinary occafions, in
the ftreets, &c.
F. Mabillon maintains the coul to be the fame thing
in its origin with the fcapular. The author of the
apology of the Emperor Henry IV. diftinguifhes two
forms of couls: the one a gown reaching to the feet,
having fieeves, and, a capuchin, ufed in ceremo¬
nies the other a kind of hood to work in, called al¬
fo a fcapular, becaufe it only coyers the head and flioul-
ders.
COWLEY (Abraham), an eminent poet, was born
at London 1618. His father, who was a grocer, dying be¬
fore he was born, his mother procured him to be admit¬
ted a king’s fcholar at Weftminfter. His firft inclination
to poetry arofe on his lighting on Spencer’s Fairy Queen,
when he was but juft able to read: and this inclination fo
c O \? [ 502 ] C O w
Cowley, far improved in him, that at 13 he began to write feveral
^ poems; a colle&xon of which was publilhed in 1613,
when he was but 15. He has been reprefented as pof-
feffed of fo bad a memory that his teachers could never
bring him to retain the ordinary rules of grammar.
But the fa£t was, as Dr Johnfon notices, not that he
could not learn or retain the rules ; but that being
able to perform his exercifes without them, he fpared
himfelf the labour. In 1636 he was elefled a fcholar
of Trinity College, Cambridge, and removed to that
univerfity. Here he went through all his exercifes
with a remarkable degree of reputation; and at the
fame time muft have purfued his poetical turn with
great eagernefs, as it appears that the greateft part of
his poems were written before he left that univerfity.
He had taken his degree of Mailer of Arts before
1643, when, in confequence of the turbulence of the
times, he, among others, was ejected from the col¬
lege : whereupon, retiring to Oxford, he entered him-
felf of St John’s college: and that very year, under the
denomination of a fcholar of Oxford, publiihed a fatire
called the Puritan and the Papiit. It is apparent,
however, that he did not remain very long at Oxford:
for his zeal to the royal caufe engaging him in the
fervice of the king, who was very feniible of his abi¬
lities, and by whom he was frequently employed, he
attended his majeily in many of his journeys and ex¬
peditions, and gained not only that prince’s efteem,
but that of many other great perfonages, and in parti¬
cular of Lord Falkland, one of the principal fecreta-
ries of Rate.
During^the heat of the civil war, he was fettled in
the Earl of- St Alban’s family ; and when the queen-
mother was obliged to retire into France, he accom¬
panied her thither, laboured llrenuoufly in the affairs
of the royal family, undertook feveral very dangerous
journeys on their account, and was the principal in-
llrument in maintaining an epiftolary correfpondence
between the king and queen, whole letters he cypher¬
ed and decyphered with his own hand. His poems
intitled The Millrefs, were publifhed at London in
1647 ; and his comedy called The Guardian, after¬
wards altered and publiihed under the title of Cutter
of Coleman-ftreet, in 1650. In 1656 it was thought
proper by thofe on whom Mr Cowley depended that
he ihould come over into England, and, under pretence
of privacy and retirement, ihould give notice of the
pofture of affairs in this nation. Upon his return he
publiihed a new edition of all his poems, confiding of
four parts ; viz. I. Mifcellanies. II. The Miilrefs, or
Several Copies of Love-Verfes. III. Pindarique Odes,
written in imitation’of the Style and manner of Pin¬
dar. IV. Davideis, a facred Poem of the troubles of
David, fn four books.
Soon after his arrival, however, he was feized, in
the fearch after another gentleman of confiderable note
in the king’s party : but although it was through mif-
take that he was taken, yet when the republicans
found all their attempts of every kind to bring him
over to their party proved ineffe&ual, he w’as commit¬
ted to a fevere confinement, and it was even with con-
liderable difficulty that he obtained his liberty; when,
venturing back to France, he remained there, in his
former fituation, till near the time of the king’s re¬
turn. During his flay in England he wrote his Two Cowley.
Books of Plants, publifhed firfl in 1662 ; to which he ' 
afterwards added four books more ; and all fix, toge¬
ther with his other Latin poems, were printed at Lon¬
don in 1678. It appears by Mr Wood’s Fafli Oxoni-
enfts, that our poet was created dodlor of phyfic at
Oxford, December 2. 1657.
Soon after the refloration he became pofleffed of a
very competent eflate, through the favour of his prin¬
cipal friends the duke of Buckingham and the earl of
St Alban’s ; and being now upwards of 40 years of
age, he took up a refolution to pafs the remainder of
a life which had been a feene of tempefl and tumult,
in that fituation which had ever been the objedl of his
wifhes, a fludious retirement. His eagernefs to get
out of the buftle of a court and city made him lefs
careful than he might have been in the choice of a
healthful habitation in the country ; by which means
he found his folitude. from the very beginning fuit
lefs with the conftitution of his body than with his
mind. His firft rural refidence was at Barn Elms, a
place which, lying low, and being near a large river,
was fubjea to a variety of breezes from land and wa¬
ter, and liable in the winter-time to great inconveni¬
ence from the dampnefs of the foil. The confequence
of this Mr Cowley too foon experienced, by being
feized with a dangerous and lingering fever. On his
recovery from this he removed to Chertfey, a fituation
not much more healthy, where he had not been long
before he was feized with another confuming difeafe!
Having languilhed under this for fome months, he at -
length got the better of it, and feemed pretty' well re¬
covered from the bad fymptoms; when one day in the
heat of fummer 1667, flaying too long in the fields to
give fome diredtions to his labourers, he caught a moll
violent cold, which was attended with a defluxion and
ftoppage in his breall; and for want of timely care,
by treating it as a common cold, and refufing advice
till it was pall remedy, he departed this life on the
28th of July in that year, being the 49th of his age ;
and, on the 3d of Augult following, he was interred
in Weftminfter-abbey, near the afhes of Chaucer and
his beloved Spencer. H« was a man of a very ami¬
able charadler, as well as an admirable genius. King
Charles II. on the news of his death, declared “ that
Mr Cowley had not left a better man behind him in
England.” A monument was ere&ed to his memory
by George Villiers duke of Buckingham in 1675.
Befides the works already mentioned, Mr Cowley
wrote, among other things, A Propofition for the
Advancement of Experimental Philofophy ; A Dif-
courfe by way of Vifion concerning the Government
of Oliver Cromwell; and Several Difcourfes byway
of Eflays in profe and verfe. Mr Cowley had defign-
ed alfo a Difcourfe concerning Style, and a Review
of the Principles of the Primitive Chriflian Church,
but was prevented by death. A fpurious piece, intitled
The Iron Age, was publi/hed under Mr Cowley’s
name during his abfence ; and, in Mr Dryden’s Mif-
cellany Poems, we find A Poem on the Civil War,
faid to be written by our author, but not extant in
any edition of his works. An edition of his works
was publiftied by Dr Spratt, afterwards bifliop of Ro-
cheftcr, who alfo prefixed to it an account of the au-
* thor’»
c o w
Cowley, thor’s life. The reverend editor mentions, as very
excellent of their kind, Mr Cowley’s Letters to his
Friends; none of which, however, were publiflied.
The moral charafter of Mr Cowley appears, from e-
very account of it, to have been very excellent. “ He
is reprefented by Dr Spratt (fays Dr Johnfon) as the
moft amiable of mankind ; and this pofthumous praife
may be faftlly credited, as it has never been contradidl-
ed by envy or by fa&ion.”
As a poet; his merits have been varioufly eftimated.
Lord Clarendon has faid he made a flight above all
men ; Addifon, in his account of the Englilh poets,
that he improved upon the Theban bard ; the duke of
Buckingham upon his tomb-ilone, that he was the Eng-
lifh Pindar, the Horace, the Virgil, the delight, the
glory, of his times. And with refpeft to the harfh-
nefs of his numbers,, the eloquent Spratt tells us, that
if his verfes in fome places feem not as foft and flowing
as one would have them, it was his choice and not his
fault.
“ Such (fays Mr Knox) is the applaufe laviflied on a
writer who is now feldom read. That he could ever
be efteemed as a pindaric poet, is a curious literary
phenomenon. He totally miftook his own genius when
he thought of imitating Pindar. He totally miftook
the genius of Pindar, when he thought his own inco¬
herent fentiments and numbers bore the leaft refem-
blance to the wild yet regular fublimity of the The¬
ban. He negle&ed even thofe forms, the ftrophe, an-
tiftrophe, and epode, which even imitative dulnefs can
copy. Sublime imagery, vehement pathos, poetic
fire, which conftitute the eftence of the Pindaric ode,
are incompatible with witty conceits, accurate anti-
thefes, and vulgar expreflion. All thefe imply the
coolnefs of. deliberate compofition, or the meannefs of
a little mind ; both of them moft repugnant to the
truly Pindaric ode, in which all is rapturous and noble.
Wit of any kind would be improperly difplayed in fuch
compofition ; but to increafe the abfurdity, the wit of
Cowley is often falfe. That he had a tafte for Latin
poetry, and wrote in it with elegance, the well known
epitaph on himfelf, upon his retirement, and an ad¬
mirable imitation of Horace, are full- proofs.. But
furely his rhetorical biographer makes ufe of the fi¬
gure hyperbole, when he affirms that Cowley has ex¬
celled the Romans themfelves. He was inferior to
many a writer of lefs fame in the Mufe Anglican#.
But ftill he had great merit ; and I muft confefs I have
read his Latin verfes with more pleafure than anyof
- his Englilh can afford.” EJfays,\c>\. ii. p. 363—365.
To Cowley’s compofitions in profe Mr Knox hath
paid a very honourable teftimony. He fays, that in
this department he is an elegant, a pleaiing, a judicious
writer ; and that it is much to be lamented that he
did not devote a greater part of his time to a kind of
writing which appeared natural to him, and in which
he excelled..
Dr Jofeph Warton obferves, that it is no caricature
of Cowley to reprefent him as being poffeffed of a
flrained affedfation of ftriving to be witty upon all oc-
cafions. “ It is painful (adds this excellent critic)
to cenfure a writer of fo amiable a mind, fuch integri¬
ty of manners, and fuch a fweetnefs of temper. His
fancy was brilliant, ftrong, and fprightly ; but his tafle
COX
falfe and unclaffical, even though he had much learn- Cowley,
ing.” . . .
Dr Beattie has charafterifed Cowley in the follow- ^
ing terms. “ I know not whether any nation ever
produced a more Angular genius than Cowley. Pie
abounds in tender thoughts, beautiful lines, and em-
phatical expreffions. His wit is inexhauftible, and his
learning extenfive ; but his tafte is generally barbarous,
and feems to have been formed upon fuch models as
Donne, Martial, and the woift parts of Ovid: nor
is it poflible to read his longer poems with pleafure,
while we retain any relifti for the fimplicity of ancient
compolitiont If this author’s ideas had been fewer,
his conceits would have been lefs frequent; fo that in
one- refpeft learning may be Paid to have hurt his ge¬
nius. Yet it does not appear that Greek and Latin
did him any harm ; for his imitations of Anacreon are
almolt the only parts of him that are now remember¬
ed or read. His Davideis, and his tr-anflations of
Pindar, are deftitute of harmony, fimplicity, and every
other claffical grace.”
But the works of this celebrated poet have been no
where fo amply criticifed as in his Life by Dr John¬
fon. After a particular examination of the diftererit
pieces, the Dotftor, in taking a general review of
Cowley’s poetry, obferves, That “ he wrote with a-
bundant fertility, but negligent or unlkilful fele&ion ;
with much thought, but with little imagery; that he
is never pathetic, and rarely fublime, but always either
ingenious or learned, either acute or profound.” Of
his profe he fpeaks with great approbation. “ No
author (fays he) ever kept his verfe and his profe at a
greater diftance from each- other. His thoughts are
natural, and his ftyle has a fmooth and placid equabi¬
lity, which has never yet obtained its due commenda=
tion. Nothing is far-fought or hard-laboured ; but all
is eafy-without feeblenefs, and familiar without groff-
nefs.” Upon the whole, he concludes as follows:
“ It may be affirmed, without any encomiaftic fer¬
vour, that he brought to his poetic labours a mind re¬
plete with learning, and that his paffages are embel-
lifhed with all the ornaments which books could fup-
ply ; that he was the firft who imparted to Englifh
numbers the enthufiafm of the greater ode and the
gaiety of the lefs ; that he was qualified for fprightly
fallies and for lofty flights ; that he was among thofe
who freed tranflation from fervility, and, inftead of
following his author at a-diftance, walked by his fide ;
and that if he left verfification yet improvable, he left
fikewife from time to time fuch fpecimens of excellence
as enabled fucceeding poets to improve it.”
So many of Cowley’s produftions being now efteem¬
ed fcarcely worthy of a perufal, while others of them
are diftinguifhed by their beauty, Dr Hurd (the pre-
fent bifhop of Worcefter) thought proper to make a
feleftion of them, which he publiftied in 1772, under
the title of Seledt Works of Mr Abraham Cowley,,
in two volumes ; with a Preface and Notes by the
Editor.
COX (Richard), a learned prelate, and principal
pillar of the Reformation, was born at Whaddon in
Buckinghamlhire, of low parentage, in the year 1499,
From Eaton fchool he obtained a fcholarfliip in King’s-
college in Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in
[ 503 1
COX [ ?04 ] C R A
IJIq: he was thence invited to Oxford by Cardinal
Wolfey, and was there made one of the junior canons
of Cardinal College. In 1,525 he was incorporated
■bachelor ; and the following year took the degree of
mafter of arts in the fame univerfity. In this fitua-
tion he became remarkable for his learning and poeti¬
cal abilities; but his attachment to the opinions of
Luther rendered him hateful to his fuperiors, who ftrip-
ped him of his preferment, and threw him into prifon
on a fufpicion of herefy. Being, however, foon re¬
leafed, he was chofen mafter of Eaton fchool, which
flourilhed remarkably under his care. In 1537 he
commenced do£tor of divinity at Cambridge ; in 1540
was made archdeacon of Ely ; and the following year
prebendary of that cathedral, on its being new found¬
ed by king Henry ,THI In 1546 he was made dean
of Chrift-church, Oxford. By the recommendation
of Archbifhop Cranmer and Bilhop Goodrich, to the
latter of whom he had been chaplain, he not only ob¬
tained the above preferments, but was chofen precep¬
tor to'Prince Edward; on whofe accefllon to the throne
he became a favourite at court, was fworn of the privy
council, and made king’s almoner. In 1547 he was
ele&ed chancellor of Oxford ; in 1548 canon of Wind-
for; and the next year dean of Weftminfter. About
this time he was appointed one of the commiffioners
to vifit the univerfity of Oxford; in which office his
zeal for reformation was fo exceffive, that he deftroyed
a number of curious and valuable books, for no better
reafon than becaufe they were written by Roman Ca¬
tholics. On the acceffion of Queen Mary he was drip¬
ped of all his preferments and committed to the Mar-
ihalfea. He was, however, foon releafed, and imme¬
diately left the kingdom. Having refided fome time
at Strafburg with his intimate friend Peter Martyr,
on the death of Queen Mary he returned to England,
and, with other divines, was appointed to revile the
liturgy. He often preached before the queen 5 and in
1559 was preferred to the fee of Ely, which he con¬
tinued to enjoy upwards of 21 years. He was, how¬
ever, no favourite with the queen : the reafon affigned
for which was, his zealous oppofrtion to her retaining
the crucifix and wax-candles on the altar of the royal
chapel; alfo his ftrenuous defence of the marriage of
the clergy, which her majefty always difapproved.
He died on the 22d of July 1581, aged 81. He
was a man of confiderable learning, a zealous and ri¬
gid bulwark of the church of England, and an im¬
placable enemy both to Papifts and Puritans. In a
letter to Archbiftrop Parker, he advifes him to proceed
vigoroufly in reclaiming orpunifhing the Puritans, and
not to be difcouraged at the frown of thofe court-fa¬
vourites who protefted them ; alluring him that he
might expeft the bleffing of God on his/war labours
to free the church from their dangerous attempts, and
to eftablilh uniformity,—This zealous reformer we find
had not totally loft fight of the popilh text, compel them
to come in : but a ftronger proof of his implacability
and felf-importance appears in his letter to the lord
treafurer Burleigh, in which he warmly expoftulates
with the council for interpofing in behalf of the Pu¬
ritans, or meddling in affairs of the church, admonilh-
ing them to keep their own fphere. Such language
from a bilhop would make a modern privy council ftare.
His works are, 1. Two Latin Orations on the Difpute
N°93. 4
between Dr Trelham and Peter Martyr, Lend. 1549, Coxwold
4to. 2. Liturgy of the Church of England ; in com-
piling, and afterwards corredting which, he was prin* ' ‘
cipally concerned. 3. The Lord’s Prayer in verfe,
commonly printed at the end of David’s Pfalms by
Sternhold and Hopkins. 4. Tranflation of the four
Gofpels, the Adis of the Apoftles, and the Epiftle
to the Romans, in the new tranflation of the Bible
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 5. Refolutions of
fome Queftions concerning the Sacrament, ip the Col-
ledtion of Records at the end of Burnet’s Hiftory of
the Reformation. 6. Several Letters to the Q^een
and others, publilhed in Strype’s Annals of the Re¬
formation. He is alfo faid to have been concerned in
the declaration concerning the divine inftitution of bi-
fhops, and to have affifted Lilye in his Grammar.
COXWOLD, a town in the North-riding of York>
fhire, 14 miles north of York. W. Long. 1. 10. N.
Lat. 54. 16.
COYPEL (Anthony), an excellent French painter,
born at Paris in x66i. Noel Coypel, his father, be¬
ing chofen by M. Colbert to be diredlor of the aca¬
demy at Rome, he took his fon with him into Italy,
where Anthony Coypel formed himfelf on the works
of the greateft mafters, and on' his return to France
was made firft painter to the Duke of Orleans. That
prince employed him in painting the grand gallery of
the royal palace, and allowed him a penfion. In 1714,
he was diredlor of the Academy of Painting and Sculp¬
ture. In 17,15, he was made firft painter to the French
king, and was ennobled on account of his merit. He
died in 1722. M. Coypel, his fon, alfo excelled in the
fame art.
COZENING ; tricking, or defrauding.—In law, it
denotes an offence where any thing is done deceitfully,
whether belonging to contradls or not, which cannot
be properly tei med by any fpecial name.
COZUMEL, an ifland near the weftern coaft of
Jucatan, where Cortez landed and refrefhed his troops
before entering upon the conqueft of Mexico. W.
Long. 89. o. and. N. Lat. 13. o.
CRAB, in zoology. See Cancer.
Crab's Claws, in the materia medica, are the tips
of the claws of the common crab broken off at the
verge of the black part, fo much of the extremity of
the claws only being allowed to be ufed in medicine
as is tinged with this colour. The blacknefs, how¬
ever, is only fuperficial; they are of a greyifli white
within, and when levigated furniih a tolerable white
powder.
Crab’s claws are of the number of the alkaline ab-
forbents, but they are fuperior to the generality of
them in fome degree, as they are found on a chemical
analyfis to contain a volatile urinous fait.
Crab's Eyes, in phar ..acy, are a ftrong concretion
in the head of the cray-filh. They are rounded on
one fide, and depreffed and finuated on the other, con-
fiderably heavy, moderately hard, and without fmell.
We have them from Holland, Mufcovy, Poland, Den¬
mark, Sweden, and many other places.
Crab’s eyes are much ufed both in the (hop-medi¬
cines and extemporaneous preferiptions, being account¬
ed -not only abforbent and drying, but alfo difeuffive
and diuretic.
Crab-Lice, a troublefome kind of vermin, which
flick
C R A [s'
Crab, ftick fo fail with their claws to the fkin as to render
Cracatoa. ;t difficult to diflodge them. Being viewed with a
glafg they nearly refemble the fmall crab-fifh ; whence
they obtained their popular name. They are alfo called
pluclulf, morp'wne.t, pc tola, and peffblata : they ufually
infeft the arm pits and pudenda. They will be quickly
deftroyed, and drop off dead, upon the application of
a rag wet with the milk of fublimate. This fort of
vermin is reckoned to prognoflicate fpeedy mortality
to thofe whom they abandon without being removed
by medicine.
Crab, a fort of wooden pillar, whofe lower end,
being let down through a fhip’s decks, refts upon a
focket like the capftern ; and having in its upper end
three or four holes, at different heights, through the
middle of it, one above another, into which long bars
are thruft, whofe length is nearly equal to the breadth
of. the deck. It is employed to wind in the cable, or
to purchafe any other weighty matter which requires
a great mechanical power. This differs from a cap-
* ftern, as not being furnifhed with a drum-head, and
by having the bars to go entirely through it, reaching
from one fide of the deck to the other; whereas thofe
of the capftern, which are fuperior in number,^ reach
only -about eight inches or a foot into the drum-head,
according to the fize thereof. This machine is repre-
fented in Plate CXXV7!!. n° 4. See alfo Capstf rn.
CRjB-7'a’ws, a name in Jamaica for a kind of ulcer
on the foies of the feet, with hard callous lips, fohard
that it is difficult to cut them. The ungt. ccend.fort.
is their cure.
CRACATOA, the moft foutherly of a clufter of
ifiands lying in the entrance of the ftraits of Sunda in
the Eaft Indies. Its whole circumference does not
exceed nine miles ; and off its north-eaftern extremity
is a fmall ifland forming a road, in which Captain
Cook anchored when vifiting this ifland on his laft voy¬
age. On the fouthern part of the fmall ifland is a
reef of rocks, within which is a tolerable flielter a-
gainft all northerly winds, there being 27 fathoms wa¬
ter in the mid channel, and 18 near the reef. Be¬
tween the two iflands there is a narrow paffage for
boats. The fliore that conftitutes the weft fide of the
road runs in a north-wefterly direftion, having a bank
of coral running into the fea for a little way, fo that
it is difficult for boats to land except at the time of
high water ; but the anchoring ground is very good
and free from rocks. In the inland parts the ground
is elevated, rifing on all fides gradually from the fea,
and is entirely covered with wood, excepting a fi.w
fpots which are cleared by the inhabitants fi r fowing
rice. The climate is reckoned very healthy in com-
' parifon with the neighbouring countries, but is very
thinly inhabited. There are abundance of turtle on
the coral reefs; but other refrefhments are fcarce, and
fold at an exorbitant price. Water i's not plentiful:
Captain Cook was obliged to fupply himfelf from a
fmall fpring oppofite to the fouthern extremity of the
, fmall ifland above mentioned. To the fouthward is a
hot fpring, whofe waters are ufed as a bath by the in¬
habitants. The road where the Refolution anchored
Iks in S. Lat. 8. 6. and by obfervation, in 105. 36.
E. Long, by the time-keeper in 104. 48. The varia¬
tion of the compafs one degree W. On the full and
Vol. V. Part II.
>5 ] C R A
change days it is high water at feven o’clock in the Craekow
morning, and the tide rifes three feet two inches per- ——v~—J
pendicular.
CRACKOW, a city of Poland, fituated in a pala¬
tinate of the fame name, E. Long. 20. 16. N. Lat.
50. 8. It was formerly the capital of Poland, where
the kings were ele&ed and crowned, and was once al-
moft the centre of the Polifh dominions, but is now a
frontier town ; a proof how much the power of this
republic has been contra&ed.
Crackow Hands in an extenfive plain, watered by
the Viftula, which is broad but fhallpw : the city and
its fuburbs occupy a vaft track of ground, but are fo
badly peopled, that they fcarcely contain 16,000 in¬
habitants. The great fquare in the middle of the
town is very fpacious, and has fcveral well- built houfes,
once richly fumiftied and well inhabited, but moft of
them now either untenanted or in a flat* of melan¬
choly decay. Many of the ftreets are broad andhand-
fome ; but almofl every building bears the moft ftri*
king marks of ruined grandeur: the churches alone
feem to have preferved their original fplendor. The
devaftation of this unfortunate town was begun by the
Swedes at the commencement of the prefent century,
when it was befieged and taken by Charles XII. but
the mifehiefs it fuffered from that ravager of the north
were far lefs deftruftive than thofe it experienced du¬
ring the late dreadful commotions, when it underwent
repeated fieges, and was alternately in pofiefiion of
the Ruffians and. Confederates. The effefts of can¬
non, grape, and mufleet fhot, are ftill difcernible on
the walls and houfes. In a word, Crackow exhibits
the remains of ancient magnificence, and looks like a
great capital in ruins: from the number of fallen and
falling houfes one would imagine it had lately been
lacked, and that the enemy had left it only yefterday.
The town is furrounded with high walls of brick,
ftrengthened by round and fquare towers of whimfical
ihapes, in the ancient ftyle of fortification : thefe walls
were built by Venceflaus king of Bohemia during the
ftiort period in which he reigned over Poland.
The urfiverfity of Crackow was formerly, and not
unjuftly, called the mother of Polifh literature, as it
principally fupplied the other feminaries with profef-
fors and men of learning ; but its luftre has been great¬
ly obfeured by the removal of the royal refidence to
Warfaw, and ftill more by the late inteftine convul-
fions. In this city the art of printing was firft intro¬
duced into Poland by Haller; and one of the earlieft
books was the Conftitutions and Statutes compiled by
Cafimir the Great, and afterwards augmented by his
fucceffors. The characters are Gothic, the fame which
were univerfally ufed at the invention of printing : the
great initial letters are wanting, which ftiows that they
were probably painted and afterwards worn away. The
year in which this compilation was printed Is not pofi-
tively known ; but its publication was certainly ante¬
rior to 1496, as it does not contain the ftatutes paffej
by John Albert in that year. The moft flourifiring
period of the univerfity was under Sigifmond Augus¬
tus in the 16th century, when feveral of the German
reformers fled from the perfccutions of the emperor
Charles V.‘ and found an afylum in this city. . They
gave to the world feveial verfions of the facred wri-
- 3 S fiogs*
C R A [ 506 1 C R A
Cra»kow. tings, and other theological publications, which diffu-
fed the reformed religion over great part of Poland.
The prote&ion which Sigifmond Auguftus afforded
to men of learning of all denominations, and the uni-
verfal toleration which he extended to every fe& of
Chriftians, created a fufpicion that he was fecretly in¬
clined to the new church; and it was even reported
that he intended to renounce the catholic faith, and
publicly profefs the reformed religion.
Towards the fouthern part of the town, near the
Viftula, rifes a fmall eminence or -rock, upon the top
of which is built the palace, furrounded with brick walls
and old towers, which form a kind of citadel to the
town. This palace owes its origin to Ladiflaus JagheU
Ion ; but little of the ancient ftrudlure now appears,
as the greateft part was demolifhed by Charles XII. in
1702, when he entered this town in triumph after the
battle of Cliffow. It has been fince repaired : the re¬
mains of the old palace confift of a few apartments,,
which are left in their ancient flate as they exifted in
the laft century. This palace was formerly the refi-
dence of the kings of Poland, who, from the time of
luadiflaus Loketec, have been crowned at Crackow.
The Polifli and German hiftorians differ concerning the
time when the title of king was firfl claimed by the fove-
reigns of this country; but the moft probable account is,
according to MrCoxe, that in 1295 Premiflaus affumed
the regal title, and was inaugurated at Gnefna by the arch*
bifhop of that diocefe. He was fucceeded by Ladiflaus
Loketec, who offending thePoles by his capricious and
tyrannical condud, was depofed before he was crown¬
ed ; and Venceflaus king of Bohemia, who had mar¬
ried Richfa daughter of Premiflaus, being ele&ed in
his ftead, was in 1300 confecrated at Gnefna. La¬
diflaus, after flying from his country and undergoing
a feries of calamitous adventures, was at length brought
to a fenfe of his mifcondud. Having regained the
affedion of his fubjeds, he was reftored, in the life¬
time of Venceflaus, to part of his dominions ; and he
recovered them all upon the demife of that monarch
in the year 1305 : he governed, however, for feme
. years without the title of king; but at length in 1320
was. crowned at Crackow, to which place he transfer¬
red the ceremony of the coronation ; and afterwards
enaded, that for the future his fucceffors fhould be
inaugurated in the cathedral of this city.
Since that period allthefovereigns have been confecra¬
ted at Crackow, excepting the prefent king. Previous
to his eledion a decree wasiffuedby the diet of convo¬
cation, that the coronation fhould be folemnized for
this turn at Warfaw, without prejudice in future to
the ancient right of Crackow; a provifo calculated to
fatisfy the populace, but which will not probably pre¬
vent any future fovereign from being crowned at War¬
faw, now become the capital of Poland and the refl-
dence of its kings. The diadem and other regalia
ufed at the coronation are flill kept in the palace of
Crackow, under fo many keys, and with fuch care,
that it was impofiible to obtain a fight of them.
Adjoining to the palace Hands the cathedral, alfo
within, the walls of the citadel. Here all the fove-
reigns, from the time of Ladiflaus Loketec, have been
interred, a few only excepted, viz. Louis and Ladif¬
laus III. who were kings of Hungary as well as of
Poland, and whole bodies were depofited in Hungary ;
Alexander, who died and was buried at Vilna ; Henry Cradle-
of Valois, interred in France ; and the late monarch II
Auguftus III. The fepulchres of the kings of Po- Crambe,
land are not diftinguifhed by any peculiar magnificence: v -
their figures are carved in marble of no.extraordinary
workmanfhip, and fome are without inferiptions.
The bifhop of Crackow is the firft in the kingdom,
duke of Saveria, and very often a cardinal. His re¬
venues are larger than thofe of his metropolitan the
archbilhop of Gnefna, and are computed to amount
to 40,000 dollars />er annum.
CRADLE, a well known machine in which infants-
are rocked to fleep.
It denotes alfo that part of the flock of a crofs-bow
where the bullet is put.
Cradle, in furgery, a cafe in which a broken leg
is laid after being fet.
Cradle, in engraving, is the name of an inftrument
ufed in feraping mezzotintos and preparing the. plate..
It is formed of Heel, refembling a chiflel with one do¬
ping fide, upon which are cut. hollow lines very near
each other, and at equal diftances. The acting part
of this tool is made circular, and the corners are round¬
ed. After being properly tempered, it muft be fhar-
pened on the whetftone. There are various fizes of
this inftrument.
Cradle, among Shipwrights, a frame placed under
the bottom of a fhip, in order to condutl her fmoothly
and fteadily into the water when fhe is going to be:
launched ; at which time it fupports her weight while
fhe Aides down the defeent or floping paflage called the
<ways> which are for this purpofe daubed with foap and
tallow. See Plate CL.
CRAFT, a general name for all. forts of veffels-
employed to load or difeharge merchant Ships, or
to carry alongfide or return the ftores of men of war.
Such are lighters, hoys, barges,, prames, &c. See thofe
articles..
CRAKE, or Corn-crake. See Rallus.
CRAIL, or Careil, a parliament town of Scotland,
fituated on the fea-coaft of the county of Fife, about
feven miles fouth-eaft of St Andrew’s. W. Long. 2. 20.
and Lat. 56. 17.
CRAMBE, Sea-cabbage, Sea-beach Kale, or
Sea-colewort, in botany : A genus of the liliquofa-
order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 39th or¬
der, Siliquofte. The four longer filaments are forked
at top, with an anthera only on one point of each ;
the fruit a dry, globofe, and deciduous berry. There
are three fpecies, all of them herbaceous efculents with
perennial roots, producing annually large leaves re¬
fembling thofe of cabbage fpreading on the ground,
with ftrong flower-ftalks and yellowifh flowers. Only
one of the fpecies is a native of Britain. It grows wild
on the ftiores of many of the maritime counties of Eng¬
land, but is cultivated in many gardens as a choice
efculent; and the young robuft {hoots of its leaves and
flower-ftalks, as they iflue forth from the earth after
the manner of afparagus {hoots, are then in the great-
eft perfedtion for ufe. At this period they appear
white as if blanched, and when boiled eat exceeding
fweet and tender. Its principal feafon for ufe is in
April and May. This plant may alfo be employed in
the pleafure-ground as a flowering perennial, for the
ftalks
C R A [ 507 ] C R A
■Crameria ftalks divide into fine branchy heads of flowers. It is
r II. propagated by feeds fown in any common light earth
. i'a"ium- jn autumn or fpring, where the plants are to remain,
which, when two years old, will produce (hoots fit for
ufe, will multiply exceedingly by the roots, and con¬
tinue for many years.
CRAMERIA, in botany, a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants.
There is no calyx; the corolla has four petals; thefu-
perior neftary is trifid, the inferior biphyllous; the
fruit is a dry, monofpermous, and echinated berry.
CRAMOND, Over and Nether, two villages
about four miles weft of Edinburgh ; of which only
the laft deferves notice, as having been once a famous
naval ftation of the Romans. It is fituated at the in¬
flux of the river Almon into the Forth. Three Ro¬
man roads meet at this place, which was called by them
Alaterva, and whither they brought their grain for the
fupport of their troops. The village contains about
300 inhabitants. Here are the remains of a bath and
fudatory; and many altars, medals, &c. have been dug up.
CRAMP, a kind of numbnefs or convulfion, occa-
fioned by a thick vifcid vapour entering the membranes
of the mufcles, which contra£ts or extends the neck,
arm’s, legs, &c. with a violent but tranfitory pain;
being ufually driven off with fri&ion alone. The word
. comes from the German krampfe, which fignifies the
fame.
A glafs of tar water, to be drank night and morn¬
ing, has been recommended ; and a rod of brimftone,
when held in the hand, has given prefent relief.
CRAMP-Fi/h, or Torpedo. See Raja.
Cramp-Iron, or Cramps, a piece of iron bent at each
end, which ferves to fallen together pieces of wood,
ftones, or other things.
CRAMPONEE, in heraldry, an epithet given to a
crofs which has at each end a cramp or fquare piece
coming from it; that from the arm in chief towards
the fmifter angle, that from the arm on that fide down¬
wards, that from the arm in bafe towards the dexter
fide, and that from the dexter arm upwards.
CRANAGE, the liberty of ufing a crane at a wharf,
and alfo the money paid for drawing up wares out of
a (hip, &c. with a crane.
CRANE, in ornithology. See Arbea.
Crane, in mechanics, a machine ufed in building
for railing large ftones and other weights. See Me¬
chanics.
Crane’s Fill, in botany. See Geranium.
Crane-FIj, in zoology, a fpecies of Tipula.
CRANGANOR, a Dutch factory on the Malabar
coaft in the Eaft Indies, feated in E. Long. 75. 5. N.
Lat. ro. o. See Cochin.
CRANIOLAR1 A, in botany : A genus of the an-
giofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
40th order, Perfonata. The calyx of the flower is
double, the under one tetraphyllous, the upper one a
inonophyllous fpatha; the tube of the corolla very long;
the capfule almoft the fame with that of the martynia;
which fee. There are two fpecies, both natives of hot
climates, and neither of them poffeffed of any remark¬
able property.
CRANIUM, in anatomy, an affemblage of feveral
bones which cover and enclofe the brain and cerebel¬
lum, popularly called the Jhull. See Anatomy, drank
n° 11. The word comes from the Greek xpanov, of II
xfav<&-, galea, “ helmet;” becaufe it ferves to defend,Cfil‘|mgr-i
the brain like a head-piece. Pezron, again, derives v ”
xpaviov from the Celtic cren, becaufe of its roundnefs.
CRANK, a contrivance in machines, in manner of
an elbow, only of a fquare form, projefting out from
an axis or fpindle ; and ferving, by its rotation, to
raife and fall the piftons of engines for raifing water
or the like.
Crank, in fea-language. A (hip is faid to be crania
Jided, when, for want of a fufficient quantity of ballad
or cargo, (he cannot bear her fails, or can bear but
fmall fail, for fear of overfetting.—She is faid to be crank
by the ground, when her floor is fo narrow that (he can¬
not be brought on ground without danger.
Crank is alfo an iron brace which fupports the lan-
thorns on the poop-quarters, &c.
CRANMER (Thomas), a celebrated archbifliop,
reformer, and martyr, was the fon of Thomas Cran-
mer, Efq; of Afla&on in Nottinghamlhire, where our
author was born in 1489. At the age of 14, he was
admitted a ftudent of Jefus’ College, Cambridge, of
which he afterwards became fellow ; but marrying the
relation of an inn-keeper’s wife, he loft his fellowftup
and quitted the college. On the death of his wife
“he was re-admitted fellow of Jefus’ College. In 1523
he took the degree of dodlor of divinity, and was made
theological ledturer and examiner. The plague being
at Cambridge, he retired to the houfe of a relation at
Waltham Abbey, where, meeting with Fox the king’s
almoner, and Gardiner the fecretary, he gave his opi¬
nion concerning King Henry’s marriage with Catha¬
rine much to the fatisfaftion of his majefty. This
opinion was, that inftead of difputing about the vali¬
dity of the King’s marriage with Catharine, they
(hould reduce the matter to this Ample queftion,
“ Whether a man may marry his brother’s wife or no?”
When the King was told of it, he faid, “ This fellow
has got the right fow by the ear.” He then fent for
him to court, made him one of his chaplains, and or¬
dered him to write in vindication of the-divorce in
agitation. This book having quieted the tender con-
fcience of the King, he was defirous that all Europe
(hould be convinced of the illegality of his marriage
with Queen Catharine ; and for that purpofe fent
Cranmer to France, Italy, and Germany, to difpute
the matter with the divines of thofe countries. At Nu¬
remberg Cranmer married a fecond wife. Beingreturned
to England, in March 1533 he was confecrated arch-
bifhop of Canterbury ; in May following he pronoun¬
ced the fentence of divorce between the King and
Queen ; and foon after married the amorous monarch
to Ann Boleyn. Being now at the head of the church,
he exerted himfelf in the bufinefs of the Reformation.
The Bible was tranflated into Englifh, and monafteries
diffqlved principally by his means.
In 1536 the royal confciefice again.required the af-
fiftance of our archbifliop : in this year he divorced the
King from Ann Boleyn. In 153 7 he vifited his diocefe,
and endeavoured to abolilh the iuperftitious obfervation
of holidays. In 1539 he and fome of the bifhops fell
under,the King’s difpleafure, becaufe they could not be
brought to give their confent in parliament that the
monafteries (hould be fuppreffed for the King’s foie
C R A [ 508 ] C R A
ule. He alfo ftrenuoufly oppofed the adl for the fix
articles in the houfe of lords, fpeaking three days
againft it; and upon the pacing of that ftatute fent
away his wife into Germany. In 1540 he was one of
the commiffioners for infpedting into matters of reli¬
gion, and explaining fome of its chief doctrines. The
refult of their commifiion was the book intitled A ne-
ceffary Erudition of any Chriftian Man. After Lord
Cromwell’s death (in whofe behalf he had written to
the King), he retired and lived in great privacy, med¬
dling not at all with ftate affairs. In 1541 he gave orders,
purfuant to the King’s directions, for taking away fu-
perffitious fhrines ; and, exchanging Bifhopfbourn for
Bekefbourn, united the latter to his diocefe. In 1542
he procured the “ Aft for the advancement of true re¬
ligion and the aboliflrment of the contrary,” which
moderated the rigour of the fix articles. But the year
following, fome enemies preferring accufations.againft
him, he had like to have been ruined, had not the
King interpofed in his behalf. His majefty continued
afterwards to proteft him from his enemies; and at his
death appointed him one of the executors of his will,
and one of the regents of the kingdom. In 1546 he
crpwned young Edward, during whofe fhort reign he
promoted the reformation to the utmofl of his power;
and was particularly inftrumental in compofing, correc¬
ting, and eftablifhing the liturgy by aft of parliament.
He had alfo a fhare in compiling the thirty-nine articles
of religion.
In 1553 he oppofed the new fettlement of the'crown
upon Lady Jane Gray, and would no way be concern-
in that affair (though at laft, through many importu¬
nities, he was prevailed upon to fet his hand to it) ;
neither would he join in any 0/ Dudley’s ambitious
projefts. Upon Queen Mary’s acceffion to the throne,
he was committed to the Tower ; partly for fetting
his hand to the inftrument of Lady Jane’s fucceflion,
and partly for the public offer he had made a little be¬
fore of juftifying openly the religious proceedings of
the late king. Some of his friends, forefeeingthe ftorm
that was likely to fall upon him, advifed him to fly,
but he abfolutely refufed. In the enfuing parliament,
on November the 3d, he was attainted, and at Guild¬
hall found guilty of high treafon ; whereupon the fruits
of his archbifhopric iVere fequeltered. In April 1554, he
and Ridley and Latimer were removed to Oxford, in
order for a public difputation with the Papifts ; which
was accordingly held there towards the middle of the
month, with great noife, triumph, and impudent confi-
. dence on the Papifts fide, and with as much gravity,
learning, modefty, and convincing fufficiency on the
fide of the Proteftant bifhops. The 20th of April, two
days after the end of thefe deputations, Cranmer and
the two others were brought before the commiflioners,
and afked, Whether they would fubferibe (to Popery)?
which they unanimoufly refufing, were condemned as
heretics. From this fentence the Archbifhop appealed
to the juft judgment of the Almighty ; and wrote to
the council, giving them an account of the difputation,
and defiring the Queen’s pardon for his treafon, which
it feems was not yet remitted. By the convocation
which met this year, his Defence of the true and ca¬
tholic Doftrine of the Sacrament of the Body and
Blood of our Saviour Chiift was ordered to be burnt.
Some of his friends petitioned the Queen in his behalf j
putting her in mind how he had once preferved her in
her father’s time by his earneft fnterceflions with him
for her, fo that fhe had reafon to believe he loved her,
and would fpeak the truth to her more than all the
reft of the clergy. All endeavours in his behalf, how¬
ever, were ineffeftual; and the Archbiftiop being de¬
graded and moft ignominioufly’treated, was at laft flat¬
tered and terrified into an intincere recantation and re¬
nunciation of the Proteftant faith. L'T this triumph
was not fuiiicient to gratify-the pious vengeance of the
Romifti Mary. On the 24th of Feb. 1556, a writ
was figned for the burning of Cranmer; anti on the
24th March, which was tile fatal day, he was brought
to St Mary’s church, Cambridge, and placed on a
kind of ilage over againlt the pulpit, where Dr Cole
provoft of Eton was appointed to preach a fermon on-
the occafion. While Cole was haranguing, the un¬
fortunate Cranmer expreffed great inward con full on ;
often lifting up his hands and eyes to heaven, and fre¬
quently pouring out floods of tears. At the end of
the fermon, when Cole defired him to make an open
profeffion of his faith, as he had promifed him he
would, he firft prayed in the moil fervent manner
then made an exhortation to the people prefent, not to
fet their minds upon the world, to obey the King and-
Queen, to love each other, and to be charitable. Af¬
ter this he made a. confeffion of his faith, beginning
with the creed, and .concluding with thefe words:
“ And I believe every word and fentence taught by
our Saviour Jefus Chrift, his apoftles, and prophets, in
the Old and New Teftament.—And now (added he)
I come to the great thing that fo much troubleth my
confcience more than any thing I ever did or faid in
my whole life; and that is the felting abroad a wri¬
ting contrary, to the truth, which I here now renounce
as things written with my hand contrary to the truth
which I thought in my heart; and wiitten for fear of
death, and to fave my life if it might be : that’is, all
fuch bills and papers which I have written or figned
with my hand fince my degradation, wherein I have
written many things untrue. And forafmuch as my
hand offended, writing contrary to my heart, my hand:
fliall firft be punilhed ; for, may I come to the fire, it
fhall be firft burned. As for the pope, I refufe him, as
Chrilt’s enemy and antichrift, with all his falfe doftrine.
And as for the facrament, I believe as I have taught
in my book againft the Biihop of Winchefter,” Thun-
derftruck as it were with this unexpefted declaration,
the enraged Popifh crowd admonilhed him not to dif-
femble. “ Ah! (replied he with tears), fince I lived
hitherto, I have been a hater of falfehood and a lover
of fimplicity, and never before this time have I diffem-
bled.” Whereupon they pulled him off the ftage with
the utmoft fury, and hurried him to the place of his
martyrdom over againft Baliol College ; where he put
off his clothes in hafte, and Handing in his fhirt, and
without ftioes, was fattened with a chain to the ftake.
Some preffmg him to agree to his former recantation,,
he anfwered, {bowing his hand, “ This is the hand
that wrote it, and therefore it fhall firft fufler punifh-
ment.” Fire being applied to him, he ttretched out
his right hand into the flame, and held it there unmo¬
ved (except that once with it he wiped his face) till it.
was confumed ; crying with a loud voice, “ This hand
hath offended j” and often repeating, “ This unwor¬
thy
Cranmeri
e R A [ 509 ] C R A
tfiy riglit hand.” At laft, the fire getting up, he foon
expired, never ftirring or crying out all the while ;
only keeping his eyes fixed to heaven, and repeating
more than once, “ Lord Jefus receive my fpirit.” Such
was the end of the renowned Thomas Craamer, in the
67th year of his age.
It vv^trs noticed above, that after the paffing of the aft
for the fix articles, Archbifhop Cranmer fent his wife
into Germany. But fhe afterwards returned again to
England; and Mr Strype informs us, that “ in the
time of King Edward, when the marriage of the clergy
was allowed, he brought her forth, and lived openly
with her.” Mr Gilpin fays, “ he left behind him a
widow and children ; but as he always kept his family
in obfcurity for prudential reafons,' we know little
about them. They had been kindly provided for by
Henry VIII. ; who, without any felicitation from the
Primate himfelf, gave him a considerable grant from
the Abbey of Walbeck in Nottinghamfhire, which his
family enjoyed after his deceafe. giving Edward made
Ibme addition to his private fortune; and his heirs
were reilored in blood by an aft of parliament in the
reign of Elizabeth.”
Archbifhop Cranmer wrote a great number of books:
many of them he publifhed himfelf; and many of
them ftill remain in MSS. viz. two folio volumes in
the king’s library, feveral letters in the Cotton collec¬
tion, &c.
Mr Gilpin remarks. That “the charafter of the
Archbifhop hath been equally the fubjeft of exaggerated
praife and of undeferved cenfure. The moft indefen-
fible parts of the Archbifhop’s charafter are the readi-
nefs with which he fometimes concurred in the unjufti-
fiable proceedings of Henry Vltl. and the inflances
wherein he fhowed himfelf to be aftuated by intolerant
principles.
“ He firft recommended himfelf to Henry by the zeal
whjch he difplayed in promoting the King’s divorce
from Queen Catharine. As to this, it may be allow¬
ed, that Dr Cranmer might think the marriage wrong:
but though it pofiibly might-be a point of confcience
with the King, it could however be none with him ;
atid there was manifellly a difference between advifing
not to do a thing, and advifing to undo it when al¬
ready done, at leaft in a matter of fo difputable a na¬
ture. On the other hand,'to repudiate a woman with
whom the King had cohabited near 20 years as his
wife, and to illegitimate a daughter, bred up in the
highefl expeftations, and now marriageable, were afts
of fuch cruelty, that it feems to indicate a want of
feeling to be in any degree acceffary to them. To
this may be added, that the notoriety of the King’s
paffioh for Ann Boleyn, which all men believed to be,
if not the firft mover, at leaft the principal fpring of
his pretended fcruples, threw a very indelicate impu¬
tation on all who had any concern in the affair. xNo
ferious churchman, one would imagine, could be fond
of the idea qf adminiftering to the King’s paffions. It
is with concern, therefore, that we fee a man of Dr
Cranmer’s integrity and fimplicity of manners afting
fo much out of charafter as to compound an affair of
this kind, if not with his confcience, at leaft with all
de'ieacy of fentiment; and to parade through Europe,
in the quality of an ambaffador, defending every where
the King’s J/ious intentions. But the caufe (continues
Mr Gilpin) animated him. With the illegality of the Cr?.rr
King’s marriage, he endeavoured virtually to eftablifh  r
the infufficiency of the pope’s difpenfation ; and the
latter was an argument fo near his heart, that it feems
to have added merit to the former. We cannot indeed
account for his embarking f6 zealoufly in this bufinefs
without fuppofing his principal motive was to free his
country from the tyranny of Rome, to which this ftep'
very evidently led. So deiirable an end would in fome
degree, he might imagine, fanftify the means.”
Of two of the initances of perfecution in which
Archbifhop Cranmer was concerned, Mr Gilpin gives
the following account. “ Joan Bocher and George
Paris were accufed, though at different times ; one for
denying the humanity of Chrift, the other for denying
his divinity. They were both tried and condemned
to the flake ; and the Archbifhop not only confented
to thefe afts of blood, but even perfuaded the averfion
of the young King into a'compliance. ‘ Your majefly
mull dillinguifh (faid he, informing his royal pupil’s
confcience) between common opinions and fuch as are
the effential articles of faith. Thefe latter we mull on
no account fuffer to be oppofed.” Mr Gilpin juflly ob-
ferves, that “ nothing even plaufible can be fuggefled
in defence of the Archbifhop on this occafion, except
only that the fpirit of Popery was not yet wholly re-
preffed.” Thefe inflances of injuflice and barbarity
were indeed totally indefenfible, and a_ great difgrace
to Cranmer and to all who wefe concerned in them.
It does not appear that he endeavoured to promote the
death of Lambert; but,-as Mr Gilpin ubferves, it
were to be wifhed he had rid his* hands of the difpu-
tation likewife. The public difputation, in which
Cranmer bore fome part, proved the means of bring¬
ing Lambert to the flake.
One of the mofl honourable tranfaftions of Arch¬
bifhop Cranmer’s life, was the firm (land that he made
again fl the aft of the fix articles. This aft was fo
ftrongly fupported by the King, that even the Pro-
tellants in parliament made little oppofition to it. But
Cranmer oppofed it with great zeal and fleadinefs.
“ The good Archbifhop (fays Mr Gilpin) never ap¬
peared in a more truly Chriflian light than on this oc¬
cafion. In the ifiidli of fo general a defeftion (for
there were numbers in the houfe who had hitherto
fhown great forwardnefs in reformation) he aloqe made
a {land. Three days he maintained his ground, and
baffled the arguments of all oppofers. But argument
was not their weapon, and the Archbifhop faw him¬
felf obliged to fink under fuperior power. Blenry or¬
dered him to leave the houfe. The Primate refufed :
‘ It was God’s bufmefs (he faid); and not. man’s.’
And when he could do no more, he boldly entered his
protefl. Such an inftance of fortitude is fufficient to
wipe off many of thofe courtly flains which have faflen--
ed on his memory.”
Plis behaviour in the cafe of the Duke of Norfolk .
was alfo intitled to great commendation. “ The laft.
aft of this reign (fays Mr Gilpin) was an aft of blood,,
and gave the Archbifhop a noble opportunity of blow¬
ing how well he had learned that great Chriftian leffon
of forgiving an enemy. Almofl without the .fhadow
of juflice, Henry had given directions to have the Duke
of Norfolk attainted by an aft of parliament. The.
King’s mandate Hood in lieu of guilt, and the bill;
palled i
C R A [ JIO ] C R A
Cranmer. paffed the houfe with great eafe. No man, except the
Bifhop of Winchefter, had been fo great an enemy to
the Archbifhop as the Duke of Norfolk. He had al¬
ways thwarted the Primate’s meafures, and oftener than
once had pradtifed againft his life. How many would
have feen with fecret pleafure the workings of Provi¬
dence againft fo rancorous an enemy ; fatisfied in ha¬
ving themfelves no hand in his unjuft fate ! But the
Archbiftiop faw the affair in another light: he faw it
with horror ; and although the King had in a parti¬
cular manner interefted himfelf in this bufinefs, the
Primate oppofed the bill with all his might; and when
his oppofition was vain, he left the houfe with indig¬
nation, and retired to Croydon.”
He was indeed remarkable for the placability of his
temper, and for fhowing kindnefs to thofe by whom
he had been greatly injured. Hence it is mentioned
in Shakefpeare’s Henry VIII. as a common faying
-concerning him;
 “ Do my Lord of Canrerbnry
But one fhrewd turn, and he's your friend for ever.”
Archbiffiop Cranmer was a great friend and patron
of learned foreigners who had been perfecuted for their
attachment to the principles of the Reformation. Mr
Gilpin fays, “ the fuffering profeflbrs of Proteftantifm,
who were fcattered in great numbers about the vari¬
ous countries of Europe, were always fure of an afy-
lum with him. His palace at Lambeth might be call¬
ed a feminary of learned men ; the greater part of
whom perfecution had driven from home. Here,
among other celebrated reformers, Martyr, Bucer,
Alefs, Phage, found fandtuary. Martyr, Bucer, and
Phage, were liberally penfioned by the Archbiffiop till
he could otherwife provide for them. It was his wifti
to fix them in the two univerfities, where he hoped
their great knowledge and fpirit of inquiry would for¬
ward his defigns of reftoring learning; and he at length
obtained profeflbrftiips for them all. Bucer and Phage
were fettled at Cambridge ; where they only fhowed
what might have been expefted from them, both dy¬
ing within a few months after their arrival. But at
Oxford Martyr a died a very confpicuoits part, and con¬
tributed to introduce among the ftudents there a very
liberal mode of thinking.
Of the learning of Archbifliop Cranmer, Mr Gilpin
remarks, that “ it was chiefly confined to his profef-
fion. He had applied himfelf in Cambridge to the
ftudy of the Greek and Hebrew languages; which,
though efteemed at that time as the mark of herefy,
appeared to him the only fources of attaining a critical
knowledge of the Scriptures. He had fo accurately
ftudied canon law, that he was efteemed the beft ca-
nonift in England ; and his reading in theology was
fo extenfive, and his colleftions from the Fathers fo
very voluminous, that there were few points in which
he was not accurately informed, and in which he could
not give the opinions of the feveral ages of the church
from the times of the Apoftles. He was a fenfible
writer, rather nervous than elegant. His writings
were entirely confined to the great controverfy which
then fubfifted, and contain the whole fum of the theo¬
logical learning of thofe times. His library was filled
with a very noble colledtion of books, and was open to
all-men of letters.
Mr Gilpin, after remarking that Archbilhop Cran¬
mer preached often wherever he vifited, fays, “ In his Cranmer. ’
fermons to the people he was very plain and inftruc- ~“V— J
tive j infilling chiefly on the eflentials of Chriftianity.
The fubjedts of his fermons, for the moft part, were
from whence falvation is to be fetched, and on whom
the confidence of man ought to lean. They infifted
much on dodlrines of faith and works; and taught
what the fruits of faith were, and what place was to be
given to works ; they inftrudted men in the duties
they owed their neighbour, and that every one was
our neighbour to whom we might any way do good;
they declared what men ought to think of themfelves
after they had done all; and, laftly, what promifes
Chrift hath made, and who they are to whom he will
make them good. Thus he brought in the true preach¬
ing of the Gofpel, altogether different from the ordi¬
nary way of preaching in thofe days; which was to
treat concerning faints, to tell legendary tales of them,
and to report miracles wrought for the confirmation
of tranfubftantiation and other Popiffi corruptions.
And fuch a heat of convidlion accompanied- his fer¬
mons, that the people departed from them with minds
poffeffed of a great hatred of vice, and burning with a
defire of virtue.”
He was a great economift of his time. Mr Gilpin
fays, “ he rofe commonly at five o’clock, and conti¬
nued in his ftudy till nine. Thefe early hours, he
would fay, were the only hours he could call his own.
After breakfaft he generally {pent the remainder of the
morning either in public or private fiufinefs. His
chapel-hour was eleven, and his dinner-hour twelve.
After dinner he fpent an hour either in cpnverfation
with his friends, in playing at chefs, or in, what he
liked better, overlooking a chefs-board. He then re¬
tired again to his ftudy till his chapel-bell rang at five.
After prayers, he generally walked till fix, which was
in thofe times the hour of fupper. His eveniiig meal
was fparing. Often he ate nothing; and when that
was the cale, it was his ufual cuftom, as he fat down
to table, to draw on a pair of gloves; which was as
much as to fay, that his. hands had nothing to do.
After fupper, he fpent an hour in walking and another
in his ftudy, retiring to his bedchamber about nine.
This was his ufual mode of living when he was moft
vacant, but very often his afternoons as well as his
mornings were engaged in bufinefs. He generally,
however, contrived, if poflible, even in the bufieft day,
to devote fome proportion of his time to his books befides
the morning. And Mr Fox tells us, he always accu-
ftomed himfelf to read and write in a (landing pofture;
efteeming conftant fitting very pernicious to a ftudious.
Mr Gilpin alfo obferves, “ that he was a very ami¬
able mafter in his family, and admirably preferved the
difficult medium between indulgence and reftraint. He
had, according to the cuftom of the times, a very nu¬
merous retinue, among whom the moft exadl order
was obferved. Every week the fteward of his houfe-
hold held a kind of court in the great hall of his pa¬
lace ; in which all family affairs were fettled, fervants
wages were paid, complaints were heard, and faults
examined. Delinquents were publicly rebuked, and
after the third admonition difcharged. His hofpi-
tality and charities were great and noble j equal to
his ftation, greater often than his abilities. A plenti-
C R A l 5.1'
Cranny ful table was among the virtues of thofe days. His
- H was always bountifully covered. In an upper room was
e' fpread his own, where he feldom wanted company of
the fir ft diftinflj’on. Here a great many learned fo¬
reigners were daily entertained, and partook of his
bounty. In-his great hall a long table was plentifully
covered every day for guefts and ftrangers of a lower-
rank ; at the upper end of which were three fmaller
tables, defighed for his own officers and inferior gen¬
tlemen. Among other inftances of the Archbifliop’s
charity, we have one recorded which was truly noble.
After the deftrudftion of monafteries, and before hofpi-
tals were erected, the nation faw no fpecies of greater
mifery than that of wounded and difbanded foldiers. For
the ufe of fuch miferable objects as were landed on the
fouthern coafts of the ifland, the Archbifhop fitted up
his manor-houfe of Beckelburn in Kent. He formed
it indeed into a complete hofpital; appointing a phy-
iician, a furgeon, nurfes, and every thing proper, as
well for food as phyfic. Nor did his charity ftop here.
Each man, on his recovery, was furniftied with money
to carry him home, in proportion to the diftance of his
abode.”
To conclude with the character given by Mr Hume:
M Archbilhop Cranmer was undoubtedly a man of
merit; pofTeffed of learning and capacity ; and adorn¬
ed with candour, fincerity, and beneficence, and all
thofe virtues which were fitted to render him ufeful
and amiable in fociety. His moral qualities procured
him univerfal refpeft ; and the courage of his martyr¬
dom, though he fell fhort of the rigid inflexibility ob-
ferved in many, made him the hero of the Proteftant
party.”
CRANNY, in glafs-making, an iron inftrument
% wherewith the necks of glades are formed.
CRANTARA, among the ancient Britons, was a
fort of military fignal ufed for collecting the diftant
and fcattered warriors to the ftandard of their chief.
A prince having immediate ocoafion for the afiiftance
of his followers to repel fame fudden invafion or en¬
gage in fome expedition, befides ftriking the {hield
and founding the horn to give warning to thofe who
were within hearing, he fent the crantara, or a ftick
burnt at the end and dipped in the blood xf a goat,
by a fwift meffenger, to the neareft hamlet, where he
delivered it without faying one word but the name of
the place of rendezvous. This crantara, which was
well underftood to denounce deftrudtion by fire and
fword to all who did not obey this, fummons, was car¬
ried with great rapidity from village to village ; and
the prince in a little time found himfelf furrounded by
all his warriors ready to obey his commands.
GRANTOR, a Greek philofopher and poet, was
born at Solos in Cilicia. He left his native country
where he was admired; went to Athens, and there
lludied with Polemon under Xenocrates. He was
confidered as one of the chief fupporters of the Pla¬
tonic fe6t;: and was the firft who wrote commentaries
upon Plato’s works. He flouriflied 270 years before
Chrift.
CRAPE, a light tranfparent fluff, in manner of
gauze ; made .of raw filk gummed and twilled on the
mill; woven without crofling, and much ufed in mourn¬
ing.
Crapes are either craped, i. e. crifped, or fmooth;
the firft double, cxprelfing a clofef mourning; the
[ ] C R A
latter Angle, ufed for that lefs deep. Note, White is
referved for young people, or thofe devoted to virgi¬
nity. The filk deftined for the firft is more twilled
than that for the fecond ; it being the greater or lefs
degree of twilling, efpecially of the warp, which pro¬
duces the crifping given it when taken out of the loom,
fteeped in clear water, and rubbed with a piece of wax
for the pupofe.
Crapes are all dyed raw. The invention of this
fluff came originally from Bologna : but the chief ma*
nufa&ure of it is faid to be at Lyons.
Hillory tells us, that St Bathilda, queen of France,
made fine crape {crepa) of gold and filver, to lay over
the body of St Eloy. The Bollandifts own they can¬
not find what this crepa was. Binet fays, it was a
frame to cover the body of the faint: but others, with
reafon, take it to be a tranfparent Huff, through which
the body might be feen ; and that this was the crepa
whence our word crape was formed.
CRAPULA, among phyficians; a term for Sur-
CRASHAW (Richard), who was in his lifetime
honoured with the friendlhip of Cowley, and fince his
death by the praife of Mr Pope, who condefcended
both to read his poems and to borrow; from them; was
the fon of William Cralhaw, an eminent divine, and
educated at the Charter-houfe near London. He was
then fent to Pembroke hall in Cambridge, and was af¬
terwards of Peter-houfe, where he was fellow; int
both which colleges he was dillinguilhed for his Latin
and Englilh poetry. Afterwards he was ejected from
his fellowlhip, together with many others, for denying
the covenant in the time of the pebellion; and he
changed his religion, being by catholic artifices per¬
verted to the church of Rome; not converted, but ra¬
ther, as Pope fays, outwitted. He went to.Paris, in
hopes of recommending himfelf to fome preferment
there ; but being a mere fcholar, was incapable of ex¬
ecuting the new plan he had formed. There he fell
into great diftrefs, which Cowley the poet hearing of
in 1646, very kindly fought him out, gave him all the
aififtance he could, and at laft got him recommended
to Henrietta Maria queen of England, then refiding
at Paris. Obtaining from her letters of recommenda¬
tion, he travelled into Italy; and by virtue of thofe
letters became fecretary to a cardinal at Rome, and
at laft one of the canons or chaplains of the rich church
of our lady at Loretto, fome miles dillance from thence,
where he died and was buried about 1650. Before
he left England he wrote certain poems, entitled,
Steps to the Temple; “ becaufe (fays Wood) he led
his life in the temple of God, in St Mary’s church
near to his college.. There, as we learn from the pre¬
face to thefe poems, he lodged under Tertulliari’s roof
of angels. There he made his nefl more gladly than
David’s fwallow near the houfe of God; where, like
a primitive faint, he offered more prayers in the night
than others ufually offer in the day.' There he penned
the faid poems called Steps to the Temple for happy Souls
to climb to Heaven by. To the faid Steps are joined
other poems called The Delights of the Mufes, wherein
are feveral Latin poems; which,, though of a mere
human mixture, yet they are fweet as they are inno¬
cent. He hath alfo written Carmem Deo nojlro, being
hymns and other facred poems, addreffed to the coun-
tefs of Denbigh. He was excellent in five languages,-
befides
Crap
Crafli
C R A [ 512 ] c R A-
Crifis befides liis mother tongue, namely, Hebrew, Greek, fought la which 20,000 Romans were killed and Cratsegm.
CraTus Latin, Italian, and Spanilh. 10,000 taken prifoners. The darknefs of the night1 v~—
_'r'l“u!i , • CRASIS (from Kpctymfj.1, to mix), the temper of the favoured the efcape of the reft; and Craffus, forced by
blood peculiar to every conftitution. the mutiny and turbulence of his foldiers, and the
Crasis, in grammar, is a figure whereby two diffe- treachery of his guides, trufted himfelf to the general
rent letters are either contra&ed into one long letter of the enemy on pretence of propofing terms of ac-
or a diphthong. Such, e. g. is '>?■? for for commodation, and he was killed. His head was cut
a\n&t<x. See. for ru^saf, &C. where < and « are con- off and fent to Orodes, who poured melted gold down
tracled into <; e and «■ into »; and £ and 0 into «. his throat, and infulted his misfortunes. Though he
CRASSAMENTUM, in phyfic, the thick red or has been called avaricious, yet he fhowed himfelf al-
'fibrous part of the blood, otherwife called cruor, in ways ready of lending money to his friends without
contradiftinftion to the ferum or aqueous part. intereft. He was fond of philofophy, and his know-
CRASSULA, lesser orpine, or live-ever : A ledge of hiftory was great and extenfive.
genus of the pentagynia order, belonging to the pen- CRATAEGUS, wild-service tree, hawthPrn,
tandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 13th order, Succulent a. The calyx
is pentaphyllous; the petals five, with five nectariferous
feales at the bafe of the germea, and five capfules.
Their are 17 fpecies, all of them natives of warm cli¬
mates. Several of them are cultivated in this country,
but require the affiftance of artificial heat for their
prefervation. They rife from one foot to fix or eight
in height, and are ornamented with oblong, thick, fuc-
culent leaves, and funnel-fhaped pentapetalous flowers
of a fcarlet, white, or greenifti colour. They are pro¬
pagated by off-fets or cuttings; and muft be potted
in light fandy compoft, retained in a funny part of the
green-houfe all winter, and veiy fparingly watered.
In fumjner they may be placed in the full air in a
fheltered place, and in dry weather watered twice a-
week.
CRASSUS (M. Licinius), a celebrated Roman,
furnamed Rich on account of his opulence. At firft
he was very circumfcribed in his circumftances, but by
educating (laves and felling them at a high price he
foon enriched himfelf. ' The cruelties of Cinna obliged
him to leave Rome, and he retired to Spain, where he
remained concealed for 8 months. After Cinna’s
death he paffed into Africa, and thence to Italy , where
he ferved Sylla and ingratiated himfelf in his favour.
When the Gladiators with Spartacus at their head had
ipread an univerfal alarm in Italy and defeated feme
of the Roman generals, Craffus was fent againft them.
A battle was fought, in which Craffus flaughtered
12,000 of the flaves, and by this decifive blow foon
put an end to the war, and was honoured with an
vvatio at his return. He was foon after made conful
with Pompey in the year of Rome 682, and in this
high office he difplayed his opulence by entertaining
the populace at 10,000 tables. He was afterwards
Cenfor, and formed the firft triumvirate with Pompey
and Carfar. As his love of riches was more predomi¬
nant than that of glory, Craffus never imitated the
ambitious conduift of his colleagues, but was fatisfied
with the province of Syria, which feemed to promife
an inexhauftible fource of wealth. With hopes of en¬
larging his poffeffions he fet off from Rome, though
the omens proved unfavourable, and every thing feem-
e’l to threaten his ruin. He eroded the Euphrates,
and forgetful of the rich cities of Babylon and Seleu-
cia, he haftened to make himfelf mailer of Parthia.
He was betrayed in his march by the delay of Arta-
vafdes, king of Armenia, and the perfidy of Ariamnes.
Pie was met in a large plain by Surena the general of
the forces of Orodes king of Parthia, and a battle was
&c.: A genus of the digynia order, belonging to the
icofandria clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 36th order, Pomaces The calyx
is quinquefid ; the petals five ; the berry inferior, di-
fpermous. There are ten fpecies, all of the tree and
Ihrub kind, hardy and deciduous. Thofe moft va¬
luable for economical and ornamental purpofes in gar¬
dening are the following.
1. The oxycanthus, hawthohi, or white-thorn, grows
naturally all over Europe. _ In the Hate fin which we
are ufed to obferve it, it is nothing better than a tall,
uncouth, irregular fhrub ; but trained up as a ftandard,
it fwells to a large timber fize, with a tall ftem and a
full fpreading head. The ftandard hawthorn, whe¬
ther we view its flowers in the fpring, its foliage in the
fummer, or its fruit in the autumn and winter, is one
of the moft ornamental plants. Handing fingly, that
can be fcattered over a park or lawn. Its uies will
be explained under the article Hedges.
In order to propagate a quantity of quick, one me¬
thod is generally pradlifed ; namely, firft burying the
haws, and taking them up to fow the'Odtober follow¬
ing ; though, fays Hanbury, there is another way
more preferable; namely, to prepare the beds, and fow
the haws foon after they are gathered. Whoever pur-
fues the former method, having gathered what quan¬
tity of haws will anfwer his purpofe, ftiould in fome
bye-corner of the kitchen-garden or nurfery dig an
hole or pit capacious enough to receive them ; fome
of the earth which came out of the hole, after the
haws are put in it, Ihould be laid upon them ; and'
being thus carefully covered down, they may remain
there till October. Then, having ground well dug,
and cleared of the roots of aH troublefome weeds, and
the mould being fit for working, the beds Ihould be
made for the haws. Four feet is. a very good width
for thefe beds, as they may be eafily reached over
to be weeded ; and if the alleys between be each
one foot and a half wide, they will be of a good fize.
The beds being marked out with, a line, fufficient
mould muft be raked out to cover the haws an inch
and an half deep. This being done, and the bottom
of the beds being made level and even, the haws fhould
be fown, and afterwards gently tapped down with the
back of the fpade and then the fine mould, which
had been raked out of the beds, muft be thrown over
them, covering them an inch and a half deep. In the
fpring the plants will come up, and in the fummer
following fliould be kept clear of weeds; though it
does fometimes happen, that few of them will appear
till the fecond fpring after fowing. Sometimes the
2 y°ung •
c R A Is
Cratsgu*. young plants are planted out from the feed-beds at one,
—' two, or three years old; but the bell plants are ob¬
tained by tranfplanting them into frelh mould the firft
or fecond year, letting them remain in the nurfery two
or three years longer. The practice of the London
nurferymen is this: The ftrongeft of the feed-bed
plants having been drawn at two or three years old
for fale, they clear the beds entirely by drawing the
remaining weak Underling plants, and tranfplanting
them into frefh beds in this manner, which they call
ledding them : The ground having been trenched, and
the tips of the plants as well as the lower fibres of their
roots having been taken off with a lharp knife, they
llrain a line along one fide of the bed ; and by chop¬
ping with a fpade by the fide of the line, leave a clift
or drill of a depth proportioned to the length of the
plants to be laid in ; and drawing the loofe mould
fomewhat towards them, leave the fide of the drill next
to the line with a fmooth polilhed face. Again£ this
face the plants are fet up, leaning towards the line,
about three inches afunder, leaving their heads about
an inch above the mould, and placing their foots at
fuch a depth as to bury their ftems from two to three
inches deeper than they ftood in the feed-bed. The
loofe mould being returned and preffed gently to the
roots with the foot, the line is removed, and another
row planted in the feme manner about a foot from
the firft.
The common hawthorn fports in the followingWa-
rieties : The large fcarlet hawthorn,; the yellow haw¬
thorn ; the white hawthorn ; the maple-leaved haw¬
thorn ; the double-bloffomed hawthorn ; the Glafton-
bury thorn. The large fcarlet hawthorn is no more
than a beautiful variety of the common haw. It is
exceedingly large, oblong, perfectly fmeoth, and of a
bright fcarlet ; and from the additional fplendor it ac¬
quires by the berries, it is propagated to caufe variety
in plantations for obfervation and pleafure. Yellow
haw is a moft exquifite plant. The buds at their firft
coming put in the fpring are of a fine yellow, arid the
fruit is of the colour of gold. The tree is a great
bearer, and retains its fruit all winter, caufing a de¬
lightful effect in plantations of any kind. It was ori¬
ginally brought from Virginia, is greatly admired, and
no colledfion of hardy trees fhould be without it.
White haw is but a paltry tree compared with the
former. It hardly ever grows to the height of the
common hawthorn, is an indifferent bearer, and the
fruit is fmall and a very bad white. Maple-leaved
hawthorn will grow to be near twenty feet high, and
has very few thorns. The leaves are larger than the
common ha\*thorn, refemble thofe of the maple, and
ate of a whitifh-green colour. The flowers are pro¬
duced in large bunches in June, and are fucceeded by
remarkable fruit, of a fhining red, which looks beau¬
tiful in the winter. Double-blofibmed hawthorn pro¬
duces a full flower, and is one of the fweetcft orna-
■aents in the fpring-. Nature feems to have peculiarly
defignedthis fort for the pleafure-garden; for though
it be the common hawthorn only with the flowers
doubled, yet it may be kept down to what fize the
owner pleafes; fo that it is not only fuitable for wil-
dernefs-quarters, flirubberies, and the like, but is alfo
ufeful for fmall gardens, whore a tree or two only are
admitted. Thefe beautiful double flowers come out
VouV. Part II.
[3 ] C R A
in large bunches in May, and the tree is fo good a Crataegu *.
bearer that it will often appear covered with them.
Their colour at their firft appearance is a delicate
white : They afterwards die to a faint red colour,
and are frequently fucceeded by fmall imperfeft fruit.
Glaftonbury thorn differs in no refpeft from the com¬
mon hawthorn, only that it fometimes flowers in the
winter. It is faid to have originally been the ftaff of
Jofeph of Arimathea, that noble counfellor who bu¬
ried Chrift. He, according to the tradition of the ab¬
bey of Glaftonbury, attended by eleven companions,
came over into Britain, and founded, in honour of the
Bleffed Virgin, the firft Chriftian church in this ifle.
As a proof of his million, he is faid to have ftuck his
ftaff into the ground, which immediately Ihot forth
and bloomed. This tree is faid to have bloffomed on
Chriftmas-day ever lince, and is univerfally diftinguilh-
ed by the name of the Glajlonbury thorn. Hanbury
fays, I have many plants that were originally propa¬
gated from this thorn : and they often flower in the
winter, but there is no exadl time of their flowering ;
for in fine feafons they will fometimes'be in blow be¬
fore Chriftmas, fometimes they afford their bloffoms in
February, an<i fometimes it fo happens that they will
be out on Chriftmas-day.
2. The azarolus, orazarole thorn, is a native of Italy
and the fouth of France. It will grow to be fifteen
or fixteen feet high. The leaves are large, nearly tri¬
fid, ferrated and obtufe. The flowers are large, come
out in May, and in the different varieties ftre fucceeded
by fruit of different fize, ftiape, and relilh. The prin¬
cipal varieties of this fpecies are : The azarole with
ftrong thorns; the azarole with no thorns; the jagged¬
leaved azarole ; the oriental medlar.
3. The aria theophraCti, called the white-leaf-tree, is
a native of moft of the cold countries of Europe. It
will grow to be more than twenty feet high. This
tree is engaging at all times of the year, and catches
the attention even in the winter; for then we fee it
Hand, though naked of leaves, with a fine ftrait item,
with fmooth branches, fpotted with white, at the end
of.which are the buds, fwelled for the next year’s
ftioot, giving the tree a bold and fine appearance. In
the fpring the leaves come out of courfe, and look de¬
lightfully, having their upper furface green and the
lower white. Their figure is oval; they are unequally
ferrated, about three inches long, and half as wide.
Several ftrong nerves run from the mid-rib to the
border, and they are placed alternately on the branch¬
es, which appear as if powdered with the fineft meal.
The flowers are produced at the end of the branches
in May : they are white, grow in large bunches, ha¬
ving meally footftalks ; and are fucceeded by red ber¬
ries, which will be ripe in autumn.
4. The terminalis, wild fervice, or maple-leaved fer-
vice, is a large growing tree, native of England, Ger¬
many, Switzerland, and Burgundy. It will arrive to
near fifty feet, and is worth propagating for the fake
of the timber, which is very white and hard. This
tree grows naturally in feveral woods in England ; and
k is the fruit of this fpecies that is tied in bunches
and expofed for fale in the autumn : It Is gathered ia
the woods, and by fome perfons is much liked. The
leaves in fome degree refemble thofe of the maple-tree
in fliape ; their upper furface is a fine green, their un-
3 T der
C R A [ J14 ] C R A
Cratasgu?.. der hoary; and they grow alternately on the branches.
.*.j. i -v—.w >pjie f)owers come oat in May, exhibiting themfelves
in large clufters at the ends of the branches: They
are white, and are fucceeded by the aforefaid eat¬
able fruit, which when ripe is of a brown colour, and
about the fize of a large haw.
5. The coccinea, or Virginian azarole, is a native of
Virginia and Canada. It will grow to be near twenty
feet high. The Hem is robuft, and covered with a
light-coloured bark. The branches are produced with¬
out order, are of a dark brown colour, and polfeffed
of a few long lharp thorns. The leaves are fpear-
Jhaped, oval, fmooth, and ferrated ; of a thickilh con-
fiftence, and often remain on the tree the greateft part
of the winter. Each feparate flower is large ; but as
few of them grow together, the umbels they form are
rather fmall. They come out in May, and are fuc¬
ceeded by large dark-red-coloured fruit, which ripens
late in the autumn. The varieties of this fpecies are :
The pear-leaved thorn; the plum-leaved thorn with
very long ftrong fpines and large fruit; the plum¬
leaved thorn with fhort fpines and fmall fruit.
6. The crus galli, or cockfpur thorn, is a native of
Virginia and Canada, and grows to about twenty feet
high. It rifes with an upright ftem, irregularly fend¬
ing forth branches, which are fmooth, and of abrown-
ifli colour, fpotted thinly with fmall white fpots. It
is armed with thorns that refemble the fpurs of cocks,
which gained it the appellation of cockfpur thorn. In
winter the leaf-buds appear large, turgid, and have a'
bold and pleafant look among others of different ap¬
pearances. In fummer this tree is very delightful.
The leaves are oval, angular, ferrated, fmooth, and
bend backwards. They ate about four inches long,
and three and a half broad ; have five or fix pair of
ftrong nerves running from the mid rib to the border;
and die to a brownilh-red colour in the. autumn. The
flowers are produced in very large umbels, making a
noble fhow in May ; and are fucceeded by large fruit
of a bright red colour, which have a good effedi in the
winter. The principal varieties of this fpecies are :
The cockfpur hawthorn with many thorns; the cock¬
fpur hawthorn with no thorns ; the cockfpur with
eatable fruit. “ The latter was fent me (fays Hanbury)
from America with that name, and I have raifed fome
trees of the feed; but they have not yet produced any
fruit, fo that I cannot pretend to fay how far it may
be defirable; though I have been informed it is relifhed
in America by fome of the inhabitants there.
7. The tomentofa, goofeberry-leaved Virginia haw¬
thorn, grows to about feven or eight feet high. The
branches are flender, and clofely fet with lharp thorns.
The leaves are cuneiform, oval, ferrated, and hairy
underneath. The flowers are fmall, and of a white
colour : They are produced from the fides of the
branches about the end of May; and are fucceeded by
yellow fruit, which ripens late in autumn. There is
a variety of this called the Carolina Hawthorn, which
has longer and whiter leaves, larger flowers and fruit,
and no thorns..
8. The viridis, or green-leaved Virginia hawthorn,,
has the ftem and branches altogether deftitute of thorns.
The leaves are lanceolate, oval, nearly trilobate, fer-
rated, fmooth, and green on both fides. The flowers
are whit?, moderately large, come out the end of May,
3
and are fucceeded by a roundilh fruit, which will be Cratcegu#
ripe late in the autumn. Crater
The refpf£tive fpecies are all propagated by fowing ^ *j
of the feeds; and the varieties are continued by bud¬
ding them upon ftocks of the white thorn. This lat¬
ter method is generally practifed for all the forts ;
though when good feeds can be procured, the largeft
and moft beautiful plants are raifed that way. 1. In
order to raife them from feeds, let thefe be fown foon
after they are ripe, in beds of freih, light, rich earth.
Let alleyshe left between the beds, for the convenien-
cy of weeding, and let the feeds be covered over with
fine mould about an inch deep. The fummer follow¬
ing the beds muft be kept clean of weeds, and probably
fome few plants will appear : But this is not common
in any of the forts; for they generally lie till the fe-
cond ipring after fowing before they come up. At
the time they make their appearance they muft be
watered if the weather proves dry ; and this ftiould be
occafionally repeated all fummer. They ftiould alfo
be conftantly kept clean from weeds; and'in the au¬
tumn the ftrongeft may be drawn out, and fet in the
nurfery-ground, a foot afunder, in rows that are two
feet diftant from each other; while the weakeft may
remain until another year. During the time they are
in the nurfery, the ground between the rows ftiould be
dug every winter, and the weeds conftantly hoed down
in the fummer ; and this is all the trouble they will
require until they are planted out for good, which
may be in two, three, or more years, at the pleafure of
the owner, or according to the purpofes for which
they are wanted. 2. Thefe trees are eafily propagated
by budding alfo ; they will all readily take on one
another; but the ufual ftocks are thofe of the common
hawthorn. In order to have thefe the beft for the
purpofe, the haws ftiould be got from the largeft trees,
fuch as have the feweft thorns and largeft leaves. Af¬
ter they are come up, and have ftood one year in the
feed-bed, the ftrongeft ftiould be planted out in the
nurfery, a foot afunder and two feet diftant in the
rows; and the fecond fummer after many of them
will be fit for working. The end of July is the beft
time for this bufinefs; and cloudy weather, night and.
morning, are always preferable to the heat of the day.
Having worked all the different forts into thefe ftocks,
they may be let alone until the latter end of Septem¬
ber, when the bafs matting flrould be taken off. In
the winter the ground between the rows fliould be dug,
and in the fpring the ftock ftiould be headed about
half a foot above the bud. The young fhoots the
ftoeks will always attempt to put out, ftiould be as con¬
ftantly rubbed off; for thefe would in proportion ftarve
the bud and ftop its progrefs. With this care feveral
of the forts have been known to ftioot fix feet by the
autumn ; and as they will be liable to be blown out of
their fockets by the high winds which often happen in
the fummer, they fliould be flightly tied to the top of
the ftock that is left on for the purpofe, and this will
help to preferve them.
CRATCHES, in the manege, a fwelling on the
paftern, under the fetlock, and fometimes under the
hoof; for which reafon it is diftinguiftied into the
finew cratches, which affeft the finew, and thofe upon
the cronet, called quitter-bones.
CRATER, Cup, in aftronomy, a conftellation,
©f:
C R A C 515 ] C R A
Crater 0f the fouthern hemifphere ; whofe ftars, in Ptole-
Cratippus, my’s Catalogue, are feven ; in Tycho’s, eight; in
»_- ^ Hevelius’s, ten; in the Britannic Catalogue, thirty-one.
“■ Crater is alfo ufed to fignify the mouth or open¬
ing of a volcano or burning mountain, from whence
the fire is difcharged. See Volcano.
CRATES, of Thebes, a famous philofopher, was
the difciple of Diogenes the Cynic. It is faid that he
threw all his money into the fea, that he might the
more freely apply himftlf to the lludy of philofo-
phy. Others affert that he placed it in another per-
fon’s hands, with orders to give it to his children if
they fhould happen to be fools: For (faid Crates), if
they ihould be philofophers, they will have no need of
it: in which cafe it w'as to be given to the people. He
flourifhed about 328 years before Chrift.
He ought not to be confounded with Crates, a fa¬
mous academic philofopher, the difciple and friend of
Polemon. This laft Crates had Arcefilaus and other
celebrated philofophers for his difciples; and flouriflied
abour 300 years before Chrift.
■ CRATEVA, the garlic pear ; A genus of the
monogy nia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
25th order, Putaminea. The corolla is tetrapetalous;
the calyx quadrifid 5 the berry inferior difpermous.
There are two fpecies, both of them natives of feveral
parts of India. They are both of the tree kind ; and
are chiefly diftinguiftied by their fruit. The tapia, or
garlic pear, has a fmooth round fruit about the fize of
an orange, with a hard brown (hell or cover, which
inclofes a meally pulp, filled with kidney-Ihaped feeds.
It hath a ftrong fmell of garlic, and communicates the
fame to fuch animals as feed upon it. The tender
buds from the young branches being bruifed and ap¬
plied to the naked fkin, will blifter as effe&ually as
cantharides. It rifes to the height of about 30 feet.
The other grows to the fize of a very large tree, with
trifoliate leaves, fawed on the edges. The flowers have
the fmell pf rofes, and are fucceeded by an oblong fruit
of the fize of an apple, covered with a very hard bony
Ihell, and containing a foft fleftiy pulp, having the tafte
of quinces. From the flowers of this plant is obtained
by diftillation a water highly odoriferous and cordial.
The pulpy part of the fruit is prepared into various
kinds of marmalades, which are exceedingly agree¬
able to the tafte, and are much ufed by the gran¬
dees in thofe countries where the trees are native ;
they are alfareckoned ferviceable in dyfenteries. Both
fpecies may be propagated in this country by feeds.
Thefe are to be fown upon a hot-bed in the fpring ;
and when the plants come yp, they are to be treated in
the manner direfted for the Annona.
CRATINUS, an ancient comic poet, of whom we
Ihould fcarcely have known any thing, had not Quin¬
tilian, Horace, and Perfius, mentioned him, Eupolis,
and Ariftophanes, as the great matters of what we
call the ancient comedy. It is gathered that he died
in the 87 th Olympiad. Suidas tells us that he wrote
21 plays, and that he was fplendid and bright in his
charafters.
CRATIPPUS, a celebrated peripatetic philofo¬
pher, was a native of Mitylene, where he taught phi-
lofophy ; but at length went to Athens, where Brutus
and the fon of Cicero were his difciples. Pompey
went to fee him after the battle of Pharfalia, and pro- Crato
pofed to him his difficulties in relation to the belief of !l
a Providence; when Cratippus comforted him, and bv, ‘a*~ ‘'
forcible arguments anfwered his objections. He wrote
fome pieces about divination : and is fuppofed to be
the fame with him whom Tertullian, in his book De
Anima, has ranked among the writers upon dreams.
CRATO, a fmall town of Portugal, in the province
of Alentejo, with a rich priory. It is the chief com-
mandery which the knights of Malta have in Portugal.
W. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat. 38. 50.
CRAY AN, a town of France, in Burgundy, re¬
markable for its good wine, and for a battle fought
there between the Englifh and French. It is feat-
ed near the confluence of the rivers Cure and Yonne.
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 47. 42.
CRAVEN, or Cravent, a word of reproach, ufed
in trials by battel. See Battel.
CRAX, in ornithology, the curafibu, a genus of
birds, belonging to the order of gallinse. The bafe of
the beak of each mandible is covered with wax; and
the feathers of the head are curled. There are five
Ipecies, viz. 1. The alecator, or Indian hen of
Sloane, is about the fize of a fmall turkey. It is
black, with a white belly. A yellow wax covers
about one half of each mandible; the tongue is en¬
tire ; the temples are bare and black; the tail is roun-
dilh, and confifts of 14 prime feathers; the legs are
ftrong, and of a duflcy brown colour. They are fre¬
quent at Guiana rand ate called poivefe by the na¬
tives from their cry, which is fomewhat fimilar ; are
pretty numerous in the woods, and make no fmall part
of the food of the planters, being fupplied therewith by
the Indian hunters; and their flefli is reckoned deli¬
cate, much like that of a turkey. They are eafily
brought up tame, and are frequently found in the
Dutch fettlements of Berbice, Eflequebo, and Deme-
rary. They are called at Brafil by the name of curajfo.
It is found in the warm parts of America. 2. The
rubra, or Peruvian hen, is red, with a bluifti head: it
is a native of Peru. Thefe birds are natives of Mexico Plate CLI.
and Peru. They feed on fruits, and perch of nights on
trees : the flelh is white; and efteemed very good food.
They are frequently kept tame in our menageries in
England, and readily mix with other poultry, feeding
on bread and grain ; but this climate is not near warm
enough for their nature, they not being able to bear
the dampnefs of the grafs of our meadows, which ren¬
ders them fubjeft to have their toes rot off. They will
often live in this ftate fome time ; and in one inftance
which Mr Latham faw, the whole of one foot was
gone, and but part of one toe left on the other, before
the creature died. 3. The mitu, or Brafilian phea-
fant, is black, with a dulky belly, and red wax : it is
a native of Guinea and Brazil. 4. The globicera, has
a yellow protuberance between the noftrils, and is of
a bluifti-black colour : it is likewife a native of Brazil.
5. The pauxi, or Mexican pheafant of Briffonius, is of
a bluifti colour, with blue wax, and the tip of the tail
and belly white: it is a native of Mexico.
CRAY-fish, or Cf.A\v-Fi/b. See Cancer.
The flefli of cray-fifti is cooling, moiftening, and a-
dapted to nourifti fuch as labour under atrophies.
There are various methods of preparing thefe animals;
they may be either boiled or fried, and then taken out
3 T 2 of
C R A. [51
Cray-fidi, of their fhells, and made up in variety of diihes: but
, Grayer. no parts of them are eatable except their claws and
v _ tails. Preparations and broths of cray-filh are cele¬
brated not only for a palatable aliment, but alfo for
anfwering fome medicinal intentions, as being of a
moiftening quality, and fheathing up and corre&ing
acrimony. The broth is prepared of four or five
craw-filh, which having their heads cut off, and their
inteftines extratfed, are to be bruifed and boiled in the
broth of fleih or poultry, until they become fufficient-
ly red; after which the liquor is to be drained off and
feafoned, as the cafe may require. This broth may be
rendered ftill more'medicinal by the addition of herbs,
fnails, or other fubllances; according to the intention
of the phyfician. Their fleih is accounted belt -in the
fummer months.
The delicate flavour of thefe fifh depends in a great
meafure on their food. When they have Well-tailed
foo'd, their fleih preferves the relilh of it: but when
they feed on other things, they are often rendered of
no value, by the flavour communicated to their fleih by
them. There are great quantities of thefe filh in the
river Obra, on the borders of Silefia ; but the people
find them fcarce eatable, becaufe of a bitter aromatic
flavour, very difagreeable in food. It has been fince
obferved, that the calamus aromaticus grows in vaft a-
bundance on the banks of that river, and that thefe
creatures feed very greedily upon its roots. Thefe have
a very remarkable bitternefs mixed with their aromatic
flavour, while frefh, which goes off- very much in the
drying; and on comparing the tafte of thefe roots with
that of the cray filh, there remains no doubt of the one
being-owing to the other.
They abound in the river Don in Mufcovy, where
they are laid in heaps to putrefy; after which the
Hones called crab’s eyes are picked out. Thefe animals are
very greedy of fleih, and fljck in great .numbers about
carcafes thrown into the water where they aie, and ne¬
ver leave it while any remains. They alfo feed on dead
frogs when they come into their way. In Swiffetland
there are fome cray-fifh which are red while they are
alive, and others bluillu Some kinds of them alfo will
never become red, even by boiling, but continue
blackilh.
The cray filh difeharges itfelf of itsftomach, and, as
M. Geoffroy thinks, of its inteftines too. Thefe, as
they putrefy and diflblve, ferve for food to the animal;
during the time of the reformation, the old ftomach
feems to be the firft food the new one digells. It is
oply at this time that the Hones are found called crab’s
eyes; they begin to be formed when the old llomach is
dellroyed, -and ' are afterwards wrapped up in the new
one, where they decreafe by degrees till they entirely
difappear.
GRAYER (Cafpar de), was born at Antwerp in
1585, and was a ditciple of Raphael Coxis the fon of
that Coxis who had lludied under Raphael; but he
foon Ihowed fuch proofs of genius, and of an elevated
capacity, that he far furpaflld his mailer, and there¬
fore quitted hirm Afterwards he made judicious ob-
fervations on the particular excellencies of the moll re¬
nowned rrrafters to which he had any acceis; and taking
nature for his conllant director and guide, he formed
for himfelf a manner that was exceedingly pleafing.
The firft work which eftablilhed nim in the favour of
1&e court at. Bruffels, was a portrait of Cardinal Fcr-
6 ] c R A
dinand, brother to the King of Spain, which he paint- Cmyer,
ed at full length, and as large as life. In that pi&ure Crayon,
he fucceeded fo happily, that it was fent to Madrid, “ v 1
and received there with fuch concurrent approbation
of the king and the whole court, that it laid thefoun-
dation of the fame and fortune of Grayer. For the
king, as an acknowledgment of the painter’s merit,
fent him a gold chain with a medal; and added, as a
farther inllance of his favour, an appointment for a
confiderable penlion. But nothing'places the talent*
of Grayer in a ftronger light, than the teftimony of fo
excellent an artift as Rubens. That great man went
to Antwerp particularly to vifit Grayer, and to fee
his work ; and. after examining attentively a picture of
his painting, in the refectory of the abbey of AlHeg-
hem, he publicly declared that no painter could fur-
pafs Grayer. Nor was this mailer kfsdillinguilhed by
Vandyck, who always expreflld a real elleem and
hiendlhip for him, and painted his portrait. He had
fomewhat lefs fire in his compolitions than Rubens,
but his defign is frequently more correct. His com-
pofition generally confided of a fmall number of fi¬
gures ; and with difereet judgment, he avoided the en¬
cumbering his defign with fuperfluous particulars, or
loading his fubje6t with any thing-that feemed not to
contribute to its elegance or probability. He grouped
his figures with fingular fkill, and his expreffions have
all the truth of nature. There is a remarkable variety
in his draperies, and an equal degree of fimplicity in
their folds; and as to his colouring, it is admirable.
Of all his cotemporary.painters, he was accounted to
approach neared to Vandyck, not only in hiftory but
in portrait. He principally painted religious fubjedts,
and was continually at work; and although he lived to
a great age, yet his temperance and conllant regula¬
rity preferved to him the full ufe of all his,faculties j
and to the laft month of his life his pencil retained the
fame force and freedom which it poflefled in his mod
vigorous time. The fubjedl of that pi&ure which was
fo honoured by the approbation of Rubens is the Cen¬
turion alighting from his horfe to proftrate himfelf at
the feet of our Saviour. It is a capital defign of
Grayer ; and although it^confifts of a great number
of figures, the harmony 'and union are well preferved.
CRAYON, a general name for all coloured Hones,
earths, or other minerals and fubftaiices, ufed in de-
figning or painting in paftel; whether they have been
beaten and reduced to a pafte, or are ufed in their pri¬
mitive confidence, after tawing or cutting them into
long narrow flips. In this laft manner are red crayons
made, of blood-ftone or red chalk; black ones, of
charcoal and black lead. Crayons of all other colours
are compofitions of earths reduced to pafte.
Croton-Painting. Whether the painter works with
oil-colours, water colours, or crayons, the grand object
of his purfuit is ftill the fame : a juft imitation of na¬
ture. But each fpecies has its peculiar rules and me¬
thods. Painting with crayons requires in many re-
fpefts a treatment different from painting in oil-co¬
lours ; becaufe all colours ufed dry are in their na¬
ture of a much warmer complexion than when wet
with oils, &c. For this reafon, in order to produce'
a rich pifture, a much greater portion of what pain¬
ters term cooling teints mull be applied in crayon paint¬
ing than would be judicious to ufe in oils. Without
any danger of a oultake, it is to be fuppofed, the not.
C R A [5
Crayon, being acquainted with this obfervation is one great
-—’ caufe why fo many oil-painters have no better fuc-
cefs when they attempt crayon-painting. On the
contrary, crayon-painters being fo much ufed to thofe
teints which are of a cold nature when ufed wet, are
apt to introduce them too much when they paint with
oils, which is feldom produdtive of a good effedf.
We {hall now endeavour to give the {Indent fome di-
tc&ions towards the attainment of excellence in this art.
Of the application of the Crayons., 'with fome previous
Difpofitions. The ftudent mult provide himfelf with
fome ftrong blue paper, the thicker the better, if the
grain is not too coarfe or knotty, though it is almoft
impoffible to get any entirely free from knots. The
knots Ihould be levelled with a penknife or razor, o-
therwife they will prove exceedingly troublefome. Af¬
ter this is done, the paper muft be pafted very fmooth
on a linen cloth, previoufly {trained on a deal frame,
tht fize according to the artift’s pleafure : on this the
pidture is to be executed; but it is molt eligible not to
paite the paper on till the whole fubjedt is firlt dead-co¬
loured. The method of doing this is very eafy, by
laying the paper with the dead-colour on its face, upon
a fmooth board or table, when, by means of a brufh,
the backlide of the paper mull be covered with palle;
the frame, with the (trained cloth, muft then be laid on
the pafted fide of t'„e paper; after which turn the paint¬
ed fide uppermoft, and lay a piece of clean paper up¬
on it, to prevent fmearing it: this being done, it
may be ftroked gently over with the hand; by which
means all the air between the cloth and the paper will
be forced out.
When the pafte is perfedtly dry, the ftudent m&y
proceed with the painting. The advantages arifing
from palling the paper on the frame according to this
method, after the pi£ture is begun, are very great, as
the crayons will adhere much better than any other
way; which will enable the ftudent to finifh the pidture
with a firmer body of colour and greater luftre.
When the painters want to make a very corredt copy
of a pidture, they generally make ufe of tiffany or
black gauze, (trained tight on a frame, which they lay
flat on the fubjedt to be imitated, and with a piece of
fketching chalk trace all the outlines on the tiffany.
They then lay the canvas to be painted on fiat upon
the floor, placing the tiffany with the chalked lines up¬
on it, and with an handkerchief brufti the whole over;
this prefents the exadt outlines of the pidture on (he
canvas. The crayon-painter may alfo make ufe of
this method whsn the fubjedt of his imitation is in
oils ; but in copying a crayon-pidture, he muft have
recourfe tothe following method,on account of theglafs.
The pidture being placed upon the eafel, let the out¬
lines be drawn on the glafs with a fmall camel’s hair
pencil dipped in lake, ground thin With oils, which
muft be done with great exadtnefs. After this is ac-
complhhed, take a (beet of paper of the fame fize and
place it on the glafsy ftroking over all the Hnes with
the hand, by which'means the colour will adhere to
the paper, which muft. be pierced with pin-holes pret¬
ty clofe to each other. The paper intended to be u-
fed for the painting muft next be laid upon a table,
and the pierced paper placed upon it; then with fome
fine-pounded charcoal, tied up in a piece of lawn, rub
over the pierced lines, which will give an exadt out¬
line ; but great care muft be taken not to brufti this
7 ] c R A
off till the whole is drawn over with (ketching chalk, Crayon,
which is a copipofition made of whiting and tobacco- 1—rv——
pipeclay,rolled like the crayons,and pointed at each end.
When a ftudent paints immediately from the life, it
will be moft prudent to make a corredt drawing of the
outlines on another paper, the fize of the pidture he is
going to paint, which he may trace by the preceding
method, becaufe erroneous ftrokes of the fketching
chalk (which are not to be avoided without great ex-
pertnefs) will prevent the crayons from adhering to the
paper, owing to a certairi greafy quality in the compo-
fition.
The ftudent will find the fitting pofture, with the
box of crayons in his lap, the moft convenient method
for him to paint. The part of the pidture he is im- ‘
mediately painting fhould be rather below his face ;
for, it it is placed too high, the arm will be fatigued.
Let the windows of the room where he paints be dark*
ened, at leatl to the height of fix feet from the
ground; and the fubjedl to be painted fhould be fitua-
ted in fuch a manner, that the light may fall with
every advantage on the face, avoiding too much fliadow,
which feldom has a good effedl in portrait-painting,-
especially if the face he paints from has any degree of
delicacy.
Before he begins to paint, let him be attentive to
his fubjedt, and appropriate the adtion or attitude pro¬
per to the age of the fubjedt: if a child, let it be
childifh; if a young lady, exprefs more vivacity than
in the majeftic beauty of a middle-aged woman, who
alfo fhould not be expreffed with the fame gravity as a
petfon far advanced in years. Let the embellifh-
ments of the pidture, and introdudtion ©f birds, ani¬
mals, &c. be regulated by the rules of propriety and
confiftency.
The features of the face being corredtly drawn with
chalks, let the ftudent take a crayon of pure carmine,
and carefully draw the noftril and edge of the nofe
next the fhadow; then', with the faintell carmine teint,
lay in the higheft light upon the nofe and forehead,
which muft; be executed broad. He is then to proceed
gradually with the fecond teint, and the fucceeding
ones, till he arrives at the ftiadows, which mult be co¬
vered brilliant, enriched with much lake, carmine, and
deep green. This method will at firft. oftenfively (trike
the eye, from its crude appearance; but in the finilh-
ing, it will be a good foundation to produce a plea-
fing effeft; colours being much more eafily fullied when
too bright, than when the firft colouring is dull, to
"raife the pidture into a brilliant date. The feveral
pearly teints difcernible in fine complexions muft be
imitated with blue verditer and white, which anfwers
to the ultramarine teints ufed in oils. But if the parts
of the face where thefe teints appear are in (hadow, the
crayons compofed of black and white muft be fubftitu-
ted in their place.
Though -all the face when firft coloured ftiould be
laid in as brilliant as poflible, yet each part flvould be
kept in its proper tone ; by which means tjie rotundi¬
ty of the face will be prnerved.
Let the ftudent be careful when he begins the eyes
to draw them with a crayon inclined to the carmine
teint, of whatever colbur the irites are of; he muft
lay them in brilliant, and at firft not loaded with co¬
lour, but executed lightly: no notice is to be taken of
the pupil yet. The ftudeat muft let the light of the
ejA-
C R A [ 5
Crayon, eye incline very much to the blue cad, cautioufly a-
v" voiding a ftaring white appearance, (which, when
once introduced, is feldom overcome), preferving a
broad lhadow thrown on its upper part, by the eye-
lafh. A black and heavy teint is alfo to be avoided in
the eye-brows ; it is therefore beft to execute them
like a broad glowing lhadow at firft, on which, in the
finifhing, 'the hairs of the brow are to be painted ; by
which method of proceeding, the former teints will
(how themfelves through, and produce the moft plea-
fing effeft.
The ftudent (hould begin the lips with pure carmine
and lake, and in the (hadow ufe fome carmine and
black ; the ftrong vermilion teints (hould be laid on
afterwards. He mud beware of executing them with
(tiff, harlh lines, gently intermixing each with the
neighbouring colours, making the (hadow beneath
broad, and enriched with brilliant crayons. He mult
form the corner of the mouth with carmine, brown
ochre, and greens, varioufly intermixed. If the hair
is dark, he (hould preferve much of the lake and deep
carmine teints therein ; this may eafily be overpowered
by the warmer hair teints, which, as obferved in paint¬
ing the eye-brows, will produce a richer effedt when
the pidture is finiflied ; on the contrary, if this method
is unknown or negledted, a poverty of colouring will
be difcernible.
After the (ludent has covered over, or as artifts
term if, has dead-coloured the head, he is to fweeten
the whole together, by rubbing it over with his fin¬
ger, beginning ht the ftrongeft light upon the fore¬
head, paffing his finger very lightly, and uniting it
with the next teint, which he mull continue till the
whole is fweetened together, often wiping his finger
on a towl to prevent the colours being fullied. He
muft be cautious not to fmooth or fweeten his pidture
too often, becaufe it will give rife to a thin and fcanty
effedl, and have more the appearance of a drawing
than a folid painting ; as nothing but a body of rich
colours can conilitute a rich elfedl. To avoid this (as
the ftudent finds it neceffary to fweeten with the fin¬
ger), he muft commonly replenifti the pidlure with
more crayon.
When the head is brought to fome degree of for-
wardnefs, let the back-ground be laid in, which muft
be treated in a different manner, covering it as thin as
pofiible, and rubbing it into the paper with a leather
(lump. Near the face the paper fhould be almoft free
from colour, for this will do great fervice to the head,
and by its thinnefs give both a foft and folid appear¬
ance. In the back ground alfo, no crayon that has
whiting in its compofition (hould be ufed, but chiefly
fuch as are the moft brilliant and the lead adulterated.
The ground being painted thin next the hair, will give
the ftudent an opportunity of painting the edges of the
hair over in a light and free manner when he gives the
finifhing touches.
The ftudent having proceeded thus far, the 'face,
hair, and back-ground being entirely covered, he muft
carefully view the whole at fome diftance, remarking
in what refpedl it is out of keeping, that is, what parts
are too light and what too dark, being particularly
attentive to the white or chalky appearances, which
muft be fubdued with lake and carmine. The above
method being properly put into execution, will produce
S ] C R A
the appearance of a painting principally compofed of Crayon.
three colours, viz. carmine, black, and white, which  v~—"
is the beft preparation a painter can make for the pro¬
ducing a fine crayon-pifture.
The next ftep is, to complete the back-ground
and the hair, as the dull, in painting thefe, will fall
on the face, and would much injure it if that was
completed firft. From thence proceed to the fore¬
head, finifhing downward till the whole piflure is com¬
pleted.
In painting over the forehead the laft time, begin
the highell light with the moft faint vermilion teint,
in the fame place where the faint carmine was firft
laid, keeping it broad in the fame manner. In the
next (hade fucceeding the lighted, the ftudent muft
work in fome light blue teints, compofed of verditer
and white, intermixing with them fome of the deeper
vermilion teints, fweetening them together with great
caution, infenfibly melting them into one another, in-
creafing the proportion of each colour as his judgment
(hall direft. Some brilliant yellows may alfo be ufed,
but fparingly; and towards the roots of the hair,
ftrong verditer teints, intermixed with greens, will be
of Angular fervice. Cooling crayons, compofed of
black and white, (hould fucceed thefe and melt into the
hair. Beneath the eyes, the fweet pearly teints are to
be preferved, compofed of verditet and white, and
under the nofe, and on the temples, the fame may
be ufed ; beneath the lips, teints of this kind alfo are
proper, mixing them with the light greens and fome
vermilion.
In finiihing the cheeks, let the pure lake clear them
from mny dull contrafted from the other crayons ; then
with the lake may be intermixed the bright vermilion;
and laft of all (if the fubjedl (hould require it), a few
touches of the orange-coloured crayon, but with ex¬
treme caution ; after, fweeten that part with the fin¬
ger as little as pofiible, for fear of producing a heavy
difagreeable effect on the cheeks: as the beauty of a
crayon-pifture confifts in one colour (howing itfelf
through, or rather between, another: this the ftudent
cannot too often remark, it being the only method of
imitating beautiful complexions.
The eye is the moft difficult feature to execute in
crayons, as every part muft be exprefied with the ut-
meft nicety, to appear finilhed; at the fame time that
the painter muft preferve its breadth and folidity while
he is particularizing the parts. To accomplilh this,
it will be a good general rule for the ftudent to ufe his
crayon in fweetening as much, and his finger as little,
as pofiible. When he wants a point to touch a fmall
part with, he may break off a little of his crayon a-
gainft the box, which will produce a corner fit to work
with in the minuted parts. If the eye-ladies are dark,
he muft ufe fome of the carmine and brown ochre, and
the crayon of carmine and black; and with thefe he
may alfo touch the iris of the eye (if brown or hazel),
making a broad (hadow, caufed by the eye-laffi. Red
teints of vermilion, carmine, and lake, will execute
the corners of the eye properly ; but if the eye-lids are
too red, they will have a difagreeable fore appearance.
The pupil of the eye muft be made of pure lamp¬
black : between this and the lower part of the iris,
the light will catch very ftrong, but it muft not be
made too fudden, but be gently diffufed round the pu-
C R A [ ;
ptl till it is loft in fhade. When the eye-balls are fuf-
ficiently prepared, the fhining fpeck muft be made with
a pure white crayon, which fhould be firft broken to
a point, and then laid on firm; but as it is poffible
they may be defediive in neatnefs, they fliould be cor-
re&ed with a pin, taking off the redundant parts, by
which means they may be formed as neat as can be re¬
quired.
The difficulty, with refpedt to the nofe, is to pre-
ferve the lines properly determined, and at the fame
time fo artfully blended into the cheek, as to exprefs
its proje&ion, and yet no real line to be perceptible
upon a clofe examination ; in fdme circumftances it
ffiould be quite blended with,the cheek, which appears
behind it, and determined entirely with a flight touch
of red chalk. The ftiadow caufed by the nofe is gene¬
rally the darkeft in the whole face, partaking of no
refle&ion from its furrounding parts. Carmine and
brown ochre, carmine and black, and fuch brilliant cray¬
ons, will compofe it beft.
The ftudent having before prepared the lips with the
ftrongeft lake and carmine, &c. muft with thefe co¬
lours make them completely correct; and when finifh-
ing, introduce the ftrong vermilions, but with great
caution, as they are extremely predominant. This, if
properly touched, will give, the lips an appearance
equal, if not fuperior, to thofe executed in oils, not-
withftanding the feeming fuperiority the latter has, by
means of glazing (a), of which the former is entirely
deftitute.
When the ftudent paints the neck, he flrould avoid
expreffing the mufcles too ftrong in the Item, nor
flrould the bones appear too evident on the cheft, as
both have an unpleafing effeft, denoting a violent agi¬
tation of the body; a circumftance feldom neceffary to
exprefs in portrait-painting. The moft neceffary part
to be expreffed, and which ftrould ever be obferved,
(even in the moft delicate fubjefts), is a ftrong mark¬
ing juft above the place where the collar bones unite ;
and if the head is much thrown over the flroulders,
fome notice ftiould be taken of the large mufcle that
rifes from behind the ear, and is inferred into the pit
between the collar bones. All inferior mufcles fliould
be, in general, quite avoided. The ftudent will
find this caution neceffary, as moft fubje&s, efpecially
thin perfons, have the mufcles of the neck much more
evident than would be judicious to imitate. As few
necks are too long, it may be neceffary to give fome
addition to the ftem, a fault on the other fide being
quite unpardonable, nothing being more ungraceful
than a fliort neck. In colouring the neck, let the ftu¬
dent preferve the ftem of a pearly hue, and the light
not fo ftrong as on the cheft. If any part of the breaft
appears, its tranfparency muft alfo be expreffed by
pearly teints ; but the upper part of the cheft ftiould
be coloured with beautiful vermilions delicately blend¬
ed with the other.
Of the Drapery. Dark blue, purple, black, pink,
and all kinds of red draperies alfo, ftiould be firft tin¬
ged with carmine, which will render the colours much
more brilliant than any other method; over this ftiould
19 J C R A
be laid on the paper the middle teint (a medium be- Crayon,
tween the light and dark teints, of which the drapery ——v——
is to be painted), except the dark maffes of ftiadow,
which ftiould be laid on at firft as deep as poffible ;
thefe, fweetened with the finger, being deftitute of the
fmaller folds, will exhibit a mafterly breadth, which
the leffer folds, when added, ought by no means to
deftroy. With the light and dark teints, the fmaller
parts are next to be made with freedom, executing as
much with the crayon, and as little with the finger as
poffible; in each fold touching the laft ftroke with the
crayon, which ftroke the finger muft never louch. In
the cafe of refledfions, the Ample touch of the crayon
will be too harfti, therefore fingering will be necelfary
afterwards, as refledted lights are always more gentle
than thofe which are direft. With refpedt to reflec¬
tions in general, they muft always partake of the fame
colour as the objedl reflefting, but in the cafe of Angle
figures, it may be ufeful to make fome particular ob-
fevations.
In a blue drapery, let the refle&Ions be of agreenifti
caft; in green draperies, make them of a yellow teint;
in yellow, of an orange; in orange, refleft a reddifti
caft; in all reds, fomething of their own nature, but
inclined to the yellow: black ihould have a reddifti re-
fledtion ; the refledtion of a reddifti teint will alfo pre*
fent purples to the beft advantage.
Of whatever colour the drapery is, the refledfion
on the face muft partake thereof, otherwife the pic*
ture, like paintings on glafs, will have but a gaudy
effedf.
Linen, lace, fur, &c. fliould be touched fpiritedly
with the crayon, fingering very little, except the latter ;
and the laft touches, even of this, like all other parts,
fliould be executed by the crayon, without fweetening-
with the finger.
The methods above recommended have been prac*
tifed by the moft celebrated crayon-painters, whofe
works have been held in public eftimation ; but the
knowledge of, and ability to execute, each feparate part
with brilliancy and truth, will be found very infuffi-
cient to conftitute a complete painter, without his
judgment enables him to unite them with each o-
ther, by corredtnefs of drawing, propriety of light
and ftiadow, and harmony of colouring. In order to
accomplifli this, the ftudent fliould carefully avoid
finiftiing one part in particular, till he has proper¬
ly confidered the connection it is to have with the reft.
The negleft of this is the principal reafon why the per¬
formances of indifferent painters are fo deftitute of
what is termed breadth, fo confpicuoufly beautiful in
the works of great matters. It muft be granted, that
this obfervation relates more particularly to large com-
pofitions, where a diverfity of figures requires fuch a
judicious difpofition, that each may affift in the com¬
bination of a kind of univerfal harmony ; yet, even
in portrait-painting, the ftudent fliould be particularly
attentive to obferve this idea of breadth, if he is defir-
ous of, acquiring that importance and dignity which
conftitutes excellence in painting.
Of the Materials. The perfection of the crayons con-
flftSj
(a) The method with which painters in oils exprefs tranfparency in the lips is, by painting them fiift withr
light vermilion tcints, and, when dry, touching them over with pure lake.
c R A [ 520 ] C R A
(.Crayon, fifts, in a great meafure, in their foftnefs ; for it is im-
\ poffible to execute a brilliant pifture with them if they
are other wife ; on which account great care fhould be
obfarved in the preparing them, to prevent their being
hard. In all compofitions, flake-white and white-
lead fliould be wholly reje&ed, becaufe the flighteft
touch with either of thefe will unavoidably turn black.
The ufual obje&ion to crayon-paintings is, that they
are fubjeft to change ; but whenever this happens, it is
entirely owing to an injudicious ufe of the above-men-
' tioned whites, which will (land only in oils. To ob¬
viate the bad effe&s ariling from the ufe of fuch cray¬
ons, let-the ftudent make ufe of common whiting pre¬
pared in the following manner.
Take a large veflel of water, put the whiting into
it, and mix them well together ; let this ftand about
half a minute, then pour •ff the top into another vef-
fel, and throw the gritty fediment away ; let what is
prepared reft about a minute, and then pour it-off as
before, which will purify the whiting and render it
free from all dirt and grittinefs. When this is done,
let the whiting fettle, and then pour the water from
it; after which, lay it on the chalk to dry, and keep
it for ufe, either for white crayons, or the purpofe of
preparing teints with other colours, for with this all
other teints rpay be fafely prepared. If the ftudent
choofes to make crayons of the whiting immediately af¬
ter it is wafhed, it is not neceflary to dry it on the
chalk, for it may be mixed inftantly with any other
colour, which will fave donfiderable trouble. All co¬
lours of a heavy or gritty nature, efpecially blue
verditer, muft. be purifled by Walking alter this me¬
thod.
The ftudent muft be provided with a large, flexible
.pallet-knife, a large Hone and muller to levigate the
colours, two or three large pieces of chalk to abforb
the moifture from the colours after they are levigated,
a piece of flat glafs to prevent the moifture from be¬
ing abforbed too much, till the colours are rolled into
form, and vefiels for water, fpirits, fs’e. as neceflity
and convenience {hall direft.
I. Reds. It is rather difficult to procure either
good carmine or good lake. Good carmine is inclin¬
ed to the vermilion teint, and good lake to the carmine
teint. The carmine crayons are prepared in the fol¬
lowing manner.
1. Carmine. As their texture is inclinable to hard-
nefs, inftead of grinding and rolling- them, take a
fufficient quantity of carmine, lay it upon the grind-
ing-ftone, mix it with a levigating knife with fpirits
of wine till it becomes fmooth and even. The chalk-
flone being ready, lay the colour upon it to abfprb the
fpirit; but bg careful that it is laid on in a proper fliape
for painting. If it is levigated too thin, the crayons
will be too flai u and if too thick, it will occaiion a
wafte of colour, by their adhering to the pallet-knife ;
but practice will render the proper degree of confiften-
cy familiar. The Ample colour being prepared, the
next ftep is to compofe the different teints by a mixture
with whiting ; the proportion to be obferved confilting
of 20 gradations to one,, which may be clearly undtr-
Rood by the following diredlions. Take fome of the
Ample colour, and levigate it with fpirits of wine, ad¬
ding about one part of wafted whiting to three parts of
carmine, of which, when properly incorporated, make
^93-
two parcels. The next gradation fhould be compofed Crayon.
of equal quantities of carmine and whiting, of which ' *—^
four crayons may be made. The third compofition
ftould have one fourth carmine and three fourths
whiting ; of this make fix crayons, which will be a
good proportion with the reft. The laft teint ftould
be made of whiting, very faintly tinged with carmine,'
of which make about eight crayons, which will com¬
plete the above-mentioned proportion. As thefe com¬
pound teints are levigated, they are to be laid imme¬
diately upon the chalk, that the moifture may be ab¬
forbed to the proper degree of drynefs for forming
into crayons, which may be known by its lofing the
greater part of its adhefive quality when taken into
the hand : if the confiftency is found to be right, it
may be then laid upon the glafs, which having no
pores will prevent the moifture from becoming too
dry before it is convenient to form it into crayons,
ptherwife the crayons would be full of cracks and very
brittle, which will be a great inconvenience when they
are ufed in painting.
2. Lake. This is a colour very apt to be hard; to
prevent which the ftudent muft obfer.ve the following
particulars. Take about half the quantity of lake in¬
tended for the crayons and grind it very fine with fpi¬
rits of wine ; let it dry, and then pulverize it, which
is eafily done if the lake is good ; then take the other
half, and grind it with fpirits, after which mix it with
the pulverized lake, and lay it out diredtly in crayons
on the chalk. This colour will not bear rolling. The
Ample colour being thus prepared, proceed with the
compou- d crayons as directed before, and in the
fame degrees of gradation as the carmine teints.
3. Vermilion. The beft is inclined to the carmine
teint. Nothing is required to prepare this colour more
than to mix it on the {lone with fcft water or fpirits,
after which it may be rolled into crayons. The diffe¬
rent teints are produced by a mixture of the Ample co¬
lour with whiting, according to the proportions already
given.
II. Blues, i. Pruffian blue is a colour very apt
to bind, and is rendered foft with more difficulty than
carmine and lake. The fame method of preparation is
to vbe followed with this as dire&ed with refpedl t®
lake, only it is neceffary to grind a larger quantity of
the pure colour, as it is chiefly ufed for painting dra¬
peries. The different teints may be made according
to neceffity, or the fancy of the painter. 2. Blue-ver-
diter is a colour naturally gritty, and therefore it is
neceffary to waft it well. Its particles are fo coarfe
as to require fome binding matter to unite them, other-
wife the crayons will never adhere together. To ac-
complifh this, take a quantity fufficient to form two
or three crayons, to which add a piece of flacked pla-
fter of Paris about the Aze of a pea; mix thefe ved to¬
gether, and form1 the crayons upon the chalk. This
blue is extremely brilliant, and will be of great ufe in
heightening draperies, &c. The teints muft be form¬
ed with whiting as diredled in the former Alliances, and
are highly ferviceable for painting fleft, to produce
thofe pearly teints fo beautiful in crayon-pidlures. It
is not neceffary to mix the compounds with fpirits, as
clear water will be fufficienf.
III. Greens. Brilliant-greens are produced with
great difficulty. In Switzerland, they have a method
of
C R A [ 521 ] C R A
of making them far fuperior to ours. We ufually
take yellow ochre, and after grinding it with fpirits,
mix it with the powder of Prulfian blue, then tem¬
per it with a knife, and lay the crayons on the
chalk, without rolling them. Inftead of this, fome
ufe king’s yellow mixed with Pruffian blue, arid others
brown ochre and Pruffian blue. The crayons made of
the two laft may be rolled. Various teints may be
produced by thefe colours, according to fancy or necef-
fity ; fome to partake more of the blue, and others of
the yellow. •
IV. Yellows, i. King’s-yellow is the moil ufe-
ful and the moft brilliant, levigated with fpirits of wine,
and compofe the different teints as before directed.
Yellow ochre and Naples yellow ground with fpirits
will make ufeful crayons. 2. Orange is produced with
king’s-yellowand vermilion ground together with fpi-
rits, and the teints formed as in other cafes, but no
great quantity of them is required.
V. Browns. i. Cullen’s-earth is a fine dark
brown. After fix or eight of the fimple crayons are
prepared, feveral rich compound teints may be pro¬
duced from it, by a mixture with carmine, in various
degrees. Black, carmine, and this colour, mixed to¬
gether, make ufeful teints for painting hair; feveral
gradations may be produced from each of thefe by a
mixture with whiting. Roman or brown ochre is an
excellent colour, either fimple or Compounded with
carmine. Whiting tinged in feveral degrees with
either of thefe, will prove very ferviceable in paint¬
ing. 2. Umber may be treated iri juft the fame man¬
ner, only it is neceffary to levigate it with fpirit of
wine.
VI. Purples. Pruffian blue ground with fpirits
and mixed with pulverized lake, will produce a good
purple. Carmine thus mixed with Pruffian blue, will
produce a purple fomething different from the former.
Various teints may be made from either of thefe com¬
pounds by a mixture with whiting.
VII. Black. i. Lamp-black is the only black
that can be ufed with fafety, as all others are fubjetft
to mildew; but as good lamp-black is very fcarce, the
ftudent will, perhaps, find it moft expedient to make
it himfelf; the procefs of which is as follows : Pro¬
vide a tin cone, fix it over a lamp at fuch a height
that the flame may juft reach the cone for the
foot to gather within it. When a fufficient quantity
is collefted, take it out, arid burn all the greafe from
it in a crucible. It muft then be ground with fpirits,
and laid on the chalk to abforb the moifture. Various
grey teints may be formed frorii this by a mixture
with whiting, as mentioned in former inftarices.—
2. Vermilion mixed with carmine : this is a compofi-
tion of great ufe, and teints made from this with whit¬
ing will be found to be very ferviceable. 3. Carmine
arid black is another good compound, of which five or
fix gradations ftiould be made, fome partaking more of
the black, and others having the carmihe moft predo¬
minant, befides feveral teints by a mixture with whiting.
4. Vermilion and black is alfo a very ufeful compound,
from which feveral different teints ftiould be made.
5. Pruffian blue and black is another good compound,
and will be found of Angular fervice in painting dra¬
peries.
It is impoffible to lay down rules for the forming
Vol. V. Part II.
every teint neceffary in compofing a fet of crayons, Crayon
there being many accidental compofitions, entirely de* H
pendent on fancy and opinion. The ftudent fliould, Cre:*m'
make it a rule to fave the leavings of his colours: for 'r~*'
of thefe he may form various teints, which will occa-
fionally be ufeful.
Of rolling the crayons, and difpoftng them for paint¬
ing. The different compofitions of colours muft be cut
into a proper magnitude, after they are prepared, in
order to be rolled into paftils, for the convenience of
ufingthem. Each crayon ftiould be formed in the left
hand with the ball of the right, firft formed cylindri-
cally, and then tapered at each end. If the compofi-
tion is too dry, dip the finger in water ; if too wet, th6
compofition muft be laid upon the chalk again to ab¬
forb more of the moifture. The crayong^Jhould be
rolled as quick as poffible ; and when finiflied, muft be
laid upon the chalk again, to abforb all remaining moi¬
fture. After the gradation of teints from one colour
are formed, the ftone ftiould be well fcraped and clean-
fed with water before it is ufed for another colour.
When the fet of crayons is Completed according to
the rules prefcribed, they fliould be arranged in claffes
for the Convenience of painting with them. Some
thin drawers, divided into a riumber of partitions, is
the moft convenient method of difpofing them proper¬
ly. The crayons ftiould be depofited according to the
feveral gradations of light. The bottom of the parti¬
tions muft be covered with bran, as a bed for the co¬
lours ; becaufe it not only preferves them clean, but
prevents their breaking.
The box made ufe of when the ftudent paints, ftiould
be about a foot fquare, with nine partitions. In the
upper corner, on the left hand (fuppofing the box to
be in the lap when he paints), let him place the black
and grey crayons, thofe being.the moft feldom ufed;
in the fecond partition, the blues; in the' third, the
greens and browns; in the firft partition bn the left
hand of the fecond row, the carmines, lakes, vermi¬
lions, and all deep reds ; the yellows and orange in
the middle, and the pearly teints next; and as thefe
laft are of a very delicate nature, they muft be kept
very clean, that the gradations of colour may be
eafily diftinguiflied: in the loweft row, let the firft
partition contain a piece of fine linen rag to wipe
the crayons with while they are ufing; the fecond,
all the pure lake and vermilion teints; and the other
partition may contain thofe teints which, from their
complex nature, cannot be claffed with any of the
former.
CRAZE-mill, or Crazng-MUI, a mill in all refpe&s
like a grift-mill to grind corn, and is fo called by the
tin-miners, who ufe it to grind their tin, which is yet
too great, after tramblirig. ,
CREAM, a general name applicable to all fufcftan-
ces that feparate from a liquor, and are collefted upon
its furface ; but is more particularly applied to the fol¬
lowing.
Cream of Lime, is that part of the lime which had
been diffolved in the water in its cauftic ftate, but ha-
ving again attra&ed fome fixed air from the atmo-
fphere, becomes incapable of folution, and therefore
feparates from the water in the mild ftate of chalk or
limeftone.
Cream of Mill, generally called fimple cream, is the
3 U moft
G R E [5
Cream moft oily part of the milk ; which being naturally only
Creation m’xe^> an<^ not in the reft, foon feparates from
> them, as being fpecifically lighter ; after which it col-
lefts on the furface; from which it is generally flammed,
to complete the difengagement of the oily from the
•See Butter, cafeous and ferous parts that is to make butter *.
Cb r ^ Cream of milk is not only an agreeable aliment when
e e' recent, but is alfo ufeful in medicine as a lenient, when
applied to tetters and eryfipelas attended with pain and
proceeding from an acrid humour.
Cream of Tartar. See Chemistry, n° 886.
CHEAT, in the manege, an uftier to a riding ma¬
iler ; or a gentleman bred in the academy, with intent
to make himfelf capable of teaching the art of riding
the great horfe.
CREATION, in its primary import, feems to fig-
nify the bringing into being fomething which did not
before exift. The term is therefore moft generally ap¬
plied to the original produftion of the materials where¬
of the viftble world is compofed. It is alfo, however,
ufed in a fecondary or fubordinate fenfe, to denote
thofe fubfequent operations of the Deity upon the
matter fo produced, by which the whole fyftem of na¬
ture and all the primitive genera of things received
their form, qualities, and laws.
There is no fubjeft concerning which there have
been more difputes than this of creation. It is
certain that none of the ancient philofophers had the
fmalleft idea of its being poffible to produce a fub-
ftance out of nothing, or that even the power of the
Deity himfelf could work without any materials to
work upon. Hence fome of them, among whom was
Ariftotle, aflerted that the world was eternal both as
to its matter and form. Others, though they believed
that the gods had given the world its form, yet imagined
the materials whereof it is compofed to have been eter¬
nal. Indeed the opinions of the ancients, who had not
had the benefit of revelation, were on this head fo con-
fufed and contradiftory, that nothing of any confe-
quence can be deduced from them.- The freethinkers
of our own and of former ages have denied the poflibi-
lity of creation, as being a contradiftion to reafon; and
of confequence have taken the opportunity from thence
to difcredit revelation. On the other hand, many de¬
fenders of the facred writings have aflerted, that crea¬
tion out of nothing, fo far from being a contradic¬
tion to reafon, is not only probable, but demonftra-
bly certain. Nay, fome have gone fo far as to fay,
that from the very infpeftion of the vifible fyftem of
nature, we are able to infer that it was once in a
ftate of non-exiftence. It would be impoflible for us,
however, to enter into the multiplicity of arguments
ufed on both Tides; nor can we pretend to fettle it,
as the fubjeft is confeftedly above human comprehen-
fion.
As to the works of creation which the Deity is
known to us to have performed ; all other beings, be-
fide himfelf, are his creatures. Men and other ani¬
mals that inhabit the earth and the feas, all the im-
menfe varieties of herbs and plants of which the ve-
vetable kingdom conlifts ; the globe of the earth, and
the expanfe of the ocean ; thefe we know to have been
produced by hjs power. Befides the terreftrial world
which we inhabit, we fee many other material bodies
difpofed around it in the wide extent of fpace. The
moon, which is in a particular manner connefted with
22 ] C R E
our earth, and even dependent upon it; the fun, and Creation,
the other planets with their fatellites, which, like the 1 v““ ■'
earth, circulate round the fun, and appear to derive
from him light and heat; thofe bodies which we call
fixed ftars, and confider as illuminating and cheriflung
with heat each its peculiar fyftem of planets; and
the comets which at certain periods furprife us with
their appearance, and the nature of whofe conneftion
with the general fyftem of nature, or with any parti¬
cular fyftem of planets, we cannot pretend to have fully
difcovered ;—thefe are fo many more of the Deity’s
works, from the contemplation of which we can¬
not but conceive the moft awful ideas of his creative
power.
Matter, hswever, whatever the varieties of form
under which it is made to appear, the relative difpo-
fition of its parts, or the motions communicated to
it, is but an inferior part of the works of creation.
We believe ourfelves to be animated with a much high¬
er principle than brute matter ; in viewing the manners
and economy of the lower animals, we can fcarce avoid
acknowledging even them to confift of fomething more
than various modifications of matter and motion : The
other planetary bodies which feem to be in circumftan-
ces nearly analogous to thofe of our earth, are fure-
ly, as well as it, deftined for the habitations of rational,
intelligent beings. The exiftence of intelligences of
an higher order than man, though infinitely below
the Deity, appears extremely probable: — Of thofe
fpiritual beings called Angels we have exprefs in¬
timation in fcripture; (fee the article Angels.) Such
are our notions concerning the exiftence of beings ef-
fentially diftinft from matter, and in their nature far
fuperior to it: thefe, too, muft be the creatures of the
Deity, and of his works of creation the nobleft part.
But the limits of creation we muft not pretend to de¬
fine. How far the regions of fpace extend, or how
they are filled, we know not. How the planetary
worlds, the fun and the fixed ftars, are occupied, we
do not pretend to have afcertained. We are even ig¬
norant how wide a diverfity of forms, what an infinity
of living animated beings may inhabit our own globe.
So confined is our knowledge of creation ; yet fo
grand, fo awful, that part which our narrow under-
ftandings can comprehend!
Concerning the periods of time at which the Deity ^
executed his feveral works of creation, it cannot be fhe per;0^s
pretended that mankind have had opportunities of re- 0f time at
ceiving very particular information. From viewing which God
the phenomena of nature, and confidering the general^^£3
laws by which they are regulated, we cannot draw0£ creaciom
any conclufive or even plaufible inference with refpeft
to the precife period at which the univerfe muft have
beguri to exift. We know not, nor can we hope to
afctrtain, whether the different fyftems of planets cir¬
culating round our fun and the otfier fixed liars, were:
all created at one period, or each at a different period.
We cannot even determine, from any thing that ap¬
pears on the face of nature, whether our earth was not
created at a later period than any of her fellow planets
which revolve round the fame fun. Allronomers are,
from time to time, making new difcoveries in the hea¬
vens ; and it is impoflible to fay whether fome of thefe
fucceflive difcoveries may not be owing to fuccelllve
creations.
Philofophers have, indeed, formed fome curious con-
1 jeftures
CUE [ 5^3 ] C R E
Creation, je&ures concerning the antiquity of the earth, from
1 ^— the appearances of its furface, and from the nature
and difpofition of its interior ftrata. The beds of lava
in the neighbourhood of volcanoes have afforded
ground for fome calculations, which, though they do
not fix the period of the earth’s origin, are yet thought
to prove that period to have been much more remote
* BryJane's than the earlieft age of facred or profane hiftory. * In
Tour tiro' the neighbourhood of mount ./Etna, or on the fides of
Sicily and tjlat extenfive mountain, there are beds of lava covered
^ ta’ over with a confiderable thicknefs of earth ; and at leaft
another, again, which, though known from ancient mo¬
numents and hiftorical records to have iffued from the
volcano at leaft 2000 years ago, is ftill almoft entirely
deftitute of foil and vegetation : in one place a pit has
been cut through feven different ftrata of lava ; and
thefe have been found feparated from each other by
almoft as many thick beds of rich earth. Now,
from the fa&, that a ftratum of lava 2000 years old
is yet fcantily covered with earth, it has been inferred
by the ingenious canon Recupero, who has laboured
30 years on the natural hiftory of mount -/Etna, that
the loweft of thefe ftrata which have been found di¬
vided by fo many beds of earth, muft have been emitted
from the volcanic crater at leaft 14000 years ago;
and confequently that the age of the earth, whatever
it may exceed this term of years, cannot poffibly be lefs.
Other fafts of a fimilar nature likewife concur to juftify
this conjefture.
But all thefe fafts are as nothing in comparifon with
the long feries which would be requifite to eftablifh
fuch a conjetture as an incontrovertible truth. And,
befides, any evidence which they can be fuppofed
to afford, may be very eafily explained away. The
bed of lava which in the courfe of 2000 years has
fcarce acquired a covering of earth, is confeffed to
ftand in a fituation in. which it is expofed to the fpray
of the fea, and to all the violence of winds and rains.
In fuch a fituation, it cannot be thought that a thick
bed of earth could, in any length of time, be formed
on it: we might as well expect depth of foil and vi¬
gorous vegetation on the craggy cliffs of hills. In
crevices here and there over it, in which the earth has
been retained, there is a depth of foil which fupports
large trees. This faft, therefore, admits of no fuch
inference as that which Recupero has pretended to de¬
duce from it. The local circumftances, again, of the
feven -ftrata that have been pierced through, are very
different. They are fituated at Jaci Reale, in a fitua¬
tion where {bowers of afhes from the volcano muft fre¬
quently fall; and where whatever falls muft be natu¬
rally retained and accumulated:—fo that feven beds
of earth might be formed on thefe feven ftrata of lava
much fooner than one thin layer could be formed on
the ftratum above mentioned. In other places, fome
of which arc within th,e influence of the fame awful
volcano, and fome adjacent to that of Vefuvius, foil
is known to have accumulated on lava with the help
of (bowers of a(hes from the volcanoes, with fufficient
rapidity to juftify this fuppofition concerning the co¬
verings of the ftrata at Jaci Reale. From the obfer-
vation of thefe phenomena of volcanoes, therefore, no
fails have been gained that can help us fo determine
with any certainty the earth’s age. And fo wide is
the variety of circumftances to be here taken into ac¬
count, that it cannot be hoped that this dejtdcratum will Creation*
be ever fupplied from this quarter. See further the ar- ——v—^
tide Earth ; n° 177 and 178.
But by examining the compofition and arrange¬
ment of the interior ftrata of the globe, and by view¬
ing the general appearance of its furface, the ingenui¬
ty of philofophers has, with better hopes, fought t«
guefs at the length of time during which it muft have
exifted. Obferving the exuviae of fea and land animals
depofited at profound depths under ground, and ac¬
companied with vegetable bodies in a good ftate of
prefervation, as well as with oleaginous and bitumi¬
nous fubftances which have in all probability been
formed from vegetable bodies; and remarking at the
fame time with what confufion the other materials,
compofing the cruft of this terreftrial ball, are, in va¬
rious inftances, not arranged, but call together; they
have concluded that the earth muft have exifted for
many an age before the earlieft events recorded in fa¬
cred or profane hiftory, and muft have undergone
many a revolution, before it fettled in its prefent ftate.
Such at leaft are the ideas which Buffon and M. de
Luc, and alfo Dr Hutton J, feem defirous to im- j phii,
prefs us with concerning its changes and antiqui- Tranf.
ty.—It will be only doing juftice to thefe philofo- v°h *•
pliers to acknowledge, that they have colle&ed, with
amazing induftry, almoft every faft in the natural
hiftory of the earth that can ferve to give plaufibi-
lity to their conjeftures. But ftill their fafts, befides
the inconfiftency of many of them, are by far too fcanty
to warrant the conclufions w’hich they have pretended
to deduce from them. See the article Earth 3
The voice of profane hiftory is far from being de-Accounts of
cifive concerning the age of the world; nor is it to be’be antiqui-
expefted that it ftiould. When the earth firft arofe ^
into exiftence, we can be at no lofs to conceive that profane°hi-
mankind were not fpeftators of the event: and weftory.
may naturally imagine that the firft human beings who
occupied it, would be too much bufied in furnifhing
themfelves with the immediate neceffaries and the con¬
veniences of life, to think of curious refearches into
its origin, or even their own. Profane hiftory is not,
however, without accounts of the age of the earth
and the origin of human fociety; but thofe accounts are
various and contradiftory.—Plato in his dialogue intit-
led Critias, mentions his celebrated Atalantis to have
been buried in the ocean about 9000 years before
the age in which he wrote. He afferts it to have
been well known to the Egyptian priefts and to the
cotemporary inhabitants of Attica. The learned world,
indeed, generally agree in regarding his accounts of
that ifland as a fiftion, which the author himfelf did
not defign to be underftood in any other light: fame,
however, are more credulous, and others go fo far as to
acknowledge doubts : and, if the exiftence of fuch an
ifla'nd, at a period fo diftant, be admitted as a faft
worthy of any credit, the age of the world may be
reckoned as at leaft confidtrably more than 12,000
years. The pretenfions of the Chinefe reprefent tie
world as fome hundreds of thoufands of years older:
and we are alfo told* that the aftronomical records *
of the ancient Chaldseans carried back the origin of 7°f
fociety to a very remote period ; no lefs than 473,000 i>redacc'
years. The Egyptian priefts reckoned between Me-
nes and Sethon 341 generations f. But thefe accounts + Herod.
3U2 arel.hc.I4*,
V
C R E [ 524 ] C R E
Creation, are fo difcordant, and fo flenderly fupported by evi- they may be confidered as nearly fixing the true pe* Citation.
  dence, tlrat we cannot hefitate to rejedt them all as riod of the creation of the earth. ——7——^
falfe ; the fables of hiflorians fcarce merit fo much at- Profane hiftory cannot be expedted to contain an 5
4 tention as the hypothefes of philofophers. account of the fit ft events which palled after the crea- No llfor'
The era of When from profane we turn to facred hiftory, we tion of the fubftances of which the univerfe coniiits.
♦he^reation may reafonably expedt more accurate and ?more ere- The conjedlures of ancient philofophers on this fub- to be ob-
hifti
dible information concerning the antiquity of the jtdf cannot merit attention; for vague tradition, and irotn
globe. As the authenticity of the Holy Scriptures the appearances of nature, the only data on which ^
is fo incontrovertibly eftablilhed, wherever they af- they could proceed in forming their conjedlures, could
ford evidence concerning any fadt, that evidence muft
be regarded as decifive. A fadt fo important as the
preient may be thought highly worthy of a place in
them. Unfortunately, however, even the facred wri¬
tings do not fix the era of the creation with fufficient
accuracy; they leave us, in fome meafure, at a lofs
whether to extend what they fay concerning that era
to the whole contents of created fpace, or to confine
it to our earth and its inhabitants : different copies
give different dates; and even in the fame copy, different
parts relating the fame events, either difagree or do
not fpeak decifively with regard to the length of the
time in which they paffed.—In the beginning of the
fixth chapter of the firft book of Kings, the time
which elapfed between the departure of the children
of Ifrael from Egypt, and the period at which Solo¬
mon laid the foundation of his temple, is faid to have
been 480 years: And in the book of Judges again,
admit of no fair indudtions concerning thofe events ; dory,
and befides, inftead of liftening to tradition, or exa¬
mining the appearances of nature, they generally con-
fulted imagination, and imagination alone, on fuch oc-
cafions. Here, therefore, we have nothing to hope
but from the facred writings. From them w'e may
expeCl hiftorical information, not to be obtained from
any other fource. What they communicate is com¬
municated on divine authority ; and it is only on Inch
authority we can receive any accounts concerning the
creation. 5
A few hints in the book of Job, afford the earlieft Hints co
information to be found in the feriptures concerning cen,ing 4®
the creation of the world. “ Where waft thou when
:ation 11
I laid the foundations of the earth, when the morning job,
ftars fang together, and all the fons of God ftxouted
forjoy* “Behold, he put no truft in hisfervants, and , chao
his angels he charged with folly f.” “ And unto man, xxXviii.
f Univerfal the age of all the patriarchs amounts to 592 years, f (or to Adam), he laid, Behold, the fear of the Lord ver. 4 & 7,
vol.!. The Hebrew copy of the bible, which we Chriftians is wifdom, and to depart from evil is underftandingj.” t Ch
Preface.
for good reafons confider as the moft authentic, dates
the creation of the world 3944 years before the Chri-
ftian era. The Samaritan bible, again, fixes the era
of the creation 4305 years before the birth of Chrift.
. 18.
f Ch. xxviii.
Thefe paffages rather hint at than relate fadts. But
it has been inferred from them, that there were liars
in the firmament, and angels in heaven, before the for¬
mation of our globe ; that angels as well as man have
And the Greek tranllation, known by the name of fallen ; and that other injundtions, befides that of ab-
the Septuagint verfion of the bible, gives 5270 as the ftaining from the forbidden fruit, were laid on Adam
number of the years which intervened between thofe when he was firft placed in Paradife ||. If the inter- ,
two periods. As many other different calculations of pretation be admitted as juft, the firil of thefe fatls 1
the years contained in the fame intermediate fpace of may be confidered as forming, as it were, a point with Ledt. I.
which our knowledge of the works of the Deity com¬
mences : the period of time at w'hich the fecond event
took place is not fpecified; and the precept to Adam
muft no doubt have been uttered after he was formed
time, might be formed upon other dates in the fa¬
cred volume, differing in the different copies. By
comparing the various dates in the facred writings,
examining how thefe have come to difagree and to
be diverfified in different copies, endeavouring to re- and infpired with intelligence. Yet with regard to the
concile the moft authentic profane with facred chro¬
nology, and eking out deficiency of dates and evi¬
dence with conjecture; fome ingenious men have form¬
ed fchemes of chronology, plaufible indeed, but not
fupported by fufficient authorities, which they would
gladly perfuade us to receive in preference to any of
thofe above mentioned. Ulher makes out from the
Hebrew bible 4004 years, as the term between the
creation and the birth of Chrift : Jofephus, according
to Dr Wills and Mr Whifton, makes it 4658 years ;
and M. Pezron, with the help of the Septuagint, ex¬
tends it to 5872 years. Ufher’s fyftem is the moft
generally received.
But though thefe different fyftems of chronology
are fo inco.nliftent and fa flenderly fupported, yet
firft of the above quotations from the book of Job, the
only one that is of importance to us at prefent, it muft
be acknowledged, that it has been differently underr
flood. The morning ftars might fing together, and
the fons of God ftiout for joy, on account both of
their own creation and of the creation of the earth at
one time; and yet Job, having been himfelf made a
confcious being at a much later period, not be able to
tell where he was at that era of exulting gratitude and
congratulation.
Mofes relates, that* “ in the begining God created 74,. ra;c a!>
the.heavens and the earth.. And the earth (continues rount of
he.) was without form, and void ; and darknefs was.tIiecre-
upon the face of the deep : and the fpirit of God j r
ved upon the face of the waters. And God faid, Let
tire differences among them are fo inconiiderable in. there be light; and there was light. And God faw
comparifon.with thofe which arife before us when we, the light, that it was good: and. God divided the
contemplate the chronology of the Chinefe,,. the Chal- light from the dar knefs.. And God called the light day,
deans, and the Egyptians, and they agree fo well, and the darknefs he called night: and the evening and
with the general information of authentic hiftoiy and the morning were the firft day.” During five fucceed-,
with the appearances of. nature and of fociety, that, ing days the work of. creation, was carried on. On.
tire.
c R E C 5^5 ] C R E
Difficu!
occurring
Dr Burnet
theory.
Creation, the fecond day, a firmament was made to feparate the
v ' waters, and that firmament called heaven : on the third
day, the waters were collefted into feas, and the land
from which the waters retired caufed to produce grafs
and trees and other plants : on the fourth day, lights
were made to appear in the firmament ; to enlighten
the earth, to divide the day from the night, and to
diftinguilh time into feafons and years: on the fifth
day, the feas were peopled with whales and other fifties,
and the air with fowls : on the fixth day, the earth was
furniftied with reptiles and quadrupeds of all kinds ;
and on the fame day, the firft. human pair, the proge¬
nitors of all the human- race, were created in God’s
8 own image.
Some difficulties occur in comparing this account of
„ the creation with the laws which appear at prefent to
the!lboveregulate the fyftem of nature. We find it hard to con¬
ceive how the earth, while yet a ftranger to the influ¬
ence of the fun, could experience the viciffitude of day
and night ; and are aftoniftied at the rapidity with
which trees and herbage firft overfpread its furface.
The condition of matter when the earth was without
form and void, and the operation of the fpirit of God
on the face of the waters, are equally myfterious.
Attempts to Some ingenious meii' have eagerly laboured to re-
folve thofe move thefe difficulties. Among thefe is Dr Burnet,
difficulties whofe theory of the earth has now been long conlider-
'ed as fanciful and ill-founded. He fuppofes all the
celeftial bodies, even the fun and all the other planets
of the folar fyftem, to have exifted long before the
earth. The chaos on which the fpirit of God moved,
confifted, according to him, of the.firft principles from
which all terreftrial bodies have been formed. \Vhen
thofe laws by which the: material world is. regulated
firft began to operate on the mats, he fuppofes that
its grofler. and heavier parts would fink towards the
centre, and there form a folid ball. Around this foil’d
ball two fpecies of particles would ftill float together in
confufion. Of thefe he thinks one, being more vola¬
tile, would by degrees make its efcape from the other,
would leave it ftill recumbent on the folid centre, and
fpread around it in an atmofphere. The middle ftra-
tum he comppfes of aqueous and oleaginous fluids;
and he makes no doubt, that after the air had made
its efcape, the levity of the oleaginous fluids would
enable them to rife above the aqueous, and difpofe
themfelves next the furface of the liquid mafs. On
them he fuppofes the impure atmofphere to have then
depofited a quantity of terrene particles, fufficient to
form, by intermixture with the oils, a thick cruft of
rich earth for the produftion of plants and herbage,
and to afford an habitation to animals. This delicate
ftiell he was careful^not to furrow with feas or load with
mountains ; either of thefe would have reduced all to
confufion.. Such is his earth ; and after moulding it
with fo much ingenuity', and into, fo happy a form, he
contents himfelf, without, venturing to. ufe the fame
freedoms with the remaining part.of Mofes’s. account
of the creation.
But Mofes affords nothing that can be with any
Dr Bur- propriety ufed in the foundation of fuch a theory : he
dstkeory. tells not whether the chaos confifted of thofe terrene,'
and aqueous, and oleaginous, and aerial particles which
Dr Burnet finds in. it, he confines not the feas within.
Ofijecl.i ns
a cruft of earth; nor does he inform us that the Creation,
feenery of nature was not diverfified by hills and ——v~—'
vales. Befides, the author of this theory has, without
any evidence, fuppofed matter to have been originally
under the influence of laws very different from thofe by
which it is at prefent regulated. Oil, indeed, while
fluid, floats above water: but in a concrete date, it
finks in water like other folid bodies. If reduced in¬
to that ftate by combination with terrene matters, fuf¬
ficient to render the mixture proper for the nouriftiment
and production of vegetables ; its fpecific gravity will
be ftill greater, and it will confequently fink fo much
the fooner. How a concrete fubftance, confifting of
earth and oil, could float on water, appears an inexpli¬
cable enigma. But we need not here take farther
pains in combating and triumphing over this theory,
which has long fince fallen and funk to its grave. ir
Mr Whifton treats both the feriptures and the Mr Whi-
laws of nature with greater reverence. Yet he cer- ^on 3 t^eo'
tainly involves himfelf in no trifling difficulties in at-r^
tempting to folve thofe which Mofes prefents. He
fuppofes the fun, moon, and ftars to be all move an¬
cient than the earth. The chaos from which the earth-
was formed, he reprefents as having been originally.
the atmofphere of a comet. The fix days ol the crea¬
tion he wmuld perfuade us to believe equal to fix of
our years : for he is of opinion, that the earth did not
revolve daily round its axis, but only annually round
its orbit, till after the fall of man.
On the firft day or year, therefore, the more pon¬
derous parts of the chaos were according to this theory
conglomerated into an orb of earth, tne chinks and in-
terftices over that orb filled up with water, and the ex¬
terior part or atmofphere rarefied, fa as to admit fome.
faint glimmering of the. rays of the fun.
On the fecond day, the atmofphere was diffufed to
its due extent around the earth, and reduced to a de¬
gree of rarity and purity which rendered it ftill more
fuitable for the tranfmillton of light; the earth was
ftill more confolidated ; and the waters being almolt
entirely excluded from the iuterftices which they be¬
fore occupied, wijre partly fpread over the furface of
the earth, and partly, raifed in vapour into the atmo¬
fphere or firmament.
On the third day, the earth’s furface became fo ir¬
regular, in one place rifing into hills, in another fink¬
ing into vales, as to caufe the waters, which were be¬
fore equally diffufed, to colledb into feas and lakes,,
leaving large trails of ground unoccupied. And no
fooner was a part of the earth’s, furface left bare by
the waters, than the general influence of the fun pro¬
duced on it a rich covering of. herbage, and all the .
different fpecies of vegetables.
On the fourth day, the earth was rendered fubjecl
to. the regular influence of the fun, moon, and ftars.
On the fifth day or year-, things were fo far advan¬
ced, that fifties and fowls were now produced from the
waters.
On the fixth day was the earth furniftied with ani-
ntals ; and the lord of all the other animals, man, was
now created.
Such is Mr Whifton’s account of the phenomena of objections
the Mofaic creation. But he likewife affumes much u> Mr Whi--
mote, than can. be reafonably granted. The atmo-don’s theo-
fphereT'
e r k
[ 526 ]
13
M. deLuc’
theory and
objedions.
fphere of a cpmet could not well be the primitive chaos;
it is not an obfcure, but a pellucid fluid ; and its exterior
ftrata,if of the fame nature with the matter of our earth,
muft be fcorified by its near approaches to the fun.
Had the earth not begun to move round its axis till
after the work of creation was completed, the immo¬
derate degrees of heat and cold which its different
parts would have alternately felt, would in all probabi¬
lity have proved fatal to both plants and animals.
Even the moft artful interpretation of Mofes’s words
cannot reprefent him as meaning to inform us that the
fun and moon were created at different periods. But
philofophy will fcarce permit us to imagine that the
moon was formed before the earth. And therefore
we cannot upon good grounds agree with Mr Whifton,
that the creation of the earth was later than that of
the other bodies of the folar fyftem.
, Among others who have endeavoured to explain the
original formation of the earth, and the changes which
it has undergone, is M. de Luc. This cofmologift, like
Mr Whifton, thinks that the days of the creation were
much longer periods of time than our prefent days.
He feems to think that the earth had exifted long be¬
fore the Mofaic creation; but began at that era to ex¬
perience new changes, and to be regulated by new
laws : that all the different events deferibed by Mofes
in his hiftory of the creation, a finally took place in the
order in which he relates them ; but that Mofes’s days
are indefinite fpaces of time, which muft have been
very long, but of which we cannot hope to afeertain
the precife length. Thefe are ingenious conjectures;
but they do not appear neceffary, nor are they juftified
by fafts. For a fuller and more clofe invefligation of
this part of the fubjefl, we muft refer to the article
Earth : and fhall now clofe the prefent article with a
fhort explanation of what appears to us the moft na-
C R E
atmofpheric air fo adjufted, as to render the latter ca- <
pable of fupporting the former. ^
On the third day the waters were firft collefled into
lakes and feas: but in what manner, we cannot well
determine. Some call in the operation of earthquakes ;
others tell us, that when the earth was firft formed,
the exterior ftrata were, at different parts over its fur-
face, of different fpecific gravities; and that the more
ponderous parts now funk nearer the common centre,
whilethe lighter partsftill remaining equallyremotefrom
it as before, formed iflands, continents, hills, and moun¬
tains. But thefe are mere fancies; and we have not
fads to offer in their ftead. On the latter part of this
day vegetables were caufed to fpring up over the earth.
Their growth muft have been much more rapid than
we ever behold it now: but by what particular ail of
fupernatural power that might be effeited, we fhould
in vain inquire.
On the fourth day the fun, mocm,and ftars,were made
to appear. But according to the conjeilure which we
have mentioned as plaufible, though without aferibing
to it the evidence of certain truth, thofe heavenly bo¬
dies are to be confidered as having been created before
this day. But they might now begin to exert their
full influence on the earth in the fame manner as they
have fince continued to do.
The creation of the inanimate world was now finifh-
ed, and the earth prepared for the reception of ani¬
mals. On the fifth day, therefore, yere the living
inhabitants of the air and the waters created.
On the fixth day the inferior animals inhabiting the
earth were firft created; and after that, the whole work
was crowned by the creation of a male and a female
of the human fpecies. To the account of the crea¬
tion of the animals, nothing certain can be added ift
explanation of Mofes’s narrative. No more but one
tural way of underftanding Mofes’s account of the, pair of the human fpecies were at firft created: the
creation.
It has been conjedlured *, with great probability,
* Umv.Hi/i- the creation of which Mofes is the hiftorian, was
vo!'1'P'8'*. neither confined to the earth alone, nor extended to
the whole univerfe. The relation, which all the pla¬
nets of the folar fyftem bear to the fame iHuminating
body countenances the conje&ure, that they, together
with the luminary by which they are enUghtemed, were
all created at one period : but it would perhaps be to
conceive too meanly of the benevolence, wifdom, and
a&ive power of the Deity to fuppofe that before that
period thefe had never been exerted in any work of
creation. Yet even here we have not demonftrative
evidence.
On the fuppofition that the whole folar fyftem was
created at once, which has at leaft the merit of doing
fame economy might poffibly be obferved in the crea¬
tion of the inferior animals.
CREBILLON (Profper Joliot de), a French wri¬
ter of tragedy, and ufually ranked after Corneille and
Racine, was born at Dijon in 1674. He was origi¬
nally deftined to the profeffion of the law, and placed
at Paris with that view ; but the impetuofity of his
paflions rendering him unfit for bufinefs, he was ur¬
ged by fome friends, who difeerned very well his na¬
tural turn, to attempt dramatic compofitions. He
complied, but not till after many refufals; and gave
at length a tragedy, which met with great fuc-
cefs. He then marched on in the career he had be¬
gun, but was checked by a fit of love for an apothe¬
cary’s daughter ; which fit of love ended in marriage.
His father, doubly enraged at his fon for thus furren-
no violence to the narrative of Mofes, the creation of dering himfelf to the two demons of Love and Poetry,
the fun and the other planets may be underftqod to
have been carried on at the fame time with the crea¬
tion of the earth. In that cafe, even in the courfe
of the firft day, though not longer than' our prefent
days, thofe bodies might be reduced to fuch order,
and their relative motions fo far eftablilhed, as to be¬
gin the diftin&ion between light and darknefs, day and
night.
On the fecond day, we may naturally underftand
from Mofes’s narrative, that the atmofphere was puri¬
fied, and the fpecific gravities of aqueous vapour and
difinherited him ; but falling fick fome years after, in
1707, he re-eftablilhed him in all his rights, and died.
Crebillon was, however, little better for his acquifi-
tions, the greateft part being probably wafted before
they came ; and thus, though high in fame and at the
prime of life, he ftill continued poor. He loft his wife
in 1711, and fortune long frowned upon him, till at
laft he obtained a place in the French academy, and
the employment of cenfor of the police. He was af¬
terwards in good circumftances, and happy to the end
of his life, which was a very long one ; for he did ndt
die
C R E [ 527 ] CUE
Crscy, die till 1762, aged 88. He was much regretted and
It lamented, as old as he was; being a very worthy man,
Credit. an(j 0£ many and great virtues. He was of a tem-
""¥ perament extremely robuft, without which he could
not have held out fo long; for he eat prodigioufly,
and continued to the laft fo to do. He flept little,
and lay as hard as if upon the floor; not from any
pious principle of mortifying, but becaufe he liked it.
He wis always furrounded with about 30 dogs and
cats ; and ufed to fmoak a good deal of tobacco, to
keep his room fweet againfl their exhalations. When¬
ever he was ill, he ufed to manage himfelf according
to his own fancy and feelings; for he always made a
jeft of phyfic and phyficians. He was a dealer in
bans mots. Being afked one day in full company, which
of his works he thought the beft ? “ I don’t know
(fays he) which is my beft produ&ion ; but this (point¬
ing to his fon) is certainly my worft.”
CRECY, Crescy, or Cressy. See Cressy.
CREDENTIALS, letters of recommendation and
power, efpecially fuch as- are given to ambaftadors or
public minifters, by the prince or ftate that fends them
to foreign courts.
CREDIBILITY, a fpecies of evidence, lefs'indecd
than abfolute certainty or demonftration, but greater
than mere pofibility : it is nearly allied to probability,
and feems to be a mean between poffibility and de¬
monftration.
CREDIT, in commerce, a mutual truft or loan of
merchandife or money, on the reputation of the pro¬
bity and folvability of a dealer.
Credit is either public or private. Every trader
ought to have fome eftate, ftock, or portion of his
own, fufficient to carry on the traffic he is engaged in:
they (hould alfo keep their dealings within the extent
of their capital, fo that no difappointment in their re¬
turns may incapacitate them from fupporting their cre¬
dit, Yet traders of worth and judgment may fome-
times lie under the neceffity of borrowing money for
carrying on their bulinefs. to the beft advantage ; but
then the borrower ought to be fo juft to his own re¬
putation and to his creditors, as to be well allured that
he has fufficient effcdls within his power to pay off his
obligations in due time. But if a trader ffiould bor¬
row money to the extenf of his credit, and launch out
into trade fo as to employ it with the fame freedom as
if it was his own proper ilock, fuch a way of manage¬
ment is very, precarious, and may be attended with
dangerous confequences. Merchants ought never to
purchafe their goods for exportation upon long credit,
with intent to difeharge the debt by the return of the
fame goods; for this has an injurious influence on trade
feveral ways : and if any merchant has occafion to
make ufe of his credit, it Ihould always be for the
borrowing of money, but never for the buying of
goods ; nor is the large credit given to wholefale tra¬
ders a prudential or juftitiable practice in trade.
The public credit of a nation is faid to run high
when the commodities of that nation find a ready vent,
are fold at a good price, and when dealers may be fafe-
ly trufted with them : alfo when lauds and houfes find
ready purchafers ; when money is to be borrowed at
a low intereft ; when people think it fafe and advan¬
tageous to venture largeftocks in trade; and when notes,
mortgages^ &c. will pafs for money.
Letters of Credit, are thofe given to perfons in Credit
whom a merchant, &c. can truft, to take money of II 4
his correfpondent abroad, in cafe he happens to need, Cre^ch- _
Credit is alfo ufed for the currency which papers
or bills have in the public or among dealers. In this
fenfe credit is faid to rife, when, in negociating the
fliares of the company, they are received and fold at
prices above />ar, or the ftandard of their firft crea¬
tion. Difcredit is oppofed to credit, and is ufed where
money, bills, See. fall below f>ar.
Credit was alfo anciently a right which lords had
over their vaffals ; confifting in this, that during a cer¬
tain time they might oblige them to lend them mo¬
ney. In this fenfe, the Duke of Brjtanny had credit
during fifteen days on his own fubje&s, and thofe of
the biihop of Nantes; and the biftiop had the fame
credit or right among his fubjeds and thofe of that
prince.
CREDITON, a market-town in Devonfhire, con-
fiderable for a good woollen manufa&ory : it is fitua-
ted about 9 miles north-weft of Exeter, in W. Long.
3. 50. and N. Lat. 50. 50.
CREDITOR, a perfon to whom any fum of mo¬
ney is due, either by obligation, promife, or other-
wife. See Debt.
CREDULITY denotes a weaknefs of mind, by
reafon of which a perfon yields his affent to propofi-
tions or fads, before he has confidered their evi¬
dence.
CREECH (Thomas), eminent for his tranflations
of ancient authors both in profe and verfe, was fon of
Thomas Creech, and born near Sherborne in Dorfet-
Ihire in 1659. He was educated in grammar learning
under Mr Curganven of Sherborne, to whom he after¬
wards dedicated a tranffation of one of Theocritus’s
Idylliums ; and entered a commoner of Wadham col-
lege in Oxford in 1675. Wood tells us that his father
was a gentleman ; but Giles Jacob fays, in his Lives
and charaders of Engliih Poets, that his parents cir-
cumftances not being fufficient to afford him a liberal
education, his difpolition and capacity for learning
raifed him up a patron in Colonel Strangeways, whole
generofity fupplied that defied. Be that as it will,
Creech diftinguifhed himfelf much, and was account¬
ed a good philofopher and poet, and a*diligent ftudent.
June 13. i'683 he took the degree of mafter of arts,
and not long after was eleded probationer fellow of All¬
fouls college ; to which, Jacob obferves, the great repu¬
tation acquired by his tranflation of Lucretius recom¬
mended him. Wood tells us, that upon this occafton
he gave Angular proofs of his claffical learning and
philofophy before his examiners. He alfo took the
degree of B. D. on the 18th of March 1696. He
now began to be well known by the works he publifh-
ed; but Father Nieeron obferves, that they were of
no great advantage to his fortune, fincehis circumftan-
ces were always indifferpnt. In 1699, having taken
holy orders, he was prefented by his college to the li¬
ving of Welwyn in Hertfordfhire ; but this he had
not long enjoyed before he put an end to his own life.
The motives of this fatal cataftrophe have been vaii-
oufly reprefented. The author of the Nouvelles de la
Republique des Lett res informs us, that in the year 1 700-
Mr Creech fell in love with a woman who treated him
with
C R E [ 528 ] C R E
Creed with great neglect, though (he was complaifant enough
' II to feveral others. This affront he could not bear, and
Creeper. ref0]ve(j not to furvive it. Whereupon he fhut himfelf
^ ~ up in his ftudy, where he hanged himfelf about the
end of June 1700, and was found in that circumftance
three days after. The Poetical Regifter fays nothing
of the particular manner of his death, but only that
he unfortunately made away with himfelf in the year
170X; and afcribes this fatal cataftrophe of Mr Creech’s
life to the morofenefs of his temper, which made him
lefs edeemed than his great merit deferred, and enga¬
ged him in frequent animofities and difputes upon that
account. But from an original letter of Arthur Char-
lett, preferred in the Bodleian library, it has lately
been difcorered, that this unhappy erent was owing
to a very different caufe. There was a fellow colle¬
gian of whom Creech frequently borrowed money ;
but repeating his applications too-often, he met one
day with fuch a cold reception, that he retired in a
fit of gloomy difguft, and in three days was found
hanging in his ftudy. Creech’s principal performances
are, 1. A Tranflation of Lucretius. 2. A Tranfla-
tion of Horace; in which, however, he has omitted
fame few odes. 3. The Idylliums of Theocritus, with
Rapin’s Difcourfe of Paftorals. 4. A Tranflation of
Manilius’s Aftronomicon. Befides tranflations of fe¬
veral parts of Virgil, Ovid, and Plutarch; printed in
different colleftions.
CREED, a brief fummary of the articles of a Chri-
ftian’s belief.
The moft ancient form of creeds is that which goes
Under the name of the apoftolic creed : befides this,
there are feveral other ancient forms and fcattered
remains of creeds to be met with in the primitive re¬
cords of the church. The firft is the form of apofto-
lical dodtrine, colledted by Origen ; the fecond is a
fragment of a creed preferved by Tertullian ; the third
remains of a creed is in the works of Cyprian ; the
fourth, a creed compofed by Gregory Thaumaturgus,
for the ufe of his own church ; the fifth, the creed of
Lucian the martyr ; the fixth, the creed of the apofto-
lical conftitutions. Befides thefe fcattered remains of
the ancient creeds, there are extant fome perfedt forms,
as thofe of Jerufalem, Cefarea, Antioch, &c.
The moft univerfal creeds are, the Apostolical,
the Athanasian, and theNiCENE creeds. See thefe
articles.
Thefe three creeds are ufed in the public offices of
the church of England ; and fubfcription to them is
required of the clergy, and of diflenting teachers pro¬
perly qualified by the'toleration adt, as the eighth ar¬
ticle declares that they may be proved by the fureft
teftimonies of fcripture.
CREEK, a part of a haven, where any thing is
landed from the fea. So many landing-places as there
are in a harbour or port, fo many creeks there are.
It is alfo faid to be a fliore or bank whereon the water
beats, running in a fmall channel from any part of the
fea ; from the Latin crepido. This word is ufed in the
ftat. 4 Hen. IV. c. 20. and 5 Eliz. c. 5.
CREENGLES. See Cringle.
CREEPER, in ornithology. See Certhia.
Creeper, in naval affairs, an inftrument of iron
refembling a grappling, having a Jhank, and four hooks
or claws. It is ufed to throw into the bottom of any
N° 94.
river or harbour, with a rope faftened to it, to hook Cfell!u»,
and draw up any thing from the bottom which may H
have been loft. See Plate CL. Cm'n-
CRELLIUS (John), a famous Socinian, born in
1590, in a village near Noremberg. In 1612 he went
Into Poland, where the Unitarians had a fchool, in
which he became profeflbr of divinity, and minifter
at Crackow, where he died in 1632, aged 42. He
was the author, 1. Of a famous Treatife againft the
Myftery of the Trinity ; 2. Commentaries on a part
of the New Teftament; and other works. All of
them are fcarce.
CREMA, a city and biftiop’s fee of Italy, capital of
a diftridt of the Milanefe, called from it Cremafco: it
ftands almoft in the middle between Milan and Man¬
tua, in E. Long. 10. 15, and N. Lat. 45. 20.
CREMASTER, in anatomy, the name of a mufcle
of the tefticle, of which there is one on each fide. See
Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
CREMATION isfometimes ufed for burning, par¬
ticularly when applied to the ancient cuftom of burn¬
ing the dead. This cuftom is well known to have
prevailed among moft eaftern nations, and continued
with their defcendants after they had peopled'the dif¬
ferent parts of Europe. Hence we find it prevailing
in Greece, Italy, Gaul, Britain, Germany, Sweden,
Norway, and Denmark, till Chriftianity abolilhed it.
CREMONA (anc. geog.), a Roman colony, with
municipal rights, fettled beyond the Po, below the
confluence of the Addua, on the report of Hannibal’s
march into Italy (Polybius): a town at this day ftill
maintaining its name and flourifliing ftate. It was an
opuRnt and mercantile city 5 but fuffered greatly in
the civil wars of Auguftus (Virgil). In the war with
Vitellius, it was deftroyed by the partizans of Vefpa-
fian; but was foon after rebuilt by the munificence of
the citizens and exhortations of Vefpafian, (Tacitus).
Now capital of the Crenionefe, in the duchy of Mi¬
lan. E. Long. 10. 30. Lat. 45.
CRENATED, in botany. See Botany-/«/w.
CRENELLE, or Imbattled, in heraldry, is ufed
when any honourable ordinary is drawn, like the bat¬
tlements on a wall to defend men from the enemies
{hot. This attribute belongs to the arms of fuch as
have defended caftles for their prince or country, or
of fuch as are {killed in architefture.
CRENOPHYLAX, in antiquity, a magiftrate of
Athens, who had the infpe&ion of fountains.
CREODIBA, in the cuftoms of the middle age, a
robbery and murder committed in a wood, where the
body of the perfon killed was burnt in order to pre¬
vent any difcovery of the crime- The word, fays
Wendelinus, is compounded of cruy and diven, that
is, “ wood-robbers.”
CREOLES, a name given to the families defend¬
ed from the Spaniards who firft fettled at Mexico in
America. Thefe are much more numerous than the
Spaniards properly fo called, and the Mulattoes, which
two other fpecies of inhabitants they diftinguifh ; and
are excluded from all confiderable employments.
CREON, king of Corinth, was fon of Syfiphus.
Pie promifed his daughter Glance to Jafon, who had
repudiated Medea. To revenge the fuccefs of her-rival,
Medea fent her for a prefent a gown covered with poi-
fon. Glauce put it on, and was feized with fuddenpains.
4 Her
Creon
II
Crepita¬
tion.
C R E L 529 ] G R E
Her body took fire, and fhe expired in the greatell tor¬
ments. The houfe alfo was confumed by the fire,
and Creon and his family fhared Glance’s fate.
Creon, fon of Menoetius, was father to Jocafta,
the wife and mother of Oedipus. At the death of
Laius, who had married Jocalta, Creon afcended the
vacant throne of Thebes. As the ravages of the
Sphynx were intolerable, Creon offered his crown and
daughter in marriage to him who could explain the
enigmas which the monfter propofed. Oedipus was
happy in his explanations, and he afcended the throne
of Thebes and married Jocafta without knowing that
flie was his mother, and by her "he had two fons, Poly-
nices and Eteocles. Thefe two fons mutually agreed
after their father’s death to reign in the kingdom each
a year alternately. Eteocles firft afcended the throne
by right of feniority ; but when he was once in power
he refufed to refign at the appointed time, and his
brother led againft him an army of Argives to fupport
his right. The war was decided by a iingle combat
between the two brothers. They both killed one ano¬
ther, and Creon afcended the throne till Leodamus
the fon of Eteocles fliould be of a fufficient age to af-
fume the reins of government. In his regal capacity
he commanded that the Argives, and more particular¬
ly Polynices, who was the caufe of all the bloodfhed,
fhould remain unburied. If this was in any manner
difobeyed, the offenders were to be buried alive. An¬
tigone the filter of Polynices tranfgreffed, and was ac¬
cordingly punifhed. Haemon the fon of Creon, who
was paflionately fond of Antigone, killed himfelf on
her grave, when his father refufed to grant her par¬
don. Creon was afterwards killed by Thefeus, who
had made war with him becaufe he refufed burial to
the Argives.
CREPANCE, in the manege, a chop or cratch iit
a horfe’s leg, given by the fpunges of the fhoes of one
of the hinder feet crofting and ftriking againft the o-
ther hinder foot. This cratch degenerates into an
ulcer.
CREPIDjE, among the Romans, a kind of flip¬
pers or fhoes, which were always worn with the pal¬
lium, as the calcei were with the toga.
CREPIS, hawk-weed : A genus of the polygamia
fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
49th order, Compo/ita. The receptacle is naked ; the
calyx calyculated with deciduous fcales; the pappus
feathery and ftalked. There are 14 fpecies, moft; of
them herbaceous annuals, rifing to the height of a
foot or a foot and an half; and having their branches
terminated by ligulated compound red and yellow
flowers. Thefe are very large, and confift of many
flat florets fpread over one another imbricatim, and
when fully blown appear as if radiated. They are
very confpicuous and beautiful: and appear in June,
July, and Auguft. They are fucceeded by plenty of
feed, which, if permitted to fcatter on the ground,
will produce a number of young plants without fur¬
ther trouble.
CREPITATION, that noife which fome falts
make over the fire in calcination, called alfo detona¬
tion.
Crepitation is alfo ufed in furgery, for the noife
made by the ends or pieces of bones, when the fur-
Von. V. Part II.
geon moves a limb to affure himfelf by his ear of the
exiftence of a fracture.
CREPUNDIA, in antiquity, a term ufed to ex-
prefs fuch things as were expofed along with children,
as rings, jewels, &c. ferving as tokens whereby they
afterwards might be known.
CREPUSCULUM, in aftronomy, twilight; the
time from the firft dawn or appearance of the morn¬
ing to the rifing of the fun ; and again, between the
fetting of the fun and the laft remains of day.
Papias derives the word from creperus ; which, he
fays, anciently fignified uncertain, doubtful, q. d. a du¬
bious light. 1'he crepufculum is ufualiy computed to
begin and end when the fun is about 18 degrees below
the horizon; for then the ftars of the fixth magnitude
difappear in the morning, and appear in the evening.
It is of longer duration in the folftices than in the c-
quinoxes, and longer in an oblique than in a right
fphere.
The crepufcula are occafioned by the fun’s rays re¬
fracted in our atmofphere, and reflected from the par¬
ticles thereof to the eye. See Twilight.
CRESCENT, the new moon, which, as it begins
to recede from the fun, fhows a little rim of light,
terminating in points or horns, which are ftill in-
crealing till it become full and round in the oppo-
fition. The word is formed from crefco, “ I grow.”
The term is alfo ufed for the fame figure of the
moon in its wane or decreafe, but improperly; be¬
caufe the points or horns are then turned towards
the weft, whereas they look to the eaft in the juft
crefcent.
Crescent, in heraldry, is a bearing in form of a
half moon. The Ottomans bear finople, a crefcent
montant, argent.
The crefcent is frequently ufed as a difference in
coat-armour, to diftinguilh it for that of a fccond bro¬
ther or junior family.
The figure of the crefcent is the Turkilh fymbol;
or rather is that of the city Byzantium, which bore
this device from all antiquity; as appears from medals
ftruck in honour of Auguftus, Trajan, &c.
The crefcent is fometimes montant, i. e. its points
look towards the top of the chief, which is its moft
ordinary reprefentation ; whence fome contend, that
the crefcent, abfolutely fo called, implies that fi-
tuation ; though other authors blazon it montant,
when the horns are towards the dexter-fide of the
efcutcheon, in which pofition others call it incroiffant,
Crefcents are faid to be adojfed, when their backs
or thickeft parts are turned towards each other; their
points looking to the fides of the ftueld. Crefcent in¬
verted, is that whofe points look towards the bottom :
turned crefcents, are placed like thofe adoffed ; the dif¬
ference is, that all their points look to the dexter-fide
of the ftiield : conturned crefcents, on the contrary, look
to the finifter fide : affronted or appointed crefcents, are
contrary to the adoffed, the points looking towards
each other.
Crescent is alfo the name of a military order, in-
ftituted by Renatus of Anjou, King of Sicily, &c. in
1448 ; fo called from the badge or fymbol thereof, a
crefcent of gold enamelled. What gave occafion to
this eftablilhment was, that Renatus took for his de
vice a crefcent, with the word loz, “praife,” which, in
3 X the
CUE
[ 53° 1
C R E
the moft illuftrious Arcadians: and many other works.,
CRESCY, or Cressy. See Cressy.
CRESS, WATER-CRESS, Of CRESSES,,
i botany..
Crefcentia, the ftyle of rebus, makes lo% in crefcent, q. d. by ad- namely, to the year of his death, which happened in Crefcy
Crelcim- •Dancing in virtue, one merits praife. 1728. /tmong a great number of works, in verfe and If
t >e>ni* , CRESCENTIA, the calabash-tree : A genus of profe, the principal is, An Hiftory of the Italian Crfify-
the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia Poetry, very much efteemed, and reprinted, 1731, at v
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking Venice, in fix volumes 4to. This hiftory is accompa-
under the 25th order, Putaminea. The calyx is bipar- nied with a commentary, containing anecdotes of I-
tite and equal; the corolla gibbous; the berry pedi- talian poets. He publilhed alfo An Hiftory, of the
cellatcd or ftalked, unilocular, and polyfpermous; the Academy of Arcadia, together with the Lives of
feeds bilocular. There are two fpecies.
1. The cujete, with oblong narrow leaves, and a
large oval fruit, is a native of Jamaica and the Lee¬
ward Iflands. It hath a thick trunk covered with a See Sisymbrium.
whitilh bark, which rifes from 20 to 30 feet high, Indian Cress. See Tropjeolum.
and at the top divides into many branches, forming a CRESSY, a port-town of Picardy in France, about
large and regular head, garniftied with leaves, which 44 miles fouth of Calais,, and 27 north-weft of Abbe-
come out irregularly, fometimes fingle ; at other times ville, remarkable on account of the viftory obtained;
many arife out of the fame knot: the flowers are pro- there over the French by Edward III. of England, ia
duced from the fides of the large branches, and fome- the year 1346. E. Long. 2. o. N. Lat. 50. 20.
times from the trunk, Handing upon long footftalks. Edward having encountered and overcome many
They have but one petal, which is irregular ; and they difficulties in his expedition, was at laft fa clofely fol-
are of a greeniffi yellow colour, ftriped and fpotted lowed and harafled by the French army, commanded
with brown. Thefe are fucceeded by very large fmit, by the King of France in.perfon, that he determined
generally fpherical, fometimes oval; and at other times to make a ftand at this place, and to give his purfuers
they have a contrafted neck like a bottle ; and are fo a check. For this purpofe he chofe his ground with ,
large, that when the pulp and feeds are cleaned out, great judgment,'on. the gentle declivity of a hill, with. Hijhry,
the (hells will contain three pints or two quarts of li- a thick wood in his rear. He ordered deep entrench-Vol. IV.
quid. The fruit is covered externally with a. thin flcin- ments to'be made on each flank, and waited with P* I7^*
of a greeniffi-yellow Colour when ripe. When this is firmnels the approach of his enemies. The King of,
peeled off-, there appears a hard ligneous ffiell, inclo- France, dreading nothing fo much as the efeape of the
ling a pale yellowiffi foft pulp of a tart unfavoury fla- Engliffi, began the march of his great army from Ab-
vour, furrounding a great number of flat heart-ffiaped beville early in the morning, Auguft 26. and continued
feeds. 2. The latifolia, or broad-leaved calabaffi, fel- it feveral hours with great eagernefs, till he received
dom rifes more than 15 or 20 feet high, with an up- intelligence that the Engliffi had halted at Crefly, and
right trunk, covered with a white fmooth bark, "fend- were prepared to give him battle. He was advifed at
ing out many lateral branches at the top, garniffied the fame time not to engage that day, when his troops,
with leaves three inches in length, and one and a,quar- were much fatigued with their march, and in great
ter broad, ranged alternately^ The flowers come out diforder ; and he was difpofed to have taken this ad-
as in the former fpecies ; but are fmaller, and of a
But the difcipline of thefe times was fo imper-
deeper yellow colour; The fruit of this fort is fome- feft, that the orders given for halting were not obey-
times round, fometimes oval, but of very unequal ed; and one corps of this mighty hoft impelling ano-
fizes. Both thefe fpecies are eafily propagated by ther, they continued advancing till they came into
feeds; but the plants are too- tender to live in fhis the prefence of their enemies in much confufion.
country, unlefs they are conftantly kept in a ftove.
Edward had employed the forenoon of this import-
The (hells of calabaffies are made- ufe of for va- ant day in drawing up his army in the moft excellent
rious purpofes. At Barbadoes, befides ’drinking-cups order, in three lines. The firft line, which confided'
and punch-bowls, there are made of them fpoons, of 800 men at arms, 4000 Engliffi archers, and 600.
diffies, and other utenfils for the (laves. Some of thefe Welffi foot, was commanded by his young, amiable,,
(hells are fo large, as to be capable of holding 15 pints and heroic fon, the Prince of Wales, affifted by the
of water. The pulp is feldom eaten, except by cattle Earls of Warwick and Oxford, and feveral other
in the time of drought. The wood, which is hard and noblemen. The fecond line, compofed of 800 men at
fmooth,, is made into ftools, chairs, and other furniture, arms, 4000 halbardiers, and 2400 archers, was led by
CRESCIMBENI (John Maria), an Italian, was the Earls of Arundel and Northampton ; the laft line,,
born at Macerata in Ancona, 1663. His talents for or body of referve, in which were 700 men at arms,
poetry and eloquence developed themfelves early. His 530obillmen, and 6000 archers, was ranged along the
verfes at firft had too much pomp and point; but re- fummit of the hill, and conduced by the King in per-
fiding in Rome, and reading the beft Italian poets, fon, attended by the Lords Moubray, Mortimer, and.-
brought him back to nature. He not only reformed others. When the army was completely formed, Edward
himfelf, but undertook to reform bad tafte in general, rode along the lines, and by his words and looks infpired
From this motive he proje&ed the eftabliffiment of a his troops with the moft ardent courage and ftrongeft
new academy, under the name of Arcadia; the mem- hopes of vidlory. He then commanded the cavalry t».-
bers of which at firft did not exceed 14, but after- difmount, and the whole army to fit down upon the
wards increafed much. They called themfelves the grafs, in their ranks, and refteffi themfelves with meat,,
(hepherds of Arcadia, and each took the name of fome drink, and reft. As foon as the French army came,
(hepherd and fome place in that ancient kingdom, in view, they fprung from the ground, full of (Length
The founder of this fociety was appointed the dire&or and fpirit, and flood ready to receive them.
«fit in 1690, and’held this honourable poft 38 years ; The King of France, affifted by the Kings of Bo¬
hemia-
CUE [ 531 ] C R E
CrtflV- hernia and Majorca, the Dukes of Lorraine and Sa- CREST, in armoury, denotes the uppermoft part Creft
voy, and feveral other fovereign princes, with the of an armoury; or that part rifing over the caik or H
flower of the French nobility, laboured to reftore fome helmet.—Next to the mantle, fays Guillim, the creft or , CreLe~
degree of order to his prodigious army, andylrew it up cognizance'claims the higheft place, being feated on
alfo in three lines, but very indiftin&ly formed. The the moft eminent part of the helmet ; yet fo as to ad-
firft line was commanded in chief by the King of Bo- mit an interpofition of fome efcrol, wreath, chapeau,
hernia; the fecond by the Earl of Alen5on, the King crown, &c.
of France’s brother 5 and the third by Philip in The ancient warriors wore crefts to ftrike terror in
pcrfon ; and each of thefe lines contained a greater their enemies, as the fight of the fpoils of animals they
number of troops than the whole Englifh army. had killed; or to give them the more formidable mien.
The battle of Creffy was begun about three o’clock by making them appear taller, &c.
in the afternoon, Auguft 26. by a great body of Ge- In the ancient tournaments, the cavaliers had plumes
noefe crofs-bowmen, in the French fervice, who let fly of feathers, efpecially thofe of oftriches and herons,
their quarrels at too great a diftance to do any execu- for their crefts ; thefe tufts they calledplumarts ; and
tion, and were prefently routed by a fliower of arrows were placed in tubes, on the tops of high caps or
from the Englifh archers. The Earl of Alenfon, after bonnets. Some had their crefts of leather; others of
trampling to death many of the flying Genoefe, advan- parchment, pafteboard, &c. painted or varnifhed, to
ced to the charge,andmadeafuriousattack on that corps keep out the weather; others of fteel, wood, &c. on
commanded by the PrinceofWales. The Earls of Arun- which were fometimes reprefented a memberorordi-
del and Northampton advanced with the fecond line to nary of the coat; as, an eagle, fleur-de-lys, &c. but
fuftain the Prince, and Alenfon was fupported by as never any of thofe called honourable ordinaries, as pale,
many troops as could crowd to his alfiftance. Here the fefle, &c. The crefts were changeable at pleafure ;
battle raged for fome time with uncommon fury ; and being reputed no other than as an arbitrary device or
the Earl of Warwick, anxious for the fate of the day ornament.
and the fafety of the Prince, fent a meflenger to the Herodotus attributes the rife of crefts to the Ca-
King, intreating him to advance with the third line, rians, who firft bore feathers on their calks, and paint-
Edward, who had taken his ftand on a wind-mill on ed figures jpn their bucklers; whence the Perfians call-
the top of the hill, from whence he had a full view of ed them'rorA.
both armies, aflced the meflenger, if his fon was un- The creft is efteemed a greater mark of nobility
horfed, or wounded, or killed? and being anfwered, than the armoury, as being borne at tournaments; to
that the Prince was unhurt, and performed prodigies which none were admitted till they had given proof
of valour, “ Go then,” faid he, “ and tell my fon of their nobility. Sometimes it ferves to diftinguifh
and his brave companions, that I will not deprive them the feveral branches of a family. It has alfo ferved,
of any part of the glory of their vidtory.” This flat- on occafion, as the diftinguifhing badge of factions,
tering meflage being made known, infpired the Prince Sometimes the creft is taken from the device; but
and his troops with redoubled ardour ; and the King more ufually it is formed of fome piece of the arms:
of Bohemia, the Earl of Alen^on, and many other thus, the emperor’s creft is an eagle; that of Caftile,
great men, being flain, the whole firft and fecond lines a caftle, &c. Families that exchange arms, as the
of the French army were put to flight. Philip, un- houfes of Brunfwick and Cologne have done, do not
difmayed at the flaughter of his troops, and the fall of change their crefts ; the firft ftill retain the horfe, and
fo many princes, advanced to the charge with the line the latter the mermaid.
under his immediate command.' But this body foon Crest, in heraldry, the figure placed above the
lhared the fame fate with the other two ; and Philip, helmet in an atchievement. See Heraldry.
after having been unhorfed, and wounded in the neck Crest‘fallen, a fault of an horfe, when the upper
and thigh, was carried off the field by John de Hai- part of his neck, called the crejl, hangs to one fide :
Uault, and fled with no more than five knights and this they cure by placing it upright, clipping away the
about 60 foldiers in his company, of all his mighty fpare Ikin, and applying plafters to keep it in a proper
army, which at the beginning of the battle confifted of pofition.
more than 120,000 men. Such was the famous vie- CRETA? or Chalk, in natural hiftory. SccChalk.
toiy of Creffy, the greateft ever gained by any King CRETE, one of the largeft .Hands in the Mediter-
df England. After the battle, the King flew into the ranean, lying between 22 and 27 degrees of eaft lon-
arms of the Prince of Wales, and grafping him to his gitude, and between 35 and 36 degrees of north lati-
bofom, cried in an ecftacy of joy, “ My dear fon, you tude. According to Strabo, this Hand is 287 miles
have this day {bowed yourfelf worthy of the knight- in length; and according to Pliny, 270; and according
hood which you lately received, and of the crown for to Scylax, 312. As to fts breadth, it is not, as Pliny
which you have fo bravely fought; perfevere in your obferves, above 55 miles where wideft; whence it was
honourable courfe.” The Prince, as modeft as he ftyled, as Stephanus obferves, the Long IJland. It
was brave, funk down on his knees, his face covered has the Archipelago to the north, the African fea to
with bluflies, and begged his father’s bleffing. Ed- the fouth, the Carpathian fea to the eaft, and the lo-
ward continued with his army at Crefly three days, em- nian to the weft. Anciently it was known by the
ployed in numbering and burying the. dead. The names of Aeria, Chthonia, I da a, Curete, Macaris, &c.
French had left on this bloody feene the King of Bo- but its moft common name was that of Crete.
hernia, ii other princes, 80 bannerets, 1200 knights, The Cretan mythologifts, quoted by Diodorus Si-
1500 gentlemen, 4000 men of arms, and 30,000 other cuius, relate that the firft inhabitants of the illand were
foldiers. the Dactyli Idaei, who dwelt around mount Ida;
- ' 3X2 they
C R E t 532 ] C R E
they were regarded as magicians, becaufe they poffefs-
ed a variety of knowledge, and were particularly {kill¬
ed in religious myfteries. Orpheus, who diftinguilhed
himfelf fo highly in poetry and mufic, was their dif-
ciple. They difcovered the ufe of fire, iron, and brafs,
and invented the art of working thefe metals in Be-
reeynthius, a mountain near Aptera. Thofe inva¬
luable difcoveries procured them divine honours. One
of them, named Hercules, rendered himfelf famous
by his courage and great exploits. He inftituted the
Olympic games: though pofterity, by a miftake ari-
fing from his bearing the fame name, have afcribed that
inftitution to the fon of Alcmena; who, indeed, trode
in the fteps of his predeceffor, and raifed himfelf alfo to
immortality.
The Daftyli Idaei were the anceftors of the Cure-
tes. Thefe lall, at firft inhabited the forefts and
caves of the mountains. Afterwards they entered in¬
to domeflic life, and contributed, by their inftitutions,
to the civilization of mankind. They taught men to
colled! flocks of fheep, to tame the ferocity of wild
animals for domeftic purpofes, and to invite bees into
hives, that they might rifle them of the fruit of their
labours. They firft prompted men to the chace, and
taught the ufe of the bow. They were the inventors
of fwords and of military dances. The noife which
they made, by dancing in armour, hindered Saturn
from hearing the cries of Jupiter, whofe education
Rhea had entrufted to them. With the afliftance of
the nymphs, they brought up that god in a cave in
mount Ida, feeding him with the milk of the goat
Amalthea, and with honey.
To this period mythology affigns the origin of the
Titans; their abode near Gnoffus, where flood the
palace of Rhea; their travels over the whole earth ;
their war againft Ammon, and his defence by Bac¬
chus ; the nuptials of Jupiter and Juno, celebrated
nigh the river Therenus in Crete; the gods, goddeffes,
and heroes, who defcended from them.
The moft illuftrious of thofe heroes were Minos and
Rhadamanthus. They are faid to have been the fons
of Jupiter and Europa, who was conveyed into the
ifland on a bull. Minos becoming king, built feveral
cities ; the moft confiderable of which are—Gnoffus,
en that fide of the ifland which faces Afia, Phceftus
©n the fouthern fhore, and Cydon on the weftern, fa¬
cing Peloponnefus. He gave to his fubjetts a code
of admirable laws, which he pretended to have re¬
ceived from his father Jupiter in the grotto of mount
Ida.
Rhadamanthus diflinguiflied himfelf by the impar¬
tiality of his judgments, and by the inflexible feverity
with which he inflifted punifiiment on the impious and
wicked. His empire extended over the chief ifles of
the Archipelago, and the inhabitants gf the adjacent
coafts of Afia fubmitted to him on account of his high
reputation for probity and juftice. Mythologifts have
conftituted him judge in the regions below, to deter¬
mine the future ftate of the righteous and the wicked.
They have conferred on him the- fame honours which
were bellowed on Minos, the jufteft of kings.
Thus far have been followed the Cretan traditions
as they are related by Diodorus; but hiftorians differ
about the truth of them. T here are a variety of opi-
*ions concerning the firft inhabitants of Crete. Stra-
3
bo, who has difcuffed them, with great erudition, fays, (
after feveral pages on the fubject; “ I am not fond of 1—
fables; yet I have detailed thefe at fome length, be-
xaufe they are connected with theology. Every dif-
courfe concerning the gods fliould examine the reli¬
gious opinions of antiquity, and diftinguifli them from
fable. The ancients were pleafed to conceal 'their
knowledge of nature under a veil. It is now impof-
fible to unfold the meaning of their enigmas. But by
expofing to light the numerous allegories which they
have left us, and by examining attentively their mutual
relations and differences, genius may perhaps be able to
unfold the truths which are couched under them.”
But leaving mythology for the more certain records
and monuments of hiftory, we find that Crete received
its name from Cres, the firft of its monarchs. He was
author of feveral uftful inventions, which contributed
to the happinefs of his fubje&s. Prompted by grati¬
tude, they endeavoured to perpetuate the memory of
his favours, and to immortalize his name, by naming
the ifland after him.
In order to diftinguifli the true Cretans from ftran-
gers, they were named Eteocvetes. A number 'of co¬
lonies, fronv different parts of Greece, fettled in the
ifland. The agreeablenefs of the dimate, and the .fer¬
tility of the foil, invited them to fix their habita¬
tion there. The Lacedemonians, Argives, and A-
thenians, were the principal people who fent colo-'
nies into Crete. This is what makes Homer fay,
“ Crete is an extenfive ifland in the midft of the ftormy
main. The foil is rich and fertile. It contains an
immenfe number of inhabitants. It is adorned with
an hundred cities. Its inhabitants fpeak in various
languages. We find there Acheans, valiant Eteo-
cretes, Cydonians, Dorians, and godlike Pelafgians.”
The Eteocretes inhabited the fouthern divifion of the
ifland ; they built there the city of Proefus, and erec¬
ted a temple to Ditlaean Jove.
Cres was not the only monarch who reigned in the
ifland of Crete. He had a feries of fucceffors. But
hiftory affords little information concerning them :
only the names of a few of them are preferved, and a
fmall number of events which happened under the
reign of fome others,—but blended and disfigured with
an intermixture of fable. Among thofe monarchs we
find two Jupiters, and two of the name of Minos.
However, moft waiters confound them, and afcribe to
one thofe tranfa&ions and exploits which ftiould be
fhared between the two.
This remark chiefly regards Minos, who was efteem-
ed the wifeft legiflator of antiquity. The office af-
figned him in the regions below, is a clear and cer¬
tain proof of his having gained an exalted reputation
by his juftice. Greece, fays Plato, has with great
propriety adopted the laws of Crete ; for they are
founded on the folid bafis of reafon and equity, and
have a natural tendency td render the people, who live
in fubjeftion to them, opulent and happy. One of
thofe laws forbade “ the Cretans ever to carry their
feftivity fo far as to intoxicate themfelves with wine.”
The following was very fuitable to reprefs the pre-
fumptuous ardour »of youth, “ Let young people not
canvafs the laws with an indifcreet curiofity; let them
not examine whether the lawgiver has done right or
wrong in promulgating them ; but let them join una-
uimoufly
c R E r 533 ]* C R E
nimoufly in declaring them good, fince they proceed
from the gods. If any of the old men perceive fome-
thing in them meriting amendment, let him mention
it to the magiftrate, or difcufs it with his equals, but
never in the prefence of the young people.” That
excellent code was engraven on tables of brafs; and
Tales, chief rninifter to Minos, vifited all the towns
and cities in the ifland, three times a-year, to obferve
in what manner the laws were executed and obeyed.
The king of Crete, well knowing that the marvellous
is neceffary to command the belief and enforce the
obedience of the people, pretended that he had re¬
ceived thofe laws from his father Jupiter, in the grot¬
to of mount Ida. In the fame manner, Lycurgus,
before promulgating his laws, repaired to Delphos,
and gave out they had received the fanAion of Apol¬
lo. A like reafon induced Numa to pretend to an in¬
timacy with the nymph Egeria, and Mahomet to a-
feribe his doArines and inllitutions to the revelation of
the angel Gabriel.
In contradiAion to this account, others of the an¬
cients deferibe Minos as a prince impotently aban¬
doned to the fury of his pallions, and a barbarous
conqueror. Falling pafiionately in love with the
nympth DiAynna, who refufed to gratify his wilhes,
he purfued her to the brink of the (hore, and forced
her to plunge into the fea, where Ihe was faved by
fome filhermen, who received her in their nets. He
was the firft of the Greeks who appeared in the Me¬
diterranean at the head of a naval armament. He
conquered the Cyclades, expelled the Carians, efta-
blifhed Cretan colonies in thofe iflands, and commit¬
ted the government of them to his fon.
Being informed, while he was at Paros, that his
Fon Androgeus was flain at Athens, he declared war
againft Egeus, and impofed on him a difgraceful tri¬
bute ; from the payment of which Thefeus delivered
his country. He took arms againft Nifus, king of
Megara, made him prifoner by the treachery of his
daughter Scylla, and put him to death, together with
Megarus, the fon of Hippomanes, who had brought
fome forces to his affiftance. Daedalus, who had by
fome means incurred his difpleafure, defpairing of
pardon from fo fevereand inflexible a prince, employed
the refources of his inventive genius, in order to
efcape from his power. He fled to Sicily, gained the
proteAion of king Cocalus, and obtained an afylum
in his court. Valerius Flaccus has deferibed his
flight in a very lively and piAurefque manner “ Thus
Daedalus, with the wings of a bird, afeended from
mount Ida. Belide him flew the comrade of his flight,
with fhorter wings. They appeared like a cloud ri-
fmg in the air. Minos, feeing his vengeance thus
eluded, glowed with impotent rage. In vain he fol¬
lowed with his eyes the fecure flight of his enemies
through the wide expanfe of heaven. His guards re¬
turned to Gortynia with their quivers filled with ar¬
rows.” The Cretan monarch did not, however, give
up his prey. He equipped a fleet, purfued the fugi¬
tive to Sicily, and fell before the walls of Camicum.
It is plain, that thofe aAions cannot agree to the
charaAer of that juft monarch, whofe merits raifed
him to the office of determining, in the regions be¬
low, the unalterable fate of the righteous and the
wicked. We may, therefore, reafonably conclude,
that Minos the legiflator is a different perfon from
the conqueror; that it was the former who gained
a lafting reputation by his wifdom and juftice ; and
the latter who fubdued moft of. the iflands of the Ar¬
chipelago, but being enflaved by his paffions, tarnifh-
ed his glory by his cruelty and mercilefs thirft for
vengeance.
The laft king of Crete was Idomeneus. This prince,
accompanied by Merion, conduAed 24 fhips to the
alfiftance of Agamemnon. Homer informs us of
the illuftrious exploits by which he fignalized himfelf
before the walls of Troy. At his departure, he com¬
mitted the government of his kingdom to Leucus his
adopted fon, promifing him the hand of his daughter
Clifithera if he governed wifely in his abfence. That
ambitious young man foon forgot the favours which
had been fo lavifhly bellowed on him. Gaining a
number of partifans, he in a fhort time afpired to the
immediate pofleffion of the crown. His impatience
would not wait till he fliould obtain it lawfully by
marriage. Flattering himfelf, from the long abfence
of the king, that he was perhaps fallen before Troy,,
he determined to mount the throne. Mida, wife to
Idomeneus, and the princefs Clilithera, were an ob-
ftacle to his wifhes. But ambition knows no retlraint*
and tramples under foot the moft facred obligations.
The bafe wretch having feduced the people from their
allegiance, and captivated the affeAions of the nobles,,
facrificed thofe unfortunate viAims in the temple.
When Idomeneusj, crowned with laurels, landed on.
the coaft of Crete, Leucus, who had now firmly efta-
blilhed his power, attacked him with an armed force,
and obliged him to reimbark. A different account is
alfo given of the banilhment of Idomeneus. Servius
fays, • that he had vowed, in a ftorm, to facrifice to
the gods the firll perfon that his eyes Ihould-behold
on the Cretan Ihore ; that his fon having met him firft;
after his arrival, he fulfilled his vow, by facrificing
him; and that the ifland, being foon after depopu¬
lated by peftilence, the inhabitants looked upon that
affliAion as the effeA of divine vengeance, and expel¬
led the parricide; who, retiring to Italy, founded Sa-
lentum, on the Meffapian coaft. But that opinion-
appears entirely groundlefs. Hiftory mentions no fon
of Idomeneus. If he had a fon of his own blood,
why did he adopt Leucifs ? Why did he intruft to
him the government of the ifland, when he promifed
him his daughter in marriage ? The more probable
opinion is, that the plague was introduced into the
ifland by his {hips, when he returned, from the fiege
of Troy, as Herodotus afferts; and that Leucus art¬
fully made ufe of that pretext to expel his lawful fo-
vereign from the ifland. But it appears that the
ufurper did not long enjoy the fruit of his crimes. Soon
after the departure of Idomeneus, monarchy was aboli-
flied, and the government of Crete became republican.
The republic of Crete has been celebrated by the
panegyric of Plato, ferved Lycurgus as a model for
that which he eftablifhed in Lacedemon, and was be-
held by all Greece with refpeA and admiration. Stra¬
bo has thought it not unworthy of his pencil, and has
confecrated the leading features of its conftitution to
lafting fame in his immortal work. It was indeed a fyftem
of legiflature, whofe direA tendency was to call forth the
buds of virtuein theheart of infancy j to open and expand
them
g r e [ ,-.n i
them in youth; to infpire man, as he reached maturity, could neither ena£
with the love of his country, of glory, and of liberty; and
to comfort and fupport the infirmities of age with the
refpeft and efteem due to the experience and wifdom
of that period of life. It laboured to7 form affe&ionate
friends, patriotic citizens, and worthy magiftrates. It
made no ufe, however, of a multitude of afts and fta-
tutes to produce thofe ineftimable advantages. They
flowed all from one fource ; the public education of hope of becoming
routh, judicioufly directed. The virtuous examples council,
tet before youth in the courfe of that education, the
illuftrious deeds which were recited to them with high
applaufe, the honours conferred on valour and on noble
&6tions, the opprobrium invariably call on vice ; thefe
were the only means which the Cretan lawgiver made
ufe of to form a warlike, humane, and virtuous na-
l
C R E
decide of themfelves: but they
held their office for life ; and that circumftance con • u
tributed to llrengthen their influence and to increafe
their expeiience. The magiilrates were animated by
the moil powerful motives to diilinguiffi themfelves
when in office, by unwearied adlivity in the public
fervice. On one fide, they were reftrained by the
fear of -degradation ; on the other, actuated by the
day members of the national
The Cretan government, foon after the expulfion
of Idomeneus, became ariftocratical. The power was
divided between the nobles and the people. Yet as
the chief employments were occupied by the nobles,
they diredted the adminiftration of affairs. Ten ma¬
giftrates were annually eledled, by a majority of voices,
in the national aflembly. Thefe were named Cofmoi,
and their public office and character were the iame
with thofe of the Ephori at Sparta. They were the
generals of the republic in time of war, and diredted
all affairs of any importance. They had the right of
choofing certain old men for counfel]ors.' Thofe old
men, to the number of twenty-eight, compofed the
Cretan fenate. They were chofen from among fuch
as had difcharged the office of Cofmoi, or had diftin-
guiftied themfelves by extraordinary merit and blame-
lefs probity. Thofe fenators continued in office du¬
ring life, poffeffed a weighty influence, and were con-
fulted in every affair of any importance. This body
was a barrier oppofed by the wifdom of the legiflator
againft the ambition of the ten chief rulers. He had
impofed another reftraint on their power, by limiting
the period of their adminiftration to one year. His
forefight’*went ftill farther. The fuffrages of the
people might be obtained by bribery or perfonal in¬
fluence, and of confequence their choice might fome-
times fall on a man unworthy of fo honourable an of¬
fice. When that happened, he who had been unde-
fervedly advanced to the dignity of Cofmos was de¬
graded, either in a national affembly, or Amply by
the voices of his colleagues. This, doubtlefs, is wdiat
Plato alludes to, when he fays, “ Neither the com¬
monwealth, which approaches too near to a monarchi¬
cal conftitution, nor that which affe<fts a licentious li¬
berty, is founded on the folid bafis cf a juft medium be¬
tween anarchy and defpodfm. O Cretans ! O Lace¬
demonians ! by eftablhhing yours on firmer founda¬
tions, you have avoided thofe fatal extremes.”
Yet let us enquire what means the Cretan lawgiver1
ufed to form virtuous citizens. All the Cretans were
fubjefted to the power of their magiftrates; and di¬
vided into two claffes, the adults and the youth. Men
arrived, at maturity were admitted into the firft. The
fecond confifted of all the young men who were not
below the age of feventeen. The fociety of adults eat
together in public halls. There rulers, magiftrates,
poor and rich, feated together, partook, without di-
ftinction, of the fame fimple fare. - A large bowl, fil¬
led with w’ine and water, which went round the com¬
pany from one to another, was the only drink that
they were allowed. None but the old men had a right
to call for more wine. Doubtlefs, that people, fo ce¬
lebrated for wifdom, were not ftrangers to the power
of beauty ; for a woman was appointed to preiide at
each table. She openly diftributed the moft exquifite
meats to thofe who had diftinguilhed themfelves by
their valour or wifdom. That judicious preference
was fo far from exciting envy or jealoufy, that it only
prompted every perfon to deferve it by brave and pru¬
dent conduct. Near wdiere the citizens fat, two tables
were laid, which they named Hofpitable ; all ftrangers
and travellers were entertained at thefe: and there was
alfo a particular houfe fet apart by the public, in
which they might fpend the night.
To fupply the public expences, every citizen was
obliged to bring a tenth part of his annual income in¬
to the treafury. The chief magiftrates were to take
care that every perfon contributed his proportion. In
Crete, fays Ariftotle, one part of the fruits of the
earth, of the produce of the flocks,. of the revenues
of the ftate, and of the taxes and cuftoms, is facred
to the gods: the other is diftributed among the mem¬
bers of the community ; fo that men, women, and
children, all fubfift at the public expence.
After dinner, the magiftrates and fenators ufually
fpent fome time in deliberating on the affairs of the
ftate ; they next recounted the noble deeds which had
been done in war, celebrated the courage of their moft
diftinguifhed warriors, and animated the youth to he¬
roic valour. Thofe affemblies were the firft fchool of
the youth. At the age of feven, the boy was per¬
mitted to handle the bow;—from that time he was
admitted into the fociety of the adults, where he con-
Such were the diftribution of- power and the ad- tinned till the age of feventeen. There, fitting on
miniftration of public affairs in the Cretan govern- the ground, and clothed in a plain and coarfe drefs,
ment. Its fimplicity was admirable. A people who
were bleffed with the facred enjoyment of liberty, but
poffeffed not fufficient knowledge and difeernment to
direft themfelves, eledled magiftrates, to whom Jthey
delegated their authority. Thofe magiftrates, thus
arrayed with fovereign power, chofe fenators to affift
and dired their deliberations. Thefe counfellors
he ferved the old men, and liftened, with refpe&ful
filence, to their advices. His young heart was in¬
flamed with the recital of noble deeds in arms, and
glowed with ardour to imitate them. He acquired
habits of fobriety. and temperance. And being con*
ftantly witnefs of illuftrious examples of moderation,
wifdom, and patriotifraj the feeds of virtue were thus
fowfl
CUE L 535 1 C R E
Crete, fown and foftered in his heart before he attained the
”*~v 1 ufe of reafon.
He was early accuftomed to arms and to fatigue,
that he might learn to endure exceffive heat or cold, to
clamber and leap among hills and precipices, and to bear
manfully the blow^ and wounds which he might receive
amid the gymnallic exercifes or in battle. His education
wfcs not confined to the gymnaftic exercifes; he was alfo
taught to fing the laws, which were written in verfe,
with a certain fpecies of melody ; in order that the
charms of mufic might difpofe him to learn them with
more pleafure, and might imprefs them more deeply
on his heart, and that, if he Ihould ever tranfgrefs
them, he might not have the excufe of ignorance to
offer. He next learned hymns in honour of the gods,
and poems compofed in praife of heroes. When he
reached his feventeenth year, he retired from the fo-
ciety of,, the adults, and became a member of that of
the young men.
Here his education was ftill carried on. He exer-
cifed himfelf in hunting, wreftling, and fighting with
his companions^ The lyre played tunes of martial
mufic ; and he learned to follow exaftly the founds
and meafure of the mufician. Thofe fports and exer¬
cifes were fometimes attended with danger; becaufe
arms of fteel were fometimes ufed in them. One
dance, in wdiich the youth afpired molt ardently to
excel, was the Pyrrhic, originally invented in Crete.
The performers in that dance were arrayed in com¬
plete armour:—they wore a light Ihort coat, which
did not fall below the knee, and was bound with a
girdle going twice round the waift : on their feet and
legs were buikins ; above thefe they bore their arms,
—and performed various military evolutions to- the
found of mufical inftruments. “ The Lacedemonians
and Cretans,” (fays Libanius), “ cultivated dancing
with amazing ardour; they confidered, that their
laws had dire&ed them to pra&ife it for the moft im¬
portant purpofes ; and it was fcarce lefs dilhonourable
for a Lacedemonian or Cretan to negledt the military
dances, than to defert his poft in battle.”
Thofe Cretans who were opulent and high-born,
were permitted to form focieties of young men of their
own age. They often ftrove, with emulation, who
fhould form the moft numerous one. The father of
the young man who formed one of thofe focieties,
ufually prefided in it. He had a right to educate thofe
w-arlike youth, to exercife them in running and in
hunting, to confer rewards and inflidt punifhments.
Friendftiip was in high eftimation among the Cre¬
tans; but, fays Strabo, the manner in which.they
conduced the intercourfe of frier.dihip was pretty ex¬
traordinary. Inftead of mild perfuafion, they made
ufe of violence, to gain the obje&s of their affections'.
He who conceived an affe&ion for a young man of his
own age, .and wifhed to attach him to himfelf by in-
diffoluble bonds, formed a fcheme for carrying him off
by violence. Three days before putting it into exe¬
cution, he communicated it to his comrades. They
could not then interfere to prevent it; beeaufe if they
had, they would have appeared to think the young
man unworthy of fuch an exeeflive attachment. At
the appointed day they affembled to proteft their
companion. If the ravifher appeared to them not un¬
worthy of the obje£I of his affeftion, they made, at
firft, a faint refiftance in obedience to the law—but,
at laft, joyfully favoured his enterprife; if, on the Crete,
other hand, they thought him unworthy of the objedl —v—“
of his'choice, they made fuch refiftance as to prevent
him from executing his defign. The feigned refiftance
continued till the ravilher had conduced his friend in¬
to the hall of that fociety to which he belonged. They
did not regard him who poffeffed fuperior beauty and
gracefulnefs of perfon as the moil amiable; but him who
had moft diftinguiihed himfelf by his modefty and valour.
The ravifiier loaded his young friend with favours,
and conduced him wherever he defired : they were
accompanied by thofe who had favoured the rape : he
carried him from feaft to feait, procured him the plea-
fures of the chace and good cheer; and after ufing
all poffible means to gain his heart for the courfe of
two months, brought him back to the city, and was
obliged to give him up to his parents. But firft he
prefented him with a fuit of armour, an ox, and a
drinking-cup ; which were the ufual and legal pre-
fents on fuch occafions. Sometimes his generofity
went ftill farther ; and he made more expenfive pre-
fents ; to defray the expence of which his comrades-
contributed. The young man facrificed the ox to Ju¬
piter, and gave an entertainment to thofe who had
aflifted when he was carried off. He then declared
his fentiments concerning a connection with his ravifh¬
er, and told whether or not it was agreeable to him.
If he had reafon to complain of the treatment which
he had received, the law allowed him to forfake a
friend fo unworthy of the name,-and to demand hia
punifhment.
It would have been difgraceful, adds Strabo, to a
young man, who was handfome and well-born, to be re¬
jected by his friends on account of the depravity of
his manners. Thofe who had been carried off re¬
ceived public honours. Theirs were the firft places
in the halls and at the race. They were permitted
to wear, during the reft of life, thofe ornaments which
they owed to the tendernefs of friendfhip; and that
mark of diftinCtion teftified to all who faw them, that
they had been the objeCts of fome fond attachment.
When the youth had finifhed their exercifes, and at¬
tained the legal age, they became members of the
clafs of adults; being then confidered^as men, they
were permitted to vote in the national affemblies, and
were intitled to ftand candidates for any public office..
They were then obliged to marry ; but did not take
home their wives till fuch time as they were capable
of managing their domeftic concerns.
“ The legiflator (fays Strabo) had confidered li¬
berty as thegreateft bleffing that cities can enjoy. Li¬
berty alone can fecure the property of the citizens of
any ftate. Slavery either robs them of it, or renders-
it precarious. The firft care of nations flionld there¬
fore be to preftrve their liberty. Concord ftrength-
ens and fupports her empire ; Ihe fiourifties wherever
the feeds of diffenfion are extinguilhed. Almoft all
thofe hoftilities which prevail among nations or indi¬
viduals fpring either from an inordinate defire of,
wealth or the love of luxury. Introduce, inftead of
thofe baneful principles, frugality, moderation, and
equality of conditions ; you will thus baniffi envy, ha¬
tred, injuftice, and haughty difdain.” This was what
the Cretan lawgiver happily effected. And the com¬
munity, which was regulated by his wife, inftitutions,
rofe to glory, opulence, and power; and was ho¬
noured!
CUE [ S36 3 G R E
n0l,re^ panegyrics of the moll celebrated phi-
lofophers of Greece : but the higheft honour it ever
obtained, was that of ferving Lycurgus as a model
for the admirable form of government which he efta-
bliflied at Sparta.
The republic of Crete continued to flourifh till the
age of Julius Caefar. No other Hate has enjoyed fo
long a period of ftrength and grandeur. The legifla-
ture, regarding liberty as the only fure balls of a na¬
tion’s happinefs, had inftituted a fyllem of laws, the
natural tendency of which was, to infpire men with an
ardent pafiion for liberty, and with fuch virtue and -va¬
lour as are neceflary to fupport and defend it. All
the citizens were foldiers ; all of them were lldlled in
the art of war. The valiant youth of other nations
reforted to Crete, to learn the exercifes, manoeuvres,
and evolutions, of the military art. “ Philopoemen
(fays Plutarch) being impatient of indolence, and eager
to acquire fkill in arms, embarked for Crete. After
fpending a confxderable time in the-nobleft exercifes
among that brave people, who were (killed in the art
of war, and accullomed to an auftere and temperate
life, he returned to the Aclueans. The knowledge
which he had acquired made him fo eminent among
them, that he was immediately appointed general of
their cavalry.”
On the other hand, the legillator, being perfuaded
that conquefts are generally unjuft and criminal, that
they often exhauft the ftrength of the viftorious na¬
tion, and almoft always corrupt its manners, endea¬
voured to preferve the Cretans from the ambition of
conqueft. The fertility of the iftand abundantly fup-
plied their wants. They needed not that commerce
Ihould introduce among them the riches of foreign
countries, along with which luxury affd her train of
attendant vices would alfo be introduced; and he knew
how to infpire them with an indifference for fuch ac-
quifitions without exprefsly forbidding them. The
gymnaftic exercifes, which occupied the leifure of the
gallant youths; the pleafures of the chace; the ardour
of friendfhip ; the public Ihows, at which all the dif¬
ferent orders of the community, both men and women,
ufed to alfemble ; the love of equality, order, and their
country, with which he inflamed every breaft ; the
wife inftitutions, which united a whole nation fo clofely
that they compofed but one family;—all thefe ties at¬
tached the Cretans to their native ifland : and finding
at home that happinefs which was the objedt of their
wifhes, they never thought of wandering abroad in
fearch of an imaginary glory, or of extending their
empire over other nations. Therefore, from the pe¬
riod at which that ftate affumed a republican form till
the time when they were attacked by the arms of
Rome, the nation was not once known to fend an
hoftile force into the territories of any of their neigh¬
bours. This inftance of moderation is unparalleled in
hiftory; no other nation can divide the glory of it with
the Cretans. Individuals indeed might leave their
country to engage in foreign armies. Thofe princes
and ftates who knew their valour and fkill in archery
eagerly fought to take them into their pay ; all the
neighbouring monarchs were deiirous of having in their
armies a body of Cretan archers. Over the whole
world none were'more celebrated than they for bend¬
ing the bow. “ The arrows of Gortynia (faysClaudian),
N° 94.
aimed from a trufty bow, are fure to wound, nor ever Crete,
mifs the deftined mark.”
Though the multitude of independent cities which
flourifhed in Crete did not unite their arms to fubju-
gate the neighbouring iflands, and drench them with
the blood of their inhabitants ; yet they were not fo
wife as to live in peace among themfelves. Difcord
often ftalked among them with her flaming torch.
The moft powerful wifhed to enflave the reft. Some¬
times Gncflus and Gortynia marched with focial ban¬
ners againft their neighbours, levelled their fortreffes,
and fubje&ed them to their power; at other times
they attacked- each other with hoftile violence, and
faw their braveft youth perifh amid the horrors of civil
war. Lyftos and Cydon oppofed an invincible barrier
to their ambition, and preferved their own liberty.
The laft of thefe cities had acquired fuch ftrength and
influence, that fhe held the balance between the rival
powers of the ifland. Thofe wars deftroyed a number
of the cities, and drenched the native country of Jupi¬
ter with blood.
To what fource muft we attribute thofe inteftine
diffehtions ? One part of the ifland was occupied by
the Eteocretes, the original inhabitants; the reft was
peopled with colonies from Athens, Sparta, Argos,
and Samos. Perhaps the ancient grudges which had
fubfifted among thofe ftrangers, being ftill unextinguifh-
ed in their breafts, were eafily rekindled by accident or
circumftances,and inflamed with new fury. We may alfo
fuppofe, that the mqft powerful among them, exulting
in their fuperiority, would endeavour to take advantage
of the weaknefs of the reft, and difregard all laws but
thofe of force; befides, the glowing ardour of the
youth, trained to military exercifes, was ever ready to fly
to arms. Such, probably, were the caufes which fomen¬
ted difcord and hoftility among a people living under
the fame religion, cuftoms, and laws. Whatever thefe
might be, the Cretans, being perfuaded that the firm
union of their foldiers was efiential to victory, arrayed
the braveft youths of the army in fplendid robes, and
caufed them to facrifice to friendfhip before engaging
in battle. In fome countries it would be very proper
to oblige the generals, on fuch occafions, to facrifice
to concord. If fuch a facrifice were performed with
fincerity, it might preferve their glory unftained, and
prevent fuch deluges of blood from being wafted with¬
out producing any advantages to the ftate.
Their paffion for war did not extinguifh in the breafts
of the Cretans that exquifite fenfibility which is the
mother and nurfe of the fine arts. “ The Cretans
(fays Sozomen) gave an illuftrious proof of their mu¬
nificence to genius, by making Homer a prefent of a
thoufand pieces of filver; and to perpetuate the me¬
mory of this a<ft of generofity, they recorded it by an
infeription on a public column.” In Crete, adds Pto¬
lemy, men are ftill more defirous of cultiyating their
underftandings than of exercifing their bodily powers.
Often when diffentions arofe, the voice of wifdom and
the charms of poefy recalled them to reafon and har¬
mony. Thales of Gortynia, the preceptor of Eycur-
gus, was one of their moft celebrated philofophers.
Being both a poet and legiflator, he made an happy
ufe of his abilities and knowledge to extinguhh among
his countrymen the kindling fparks of difcord. “ His
poems were moral difcourles in verfe, which recalled
the
C R E L 537 ] c R E
Crete, the people to concord and fubmifllon to the laws. U-
—-v—■■ ling a regular meafure, he recommended the aufterity
of his fubjedt by the infmuating and powerful charm
of fentiment. So powerful were the effedls of his
- verfes, which addreffed at once the ears, the heart, and
the underftanding of his hearers, that their rage was
gradually foftened. . Next, opening their hearts to the
love of peace, the advantages which he defcribed in
glowing colours, they forgot their inteftine diffentions,
and ranged themfelves around the ftandard of concord.”
That fage is faid to have invented tunes for the mili¬
tary dances and for the Cretan Pyrrhic. Men who
felt fo ftrongly the influence of poetry and mufic could
fcarcely be enemies to pleafure. Accordingly they
had a cuftom of diftinguifhing their fortunate days
with white flint Hones, their unfortunate days with
black. At the end of the year they counted the
number of their white ftones, and reckoned that they
had lived only fo many days as were diftinguiflied for
having been fortunate. They did not think mere ex-
iftence, without the enjoyment of pleafure, worthy of
the name of life. For this reafon, they caufed to be
infcribed on their tombs : “ He lived fo many days ;
he continued in exiftence fo long.”
A pafiion for glory is eafily awaked in a feeling and
generous breaft. The Cretans eagerly repaired to the
famous folemnities of Greece, and were often crowned
at the Olympic, Nemaean, and Pythian games: others
of them were favourites of the mufes, and verfified the
predictions of prophets, or celebrated the glorious deeds
of their heroes. Several of them diftinguilhed- them¬
felves by hiftorical compofitions. At the moll ancient
games, a prize is faid to have been bellowed on the
poet who fung the noblell hymn in honour of Apollo:
Chryfothemis of Crete fung and gained the prize.
The ravages of time have deprived us of almoll all
their works; and if Pindar had not preferved the me¬
mory of fome of their crowns, we fhould not know
even the names of the conquerors who wore them. The
temple of Diana at Ephefus, built by the Cretan Cte-
fipon and his fon Metagenes, was not proof againft
the frantic hand of the incendiary. Thofe ingenious
architects had built it on the principles of the Ionic
order : to the coMinefs of the materials, the elegance
of the architecture, the fymmetry of the parts, and
the majelty and perfection of the whole, they had ad¬
ded folidity and llrength, without which the rell mull
have been of fmall value. Their names have defcend-
ed to pollerity, but the pillars of that monument
which has perpetuated their memory have been difper-
fed or dellroyed. Scarce a veltige remains of that
building which was elteemed one of the feven wonders
of the world.
Nations are effaced from the earth like the monu¬
ments of their power, and after the revolution of feveral
ages we can fcarce trace in their pollerity any remains
of their ancient charaCler. Some of them exill longer,
others Ihorter; but we may almoll always calculate the
period of their duration by the excellence of their laws,
and the fidelity with which they fupport and obey
them. The republic of Crete, being eltablilhed on a
folid bafis, knew no foreign mailer for a period of ten
centuries. She bravely repelled the attacks of thofe
princes who attempted to enllave her. At length the
time arrived when the warlike and victorious Ro-
Vol. V. Part II.
mans afpired to the empire of the world, and Would Crete,
fuffer none but their fubjeCts or flaves to inhabit within
the reach of their arms. Florus does not fcruple to
acknowledge, that the Romans had no other motives
for invading Crete but the ambitious defire of fubdu-
ing the renowned native country of Jupiter. “ If any
perfon wilh to know the reafons which induced us to
attack Crete (fays he), the true reafon was our defire
to fubdue fo celebrated an ifiand. The Cretans had
appeared to favour Mithridates, and the Romans
thought proper to declare war againlt them on that
pretext. Mark Antony, father of the triumvir, at*
tacked them with llrong hopes of fuccefs; but was
feverely punilhed for his prefumption and imprudence.
The Cretans took a great part of his fleet, hung up
his foldiers and failors on the malts amid the fails and
cordage, and returned in triumph into their har¬
bours.”
The Romans never forgot nor forgave a defeat. As
foon as the Macedonian war was brought to an happy
conclufion, they again took arms againft the Cretans
to revenge their ignominy and lofs. Quintus Metellus
was fent to Crete with a powerful armament. He met
with an obftinate and vigorous refiftance. Panarus
and Lafthenes, two experienced leaders, collecting a
body of 20,000 young warriors, all eager for battle,
and of determined courage, employed their arms and
arrows fuccefsfully agaihll the Romans, and protraCted
the fate of Crete for three years. Thofe conquerors
could not make themfelves mailers of the ifland before
deftroying its braveft warriors. They loft a great
number of troops, and bought a bloody victory at the
price of many a danger and much fatigue. However,
their ufual good fortune at length prevailed. The firll
care of the conqueror was to abolilh the laws of Minos,
and to eftablilh in their room thofe of Numa. Strabo,
that enlightened philofopher, complains of this aCt of
feverity ; and informs us, that in his days the original
laws of Crete were no longer in force, becaufe the Ro¬
mans compelled the conquered provinces to adopt their
civil code. To fecure themfelves Hill more fully in
the polfelfion of the illand, they fent a powerful colo¬
ny to Gnoflus.
From that era to the prefent time, that is, for a
period of 1900 years, the Cretans have no longer
formed a feparate nation, nor made any figure among
the Hates and kingdoms of the world : their noble and
ingenuous manners, their' arts and fciences, their va¬
lour and their virtues, are no more. They have loll
thefe with thedofs of liberty. So true is it that man
is born for himfelf; and that, when deprived of that
aid which Nature has defigned to ftrengthen and fup¬
port his weaknefs, the flame of genius and the ardent
glow of valour are extinguilhed in his breaft ; he be¬
comes incapable of vigorous refolution, and finks be¬
low the natural virtue and dignity of the fpecies.
The illand of Crete, joined with the fmall kingdom
of Cyrene, on the Lybian coall, formed a Roman pro¬
vince. It was at firll governed by a proconful; a que-
ftor and an afliftant were afterwards fent there ; at laft,
as Suetonius informs us, it was put under the govern¬
ment of a coaful. This ifland was one of the firll pla¬
ces in the world that were favoured with the light of
the gofpel. St Paul introduced the Chriftian faith in¬
to Crete ; and his difciple Titus, whom he left there
3Y to
CUE [ 538 I C R E
to cherlfh and cultivate that precious plant, became
the fir ft bifhop of the ifland. In the reign of the em¬
peror Leo, it had twelve biihops, who were all fub-
je£t to the patriarch of Conftantin-ople. Conftantine
feparated Crete from Cyrene in the new divifion which
he made of the provinces of the empire. Leaving
three fons, Conftafltius, Conftantine, and Conitans,
he affigned Thrace and the eaftern provinces to the
iirft ; to the fecond, the empire of the Weft ; the ifland
of Crete, Africa, and Illyria, to the third.
When Michael Balbus fat on the throne of Conftan-
tinople, the rebellion of Thomas, which lafted three
years, caufed him to neglect the other parts of the
empire. The Agarenians (a people of Arabia), who
had conquered the fineft provinces of Spain, feized that
opportunity. They fitted out a confiderable fleet,
plundered the Cyclades, attacked the ifland of Crete,
and made themfelves matters of it without oppofition.
In order to fecure their conqueft, they built a fortrefs
which they named Khandak, “ intrenchment.” From
that citadel the barbarians made inroads into the inte¬
rior oarts of the ifland, carrying havock and devafta-
tion wherever they appeared. By repeated attacks,
they ftibdued all the ckies in Crete except Cydon.
Michael made fome ineffedfual efforts t'o expel them
from Crete. The emperor Bafilitw, the Macedonian,
was not moie fuccefsful. They defeated him in a
bloody battle ; but being vanquilhed by one of bis ge¬
nerals, they were fubje&ed to the payment of an an¬
nual tribute. At the end of ten years, the Arabians
mu/ed the tribute. It was referred for' Nicephorus
Phocas, who was afterwards emperor, to deliver this
fine ifland from the yoke of the Infidels. He landed
on the ifland with a numerous army, boldly attacked
them, and routed them in various engagements. The
Saracens, no longer daring to meet fo formidable a
general in the field, fled for protection to their for-
trefles. Phocas being plentifully, fupplied with all the
warlike machines neceffary for a liege, levelled their
walls, and alarmed their hearts with terror. He took
their cities and fortreffes, and drove them into Khan¬
dak their metropolis and laft refource. In the courfe
of nine months he fubdued the whole ifland, took their
king Curup and his lieutenant Aremas prifoners, and
reunited to the empire a province which had been 127
years in the hands of the Infidels. It remained under
the dominion of the Romans till the time when Bald¬
win Count of Flanders, being railed to the throne, li¬
berally rewarded the fervices of Boniface Marquis of
Montferrat, by making him kingof Theffalonica, and
adding the ifland of Crete to his kingdom. That lord,
being more covetous of> gold than glory, fold it to the
Venetians in the year 1194 ; under whom it affumed
the name of Candia. See the fequel of its hiftory
under that article.
CRETIO, in antiquity, a certain number of days
allowed the heir to confider whether he would
adl as heir to the deceafed or not ; after which
time, if he did not adt, he was excluded from the
eftate.
CREUX, a term in fculptnre, much ufed by the
French; though not yet, that we know of, natu¬
ralized among us: but the want of a word of equal
import in Englilh, as it has frequently put us under a
?.ccefiity of ufing this in the courle of the prefent
work; fo it pleads ftrongly for its admiflion into our
language.
Creux originally fignifies a hollo<wy cavity, or pit, out
of which fomething has been Looped or dug : hence it
is ufed to denote that kind of fculpture and graving
where the lines and figures are cut and formed within
the face or plane of the plate or matter .engraven on.
In which fenfe it,Hands oppofedto relievo; where the
lines and figures are emboffed, and appear prominent
above the foce of the matter.
CREW, the company of failors belonging to a flup,
boat, or other veffel.
The failors that are to work and manage a fliip are
regulated by the number of lafts it may carry ; each
laft making two ton. The crew of a Dutch fliip, from
40 to 50 lafts, is feyen failors and a fwabber ; from 50
to 60 lafts, the crew confifts of eight men and a fwab¬
ber ; and thus incneafes at the rate of one man for every
ten lafts ; fo that a (hip of noo lafts has 12 men, &c.
Englifn and French crews are ufually ftronger than
Dutch ; but always in about the fame proportion. In
a (hip of war there are feveral particular crews, or
gangs, as the boatfwain’s crew, the carpenter’s crew,
the gunner’s crewn&c.
CREVIER (John Baptist Lewis), a Parifian,
was trained under the celebrated kollin, and afterwards
became profeffor of rhetoric. Upon the death of his
mafter, in 1741, he took upon him to finifh his
Roman Hiftory. He publifhed other works, and was
greatly ferviceable to the caufe of virtue and religion
as well as letters. His death happened, 1765, in a
very advanced age. Befides the continuation juft men¬
tioned, he publifhed, 1. An edition of Livlus, cum
Noth, in 6 vols 410, x 748; and afterwards another
edition, better adapted to the ufe of his pupils, in 6 vols.
fmall 8vo. 2. La Hlftoire dts Empereurs de Romaint
Ju/qu’ a Conjlantin, 1749, 12 tom. 12 mo. 3. Hijlotre
de l’Univerjite de Paris, 7 tom. i2mo. 4. Rhetorique
Frangoife, a juft and ufeful work. 5. Obfervalionsfur
I'Efprit des Loix. Here he ventured out of his depth;
he fhould have kept within the precindts of the belles
letters.
C REUS A, in fabulous hiftory, daughter of Creon
king of Corinth. As fhe was going to marry Jafon,
who had divorced Medea, ftie put on a poifoned gar¬
ment, which immediately fet her body on fire, and fhe
expired in the moft excruciating torments. She had
received this gown as a gift from Medea, who wifhed
to take that revenge upon the infidelity of Jafon.
Some call her Glauce. (Ovid, de Art. Am. 1. v. 335.)
A daughter of Priam, king of Troy by Hecuba. She
married vEneas, by whom fhe had, among other chil¬
dren, Afcanius. When "Troy was taken, fhe fled in
the night with her hufband; but they were feparated
in the midft of the confufion and tumult, and ftEneas
could not recover her, nor hear where fhe was. Some
fay that Cybele faved her, and carried her to her
temple, of which fhe became prieftefs. Pauf. 10. c,
26.— Virg. Ain. 2. v. 562.
CREX, in ornithology, a fpecies of Rallus.
CRIB, the rack or manger of a ftable, or the flail
or cabbin of an ox. It is alfo ufed for any fmall habi¬
tation, as a cottage, &c.
Chib, in the Englifh fait-works, a name given to a
fort of cafe ufed in fome places inllead of the drab, to
put
„ C R I f 539 I c R I
Crib'bage put the fait into as it is taken out of the boiling
. pan.
‘Crichton. Cribbage, a game at cards, to be learnt only by
1 ^ praftice.
CRIBRATION, in pharmacy, the palling any fub-
ftance through a fieve or fearce, in order to feparate
the finer particles from the grofler.
Cribrosum os, in anatomy, called alfo os ethmoides.
See Slnatamy, n° 17.
CRICELASIA, the driving a ring or hoop. Dri¬
ving a hoop was one of the ancient gymnaftics : this
hoop was as high as the bread of the perfon who ufed
it. It was commended for rendering the limbs pliable,
and for ftrengthening the nerves.
CRICETUS, in zoology. See Mus.
CRICHTON( James), aScotsgentleman, who lived
in the 16th century, and who, on account of his extraor*
dinary' endowments both of body and mind, obtained
the appellation of “ the admirable Crichtonby which
title he has continued to be dillinguilhed down to the
jivefent day. The time of this celebrated perfon’s
birth is faid, by the generality of writers, to have been
* MS Me-in 1551 ; but, according to Lord Buchan^, it ap-
m'*ir read pears, from feveral circumdances, that he was born in
eiet^of°" t^c month of Auguit 156c. There is a difference
Anuquaries^kewife between the Earl of Buchan and other bio¬
at Edin- graphers, with regard to the family of Crichton, and
Lurgh. the rank and fituatioa of his father. The common
accounts affert, that James Crichton’s father was Ro¬
bert Crichton of Clunie, in the county of Perth ; and
that this Robert Crichton commanded Queen Mary’s
army at the battle of Langfide in the year 1568. But
from the Earl of Buchan we learn, that this gentleman
was of Elliock iirthe fame county, and that he was lord
advocate of Scotland in queen Mary’s reign from 1561
to 1573 ; part of which time he held that office in con¬
junction with Spens of Condie. The mother of James
Crichton was Elizabeth Stuart, the only daugh ter of Sir
James Stuart of Beath, who was a defeerjdant of Robert
duke of Albany, the third fon of king Robert the fe-
cond, by Elizabeth Muir or More, as ffie is commonly
called. It is hence evident, that when the admirable
Crichton beaded (as he did abroad), that he was fprung
from Scottiffi kings, he faid nothing but what was
agreeable to truth.
James Crichton is faid to have received his gram¬
matical education at Perth, and to have dudied philo-
fophy in the univerfity of St Andrew. Plis tutor in
that univerfity 'was Mr John Rutherford, a profeffor at
that time famous for his learning, and who didinguilh-'
ed himfelf by writing four books on Aridotle’s logic
and a commentary on his poetics. According to Al¬
dus Manutius, who .calls Crichton fird coufm to the
king, he Was alfo indruCted, along with his majedy,
by Buchanan, Hepburn, and Robertfon, as well as by
Rutherford ; and he had fcarcely arrived to the 2Cth
year of his age, when he had run through the whole
circle of the fciences, and could fpeak and write to
perfection In ten different languages. Nor was this
all; for he had likewife improved himfelf to the high-
ed degree in riding, dancing, and finging, arid in play¬
ing upon all forts of indrumente.
Crichton, being thus accomplifned, went abroad
upon his travels, and is faid to have gone to Paris; of
his tranfa&ions at which place the following account
is given. He caufed fix placards to be fixed on all the Crnbmi.
gates of the fchools, halls, and colleges belonging to *
the univerfity, and on all the pillars and pods before
the houfes of the mod renowned men for literature in
the city, inviting all thofe who were well verfed in any
art or fcience, to difpute with him in the college of
Navarre, that day fix weeks, by nine of the clock in
the morning, where he would attend them, and be
ready to anfwer to whatever fiiould be propofed to him
in any art or fcience, and in any of tliefe 1 2 languages,
Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Latin, Spanilh,
French, Italian, Engliffi, Dutch, Flemifn, and Scla-
vonian ; and this either in verfe or profe at the dif-
cretion of the difputant. During this whole time, in¬
dead of clofely applying to his dudies, he regarded
nothing but hunting, hawking, tilting, vaulting, riding
of a well-managed horfe, tolling the pike, handling the
miilket, and other military feats ; or elfe he employed
himfelf in domedic games, fuch as balls, concerts of
mufic vocal and indrumental ; cards, dice, tennis, and
the-like diverfions of youth. This conduCt fo provo¬
ked the dudents of the univerfity, that, beneatbe^the
placard which was fixed on the Navarre gate,-they cau¬
fed the following words to be written : “ If you would
meet with this montler of perfedtion, to make fearch
for him either in the tavern or bawdy-houfe, is the
readied way to find him.” Neverlhelefs, when the
day appointed arrived, Crichton appeared in the col¬
lege of Navarre, and acquitted himfelf beyond expref-
fion in the difputation, which laded from nine o’clock
in the morning till fix at night. At length, the pre-
fident, after extolling him highly for the many raie
arid excellent endowments w'hich God and nature had
bedowed upon him, rofe from his chair, and, accom¬
panied by four of the mod eminent profeffors of the
univerfity, gave him a diamond ring, and a purfe full
of gold, as a tedimony of their love and favour. The
whole ended with the repeated acclamations and huzzas
of the fperitators ; and henceforward our young diipu-
tant was called, “ the admirable Crichton.” It is ad¬
ded, that he was fo little fatigued with the difpute,
that he went on the very next day to the Louvre,
where he had a match of tilting (an exercife then in
much requed), and in the prefence of fome of the
princes of the court of France, and a great many la¬
dies, carried away the ring 15 times fucceffively.
About two years after this we find him at Rome,
where he affixed a placard upon all the eminent places
of the city, in the following terms: Nos Jacolus Crich-
tonvs Scotus, cuicunque ret prop'ifua ex improv'ifo refponde-
limus. In a city which abounded in wit, this bold
challenge, to anfwer to any quedion that could be
propofed to him without his being previoufly adver-
tifed of it, could not efcape the ridicule of a paf-
quinade. It is faid, however, that being .nowife
difeouraged, he appeared at the time and place ap¬
pointed ; and that, in the prefence of the pope,
many cardinals, bifhops, doftors of divinity, and pro-
feffors in all the fciences, he difplayed fuch wonderful
proofs of his univerfal knowledge, that he excited no
lefs furprife than he had done at Paris. Boccalini,
who was then at Rome,'gives fomething of a different
relation of the matter. According to this author,
the pafquinade againd Crichton, which was to the
following effed, “ And he that will fee it let him go to
c R I [ 54° 1 ? C R I
erichton. the Jign of the Falcon and it Jhall he flown” made fuch
lri" v an impreffion upon him, that he left a place where he
had been fo grofsly affronted as to be put upon a level
with jugglers and mountebanks.
From Rome he went to Venice; where he contra&ed
an intimate friendfhip with Aldus Manutius, Lauren-
tius Maffa, Speron Speronius, Johannes Donatus, and
various other learned perfons, to whom he prefented
feveral poems in commendation of the city and uni-
verfity. At length he was introduced to the Doge
and Senate, in whofe prefence he made a fpeech,
which was accompanied with fuch beauty of eloquence,
and fuch grace of perfon and manner, that he received
the thanks of that illuftrious body, and nothing was
talked of through the whole city but this rara in terris
avis, this prodigy of nature. He held, likewife, dif-
putations on the fubjedts of theology, philofophy, and
mathematics, before the moft eminent profeffors, and
large multitudes of people. His reputation was fo
great, that the defire of feeing and hearing him brought
together a vaft concourfe of perfons from different
quarters to Venice. It may be colletted from Manu¬
tius, that the time in which Crichton exhibited thefe
demonftrations of his abilities was in the year 1580.
During his refidence at Venice, he fell into a bad
Rate of health, which continued for the fpace of four
months. However, before he was perfectly recover¬
ed, he went, by the advice of his friends, to Padua,
the univerfity of which city was at that time in great
reputation. The next day after his arrival, there was
a meeting of all the learned men of the place, at the
houfe of Jacobus Aloyfms Cornelius ; when Crichton
opened the affembly with an extemporary poem in
praife of the city, the univerfity, and the company
who had honoured him with their prefence. After
this, he difputed for fix hours with the mofl celebra¬
ted profeffors on various fubjedls of learning ; and he
expofed, in particular, the errors of Ariftotle and his
commentators, with fo much folidity and acutenefs,
and at the fame time with fo much modefty, that he
excited univerfal admiration. In conclufion, he de¬
livered extempore an oration in praife of ignorance,
which was conduced with fuch ingenuity and elegance,
that his hearers were aftonifired. This exhibition of
Crichton’s talents was on the 14th of March 1581.
Soon after he appointed a day for another deputa¬
tion to be held at the palace of the bifhop of Padua ;
not for the purpofe of affording higher proofs of his
abilities, for that could not poflibly be done, but in
compliance with the earneft folicitations of fame per¬
fons who were not prefent at the former affembly.
However, feveral circumftances occurred which pre¬
vented this meeting from taking place. Such is the
account of Manutius : but Imperialis relates, that he
was informed by his father, who was prefent upon the
occafion, that Crichton was oppofed by Archangelus
Mercenarius,. a famous philofopher; and that he ac¬
quitted himfelf fo well as to obtain the approbation of
a very honourable company, and even of his antagonift
himfelf.
Amidft the difcourfes which were occafioned by our
young Scotfman’s exploits, and the high applaufes that
were beftowed upon his genius and attainments, fome
perfons there were who endeavoured to detradl from
his merit. For ever, therefore, to confound thefe in¬
vidious impugners of his talents, he caufed a paper to Crichton.
be fixed on the gates of St John and St Paul’s church,  v~~~^
wherein he offered to prove before the univerfity, that
the errors of Ariftotle, and of all his followers, were
almolt innumerable ; and that the latter had failed
both, in explaining their mailer’s meaning, and in
treating on theological fubjefts. He promifed like¬
wife to refute the dreams of certain mathematical pro¬
feffors ; to difpute in all the fciences ; and to anfwer
to whatever ftiould be propofed to him or obje&ed a-
gainft him. All this he engaged to do, either in the
common logical way or by numbers and mathemati¬
cal figures, or in too forts of verfes, at the pleafure of
his opponents. According to Manutius, Crichton fu-
ftained this conteft, without fatigue, for three days;
during which time he fupported his credit, and main¬
tained his propofitions, with fuch fpirit and energy,
that, from an unufual concourfe of people, he obtain¬
ed acclamations and praifes, than which none more
magnificent were ever heard by men.
From Padua, Crichton fet out for Mantua; where
there happened to- be at the time a gladiator, who
had foiled, in his travels, the moft famous fencers in
Europe, and had lately killed three who had entered
the lifts with him in this city. The duke of Mantua
was .much grieved at having granted this man his pro-
teftion, as he found it to be attended with fuch fatal
confequences. Crichton, being informed of his High-
nefs’s concern, offered his fervice, not only to drive
the murderer from Mantua, but from Italy, and to
fight him for 1500 piftoles. Though the duke was
unwilling to expofe fuch an accomplilhed gentleman to
fo great a hazard ; yet, relying upon the report he had
heard of his warlike atchievements, he agreed to the
propofal; and the time and place being appointed, the
whole court attended to behold the performance. At
the beginning of the combat Crichton flood only
upon his defence; while the Italian made his at¬
tack with fuch eagernefs and fury, that, having over-
ailed hijnfelf, he began to grow weary. Crichton
now feized the opportunity of attacking his antagonift
in return; which he did with fo much dexterity and
vigour, that he ran him through the body in three dif¬
ferent places, of which wounds he immediately died.
The acclamations of the fpeilators were loud and ex¬
traordinary upon this occafion ; and it was acknow¬
ledged by all of them, that they had.never feen Art
grace Nature, or Nature fecond the precepts of Art,
in fo lively a manner as they had beheld thefe two
things accompli (lied on that day. To crown the glory
of the adlion, Crichton beftowed the prize of his vic¬
tory upon the widows of the three perfons who had
loft their lives in fighting with the gladiator.
It is afferted, that in confequence of this and his other
wonderful performances, the duke of Mantua made
choice of him for preceptor to his fon Vincentio di Gon-
zaga, who is reprefented as being of a riotous temper and;
a diffolute life. The appointment was highly pleafing to
the court. Crichton, to teftify his gratitude to his friends
and benefa&ors, and to contribute to their diverfion,
framed, we are told, a comedy, wherein he expofed
and ridiculed all the weakneffes and failures of the fe¬
veral employments in which men are engaged. This
compofition was regarded as one of the moft ingenious
fatires that ever was. made upon mankind. But the
moft;,
C R I [ 541 1 C R I
Crichton, moft aftonifhing part of the ftory is, that Crichton fu-
 1 ftained 15 charadters in the reprefentation of his own
play. Among the reft, he adled'the divine, the phi-
lofopher, the lawyer, the mathematician, the pbjfician,
and the foldier, with fuch inimitable grace, that every
time he appeared upon the theatre he feemed to be a
different perfon.
From being the principal aftor in a comedy, Crich¬
ton foon became the fubjedl of a dreadful tragedy.
One night, during the time of carnival, as he was
walking along theftreetsof Mantua, and playing upon
his guittar, he was attacked by half a dozen people in
mafics. The affailants found that they had no ordina¬
ry perfon to deal with, for they were not able to
maintain their ground againft him. In the iffue, the
leader of the company being difarmed, pulled off his
mafk, and begged his life, telling him that he was the
prince his pupil. Crichton immediately fell upon his
knees, and expreffed his concern for his miftake ; alle¬
ging, that what he had done was only in his own de¬
fence, and that if Gonzaga had any defigh upon his
life, he might always be mafter of it. Then taking his
own fword by the point, he prefented it to the prince,
who immediately received it, and was fo irritated by
the affront which he thought he had fuftained in be¬
ing foiled with all his attendants, that he inftantly ran
Crichton through the heart.
Various have been the conje&ures concerning the
motives which could induce Vincentio di Gonzaga to
be guilty of fa ungenerous and brutal an adtion. Some
have aferibed it to jealoufy, afferting that he fufpedled
Crichton to be more in favour than himfelf with a lady
whom he paffionately loved ; and Sir Thomas Urqu-
hart has told a ftory upon this head which is extrava¬
gant and ridiculous in the higheft degree. Others,
with greater probability, reprefent the whole tranfac-
tion as the refult of a drunken frolic ; and it is uncer¬
tain, according to Imperialis, whether the meeting of
the prince and Crichton was by acpident or delign.
However, it is agreed on all hands that Crichton
loft his life in this rencounter. The time of his
deceafe is faid, by the generality of his biographers, to
have been in the beginning of July 1583 ; but Lord
Buchan fixes it to the fame month in the preceding
year. Thete is a difference, likewife, with regard to
the period of life at which Crichton died. The com¬
mon accounts declare that he was killed in the 3 2d year
of his age : but Imperialis afferts that he was only in
his 2 2d when that calamitpus event took place ; and
this faft is confirmed by ford Buchan.
Crichton’s tragical end excited a very great and ge¬
neral lamentation. If Sir Thomas Urquhart is to be
credited, the whole court of Mantua went three quar¬
ters of a year into mourning for him ; the epitaphs
and elegies that were compofed upon his death and
ftuck upon his hearfe, would exceed, if colledted, the
bulk of Homer’s works ; and, for a long time after¬
wards, his pifture was to be feen in moft of the bed¬
chambers and galleries of the Italian nobility, repre-
fenting him on horfeback, with a lance in the one
hand and a book in the other. The fame author tells
us, that Crichton gained the efteem of kings and
princes, by his magnanimity and knowledge; of no¬
blemen and gentlemen, by his courtlinefs and breed¬
ing ; of knights, by his honourable deportment and
a.
pregnancy of wit; of the rich, by his affability and Crichton,
good fellowftiip; of the poor, by his munificence ^
and liberality ; of the old, by his conftancy and wif-
dom ; of the young, by his mirth and gallantry ; of
the learned, by his univerfal knowdedge; of the fol-
diers, by his undaunted valour and courage ; of the
merchants and artificers, by his upright dealing and
honefty ; and of the fair fex, by his beauty and hand-
fomenefs, in which refpeft he was a maiterpiece of
nature.
Joannes Imperialis, in his life of Crichton, fays,
That he was the wonder of the laft age ; the prodi¬
gious production of nature; the glory and ornament
of Parnaffus, in a ftupendous and unufual manner;
and that, in the judgment of the learned world, he
was the pheenix of literature, and rather a (hining par¬
ticle of the Divine Mind and Majefty than a model of
what could be attained by human induftry. The
fame author, after highly celebrating the beauty of his
perfon, afferts, that his extraordinary eloquence and
his admirable knowledge of things teftified that he
poffeffed a ftrength of genius wholly divine. “ What
(adds this writer) can more exceed our comprehen-
lion, than that Crichton, in the 21ft year of his age,,
ffould be mafter of ten different languages, and per¬
fectly well verfed in philofophy, mathematics, theolo¬
gy, polite literature, and all other fciences ? Befides,,
was it ever heard in the whole compafs of the globe,
that to thefe extraordinary endowments of the mind
fhould be added a lingular fkill in fencing, dancing,,
finging, riding, and in every exercife of the gymnaftic
art ?” Nay, Imperialis, in his account of Crichton’s-
death, declares, that the' report of fo fad a cataftrophe
was fpread to the remoteft parts of the earth; that it
difturbed univerfal nature ; and that in her grief for
the lofs of-the wonder Ihe had produced, Ihe threaten¬
ed never more to confer fuch honour upon mankind.
Compared with thefe exti avagancies, the affertion of
Bayle that Crichton was one of the greateft prodigies-
of wit that ever lived, and the teftimony of Foelix
Aftolfus concerning his wonderful memory', may be
confidered as modeit encomiums.
Such ave the accounts which, by a fucceffion of
writers, and particularly fince the time of Mackenzie,
have been given of the admirable Crichton. Thefe
accounts are indeed £b wonderful, that many perfons-
have been difpofed to confider them as in a great mea-
fure, if not entirely, fabulous. We lhall therefore
fubjom from the Biographia Britannica the following,
oblervations of Dr Kippis, wuth a view to afeertain
what portion of faith is due to the different parts of.
the preceding narrative, or at leaft to aftift the reader
in forming a proper judgment concerning them.
The Doftor begins wdth obferving, “ That no cre¬
dit can be granted to any fa&s which depend upon the
foie authority of Sir Thomas Urquhart. Mr Pennant
indeed fpeaks of him with approbation.; and Dr Sa¬
muel Johnfon laid a ftrefs on his veracity, in the ac¬
count of Crichton which he di dfated to Dr Hawkfworth,
and is inferted in the 81ft number of the Adventurer ;
of which account it may be obferved, that it is only an.
elegant fummary of the life written by Mackenzie..
But with all deference to thefe refpedtable names, I:
muft declare my full perfuafion that Sir Thomas Urqu¬
hart is an authorwhofe teftimony to fa6ts is totally unwor-
thyr
CHI [ 542 ] C R I
Crichton tTiy of regard; and it is furprifing that a jSerufal of his the prince alfo beftowed as much upon her during all
works does not ftrike every mind with this conviftion. the days of his life, “ which was (adds Sir Thomas)
His produ&ions are fo inexpreflibly abfurd and extrava- but fliort ; for he did nat long enjoy himfelf after the
gant, that the only rational judgment which can bepro- crofs fa^e of fo miferable an accident. Now it is well
nouncedconcerninghimis, that hewaslittle, if atall, bet- known that Vincenzo di Gonzaga fucceeded his father
ter than a madman. Tothecharadler of his having been in the dukedom of Mantua in 1587, and that he did
a madman muft be added that of his being a liar. Se- not die till the year .1612 ; which was almoft, if not
vere as this term may be thought, I apprehend that a entirely, thirty years after Crichton’s deceafe. The
diligent examination of the treatife which contains the other inftance of tha imprudence of Sir Thomas Ur-
memorials concerning Crichton would fhow that it is quhart in the contrivance of his li&ions, occurs at the
llriftly true. But of his total difregard to truth there eonclufion of his narrative, where he afferts that the
is inconteilable evidence in another work of his, intitled, verity of the ftoiy which he ,hath related concerning
The true Pedigree and Lineal Defcent of the molt the incompai-ablt Crichton, ‘ may be certified by two
ancient and honourable Family of tlie Urquhart’s in thoufand men yet living who have known him.’ Tvjo
the Houfe of Cromarty, from the Creation of the thoufand men yet living! that is, in 1652, lixty-nine or
World until the year of God 1652. In this work it feventy years after Crichton’s death, fo*r fuch w^s the
is almoft incredible what a number of falfities he has time of Sir Thomas’s publication. Our author would
invented both with refpecft to names and fads. Per- have been fadly puzzled to collecft together thefe two
haps a more flagrant inftance of impofture and fiftion thoufand living witneffes who could certify the verity
was never exhibited ; and the abfurdity of the whole of his ftory.
pedigree is beyond the power of words to exprefs. It “ With regard, however, to the account which is
can only be felt by thole who have perufed the tracl given of the prodigious exertions of Crichton, both
itfelf. Such a man therefore can juftly be intitled to corporal and mental, at Paris, Mmkenzie imagines
no degree of credit, efpccially when he has a purpofe that he has found a full confirmation of them in a
to fervc, as was the cafe with Sir Thomas Urquhart. paffage produced by him from the Difquifitiones of
His delign was to exalt his own family and his own Stephen Pafquier, and which he confiders as the tefti-
nation at any rate. With refpecl to his own nation, mony of an eye-witnefs. But the whole of what has
there was no occafion for having recourfe to fidfion, been built upon it by Mackenzie and fucceeding bio-
in order to difplay the luftre of Scotland, in the emi- graphers, is founded on a miftake. In the quotation
nent men whom it has produced in arms and literature, from the D'fjuif times, the name of Crichton is not
The pencil of truth alone would have been amply fuf- mentioned, and the author doth nat appear to have
licient for that purpofe. been perfonally prefent at the exhibitions of the ex-
“ So far therefore as Sir Thomas Urquhart’s au- traordinary youth there defcribed. The exprefiions
thority is concerned, the wonderful exhibitions of which are fhppofed to carry that meaning may well be
Crichton at Paris, his triumph at Rome, his combat referred not to the writer himfelf, but to his country-
with the gladiator, his writing an Italian comedy, his men the French, before whom the young man is faid
fuftaining fifteen characters in the reprefentation of to have difplayed his furprifing talents. But the dif-
that comedy^ the extraordinary ftory of the amour cuflion of this point is totally needlefs, becaufe the
which is defcribed as the caufe of his death, the nine paffage in queftion is not an original authority. The
months mourning for him at Mantua, and the poems book intitled Stephani Pafchieri Difquifitiones, is only
Imncr round his hearfe to the quantity of' Homer’s an abridgement in Latin of Pafquier’s Des Recherthes
works, muft be regarded as in the higheft degree doubt- de la France. Nowin this laft work there is indeed
ful, or rather abfolutely falfe. I cannot forbear men- an account of a wonderful youth, fuch as is related in
tiohing two circumftances, which fhow how much Sir Mackenzie’s quotation, and from which that paffage
Thomas Urquhart was deftitute of prudence, as well was formed. But this wonderful youth, whoever he
as of fcrupulofity, in his violations of truth. He fays might be, was not the admirable Crichton : for Paf-
that the duke of Mantua was pleafed to confer upon quier, who does not tell his name, exprefsly fays that
the young lady that was Crichton’s miftrefs and future he appeared in the year 1445 (a). The evidence,
wife, a penfion of five hundred ducats a year; and that therefore, produced by Mackenzie falls entirely to the
ground.
(a) This matter has lately been fet in a clear light by a learned and judicious writer in the Edinburgh
Magazine for May 1787, whofe letter is as follows.
“ S I R,
“ We are informed by Sir John Hawkins, that Hr Johnfon diilated from memory that account of the
perfon vulgarly named the Admirable Crichton, which is to be found in one of the papers of the Adven-
turer.
“ That account is plainly an abridgement of the Life of Crichton by Dr George Mackenzie. Dr Mac¬
kenzie fuppofes that Pafquier, the French lawyer and antiquary, was an eye witnefs of the feats performed in
arts as well as in arms by Crichton. This is one of the groffeft errors in biography which has o«curred to
me in the courfe of my reading: and it is an error which I perceive is gaining ground daily, and bids fair in
a fhort time to be received as an indifputable truth.
“ The error fcetns to have arifen from the following circumftance s Dr Mackenzie had never read the ori¬
ginal work of Pafquier intitled Recherches de la France; what he quotes concerning the wonderful young man
5
CHI [ 543 1 CHI
Ciichton. ground. Indeed, if the ftory of Crichton’s exploits at
Paris had been true, no man was more likely to be
acquainted with them than ■ Stephen Pafquier, who
lived at the time, and who would be fond enough of
recording tranfactions fo extraordinary. It may far¬
ther be obferved, that Thuanus, who was likewife a
contemporary, and who in his own life is very particu¬
lar in what relates to learned men, makes no mention
of Crichton. The only authority for his having ever
refided in France at all (Sir Thomas Urquhart except¬
ed) is that of Dr John Johnfton, who lays Gallia pec¬
tus excolk. But this amounts to no proof of the truth
of the tranfaftions related by Urquhart. The whole
which can be deduced fronvit is, that Crichton, in the
courfe of his travels, might make fome ftay in France
'for the purpofe of improvement. Even this, however,
doth not agree with the narration of Imperialis, who
informs us, that when troubles arofe in Scotland on ac¬
count of religion, and queen Mary fell into fo many
calamities, Crichton was fent by his father direcfly
from that country to Venice as a place of fecurity.
“ It is acknowledged by Sir John Hawkins, that
Sir Thomas Urquhart has produced no authorities in
fupport of his furpriiing narrations But this defect,
Sir John thinks, is fupplied in the Life of Crichton
which is given in Mr Pennant’s Tour. I am under the
neceffity of faying, that this is by no means the cafe.
The article in Pennant was not drawn up by that in¬
genious and learned gentleman, but is the tranfcript of
a pamphlet, that was printed fome years ago at Aber¬
deen ; and which pamphlet is nothing more than a re-
publication,, with a few verbal alterations, of the Life
of Crichton written by Mackenzie. It doth not,
therefore, furniih a fingle additional teflimony in con¬
firmation of Sir Thomas Urquhart’s ftories, excepting
in the miftaken inftance from Pafquier. In other re-
fpedis it only borrows fafts from Sir Thomas Urqu¬
hart, without ellablifhing them upon frefh proofs. It
is obfervable, that the earlier biographers of Crichton
had no knowledge of mofl. of the traniactions enlarged
upon by this extravagant writer; for if they had Crich
known them, they would have been eagerly difpofed to
relate them, and to do it with every circumftance of
exaggeration. How much this was the character of
Thomas Dempfter, with regard to his own country¬
men, is fufficiently underitood, and hath frequently
been remarked; and yet his account of Crichton is
uncommonly modeft, compared with thofe of fuc-
ceeding authors. The extravagance of Imperialis in
refpedt to Crichton has already appeared. There feems
indeed to have been an univerfal 'tendency in the wri¬
ters of this young Scotfman’s life to produce wonder
and aftoniihment. Mackenzie remarks, that Lnperia-
lis could not but know the truth of all, or at leail of
moft of, the things he has related concerning Crichton,
tince he lived upon the places in which they were trail-
fa&ed, and had them from an eye and ear witnefs, even
his own father. It is, however, to be remembered,
that Imperialisms Mufeum Hijlorlcum was not publilhed
till 1640, nearly fixty years after the events recorded
by him happened ; to which may be added, that the
information he derived from his father was probably
very imperfedl. Imperialis the elder was not born till
1568, and confequently was only thirteen years old
when Crichton difplayed his talents at Padua. What
real dependence, tlrerefore, could there be on the ac¬
curacy of the account given by a youth of that age ?
He could only relate, and perhaps from inadequate in¬
telligence, the things which were talked of when he *
was a boy. Bejides, his authority is appealed to for
no more than a fingle fadt, and that a doubtful one,
fince it does not accord with Manutius’s narrative ;
and who ever heard of the famous philofopher Arcan-
gelus Mercenarius ?
“ The truth of the matter is, that, fome flight cir-
cumftances excepted, neither Dempifer nor Imperialis
have produced any evidences of Crichton’s extraor¬
dinary abilities befides thofe which are recorded by
the younger Aldus Manutius. He therefore is to be
regarded as the only living authority upon the fub-
is taken from a Latin abridgement of that work ; he refers to Steph. Pafch. Difquif. lib. v. cap. 23. and he
gives his quotation in Latin ; indeed it does not appear that Dr Mackenzie had ever heard of the original
work. Now Pafquier, inftead of faying that he was an eye-witnefs of the wonders exhibited by Crichton, fays,
in the moft unequivocal terms, that what he relates was taken ‘ from a manufeript which was occafionally
ufed by him,’ (cl’un l-vre ccrlt a la main dont je m’aide felon la oicurrenca). And he adds, ‘ I will reprefent the
ftory in its own fimple garb, without any artificial colouring, fo that my readers may be the more inclined to
give credit to it,’ (’vous reprefntant cette hijhjlre en fajimplic'ite fans y apporter aucun fard pour ce que vous y ad-
joujleresplus de foy). He then tranferibes the narrative from the MS. which places the appearance of this phe¬
nomenon in the year 1445, a full century before the birth of our Crichton. See Recherches de la France?
lib. vi. c. 38, 39.
“ Dr Mackenzie, although he had not read the original of Pafquier, appears to have read an author who
quotes the fame ftory : ‘ The learned M. du Launoy (fays he), in his Hiftory of the college of Navarre,
finding the hiftory of this difpute recorded in a MS. Hiftory of the College of Navarre, and the like account
of a Spaniard in Tvithemius, confounds the two together, and rols our author of the glory of this adtion, and
places it in the year 1445; whereas it fhould be in'the year 1571.’ This charge of roblery is lingular
enough.
“ Let me only add, that Pafquier tranferibes fome verfes written by George Chaftelain, a French poet in
the reign of Charles VII. king of France, which allude to the fame ftory; and that Pafquier himfelf was
born at Paris in 1528, palfed his life in that city, and was an eminent lawyer and pleader in 1571; fo that it
is impoflible the feats of Crichton, had they been really performed at Paris, could have been unknown to him,
and moft improbable that, knowing them, he would have omitted to mention them ; for, in the fame lib. vi.
c. 39. he is at pains to produce examples of great proficiency, difplayed by men kx a much humbler rank of
life than that of philofophers and public difputants. I am, &c,”
c R I [ 544 1 C R I
Crichton. je&. Manutius was contemporary with Crichton; he
■'*“—v*— was clofely conne&ed with him in friendihip ; and he
relates feveral things on his own perfonal knowledge.
He is a pofitive and undoubted witnefs with refpedt to
•our young Scotfman’s intelleftual and literary exer¬
tions at Venice and at Padua; and from him it is that
our account of them is given above. Neverthelefs,
even Aldus Manutius is to be read with fome degree
of caution. Dedications are apt to affume the llyle
of exaggeration, and this is the cafe with Manutius’s
dedication of'the Paradox^ Ciceronis to Crichton. In
■addition to the general language of fuch addrefles,
he might be carried too far by his affe&ion for his
friend, which appears to have been very great: nor
was the younger Aldus eminent for fteadinefs and
•confiftency of chara&er. It is even faid that by his
imprudencies he fell into contempt and mifery. But
independently of any confideiations of this. kind, it
may be obferved, that Manutius’s narrative, previoufly
to Crichton’s arrival at Venice, could not be derived
from perfonal knowledge. For that part of it (which
is fufficiently erroneous) he was probably indebted to
Crichton himfelf. Neither dpes he appear to have
been an eye-witnefs of the whole of the difputations
which were held at Padua ; for fpeaking of his young
friend’s praife of ignorance, he relates, that thofe who
were prefen t told him afterwards how much they were
ftruck with that oration. However, at the other dif-
putation, which lafted three days, Manutius feems cer¬
tainly to have attended ; for he concludes his accounts
of it with faying, that he was not only the advifer
but the fpe&ator of Crichton’s wonderful contefts.
It is evident, however, from the dedication, that his
extraordinary abilities were not univerfally acknow¬
ledged and admired. Some there were who detracted
from them, and were difpleafed with Manutius for fo
warmly fupporting his reputation.
“ As to the real caufe and manner of out young
Scotfman’s death, both of them dill remain in fome
degree of obfcurity. That he was killed in a ren¬
counter at the carnival at Mantua, is teftified by too
many authors to be reafonably doubted. But whether
there was that particular malignity on the part of Vin¬
cenzo di Gonzago, which is commonly afcribed to
him, may be confidered as uncertain..
“ One important method yet remains by which we
may be enabled to form a judgment of Crichton’s
genius, and that is from a perufal of the four poems
ef his which are ftill preferved. It is, however, to be
feared, that thefe will not exhibit him in a very high
point of view. Some fancy, perhaps, may be thought
to be difplayed in the longed of his poems, which was
written on occafion of his approach to the city of Ve¬
nice. He there reprefents a Naiad as rifing up before
him; and, by the order of the Mufes and of Minerva,
directing him how to proceed. But this is a fenti-
ment which fo eafily prefents itfelf to a claffical reader,
that it can fcarcely be confidered as deferving the
name of a poetical invention. The three other poems
of Crichton have dilllefs to recommend them. Indeed
his verfes will not dand the tell of a rigid examination
even with regard to quantity.
“ What then is the opinion which on the whole we
nre to form of the admirable Crichton ? It is evident
that he was a youth of fuch lively parts" as excited
N° 94-
great prefect admiration, and high expeAations with Crielit««
regard to his future attainments. He appears to have n . II
had a fine perfon, to have been adroit in his bodily ex- Cri^Jar'
ercifes, to have poflefied a peculiar facility in learning f
languages, to have enjoyed a remarkably quick and 1
retentive memory, and to have excelled in a power of
declamation, a fluency of fpeech, and a readinefs of re¬
ply. His knowledge, likewife, was probably very un¬
common for his years; and this, in conjunction with
his other qualities, enabled him to ftune in public dif-
putation. But whether his knowledge and learning
were accurate or profound, may juftly be quetlioned ;
and it may equally be doubted whether he would have
arifen to any extraordinary degree of eminence in the
literary world. It will always be reflected upon with re¬
gret, that his early and untimely death prevented this
matter from being brought to the left of experiment.”
From the portraits which remain of Crichton, it
appears that in his face and- form he was beautiful
and elegant, and that his body and limbs, though not
mufcular or athletic, were well proportioned, and fit¬
ted for feats of agility. The following catalogue of
Crichton’s works is given by Dempfter: i. Oda ad
Laurentlum Majfdm plum. 2. Laudes Patavma, Carmen
extempore ejfufum, cum in Jacoli Moyjii Cornetii domo ex-
perimentum ingenii coram tota Academia: frequentia, non fine
multorum fupore, faceret. 3. Ignoraiionit Laudatio, extern-
porale Lhema ibidem redditum,pqjlfex horarum difputatiouest
ut prafentes fomnia potius fovere quam rem Je veram videre
ajjirmarint, ait Manutius. 4. De Appulfu fuo Venetias.
5. Oda ad Aldum Manutium. 6. Epi/lola ad Diverfos.
7- Prafationes folemnes in omnes Scientias facras et prof anas. '
8. Judicium de Philofophis. 9. Errores Arifotelis. 10.
Arma an Liters preejlant, Controverfa oratoria. 11. Re-
futatio Mathematicorum. 12. A Comedy in the Italian
language.
CRICK, among farriers, is when a horfe cannot
turn his neck any manner of way, but holds it fore
right, infomuch that he cannot take his meat from the
ground without great pain.
CRICKET, in zoology. See Gryllus.
Cricket is alfo the name of an exercife or game,
with bats and a ball.
Mole Cricket. See Gryllotalpa.
CKICKLADE, a borough-town of Wiltihire,
fituated on the river Ifis, about 26 miles fouth-weft of
Oxford. It fends two members to parliament. W.
Long. 1. 55. N. Lat. 51. 35.
CRICOARYTANOIDYEUS, in anatomy, a name
given to two mufcles of the larynx. See Anatomy,
n° 116.
CRICOIDES; in anatomy, a cartilage of the la¬
rynx, called alfo the annular cartilage. It occupies the
loweft part by way of bafe to the reft of the cartilages,
and to the lower part of it the afpera arteria adheres.
See Anatomy, Table of the mufcles.
CRICOTHYROIDiEUS, in anatomy, one of the
five proper mufcles of the larynx. Ibid.
CRIM-TARTARS, a people of Afia, fo called
becaufe they originally came from Crimea. They
rove from place to place in fearch of paftures, their
houfes being drawn on carts. There are a great num¬
ber of them about Aftrachan, to which place they flock
in the winter-time ; but they are not permitted to en¬
ter the city ; for this reafon, they ereft huts up and
down
C R I
C 545 ]
C R I
feathers in. As for their religion, they are a fort
of Mahometans ; but do not coop up their women
like the Turks.
Crim»tartary, or Crimea. See Crimea.
Crime and hull-rufhes or reeds, being about 12 feet in diameter, litical regulations, which fucceflive conquerors or fac-
^nent a round form, and with a hole at the top to let out tions have eftablilhed, in the various revolutions of go- .v .,/
. ^ 1 , the fmoke. Their fuel is turf or cow-dung; and, when vernment; from giving a lading efficacy to fanftions
the weather is very cold, they cover the hut with a that were intended to be temporary, and made (a*
coarfe cloth, and fometimes pafs feveral days without lord Bacon expreffes it) merely upon the fpur of the
ftirring out. They are generally of fmall ftature, occafion ; or from, laftly, too haftily employing fuch
with large faces, little eyes, and of an olive complec- means as are greatly difproportionate to their end, in
tion. The men are generally fo wrinkled in their order to check the progrefs of fome very prevalent
faces, that they look like old women. Their com- offence; from fome, or from all, of thefe caufes it
mon food is filh dried in the fun, which ferves them hath happened, that the criminal law is in every coun-
inftead of bread ; and they eat the flelh of horfes as try of Europe more rude and imperfeft than the civil,
well as camels. Their drink is water and milk, efpe- We (hall not here enter into any minute enquiries
cially mares milk, which they carry about in naity concerning the local conftitutions of other nations; the
leathern-bags. Their garments are of coarfe grey inhumanity and miftaken policy of which have been
cloth, with a loofe mantle made of a black flieep’s fufficiently pointed out by ingenious writers of their
fkin, and a cap of the fame. The women are clothed own*. But even with us in Britain, where our *As, Barsn
in white, linen, with which likewife they drefs their crown-law is with juftice fuppofed to be more nearly
heads, hanging a great many Mofcovian pence about advanced to perfe&ion ; where crimes are more accu- qu*;, of Bsc-
them ; and there is likewife a hole left to Hick rately defined, and penalties lefs uncertain and ar- caria, &c.
bitrary ; where all our accufations are public, and our
trials in the face of the world; where torture is un¬
known, and every delinquent is judged by fuch of his
equals, againfl whom he can form no exception, nor
CRIME and Punishment. The difcuffion and even a perfonal diflike ;—even here we fhall occafion-
admeafurement of crimes and punilhments forms in ally find room to remark fome particulars that feem
every country the code of criminal law; or, as it is to want revifion and amendment. Thefe have chief-
more ufually'denominated in England, the doftrine of ly arifen from too fcrupulous an adherence to fome
the pleas of the crown : fo called, becaufe the king, in rules of the ancient common law, when the reafons
whom centres the majelty of the whole community, is have ceafed upon which thofe rules were founded; from
fuppofed by the law to be the perfon injured by every not repealing fuch of the old penal laws as are either
infraftion of the public rights belonging to that com- obfolete or abfurd ; and from too little care and atten-
munity ; and is therefore in all cafes the.proper profe- tion in framing and palling new ones. The enafting
cutor for every public offence. of penalties to which a whole nation lhall be fubjedt.
The knowledge of this bi'anch of jurifprudence, ought not to be left, as a matter of indifference, to the
which teaches the nature, extent, and degrees of paffions or interefts of a few, who upon temporary
every crime, and adjufts to it its adequate and neceffary motives may prefer or fupport fuch a bill; but be
penalty, is of the utmoft importance to every indivi- calmly and maturely confidered by perfons who know
dual in the ftate. For no rank or elevation in life, what provifions the laws have already made to reme-
no uprightnefs of heart, no prudence or circumfpedfion dy the mifchief complained of, who can from expe-
of conduft, Ihould tempt a man to conclude, that he rience forefee the probable confequences of thofe
may not at fome time or other be deeply interefted in which are now propofed, and who will judge without
thefe refearches. The infirmities of the bell among paffion or prejudice how adequate they are to the evil,
us, the vices and ungovernable paffions of others, the It is never ufual in the houfe of peers even to read a
inllability of all human affairs, and the numberlefs un- private bill which may affedt the property of an indi-
forefeen events which the compafs of a day may bring vidual, without firft referring it to fome of the learn-
forth, will teach us (upon a moment’s refledlion), that ed judges, and hearing their report thereon. And
to know with precifion what the laws of our country furely equal precaution is neceffary, when laws an*
have forbidden, and the deplorable confequence? to to be eftablilhed, which may affedl the property, the
which a wilful difobedience may expofe us, is a mat- liberty, and perhaps even the lives, of thoufands. Had
ter of univerfal concern. fuch a reference taken place, it is impoffible that in
In proportion to the importance of the criminal the i8th century it could ever have been made a ca-
law, ought alfo to be the care and attention of the le- pital crime, to break down (however malicioufiy) the
giflature in properly forming and enforcing it. It mound of a fifhpond, whereby any filh lhall efcape;
fhould be founded upon principles that are permanent, or to cut down a cherry-tree in an orchard. Were
uniform, and univerfal; and always conformable to even a committee appointed but once in an hundred
the di&ates of truth and juftice, the feelings of huma- years to revife the criminal law, it could not have con-
nity, and the indelible rights of mankind; though it tinued to this hour a felony without benefit of clergy,
fometimes (provided there be no trar.fgreffion of thefc to be feen for one month in the company of peifons
eternal boundaries) may be modified, narrowed, or who call themfelves or are called Egyptians.
enlarged, according to the local or occafional neceffi- It is true, that thefe outrageous penalties, being
ties of the ftate which it is meant to govern. And feldom or never inflidted, are hardly known to be the
yet, either from a want of attention to thefe prin- law by the public ; but that rather aggravates the
ciples in the firft concoftion of the laws, and adopting mifchief, by laying a fnare for the unwary. Yet xhty Bladf.
in their Head the impetuous didlates of avarice, ambi- cannot but occur to the obfervation of any one, who Comment.
Vol.V. Partll. 3Z hath
CRT [ 546 1 C R I
Crime and hath undertaken the ta(k of examining the great out-
Punifti- j;neg Qf our jaWj ancj tracing them up to their prin*
1 ^ ' ■ ciplea.; and it is the duty of fuch a one to hint them
with decency to thofe whofe abilities and ftations
enable them to apply the remedy. Proceed we now
to confider (in the fir ft place) the general nature of
crimes.
I. A crime, or mifdemeanour, is an act committed,
or omitted, in violation of a public law, either forbid¬
ding- or commanding it. This general definition com¬
prehends both crimes and mifdemeanoura ; which, pro¬
perly fpeaking, are mere fynonymous terms : though,
in common ufage, the word “ crimes” is made to de¬
note fuch offences as are of a deeper and-more atro¬
cious dye ; while fmaller faults, and omiffions of lefs
confequence, are comprized under the gentler name of
“ mifdemeanours” only.
The diftin&ion of public wrongs from private, of
crimes and mifdemeanours from civil injuries, feems
principally to confift in this : that private wrongs, or
civil injuries, are an infringement or privation of the
civil rights which belong to individuals, confidered
merely as individuals; public wrongs, or crimes and
mifdemeanours, are a breach and violation of the pub¬
lic rights and duties, due to the whole community, con¬
fidered as a community, in its focial aggregate capaci¬
ty. As if I detain a field from another man, to which
the law has given him a right, this is a civil injury, and
not a crime ;:for here only the right of an individual is
concerned, and it is immaterial to the public which of
us is in poffeffion of the land: but treafon, murder,
and robbery, are properly ranked among crimes; fince,
befides the injury done to individuals, they ffirike at
the very being of fociety ; which cannot polfibly fub-
fift, where actions of this fort are fuffered to efcape
with impunity.
In all cafes the crime includes an injury: every pub¬
lic offence is alfo a private wrong, and fomewhat more;
it affedts the individual, and it likewife affedts the com¬
munity. Thus treafon in imagining the king’s death,
involves in it confpiracy againft an individual, which
is alfo a civil injury : but as this fpecies of treafon in
its confequences principally tends to the diffolution of
government, and the deftrudtion thereby of the order
and peace of fociety, this denominates it a crime of
the higheft magnitude. Murder is an injury to the
life of an individual; but the law of fociety confiders
principally the lo-fs which the ftate fuftains by be¬
ing deprived 6f a member, and the pernicious ex¬
ample thereby fet, for others to do the like. Rob¬
bery may be confidered in the fame view: it is an in¬
jury to private property; but, were that all, a civil
fatisfadlion in damages might aton^ for it: the public
mifehief is the thing, for the prevention of which our
laws have made it a capital offence. In thefe grofs
and atrocious injuries the private wrong is fwallowed
up in the public : we feldom hear any mention made
of fatisfadlron to the individual; the fatisfa&ion to the
community being fo very great. And indeed, as the
public crime is not otherwife avenged than by forfei¬
ture of life and property, it is impoflible afterwards
to make any reparation for the private wrong: which
can only be had from the body or goods of the ag-
greffor. But there are crimes of an inferior nature,
in which the public puniftunent is not fo fevere, but it
affords room for a private compenfation alfo: and Crime an4
herein the diftinftion of crimes from civil injuries is
very apparent. For inftance ; in the cafe of battery, m*nc' f
orbeating another, the aggreffor fciay be indi&ed for
this at the fuit of the king, for difturbing the public
peace, and be punilhed criminally by fine and impri-
fbnment: and the party beaten-may alfo have his pri¬
vate remedy by aft Son of trefpafs for the injury, which
he in particular fuftains, and recover a civil fatisfac-
tion in damages. So alfo, in-cafe of a public nuifance,
as digging a ditch acrofs a highway, this is punifhable
by indictment, as a common offence to the whole
kingdom, and all hia majeity ’s fubjetis : but if any in¬
dividual ftiftains any fpecial damage: thereby, as la¬
ming his horfe, breaking his carriage, or the like,
the offender may be compelled to make ample fatif-
faction, as well for, the private injury as for the public
wrong.
II. The ijature of crimes and mifdemeanours in ge¬
neral being thus afeertained and diftingiiifhed, we
proceed in the next place to confider the general na¬
ture of punifliments : Which are evils or inconvenien¬
ces confequent upon crimes and mifdemeanours; be¬
ing devifed’, denounced, and inflicted by hum.'n laws,
in confequence of difobedienee or mifbehaviour in
thofe, to regulate whofe conduct fuch laws were re-
fpe&ively made. And herein we will briefly conii-
der the power, the end, and the meajure,, of human
punifnment.
1. As to the power of human- punifhment, or the
right of the temporal legiflator to inflift diferetionary
penalties for crimes and mifdemeanours. It is clear, Wacty.
that the right of punifhing crimes againft the law of
nature, as murder and the like, is in a ftate of mere
nature, veiled in every individual. For it mult be
veiled in fomebody; otherwife the laws of nature
would be vain and fruitlefs, if none were empowered
to put them in execution ; and if that power is veiled
in any one, it mull alio be veiled in all mankind
fince all are by nature equal. Whereof the firft mur¬
derer Cain was fo fenfible, that we find him exp re fi¬
fing his apprehenlions, that whoever Ihould find him
would flay him. In a ftate of fociety this right is
transferred from individuals to the lovereign power;
whereby men are prevented from being judges in their,
own eaufes, which is one of the evils that civil go¬
vernment was intended to remedy. Whatever power
therefore individuals had of punilhing offences againft
the law of nature, that is now veiled in the magi-
ftrate alone; who bears the fword of jpftice by the
confent of the whole community. And to this pre¬
cedent natural power of individuals mull be referred,
that right, which fome have argued to belong to eve-
17 ftate (though, in fadl, never exercifed by any),
of punilhing not only their own fubje&s, but alfo fo¬
reign embaffadors, even with death itfelf; in cafe
they have offended, not indeed againft the municipal
laws of the country, but againft the divine laws of
nature, and become liable thereby to forfeit their lives
for their guilt.
As to offences merely againft the laws of fociety,,
which are only mala prohibita, and not mala in fe;
the temporal magiftr&te is alfo empowered to inflift
coercive penalties for fuch tranfgreffion: and this by
the confent of individuals ; who, in forming focieties",,
2. did,
c R I [ 547 ] C R I
Crime and Jfil eitKel* tacitly or exprefsly in veil the fovereign
Shjmfh- power with a right of making laws, and of enforcing
^ meilt-. obedience to them when made, by exercifing, upon
their non-obferv'ance, feverities adequate to the evil.
The lawfulnefs therefore of puniihing fuch criminals is
founded upon this principle, that the law by which
they fuffer was made by their own confent; it is a part
of the original contract into which they entered, when
lirft they engaged in fociety; it was calculated for, and
has long contributed to, their own fecurity.
This right therefore, being thus conferred by uni-
verfal confent, gives to the Hate exactly the fame
.power, and no more, over all its members, as each
individual member had naturally over himfelf or o-
thers. Which has occafioned fome to doubt, how far
a human legillature ought to inflift capital punilhments
for pohtive offences; offences againft the municipal law
only, and not againft the law of nature ; fince no in¬
dividual has, naturally, a power of inflicting death upon
himfelf or others for aftions in themfelves indifferent.
With regard to offences mala in fe, capital punifh-
ments are in fome inftanes inflicted by the immediate
command of God himfelf to all mankind ; as, in the
•i cafe of'murder, by the precept delivered to Noah,
their common anceftor and reprefentative, “ Whofo
“ fheddeth man’s blood, by man fhall his blood be
“ fhed.” In other inftances they are inflicted after
the example of the Creator, in his pofitlve code of
laws for the regulation of the Jewifh republic ; as in
the cafe of tke crime againft nature. But they are
fometimes inflicted without fuch exprefs warrant or
example, at the will and diferetion of the human le-
giflature ; as for forgery, for theft, and fometimes for
offences of a lighter kind. This practice is thus jufti-
fied by that great and good man Sir Matthew Hale :
“ When offences grow enormous, frequent, and dan-
“ gerous to a kingdom or ftate, deftrudlive or highly
“ pernicious to civil focieties, and to the great infecu-
“ rity and danger of the kingdom or its inhabitants,
“ fevere punifhment and even death itfelf is neceffary
“ to be annexed to laws in many cafes by the pru-
“ dence of lawgivers.” It is therefore the enormity,
or dangerous tendency, of the crime, that alone can
warrant any earthly legMlature in putting him to death
that commits it. It is not its frequency only, or the
difficulty of otherwife preventing it, that will excufe
our attempting to prevent it by a wanton effufion of
human blood. For though the end of punifhment is
to deter men from offending, it never can follow from
thence, that it is lawful to deter them at any rate and
by any' means ; fince there may be unlawful methods
of enforcing obedience even to the jufteft laws. E-
Very humane legiflator- will be therefore extremely
cautious of eftabliflting laws that inflidl the penalty of
death, efpecially for flight offences, or fuch as are mere¬
ly pofitive. He will expedl a better reafon for his
fo doing, than that loofe one which generally is given ;
that it is found by former experience that no lighter
penalty will be effeftual. For is it found upon far¬
ther experience, that capital punilhments are more
effedlual ? Was the vaft territory of all the Ruffias
worfe regulated under the late emprefs Elizabeth,
than under 'her more fanguinary predecefforsIs it
now, under Catherine II. lefs civilized, lefs focial, lefs
fecure ? And yet we are affured, that neither of thefe
illuftrious princeffes have, throughout their whole ad- Crime ah!
miniftration, infli&ed the penalty of death : and the
latter has, upon full perfuafion of its being ufelefs, nay ,
even pernicious, given orders for abolifliing it entire- *
ly throughout her extenfive dominions. But indeed;
were capital punifliments proved by experience to be
a fare and effectual remedy, that would not prove the
neceffity (upon which the juftice and propriety de¬
pend) of inflicling them upon all occafions When other
expedients fail. It is feared this reafoning would ex¬
tend a great deal too far. For inftance, the damage
done to our public roads by loaded waggons is univer-
fally allowed, and many laws have been made to pre¬
vent it, none of which have hitherto proved effe&ual.
But it does not therefore follow, that it would be juft
for the legiflature to infliift death upon every obllinatc
carrier, who defeats or eludes the proviiions of for¬
mer ftatutes. Where the evil to be prevented is not
adequate to the violence of the preventive, a fovereign
that thinks ferioufly can never juftify fuch a law to the
didlates of confcience and humanity. To Ihed the
blood of our fellow-creature is a matter that requires
the greateil deliberation, and the fulleft convi&ion of
our own authority: for life is the immediate gift of God
to man ; which neither he can refign, nor can it be ta¬
ken from him, unlefs by the command or permiffion of
him who gave it, either exprefsly revealed, or colle&ed
from the laws of nature or fociety by clear and indifpu-
table demonftration.
We would not be underftood to deny the right of
the legiflature in any country to inforce its own laws
by the death of the tranfgreffor, though perfons of
fome abilities have doubted it; but only to fuggeft a
few hints for the confideratiou of fuch as are, or may
hereafter become, legiflators. When a queftion a-
rifes, whether death may be lawfully inflidled for
this or that tranfgreffiou, the' wifdom of the law*
muft decide it: and to this public judgment or deci-
lion ail private judgments muft fubmit; elfe there
is an end of the firft principle of all fociety and go¬
vernment. The giiilt of blood, if any, muft lie at
their doors, who mifmterpret the extent of their war¬
rant ; and not at the doors of the fubjeA, who is
bound to receive the interpretations that are given by
the fovereign power.
2. As to the end, or final caufe, of human puniffi-
ments. This is not by way of atonement or expia¬
tion for the crime committed ; for that muft be left to
the juft determination of the Supreme Being: but as a
precaution againft future offences of the fame kind.
This is effected three ways: either by the amend¬
ment of the offender himfelf; for which purpofe all
corporeal punifliments, fines, and temporary exile or
imprifonment, are inflicted: or, by deterring others
by the dread of his example from offending in the like
way, “ U/ plena (as Tally expreffes it) ad paucos,
“ me‘us ad omnes, perveniat; which gives rife to all
ignominious punifhments, and to fuch executions of
juitice as are open and public : or, laftly, by depriving
the party injuring of the power to do "future mif-
chief; which is effefted by either putting him to
death, or condemning him to perpetual confinement,
flavery, or exile. The fame one end, of preventing
future crimes, is endeavoured to be anfwered by each
of thefe three fpecies of punifliment. The public gains
3^2 equal
C R I
Crime and equal fecurity, whether the offender himfelf be a-
^meru" nien^e<^ ^7 wholefome correftion, or whether he be
» difabled from doing any farther harm : and if the pe¬
nalty fails of both thefe effefts, as it may do, ftill the
terror of his example remains as a warning to other
citizens. The method, however, of infli&ing punifh-
ment ought always to be proportioned to the particu¬
lar purppfe it is meant to ferve, and by no means to
exceed it: therefore the pains of death, and perpetual
difability by exile, flavery, or imprifonment, ought ne¬
ver to be inflidled, but when the offender appears in¬
corrigible : which may be collected either from a re¬
petition of minuter offences; or from the perpetration
of fome one crime of deep malignity, which of itfelf
demonftrates a difpofition without hope or probability
of amendment: and in fuch cafes it would be cruelty to
the public to defer the punifhment of fuch a criminal
till he had an opportunity of repeating perhaps the
word, of villanies.
3. As to the meafure of human punilhments. From
what has been obferved in the former articles we may
colleft, that the quantity of punilhment cart never be
abfolutely determined by any Handing invariable rule;
but it muff be left to the arbitration of the legiflature
to inflict fuch penalties as are warranted by the laws
of nature and fociety, and fuch as appear to be thebefl.
calculated to anfwer the end of precaution againft fu¬
ture offences.
Hence it will be evident, that what fome have fo
highly extolled for its equity, the lex tallonis or “ law
of retaliation,” can never be in all cafes an adequate or
permanent rule of punifhment. In fome cafes indeed it
feems to be diftated by natural reafon ; as in the cafe
of confpiracies to do an injury, or falfe accufations of
the innocent; to which we may add that law of the
Jews and Egyptians, mentioned by Jofephus and Dio¬
dorus Siculus, that whoever without fufficient caufe
was found with any mortal poifon in his cuftody, fhould
himfelf be obliged to take it. But, in general, the
difference of perfons, place, time, provocation, or
other circumilanees, may enhance or mitigate the of¬
fence ; and in fuch cafes retaliation can never be a
proper meafure of juftice. If a nobleman ilrikes a
peafant, all mankind will fee, that if a court of juftice
awards a return of the blow, it is more than a juft
compenfation. On the other hand, retaliation may
fometimes be too eafy a fentenee ; as, if a man mali-
cioufly fhould put out the remaining eye of him who
had loft one before, it is too flight a punifhment for the
maimer to lofe only one of his: and therefore the law
of the Locrians, which demaded an eye for an eye,
was in this inflance judicioufly altered; by decreeing, in
imitation of Solon’s laws, that he who ftruck out the
eye of a one-eyed man, fhould lofe both his own in re¬
turn. Befides, there are very many crimes, that will
in no fhape admit of thefe penalties, without manifeft
abfurdity and wickednefs. Theft cannot be punifhed
by theft, defamation by defamation, forgery by for¬
gery, adultery by adultery, and the like. And we
may add, that tfyofe inftances, wherein retaliation ap¬
pears to be ufed, even by the divine authority, do not.
really proceed upon the rule of exa£I retribution, by
doing to the criminal the fame hurt he has done to his
neighbour, and^feo more ; but this correfpondence be¬
tween the crime and punifhment is barely a confe-
C R I
quence from fomc other principle. Death is ordered Crime an<5
to be punifhed with death ; not becaufe one is equiva- PunHh-
lent to the other, for that would be expiation, and not mcilt‘ f
punifhment. Nor. is death always an equivalent for W
death : the execution of a needy dccrepid affaffin is a
poor fatisfa&ion for the death of a nobleman in the
bloom of his youth, and full enjoyment of his friends,
his honours, and his fortune. But the reafon upon
which this fentence is grounded feems to be, that
this is the higheft penalty that man can infltft, and
tends moft to the fecurity of the world; by remo¬
ving one murderer from the earth, and fetting a dread¬
ful example to deter others: fo that even this grand
inftance proceeds upon other principles than thofe of
retaliation. And truly, if any meafures of punifhment
is to be taken from the damage fuftained by the fuf-
ferer, the punifhment ought rather to exceed than
equal the injury: fince it feems contrary to reafon and-
equity, that the guilty (if convidled) fhould fuffer no
more than the innocent has done before him ; efpeci-
ally as the fuffering of the innocent is paft and irrevo¬
cable, that of the guilty is future, contingent, and liable
to be efcaped or evaded. With regard indeed to crimes
that are incomplete, which confift merely in the in¬
tention, and are not yet carried into a&, as confpira¬
cies and the like ; the innocent has a chance to fruftrate
or avoid the villany, as the ,confpirator has alfo a
chance to efcape his punifhment: and this may be one
reafon why the lex talionis is more proper to be in¬
flicted,, if at all, for crimes that confift in intention,,
than for fuch as are carried into aCt. It feems indeed
confonant to natural reafon, and has therefore been
adopted as a maxim by feveral theoretical writers, that
the punifhment, due to the crime of which one falfely.
accufes another, fhould be inflicted on the perjured in¬
former. Accordingly, when it was once attempted-
to introduce into England the law of retaliation, it wan
intended as a punifhment for fuch only as preferred;
malicious accufations againft others; it being ena&ed by
ftatute 37 Edw. III. c. 18. that fuch as preferred any
iuggeftions to the king’s great council fhould put ioi
fureties of taliation; that is, to incur the fame pain
that the other fhould have had, in cafe the luggeftioo.
were found untrue. But, after one year’s experience,
this punifhment of taliation was rejected, and imprifon-
ment adopted-in its Head.
But though from what has been faid it appears, that
there cannot be any regular determinate method of
rating the quantity of punifhments for crimes, by any
one^uniform rule ; but they muft be referred to the will
and diferetion of the legiflative power : yet there are
fome general principles, drawn from the nature and cir-
cumftances of the crime, that may be of fome affiftance
in allotting it an adequate punifhment.
As, firft, with regard to the objed of it: for the
greater and more exalted the objedt of an injury is,
the more care fhould be taken to prevent that injury,,,
and of courfe under this aggravation the punifhment
fhould be more fevere- Therefore treafon in con-
fpiring the king’s death is (in Britain) punifhed with
greater rigour than even aftually killing any pri¬
vate fubjed. And yet, generally, a defign to tranf-
grefs is not fo flagrant an enormity as the a&ual
completion of that defign. For evil, the nearer we
approach, it,, is the more difagreeable and fhocking
[ 548 ]
G R I
erime and f0 that it requires more obftinaey in wickednefs to
Pmwfli. perpetrate an unlawful adion, than hardy to enter*
tain the thought of it: and it is an encouragement
to repentance and remorfei even till the laft ftage of
any crime, that it never is too late to retrad ; and that
if a man flops even here, it is better for him than if
he proceeds: for which reafons an attempt to rob, to
ravifh, or to kill, is far lefs penal than the a&ual rob¬
bery, rape, or murder. But in the cafe of a treafonable
confpiracy, the objed whereof is the king’s majefly,
the bare intention wull deferve the higheft degree of
feverity : not becaufe the intention is equivalent to
the ad itfelf; but becaufe the greateft rigour is no
more than adequate to a treafonable purpofe of the
heart, and there is no greater left to inflid upon the
adual execution itfelf.
Again : The violence of paffion, or temptation, may
fometimes alleviate a crime ; as theft, in cafe of hunger,
is far more worthy of compaffion, than when commit¬
ted through avarice, or to fupply one in luxurious ex-
Ceffes. To kill a man upon fudden and violent refent-
ment is lefs penal than upon cool deliberate malice. The
age, education, and charader,of the offender; the re¬
petition (or otherwife) of the offence ; the time, the
place, the company wherein it was committed ; all
thefe, and a thoufand other incidents, may aggravate
or extenuate the crime (a).
Farther: As punifliments are chiefly intended for the
prevention of future crimes, it is but reafonable that
among crimes of different natures thofe fhould be moll
feverely punifhed, which are the moll deftrudive of
the public fafety and happinefs; and, among crimes of
an equal malignity, thofe which a man has the moft
frequent and eafy opportunities of committing, which
cannot be fo eafily guarded againft as others, and
which therefore the offender has the llrongefl induce¬
ment to commit: according to what Cicero obferves,
Ea funt animadvertencla peccata maxime, qua dtfficillinie
pracaventur. Hence it is, that for a fervant to rob his
mailer is in more cafes capital than for a ftranger. If
a fervant kills his mafter, it is a fpecies of treafon ; in
another it is only murder. To fteal a handkerchief, or
other trifle of above the value of twelvepence, privately
from one’s perfon, is made capital; but to carry off a
load of corn from an open field, though of fifty times
greater value, is punifhed with tranfportation only.
And in the ifland of Man this rule was formerly carried
fo far, that to take away an horfe or an ox was there
no felony, but a trefpafs, becaufe of the difficulty in
that little territory to conceal them or carry them off:
but to Ileal a pig or a fowl, which is eafily done, was
a capital mifdemeanour,: and the offender was punilhed
with death.
Laflly, as a conclufion to the whole, we may ob-
ferve, that punifhments of unreafonable feverity, efpe*
daily when indiferiminately inflided, have lefs effeft
in preventing crimes, and amending the manners of a
people, than fuch as are more merciful in general, yet
properly intermixed with due diflindions of feverity.
C R, I
It is the fentiment of an ingenious writer, w-ho feems Came and
to have well fludied the fprings of human adion, that
crimes are more effedually prevented by the certainty r
than by the feverity of punifhment; for the exceflive
feverity of laws (fays Montefquieu) hinders their exe¬
cution. When the punifhment furpaffes all meafure,
the public will frequently prefer impunity to it. Thus
alfo the (latute i Mar. ft. i. c. i. recites in its pre¬
amble, “ that the ftate of every king confifls more af-
furedly in the love of the fubjed towards their prince,
than in the dread of laws made wdth rigorous pains ;
and that laws made for the prefervation of the com¬
monwealth without great penalties, are more often
obeyed and kept than laws made w'ith extreme punifli-
ments.” Happy had it been for the nation if the fub-
fequent pradice of that deluded princefs in matters of
religion, had been correfpondent to thefe fentiments
of herfelf and parliament in matters of ftate and go¬
vernment ! We may further obferve, that fanguinary
laws are a bad fymptom of the diftemper of any Hate,
or at leafl of its weak conllitution. The laws of the
Homan kings, and the twelve tables of the decemviri,
were full of cruel punifhments: the Porcian law, which
exempted all citizens from fentence of death, filently
abrogated them all. In this period the republic flou-
rifhed: under the emperors fevere punifhments were
revived, and then the empire fell.
It is, moreover, abfurd and impolitic to apply the'
fame punifhment to crimes of different malignity. A
multitude of fanguinary laws (befxdes the doubt that
may be entertained concerning the right of making
them) do likewife prove a manifefl defed either in the-
wifdom of the legiflative, or the flrength of the exe¬
cutive, power. It is a kind of quackery in govern¬
ment, and argues a want of folid Ikill, to apply the
fame univerfal remedy, the uliimum fupplkium, to every
cafe of difficulty. It is, it muff be owned, much eafler
_to extirpate than to amend mankind ; yet that magi-
flrate mufl be efleemed both a weak and a cruel fur-
geon, who cuts off every limb which through igno¬
rance or indolence he will not attempt to cure. It has
been.therefore ingenioufly propofed, that in everyflate
a fcale of crimes fhould he formed, with a correfpond-
ing fcale of punifhments, defeending from the greatefl
to the leaft. But if that be too romantic an idea, yet
at leafl a wife legiflator will mark the principal divi-
fions, and not afiign penalties of the firfl degree to of¬
fences of an inferior rank. Where men fee no diftinc-
tion made in the nature and gradations of piyiifhment,
the generality will be led to conclude there is no di-
ftin&ion in the guilt. Thus in France the punifhment
of robbery, either with or without murder, is the fame;
hence it is, that though perhaps they are therefore
fuhjedl to fewer robberies, yet they never rob but
they alfo murder. In China murderers are cut to pie¬
ces, and robbers not: hence in that country they never
murder on the highway, though they often rob. And
in Britain, befides the additional terrors of a fpeedy
execution, and a fubfequent expofure or diffedlion,
robbers
C 549 1
(a) Thus Demoflhenes (in his oration againft Midias) finely works up the aggravations of the infults he
had received. “ I was abufed (fays he) by my enemy, in cold blood, out of malice, not by heat of
“ wine, in the morning, publicly, before ftrangers as well as citizens; and that in the temple, whither
the duty of my office called me.”
C R I [ 550 ] G R I
robbers have a hope of tranfportation, which fddom
is extended to murderers. This has the fame effect
here as in China, in preventing frequent afl'afiination
and flaughter.
Yet though in this inifance we may glory in the
wifdom of our law, we fKall.find it more difficult to
juflify the frequency of capital punifhment to be found
therein; inflifted (perhaps inattentively) by a multi¬
tude of fucceffive independent ftatutes, upon crimes
very different in their natures. It is a melancholy
truth, that among the variety of aftions which men
are daily liable to commit, ilo lefs than 160 have been
declared by aft of parliament to be felonies without
benefit of clergy ; or, in other words, to be worthy
of inflant death. So dreadful a lift, inftead of diminifh-
ing, increafes the number of offenders. The injured,
through compaffion, will often forbear to profecute ;
juries, through compaffion, will fometimes forget their
oaths, and either acquit the guilty or mitigate the na¬
ture of the offence; and judges, through compaffion,
will refpite one half of the convifts, and recommend
them to the royal mercy. Among fo many chances of
efcaping, the needy and hardened offender ovet looks the
multitude that fuffer : he boldly engages in fome de-
fperate attempt to relieve his wants or fupply his vices;
and if unexpeftedly the hand of juftice overtakes him,
he deems himfelf peculiarly unfortunate in'falling at laft;
a facrifice to thofe laws which long impunity has taught
him to contemn.
As to the trials and mode of punifhment, fee Ar¬
raignment; Trial, and the references therefrom;
Convection; Judgment; Attainder; Corruption
ofBloodi Forfeiture; Execution; thefeveralCtoW*
under their refptftive names; and Law, Part II. exxii.
el feq. and Part III. clxxxvi.
Perfons capable or incapable of committing Crimes ; or
(which is all one) of fufferiug the cenfures of the law
upon the commifiion of forbidden afts.
Ail the feveral pleas and excufes which proteft the
committer of a forbidden aft fi;om the punifhment
which is cthervvife annexed thereto, may be reduced
to this Cngle confideration, the want or defeft of will.
An involuntary aft, as it has no claim to merit, fo
neither can it induce any guilt: the concurrence of
the will, when it has its choice either to do or to avoid
the faft in queftion, being the only thing that renders
human aftions either praifeworthy or culpable. In¬
deed, to make a complete crime, cognizable by human
laws, there muft be both a will and an aft. For
though, in foro confcientia, a fixed defign or will to
do an unlawful aft is almoft as heinous as the commif-
fion of it; yet as no temporal tribunal can fearch the
heart, or fathom the intentions of the mind, otherwife
than as they are demonftrated. by outward aftions, it
therefore cannot punifh for what it cannot know. For
which reafon, in all temporal jurifdiftions, an overt aft,
or fome open evidence of an intended crime, is ne-
ceffary in order to demonflrate the depravity of the
will, before the man is liable to punifhment. And as
a vitious will without a vitious aft is no civil crime}
fo, on the other hand, an unwarrantable aft without
a vitious will is no crime at all. So that to conflitute
a crime againft human laws, there muft be, firft, a vi¬
tious will; and, fecondly, an unlawful aft confequent
upon fuch vitious will.
Now there $re three cafes in which the will does Crimea,
not join with the aft: 1. When there is a defeft of v—**"
underftanding. For where there is ho difeernment,
there is no choice ; and where there is no choice,
there can be no aft of the will, which is nothing elfe ,
but a determination of one’s choice to do or to ab-
ftain from a particular aftion : he, therefore, that has
no underflanding, can have no will to guide his con-
duft. 2. Where there is underftanding and will iuf-
ficient rdiding in the party, but not called forth and
exerted at the time of the aftion done ; which is the
cafe of all offences committed by chance or ignorance.
Here the will fits neuter, and neither concurs with the
aft nor difagrees to it. 3. Where the aftion is Con-
ftrained by fome outward force and violence. Here
the will counterafts the deed ; and is fo far from con¬
curring with, that it loaths and difagrees to what the
man is obliged to perform. Infancy, idiocy, lunacy',
and intoxication, fall under the firft clafs 5 misfortune
and ignorance may be referred to the fecond; and
compulfion or necelfity may properly rank in the third.
{See Infancy, Idiocy, Drunkenness, Misfor¬
tune, Ignorance, Necessity.
CP^IMEA, or Crim Tartary, anciently the Cher*
fonefus Taurida, a peninfula fituated direftly to the fouth
of St Peterfburg, between the 51ft and 55th degrees
of latitude, and in 46 of longitude. Its fouthern and
weftern coafts lie in the Euxine, its northern and eaft-
ern in the Rotten Sea and the Pains Mseotis. It is
joined, however, to the continent on th? north by a
fmall neck of land not more than fix miles broad. This
peninfula has been known more than 3000 years fince
the firft. naval expedition of the Argonauts ; a ftory,
though mixed with fable, yet well founded in its prin¬
cipal fafts. The mountainous parts were inhabited by
the Tauri, probably a colony of Scythians; and its
coafts on the weft, the eaft, and the fouth, by Greeks.
The Scythians were driven out by Mithridates; the
Greeks by the Sarmatians; and thefe again by the
Alani and Goths, a northern hord of Scythians. The
Hungarians, the Coffacks, and Tartars, fucceeded in
their turn; while the Genoefe, in the 12th centiiry,
held a temporary and precarious pofi’tffion of the fea-
pons, which they were obliged to yield to the Turks
in 1475. At the peace of 1774, the Tartars of the
Crimea were declared independent; and in 1783, this
peninfula was united to the Ruffian empire.
From the above-mentioned tfthmus, on which is
built the fortrefs of Or-kapi or Perekop, to the firft
rifing of .the hill at Karafubafar, the country is one
continued fiat; elevating itfelf, by an eafy gradation,
to the fummit of the hill, which forms the fouth fide
of the peninfula and the fhore of the Euxine Sea.
The furface of the foil is almoft all of one kind, a red-
difh-grey loam ; on digging, you find it more or lefs
mixed with a black earth, and the hills abound with
marie. The whole flat, from Perekop to the river
Salgir, which may be an extent of 80 miles, is full of
fait marfhes and lakes; from whence the neighbouring
Ruffian governments, as well as the Crim itfelf, Ana¬
tolia, and Beffarabia, are fupplied with fait. The
molt remarkable of thefe lakes are five in number:
Koflof and KefFa, fo called after the towns near which
they, he, are very large; the Tufla, about ijverftg
from Perekop, on the road from Keffa; the Red Lake,
cut L 551 1 C R I
Crimea. n®t far from the lift mentioned 5 and the Black Lake.
Befides thefe, there are many other fwamps and lakes,
from whence the inhabitants get fait for their own con-
fumption.
The greataft part of the peninfula is fo level that a
man may travel over the half of it without meeting
with a river, or even the fmalleft brook. The inhabi¬
tants of the villages, therefore, make a pit in the yard
of every houfe for receiving the rain or the water that
runs from the hills. The whole traiSl is bare of every
kind of tree. Not a bulh or a bramble is to be feen,
and the herbage is extremely fcanty. This, however,
does not proceed fo much from the unfruitfulnefs of
the place, as from the vaft herds of cattle which rove
the whole year long from place to place ; by which
means all the grafs in fpring, fummer, or autumn, no
fooner appears through the long drought which fucceeds
the rainy feafon, but it is immediately devoured or trod¬
den down. The unvverfal prevalence of this cuftom of
keeping cattle to wander up and down, joined to the
flothfulnefs of the Tartars, with their inaptitude and
averlion to agriculture, is the reafon of the total ne-
gledt of that fcience here. Otherwifc, were the land
divided into portions and properly managed, there
would be a fufficiency for the cattle, and the reft would
be fruitful in corn and grain. By this means alone
the Crim would become a fertile country, and no na¬
tural defeat would be found in oppoiition to the wel¬
fare of its inhabitants; The truth of this is well known
by their neighbours; where, of a hundred Tartars,
one perhaps follows hufbandry, who finds it to anfwer
to fo much profit, that he has not only enough for his
own ufe, but wherewith to fell to the ninety-nine.
This peninfula, which is indeed but a little diftrift,
yet, from the many advantage? conferred upon it by
nature, may be elteemed peculiarly rich, is divided in¬
to the hilly country and the flat. The latter, which
extends from Perekop to Koflofand the river Bulganak,
to Karafubafar, Keffa, and Ytnicali, is ftrewn here
and there with little Tartar villages, maintained by
cattle and the produce of the fait lakes. The high¬
lands, or hilly country, form the fouthern part of the
Crim, along the ftraight coaft of the Black Sea, and
ttretching weftward, in a right line from KefFa, to the
vicinity of Belbek. Thefe hills are compofed of lay¬
ers of chalk ; which, in the headlands and promonto¬
ries, is foft, but more inland quite hard. The ftrata
of the higheft hills are like thofe of the promontories,
and take a dire&ion from north to fouth. Thefe qua¬
lities of the ftrata prevail not throughout the whole
hills, but only in the large and lofty ones; fuch as the
two that rife near Karafubafar, and one very high by
Achmetfched, which bears the name of Aktau. The
other fmaller hills lie fcattcred and difperfed, but take
the names of the greater ones, to which they feem to
belong; as the great ridge of Caucafus does, which
extends beyoud the Donau, through Bulgaria, and are
named Palkahs.
All accounts agree in this, that nature has favoured
thefe highland countries with great advantages, and
blcfled them with abundance of all things. A number
of fprings that flow from the mountains form the two
confiderable rivers Salgir and Karafu, which run into
the Rotten Sea. The former, which takes its rife
from a cavern in a high hill near Achmetfched, falls
ftraight into the plain below, and waters a great part Crimea.
of the Crim ; the other, commencing behind Karafu- -
bafar, falls likewife into the plain, and mingles with
the Salgir. There are many other little riveis and
ftreams, which run eaftward, and either join the two
forementioned, or fall immediately into the Rotten
Sea. All the ftreams, for the whole length of the
hills, which begin at Keffa, and proceed in a chain of
the fame height, flow to the north or the north-eaft,
excepting the one behind Achmetfched, where the
great mountain Aktau is, which falls on the other fide:
this river, rifing on the northern fide of this mountain,,
flows, as was before obferved, towards the north-eaft,
to the Salgir and the Rotten Sea ; as likewife thofe
which fpring on the weftern fide, take their courfe
weftward to the Bulganak, and thence ftraight to the
Black Sea ; which alfo receives all the other little ri¬
vers that arife from thefe hills, as the Amma, the
Katfcha, the Belbek, the Kafulkioi, &c.
The mountains are well covered with woods fit for
the purpofe of fhip building, and contain plenty of
wild beatts. The valleys confilt of fine arable land; on
the lldes of the hills grow corn and vines in great
abundance, and the earth is rich in mines. But thefe
mountaineers are as carelefs and negligent as the inha¬
bitants of the deferts ; flighting all thefe advantages ;
and, like their brethren of the lowlands, are fufficiently
happy if they are in poffeflion of a fat flreep and as
much bread as ferves them to eat.
About 20 years ago this peninfula was uncommonly
full of inhabitants and wealth. They reckoned at that
time at leaft 1200 villages; but, from the late troubles
in the Crim, it has loft more than a third part of its
inhabitants; and now, wherever we turn, we meet with
the ruins of large villages and dwellings. The people
were compofed of various nations, who lived together
under the Tartars in the moft unbopnded freedom; but
in the late Turkifti war they either put themfelves un¬
der the Ruffian government, and were transferred to
that empire, or fled to Abcafia and the Tfchirkaffian
hills.
The houfes in the towns, as well as the villages,,
are for the moft part of fquare timbers, having the in-
terftlcea filled with brick work, if the poffeffor can af¬
ford it, and thofe of the poorer fort with turf. The-
chinks and crannies are made tight with clay, and then*
plaftered within and without. The covering is com¬
monly either of brick or of turfs. Only the medcheds^
minarets, and baths, are of ftone, and a few extreme¬
ly handfome of marble. They have chimnies in the:
chambers, at which they likewife drefs their viauals ;
but ftoves in the Ruffian manner none. In extreme
frofts a great iron pan of charcoal is brought into the
room, for making it comfortable. Their cuitom is,
to fit upon low fofas, with Turkiffi coverings and cu-
fhions, or upon a clay feat, fomewhat raifed above the
earth, and fpread with a carpet. In thefe rooms are
cupboards and chefts, often covered with cufliions, to
ferve as feats; in which they keep their gold, filver,,
and valuables. Such are the inner apartments or ha-
rams, in which the women generally live; the others,
are not fo fine. Thefe contain only a fofa, or a bank
of clay covered with a carpet, as in the chimney
rooms.
Tile rich Tartars, and their nobility or murzas (ex-
c.pting
G R I
[ 552 1
C R I
cepting only fuch as are about the pet-fon of the khan),
J commonly dwell all the year round in the country,
coming only to town when they have bufmefs there.
There are but few towns in the Cnm, at lead in com-
parifon of its former population. The Krimfkoi Tar¬
tars have no tribunal of juftice, controverfies and quar¬
rels being feldom heard of among them ; and if a dif-
pute (hould arife, it is immediately fettled by an appeal
to the Koran. Little differences in the villages inevi¬
tably happening about property, .or other matters not
taken notice of in that code, are amicably adjufted by
the eldermen or abefes; but in the towns all weighty
concerns, excepting the Angle cafe of murder or homi¬
cide, are brought before the kaimakan or command¬
ant, who fettles them abfolutely without appeal.
The refidence of the khans of the Crimea was for¬
merly Bachtfchifarai, in which city they held their feat
for upwards of 200 years. They went thither from
Efki-Crim, or Old Crim, the capital city of the Ge-
noefe, upon Bengli Ghireikhan’s plundering the fea-
ports, and driving all the Genoefe from their ftations.
Before Efki-Crim, and indeed upon the firft coming
of the Tartars into this peninfula, the fovereign refi-
dence was at Koflof; but here they remained not long.
Under the late khan Shagin Ghirei it was held at Kef-
fa, the ancient Theodofia; which is 10 miles diftant
from Elki-Crim, faid to be the Cimmerium of the an¬
cients.
The principal cities or towns of the Crimea are:
I. Bachtfchi-Sarai, an extenfive and wealthy city, ly¬
ing in a vale between two high mountains, and fur-
rounded by a number of gardens. From this circum-
ftance it has its name ; baebtfehi fignifying in the Tar¬
tarian language “ a garden,” and farai “ a palace.”
It formerly contained 3000 houfes, and many fumptu-
ous medfeheds. The palace of the khans, with its
gardens and ponds, were much improved under the go¬
vernment of Khan Kerim Girei, under whofe govern¬
ment the laft. Turkilh war took its rife. In this palace
is the burial place of all the khans of Crimea, wherein
all the khans that have reigned here lie interred. The
fine Krimlkoi vines, with their large clufters of grapes,
grow in great plenty all about this town, and a profu-
fion of other delicious fruits, from whence the neigh¬
bouring parts of Ruffia are fupplied. 2. Keffa, the
from Turkey. The late khan, an intelligent and en- (
lightened perfonage, made this city the place of his re-
fidenee, and brought hither the mint horn Bachtfchi¬
farai, built himfelf a palace, and ere&ed a divan, which
alfembled three times a-week, and the fourth time was
held in the palace of the khan, in which he always
perfonally affifted. _ Here is alfo a cuftomhoufe, the
management of which is farmed out. 3. Karafubafar,
likewife a very rich city in former times. Hands at the
beginning of the mountains, about half-way between
Keffa and Baohtfchifarai. It is a large trading town ;
contains a confiderable number of dwellirig-houfes and
medfeheds, but the greateft part of them in decay, and
many fine gardens. This place is the molt famous in
all the Crim for its trade in horfes, and has a market
once a-week for that article of traffic; to which are
liktwife brought great numbers of buffaloes, oxen,
cows, camels, and Iheep, for fale. Near this city flows
one of the principal rivers of the Crim, called the Ka-
rafu, that is, the Black Water. Of this river they
have an opinion in Ruffia, that one part of it flows
upwards for feveral verfts together. But this is in fome
fort true, not only of the Karafu, but of all the rivers
of the Crim that have a ftrong current. The Tartars,
who dwell either in the valleys or on the lides of the
mountains (frequently without confidering whether the
place is fupplied with water or not), dig canals either
from the fource of the next river, or from that part of
it which lies neareft to their particular habitation, about
an arfhine in breadth, for their gardens and domeftic
ufe. From thefe they cut fmaller ones through the
villages, to fupply them with water, and not unfre-
quently to drive a mill. Thefe canals appear, to the
imagination of the common people, to run in a con¬
trary direftion to the current of the river; and in fa&
thefe canals do lie, in many places for a verft in length,
fome fathoms higher than the'level of the ftream from
whence they are fupplied. 4. dchmetjled, a pretty
large city not far from Bachtfchifarai; now made the
capital of all the Crimea by the regulations of Prince
Potemkin in the fummer of 1783. 5. Kojlof, for¬
merly a very confiderable trading town, lies on the
we {tern fide of the peninfula, ip a bay of the Black
Sea ; which, as well as the found at Keffa, might ra¬
ther be called a road than a haven. This was the hrll
prefent refidence of the khans, Hands on the Ihore of town the Tartars poffeffed themfelves of on their firll
a large harbour in the Black Sea. Its fite is on the entrance into the Crim, and eHablilhed a cuflomhoufe
declivity of a long ridge of mountains; and is mantled therein, after the example of the Genoefe, which is now
by a Hone wall, fortified by feveral towers, and encom- farmed out.
“ * ” ’ ^ r ' ‘ The other remarkable places are, Sudab, which is
built on the hills upon the Ihore of the Black Sea, at
the fouth fide of the peninfula, and is famous for its
excellent wine, refembling Champaigne both in colour
and Hrength; Alujchn, on the lame fide, among the
hills on the fea-fhore; Baluklava, w'here there is a fine
v only the veHiges remain. The cafiles and towers harbour, and perhaps the only one on the Black Sea,
paffed by a deep ditch. On both fides of the city for¬
merly Hood caflles, and in the middle of them a lofty
turret for the purpofe of giving fignals by fire. Before
the wall were wide extended fuburbs; containing,
among other confiderable buildings, medfeheds, church-
s for the Greek and Armenian worfhip ; of all which
lie alfo in ruins; and not one third part of the houfes
of the city itfelf ate now remaining, and thofe chiefly
built of materials taken from the aforefaid ruins. They
containing ample room for a very good fleet; Inkerman
may be noticed for its commodious though not very
large haven, called and Mangup, the old Cher-
formerly reckoned Keffa to contain 4000 houfes, in- fonefus: which were all formerly very flourilhing
eluding the fuburbs, with a number of medfeheds and    — : J ■
ChriHian churches; but this number has been much
•diminilhed by the laff Turkifli war. The prefentinha-
bitants confiff moHly of Tartars; who carry on a trade
by no means inconfiderable, in commodities brought tars, in taking them, demoliflied all the works. While
towns ; but are now either in ruins, or dwindled into .
fmall villages.
All thefe places, fo long as the Genoefe remained
maffers of the Crim, were well fortified} but the Tar-
^94.
they
c R I C 553 1 G R I
Crimea they were under the Turks, they left the fortrefles of
Crinum ^e^a* Kertfch» and Koflof, and built the fort Arabat
l-. mu ' . on the neck of land between the fea of Azof (or Palua
Maeotis) and the Rotten Sea, where Perekop alfo is.
In Aralat are but few houfes; but here the warlike
ftores of the khans were kept.—Perekop, called by the
Turks Or-kapi, is a fortrefs of moderate ftrength ;
ftanding about the middle of the neck of land that
jbins the peninfula with the continent. This ifthmus,
which is at leaft fix miles broad, is cut through with a
wide and deep ditch lined with ftone, and reaches from
the Black to the Rotten Sea. This was formerly kept
without water, but now is filled from both feas. On
the Crimean fide a high wall of earth runs the whole
length of it, flraight from one fea to the other. The
people pafsover the ditch by means of a drawbridge, and
through the wall by a gateway. The walls of the for¬
trefs are fome fathoms from the road-fide; of which
the ruins are only now difcernible, namely, large brick
houfes, with a number of bomb-fhells and cannon-balls
about them, which were formerly kept in the fortrefs.
At lead two miles from this is the pretty populous but
miferable place, which was probably the town to which
this fort belonged. Near the gate is a cuftomhoufe,
where all imports and exports pay duty.
This peninfula was formerly extremely populous; the
number of its inhabitants, in Tartars, Turks, Greeks,
Armenians, Jews, and others, amounted to above
200,000 men. Since that, however, the greateft part
of the Chriftians have betaken themfelves to the other
parts of the Ruffian empire, particularly the govern¬
ment of Azof; and many other inhabitants, particu¬
larly Tartars, have gone to Taman and Abchafia; fo
that the prefent population of the Crim cannot now be
reckoned at more than 70,000 men at mod.
The Crim was heretofore divided into 24 kaduliks
or didrifts; namely, Yenikali, Kertfch, Arabat, Ef-
ki-krim, Keffa, Karafubafar, Sudak, Achmetfched,
Yalof, Bachtfchifarai, Balaklava, Mangup, Inkerman,
itoflof, Or, Manfur, Tarkan, Sivafch, Tfchongar,
Sarubulat, Barun, Argun, Sidfchugut, and Schirin.
Several of thefe diftridts are named after the town or
village wherein the murza, their governor, dwells;
and many of them are at prefent in a date of total de¬
cay.
CRIMEN falsi. See Falsi Crimen.
CRIMSON, one of the feven red colours of the
dyers. See Dyeing.
CRINGLE, a fmall hole made in the bolt-rope of
a fail, by intertwiding one of the divifions of a rope,
called a jirand, alternately round itfelf and through
the Jlrands of the bolt-rope, till it becomes threefold,
and affumes the fhape of a wreath or ring. The ufe
of the cringle is generally to contain the end of fome
rope, which is fadened thereto for the purpofe of
drawing up the fail to its yard, or of extending the
fkirts by the means of bridles, to dand upon a fide
wind. The word feems to be derived from krinckelen
(Belg.) “ to run into twills.”
. CR-INUM, asphodel-lily: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
9th order, Spathacea. The corolla is funnel-lhaped,
monopetalous, and fexpartite, with three alternate feg-
ments having hooked appendages the germen is co-
Vol. V. Part II.
vered in the bottom of the corolla, the damina dand- Crifi*
ing afunder. They are very beautiful green-houfe
plants, rifing two or three feet high, each of them /rit mutn;
crowned by a large umbellate chiller of fpathaceous,
monopetalous, long funnel-lhaped flowers, blue, white,
or driped, having a very fragrant fmell. They are pro¬
pagated by off-fets.
CRISIS, in medicine, is ufed in different fenfes, both
by the ancient and modern phyficianss With fome it
means frequently no more than the excretion of any
noxious fubdance from the body. Others take the
word for a fecretion of the noxious humours made in
a fever. Others ufe it for the critical motion itfelf;
and Galen defines a crifis in fevers, a fudden and in-
dantaneous change, either for the better or the worfe,
produdtive of recovery or death.
CRISPIN and Crispianus, two legendary faints,
whofe fedival, as marked in the kalendar, is on the
25th of Oftober. According to the legend, they
were brethren, born at Rome ; from whence they tra¬
velled to Soiffons in France, about the year 303, to
propagate the Chridian religion J and becaufe they
would not be chargeable to others for their mainte¬
nance, they exercifed the trade of Ihoemakers; but
the governor of the town difcovering them to be Chri¬
ftians, ordered them to be beheaded. From which
time the Ihoemakers made choice of them for their
tutelar faints.
CRISTAL, in furgery, a term for certain excref-
cences about the anus and pudenda. See Medicinb-
Index.
CRISTA galli, in anatomy, an eminence in the
middle of the os ethmoides, advancing within the cavity
of the cranium ; and to which is faftened that part of
the dura mater which divides the brkin, called falx.
It has its name from its figure, which refembles that
of a cock’s comb. In adults, this procefs appears of
a piece with the feptum narium.
CRITERION, or Criterium, a dandard by
which propofitions and opinions are compared, in or¬
der to difcover their truth or falfehood.
CRITHE, in furgery, commonly called theJlye, is
a fort of tubercle that grows on the eye-lids. When
fmall, it is feated on the edge of Use eye-lid ; but when
large, it fpreads further. When they do not fuppu*
rate, they become wens. They are apt to difappear
and return. If there is inflammation, endeavour to
fuppurate it with the white-bread poultice : if it is
hard, deftroy it with a mixture of equal parts of hog’s *
lard and quickfilver. If the lower eye-lid is affefted,
the tumor is more frequently on its infide ; and then
it is beft to diffedt it, or to make way for it outwardly
by applying a caudic on the fkin juft upon it.
CRITHMUM, samphire : A genus of the digy-
nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 45th or¬
der, Umbellate. The fruit is oval and comprefttd, the
florets equal. There are two fpecies, the principal of
which is the maritimum, or common maritime fam-
phire. It hath a fibrous penetrating root; thick, fuc-
culent, branchy ftalks rifing two feet high; winged
flelhy leaves, confiding of many fmall fpear-lhaped
lobes 5 with round yellow flowers growing in umbels.
It is produced naturally on the fea-coafts among the
gravel and rocks. Its leaves are an excellent pickle
+ A ufed
CHI [ S54 l C R I
Critfee- ufed for fauces, and are by many eaten raw in falads. principles of the fine arts, inures the refle&ing' mind
mancy Js 0f a faltilh rrliih, palatable, ami comfortable to to the moft. enticing fort of logic : the practice of
Critic ifm. t^e fiomach. It is not very ealily preferved in gar- reafoning upon /ubje&s fo agreeable tends to a habit;
dens. It mud be fown on gravelly or rocky ground, and a habit ftrengthening the reafoning faculties, pre¬
half an inch deep ; in which fituati >n the plants will pares the mind for entering into I’ubjefts more difficult
come up, and lall fome years. The leaves of this plant and abdrafl. To have, in this tefpeft, a jud con-
are faid alfo to be aperient and diuretic. ception of the importance of eritfeifm, we need but
CRITHOMANCY, a kind of divination, perform- refleft upon the common method of education ; which,
ed by confidering the dough or matter of the cakes after fome years fpent in acquiring languages, hurries
offered in facrifice, and the meal drewed over the vie us, without the lead preparatory difeipline, into the
tims to be killed. Hence, in regard they ordinarily mod profound philolophy : a more effe&ual method
ufed barley-meal in thefe ceremonies, this kind of di- to alienate the tender mind from abdraft fcience, is
vination was called crithomaney, from barley, and beyond the reach of invention : and accordingly, with
divination. refpeft to fuch fpeculations, the bulk of our youth
CRITIAS, one <jf the 30 tyrants fet over Athens conttadl a fort of hobgoblin terror, which is fildom,
by the Spartans. He was eloquent and well bred, but if ever, fubdued. Thofe who apply to the arts are
of dangerous principles. He cruelly perfecuted his. trained in a very different manner : they are led, ftep
enemies and put them to death. He was killed about by dep, from the caller parts of the operation to
400 years before the Anguftan age, in a battle againd what are more difficult ; and are not permitted to
thofe citizens whom his oppreffion had banifhed. He make a new motion till they be perfected iri thofe
had been among , the difciples of Socrates, and had which regularly precede it. The fcience of critieifm
written elegies and other compofitions, of which fome appears then to be a middle link, connecting the dif-
fragments remain. ferent parts of education into a regular chain. This
CRITICAL days and symptoms, among phyfici- fcience furnilheth an inviting opportunity to exercife
ans, are certain days and fymptoms in the courfe of the judgment: we delight to reafon upon fubjedts that
acute difeafes, which indicate the patient’s date, and are equally pleafant and familiar; we proceed gradu-
determine him either to recover or grow worfe. See ally from the Ampler to the more involved cafes: and
MEDiciNE-Zwr/fx. in a due courfe of difeipline, cudom, which improves
CRITICISM, the art of judging with proprietycon- all our faculties, bedows acutenefs upon thofe of rea-
cerning any object or combination of obje&s. But, fon, fufficient to unravel all the intricacies of philo-
in a more limited fenfe, the fcience of criticifm is con- fophy.
lined to the fine arts. The principles of the fine arts Nor ought it to be overlooked, that the reafonings
are bed unfolded by dudying the fenlltive part of our employed upon the fine arts are of the fame kind with
nature, and by learning what objedis are naturally a- thole which regulate our condudi. Mathematical and
greeable and what are naturally difagreeable. The^ metaphyfical reafonings have no tendency to improve
man who afpires to be a critic in thefe arts, mud focial intercourfe ; nor are they applicable to the com-
pierce dill deeper : he mud clearly perceive what ob- mon affairs of life : but a jud tade in the fine arts, de-
jedis are lofty, what low, what are proper or impro- rived from rational principles, furnilhes elegant fub-
per, what are manly, and what are mean or trivial, jedts for converfation, and prepares us finely for adting
Hence a foundation for judging of tade, and for rea- in the focial date with dignity and propriety,
foning upon it : where it is conformable to principles, The fcience of rational criticifm tends to improve
we can pronounce with ceitainty that it is corredt; the heart not lefs than the underdanding. It tends,
otherwife, that it is incorredf, and perhaps vvhimfical. in the fird place, to moderate the ftlfilh affedfions: by
Thus the fine arts, like morals, become a rational fei- fweetening and harmonizing the temper, it is a drong
ence; and, like morals, may be cultivated to a high antidote to the turbulence of paffion and violence of
degree of refinement. purfuit; it procures to a man fo much mental enjoy-
Manitold are the advantages of criticifm, when thus ment, that, in order to be occupied, he is not tempted
ftudied as a rational fcience. In the fird place, a in youth to precipitate into hunting, gaming, drinking }.
* thorough acquaintance with the principles of the fine nor in middle-age, to deliver himfelf over to ambition j
arts redoubles the entertainment thefe arts afford. To nor in old age, to avarice. Pride and envy, two dif-
the man who refigns himfelf entirely to fentiment or gudful paffions, find in the conditution no enemy more
feeling, without interpofing any fort of judgment, formidable than a delicate and difeerning tade: the
poetry, mufic, painting, are mere padime ; in the prime man upon whom nature and culture have bedowed
of life, indeed, they are delightful, being fupported this bleffing, feels great delight in the virtuous difpo-
by the force of novelty and the heat of imagination fitrons and aftions of others : he loves to cheriffi them,
but they lofe their relifh gradually with their novelty ; and to publifh them to the world : faults and failings,,
and are generally neglected in'the maturity of life, it is true, are to him not lefs obvious; but thefe he
which difpofes to more ferious and more important avoids, or removes out of fight, becaufe they give him
occupations. To thofe who deal in criticifm as a re- pain. On the other hand,v a man void of tade, upon
gular fcience, governed by jud principles, and giving whom the moft linking beauties make but a faint im-
fcope to judgment as well as to fancy, the fine arts prelfion, has no joy but in gratifying his pride or en-
are a favourite entertainment ; and in old age main- vy by the difeovery of errors and blemilhes. In a
tain that relifh which they produce in the morning of word, there may be other paffions, which, far a fea-
Mfe. fon, difturb the peace of fociety more than thofe men-
In the next place, a philofophical inquiry into the tioned }. but no other paffion is fo unwearied an anta-
gonift
c R I t 555 ] G R O
Critieifm gonlft to the fw'eets of focial intercourfe : thefe paf-
Cnizel ^ons» tending.affiduoufly to their gratification, put a
lini^ * man perpetually in oppoiition to others; and difpofe
—t-- < him more to relifii bad than good qualities, even in a
companion. How different tha* difpofition of mind,
where every virtue in a companion or neighbour, is,
by refinement of tafte, fet in its ftrongell light; and
defects or blemiflies, natural to all, are fupprefled, or
kept out of view !
In the next place, delicacy of tafte tends not lefs to
invigorate the focial affections than to moderate thofe
that are felfifh. To be convinced of this tendency,
we need only reflect, that delicacy of tatte neceffarily
heightens our fenfibility of pain and pleafure, and of
courfe our fympathy, which is the capital branch of
every focial paffion. Sympathy, in particular, invites
a communication of joys and forrows, hopes hnd
fears : fuch exercife, foothing and fatisfaCtory in it-
felf, is neceffarily productive of mutual good-will and
affeCtion.
. One other advantage of rational criticifm is refer-
ved to the laft place, being of all the moft important;
which is, that it is a great fupport to morality. No
occupation attaches a man more to his duty than that
of cultivating a tafte in the fine arts: a juft relifh of
what is beautiful, proper, elegant, and ornamental, in
writing or painting, in architecture or gardening, is
a fine preparation for the fame juft relifh of thefe qua¬
lities in character and behaviour. To the man who
has acquired a tafte fo acute and accomplifhed, every
aCtion wrong or improper mult be highly difguftful:
if, in any inftance, the overbearing power of pafiion
fway him from his duty, he returns to it upon the firft
reflection, with redoubled refolution never to be fway-
ed a fecond time: he has now an additional motive
to virtue, a conviction derived from experience, that
happinefs depends on regularity and order, and that a
dhregard to juftice or propriety never fails to be pu-
nifhed with fliatne and remorfe.
For the rules of cnticifm applicable to the fine arts,
and derived from human nature, fee Architecture,
Beauty, Congruity, Comparison, Grandeur,
&c.
CRITO, an Athenian philofopher, flourifhed 400
years before Chrill. He was one of the moft zealous
difciples of Socrates, and lupplied him with whatever
he wanted. He hadfeveral fcholars who proved great
men, and he coropofed fome dialogues which are loft.
CRITOLAUS, a citizen of Tegea in Arcadia.
He with two brothers fought againft the three Ions of
Demoftratus of Pheneus, to put an end to a long war
between their refpeCtive nations. The brothers of
Critolaus were b^th killed, and he alone remained to
withftand his three bold antagonifts. He conquered
them ; and when at his return his After deplored the
death of one of his antagonifts, to whom fire was be¬
trothed, he killed her in a fit of refentment. The of¬
fence deferved capital punifhment j but he was pardon¬
ed on account of the fervices he had rendered his coun¬
try. He was afterwards general of the Achasans ^
and it is faid that he poifoned himfelf becaufe he had
been conquered at Thermopylae by the Romans, about
146 years before the Auguftan age.
CRIZZELLING, in the glafs trade, a kind of
roughnefs arifing on the furface of fome kinds of glafs.
This was the fault of a peculiar fort of glafs made in Croa-ia,
Oxfordfhire and fomc other places, of black flints, a CrocodH?.
cryftallized fand, and a large quantity of nitre, tartar,
and borax. The glafs thus made is very beautiful, but,
from the too great quantities of the falls in the mixture,
isfubjeCt to crizzel; that is, the falls iirthe mixture, from
their too great proportion, are fubjeCt, either from the
adventitious nitre of the air from without, or from warm
liquors put in them, to be either incrcaied in quantity
or diffolved, and thereby induce a fcabrities or rough¬
nefs, irrecoverably clouding the tranfparence of the
glafs. This is what was called crizzelling; but by
ufing an Italian white pebble, and abating the pro¬
portions of the faks, the manufacture is now carried
on with advantage, and the glafs made with thefe falls
is whiter than the fineft Venetian, and is fubjeCt t® no
faults.
CROATIA, a part of the ancient Illyricum, is
bounded on the eaft by Sclavonia and Bofnia, on the
fouth and fouth-weft by Morlachia, and on the north
by the Drave, which feparates it from a part of Scla¬
vonia. It is about 80 miles in length and 70 in
breadth, and was once divided between the Hunga¬
rians and Turks ; but now the greateft part of it is
fubjeCt to the houfe of Auftria. The Croats derive
their origin from the Sclavi ; and their language is a
dialed, of the Sclavonian, approaching very near to
that of the Poles. The country is divided into two
parts, viz. that under, and that beyond, the Save. In
the late wars between the emprefs queen and the king
of Pruffia, no lefs than 50,000 men were raifed out
of this fmall territory. Both horfe and foot are good
foldiers, efpecially the former. The foil, where culti¬
vated, is fruitful in wine and oil, &c. but being a fron¬
tier country, and much expofed to inroads, it is not
fo well cultivated as otherwife it might be.
CROCODILE, in zoology. See Lacerta.
Fojj'de Crocodile, one of the greateft curiolities in
the foffile world which the late ages have produced.
It is the fkeleton of a large crocodile, almoft entire,
found at a great depth under ground, bedded in ftone.
This was in the polhffion of Linkius, who wrote many
pieces of natural hiftory, and particularly an accurate
defeription of this curious foffile. It was found in the
fide of a large mountain in the midland part of Ger¬
many, and in a ftratum of black foffile ftone, fomewhat
like our common Hate, but of a coarfer texture, the
fame with that in which the foffile fifti in many parts
of the world are found. This Ikeleton had the back
and ribs very plain, and was of a much deeper black
than the reft of the ftone ; as is alfo the cafe in the
foffile fifties which are preferved in this manner. The
part of the ftone where the head lay was not found 5
this being broken eff juft at the ffioulders, but that ir¬
regularly ; fo that, in one place, a part of the back
of the head was viiible in its natural form. The two
ffioulder-bones were very fair, and three of the feet
were well preferved; the legs were of their natural
fhape and fize, and the feet prefeived even to the ex¬
tremities of the five toes of each.
Crocodile (crocodilus), in rhetoric, a captious and
fophiilical kind of argumentation, contrived to feduce
the unwary, and draw them fpecioully into a fnare. It
has its name crocodile from the following occafion, in¬
vented by the poets. A poor woman, begging a cro-
4 A 2 codile
Crocus.
C R O C 556 ] C R O
codile that had caught her fon walking by the river-
fide to fpare and reftore him, was anfwered, that he
would reftore him, provided file fliould give a true an-
fwer to a queftion he fhould propofe : the queilion was,
Will I reftore thy fon or not ? To this the poor wo¬
man, fufpedting a deceit, forrowfully anfwered, Thou
wilt not : and demanded to have him reftored, becaufe
fhe had anfwered truly. Thou lyeft, fays the croco¬
dile ; for if I reftore him, thou haft not anfwered truly:
I cannot therefore reftore him without making thy an-
fwer falfe. Under this head may he reduced the pro-
pofitions called mentientes or infoluliles; which deftroy
themfelves. Such is that of the Cretan poet: Omnes
ad unum Cretenfes femper mentiuntur : “ All the Cretans,
to a man, always lie.” Either, then, the poet lies
when he afferts that the Cretans all lie, or the Cretans
do not all lie.
CROCUS, saffron : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants; and
in the natuial method ranking under the 6th order,
Enfate. The corolla is fexpartite and equal ; the ftig-
mata convoluted or rolled fpirally inwards. Modern
botanifts allow only one fpecies of this genus, which,
however, comprehends many beautiful varieties. This
hath a fmall roundifh, brown, bulbous root, compref-
fed at the bottom. Direftly from the root iffue many
long narrow leaves, of a deep green colour ; and amidft
them che flowers all protruded from a thin univalvular
radical fpatha ; the tube of the flower is long, {land¬
ing on the root, and ferving as a foot-ftalk to the
limb or upper part, which is ereft, fix-parted, widens
gradually upward, and grows from about three to five
or fix inches high. The varieties of this fpecies may
be divided into two claffes, the autumnal and fpring
flowering.
The varieties of the firft are the crocm officinalis,
or faffron of the {hops; for the properties of which,
and its cultivation for fale, fee the article Saffron.
This hath a long-tubed bluifh purple flower, with three
ftigmata of a fine golden colour. Other varieties are
the autumnal fmall blue crocus ; deep blue, fky-blue,
whitilh blue, many flowered whitifh blue, purple,
large rufli-leaved purple, autumnal white crocus, and
autumnal yellow crocus. The varieties of the vernal
crocus are, the fmall and large, and golden yellow
crocufes, and the yellow blaek-ftriped, the yellow pur-
ple-ltriped and double cloth of gold ones'; the white,
white purple-ftriped, white purple bottom, white
black-ftriped, whitifti cream coloured, whitifh afh-co¬
loured, little narrow-leafed white, and white blue-
ftriped crocufes. Befides thefe there are a great ma¬
ny others of a blue and purple colour finely varie¬
gated.
The autumnal crocufes flower about the beginning
of Odlober, but never ripen their feeds in this coun¬
try. They are very beautiful if fown in patches in
the front-of borders, or in beds by themfelves, and ve¬
ry proper ornaments for gardens of. every extent, as
coming up at a time when moft other flowers are on
the decay. They grow freely in any kind of foil, and
may be propagated by offsets. The vernal kinds flower
in February, March, and April. They alfo are very
ornamental, and are fo hardy that they will grow al-
moft any where. They are propagated by feeds, which
the plants produce in plenty.
Crocus, in chemiftry, denotes any metal calcined Crocus
to a red or deep yellow colour. Crcefus.
Crocus Metallorum, an emetic preparation of anti- ' "11
mony and nitre. See Chemistry-A^x.
CRCESUS, the laft king of Lydia, remarkable for
his riches, his conquefts, his temporary profperity, and
the fad reverfe of his fortune. He fubdued the Phry¬
gians, Myfians, Paphlagonians, Thracians, and Cari-
ans; amaffed together immenfe riches; and became
one of the moft powerful and magnificent princes in
the world. He drew the learned to his court, and
took a pleafure in converfing with them. Thales of
Miletus, Pittacus of Mitylene, Bias of Priene, Cleo-
bulus of Lindus, and moft of the other “ wife men,”
as they are emphatically ftyled, who lived in that age,
as well as iEfop the fabulift, and the elegant Greek
poets of the times, were bountifully received at the
court of Crcefus. There is ftill on record a memorable
converfation between that prince and Solon, which
feemed to predift the fubfequent events of his reign,
and which had a late but important influence on the
chara&er and fortune of the Lydian king. Crcefus
having entertained his Athenian gueft, according to
the ancient fafhion, for feveVal days, before he afked
him any queftions, oftentatioufly {bowed him the mag¬
nificence of his palace, and particularly the riches of
his treafury. After all had been difplayed to the beft
advantage, the king complimented Solon upon his cu-
riofity and love of knowledge ; and aficed him, as a
man who had feen many countries, and reflc&ed with
much judgment upon what he had ften, Whom of all
men he efteemed moft happy ? By the particular oc-
cafion, as well as the triumphant air with which the
queftion was propofed, the king made it evident that
he expefted flattery rather than information. But So¬
lon’s character had not been enervated by the debilita- t
ting air of a court ; and he replied with a manly free¬
dom, “ Tellus, the Athenian.” Croefus, who had
fcarcely learned to diftinguiflt, even in imagination,
between wealth and happinefs, inquired with a tone of
furprife, why this preference to Tellus ? “ Tellus,”
rejoined Solon, “ was not confpieuous for his riches
or his grandeur, being only a Ample citizen of Athens;
but he was defcended from parents who deferved the
firtl honours of the republic. He was equally fortu¬
nate in his children, who obtained univerfal efteem by
their probity, patriotifm, and every ufeful quality of
the mind or body : and as tp himfelf, he died fighting
gallantly in the fervice of his country, which his va¬
lour rendered vidlorious in a doubtful combat; on.
which account the Athenians buried him on the fpot.
whei-e he fell, and diftinguifhed him by every honour
which public gratitude can confer on illuftrious merit.”
Crcefus had little encouragement, after this anfvver,.
to afk Solon, in the fecond place, Whom, next to Tel¬
lus, he deemed moft happy ? Such, however, is the
illufion of vanity, that he ftill ventured to make this
demand;, and Hill, as we are informed by the moft cir-
cumftantial of hiftorians, entertained hopes of being
favourably anfwered. But Solon replied with the fame
freedom as before, “ The brothers Cleobis and Biton-;
two youths of Argos, wbofe ftrength and addrefs were
crowned with repeated viftory at the Olympic games;
who deferved the affe£lion of their parents, the grati¬
tude of their country, the admiration of Greece ; and
who,.
C R O [ J57 1 C R O
Croefus. who, having ended their lives with peculiar felicity,
V—were commemorated by the moft fignal monuments of
immortal fame.” “ And is the happinefs of a king,
then,” faid Crcefus, “ fo little regarded, O Grecran
ftranger! that you prefer to it the mean condition of
an Athenian or Argive citizen ?” The reply of Solon
fufficiently juftified his reputation for wifdom. “ The
life of man,” faid he, “ confifts of 70 years, which make
25,55° days; an immenfe number : yet in the longeft
life, the events of any one day will not be found exact¬
ly alike to thofe of another. The affairs of men are
liable to perpetual viciffitudes: the Divinity who pre-
fides over our fate is envious of too much profperity ;
and all human life, if not condemned to calamity, is at
lead liable to accident. Whoever has uninterruptedly
enjoyed a profperous tide of fuccefs may juftly be call¬
ed fortunate: but he cannot before his death be inti-
tled to the epithet of happy.’’'
The events which foon followed this converfation,
prove how little fatisfa&ion is derived from the poffef
fion of a throne. Victorious in war, unrivalled in
wealth, fupreme in power, Croefus felt and acknow¬
ledged his unhappinefs. The warmeft affections of his
foul centered in his fon Atys, a youth of the moft
promiling hopes, who had often fought and conquered
by his fide. The ft. ength of his attachment was ac¬
companied with an excefc of paternal care, and the
anxiety of his waking hours difturbed the tranquillity of
his reft. He dreamed that his beloved fon was flain
by a dart; and the folicitude with which he watched
his fafety, preventing the youth from his uiual occu¬
pations and amufements, and thereby rendering him
too eager to enjoy them, moft probably expofed him to
the much-dreaded misfortune. Reluctantly permitted
to engage in a party of hunting,, the juvenile ardour of
Atys, increafed by the impatience of long reftraint,
jnade him negledt the precautions ne.cefl'ary in that
manly amufement. He was flain by a dart aimed at
a wild boar of monftrous fize, which had long fpread
terror over the country of the Myfians. The weapon
came from the hand of Adraftus, a Phrygian prince
and fugitive, whom Croelus had purified from the in¬
voluntary guilt of a brother’s blood, and long diftin-
guiftied by peculiar marks of bounty. To the grate¬
ful proteftion of the Phrygian, Crcefus recommended,
at parting, the fafety of his beloved fon. A mournful
procefiion of Lydians brought to Sardis the dead body
®f Atys. The ill-fated murderer followed behind.
When they approached the royal prefefcce, Adraftus
ftepped forward, and intreated Crcefus to put him to
death thinking life no longer to be endured after
killing, firft his own brother, and then the fon of his
benefa&or. But the Lydian king, notwithftanding
the excefs of his affliftion, acknowledged the inno¬
cence of Adraftus, and the power of fate.. “ Stranger,
your a&ion is blamelefs, being committed without de-
fign. I know that my fon was deftined to a prema¬
ture death.” Adraftus, though pardoned by Croefus,
- could not pardon himfelf. When the mourners were
removed, he privately returned, and perifhed. by his
own hand on the tomb of Atys.
Two years Crcefus remained difconfolate for the lofs
of his fon ; and migi.t have continued to indulge his
una\ailing affliction during the remainder of life, had
not the growing greatuefs of Perfia, which threatened
the fafety of his dominions, roufed him from his dream Crafu*.
of mifery. (See Lydia.)—He marched againft Cyrus
with a great army, but was defeated ; and retreating
to his capital Sardis, was there befieged. The city
was taken by affault ; and as a Perfian foldier was go¬
ing to kifl Crcefus, that prince’s only furviving fon,
who had hitherto1 been dumb, terrified at his danger,
cried, Stop, foldier, and touch not Crcefus. But though
delivered by this extraordinary accident from the blind
rage of the foldier, he feemed to be referved for a
harder fate. Dragged into the prefence of his conque¬
ror, he was loaded with irons ; and the ftern, unrelent•
ing Cyrus, of whofe humane temper of mind we have
foireautiful, but fo flattering, a pifture in the philofo-
phical romance of Xenophon, ordered him, with the
melancholy train of his Lydian attendants, to be com¬
mitted to the flames. 'An immenfe pile of wood and
other combuftibles was erefted in the moft fpacious
part of the city. The miferable vidhms, bound hand
and foot, were placed on the top of the pyre. Cyrus,
furrounded by his generals, witneffed the dreadful
fpe&acle, either from an abominable principle of fu-
perftition if he had bound himfelf by a vow to facri-
fice Croefus as the firft fruits of his Lydian viftory, of
from a motive of curiofity, equally cruel and impious,
to try whether Croefus, who had fo magnificently
adorned the temples and enriched the minifters of the
gods, would be helped in time of need by the miracu¬
lous interpofition of his much honoured protedlors.
Meanwhile the unfortunate Lydian, oppreffed and
confounded by the intolerable weight of his preient ca¬
lamity compared with the fecurity and fplendor of his
former ftate, recollefted his memorable converfation
with the Athenian fage, and uttered with a deep
groan the name of Solon. Cyrus alked by an inter¬
preter, ‘4 Whofe name he invoked ?” “ His," replied
Croefus, emboldened by the profpedi of certain death,
“ whofe words ought ever to fpeak to the heart of
kings.” This reply not being fatisfaftory, he was
commanded to explain at full length the fubjedt of his
thoughts. Accordingly he related the important dif-
courfe which had paffed between himfelf and the Athe¬
nian, of which it was the great moral, That no man
could be called happy till his death.
The words of a dying man are fitted to make a
ftrong impreffion on the heart.. Thofe of Croefus
deeply affedted the mind of Cyrus.. The Perfian con-
fidered the fpeech of Solon as addrefled to himfelf.
He repented of his intended, cruelty towards an unfor¬
tunate prince, who had formerly enjoyed all the pomp
of profperity and dreading the concealed vengeance
that might lurk in the bofom of fate, gave orders that
the pyre flipuld be extinguiflied. But the' workmen
who had been employed to prepare it, had performed
their talk with fo much care, that the order could not
fpeedijy be obeyed.. At that moment, Crcefus calling
on Apollo, whofe favourite Ihrine of Delphi had expe¬
rienced his generous munificence, and whofe perfidious
oracle had made him fo ungrateful a return; the god,,
it is faid, fent a plentiful fhower to extinguifli the pyre.
This event, which faved the life, and which lufficiently
attefted the piety of Crcefus, ftrongly recommended
him to the credulity of his conqueror. It feemed im-
poflible to pay too much refpedb to a man who was evi¬
dently the favourite of heaven. Cyrus gave orders-
4. that
C R O
Crcefus that he fhauld be feated by his fide,_ and thenceforth
Croifade treat;C(^ as a > a revolution of fortune equally fud-
^ ■ den and unexpedled. But the mind of Croefus had un¬
dergone a Hill more important revolution: for, tutored
in the ufefui fchool of adverfity, he learned to think
with patience and to a& with prudence, to govern
hi«-own paflions by the dictates of re’afon, and to repay
558 ] C R O
grims now found they could no longer perform their (
devotions with the fame fafety they did before. An "
opinion was about this time alfo prevalent in Europe,
which made thefe pilgrimages much more frequent
than formerly. It was fomehow or other imagined#
that the thoufand years mentioned in the 20th chapter
of the Revelations, were fulfilled; that Chriit was
by wholefome advice the generous behaviour of his foon to make his appearance in Paleitine, to judge the
Pfirfiah mafter.
The find advantage which he derived from the
change in Cyrus’s difpofition towards him, was the
permilfion of fending his fetters to the temple of Del¬
phian Apollo, whofe flattering oracles had encouraged
him to wage war with the Perfians. Behold,” were
his meffengers inftru&ed to fay, “ the trophies of our
promifed fuccefs ! behold the monuments of the un¬
erring veracity of the god !” The Pythia heard their
reproach with a fmile of contemptuous indignation,
and anfwered it with that folemn gravity which (he
was fo carefully taught to aflume : ‘‘ The gods them-
felves cannot avoid their own defliny, much lefs avert,
world; and confequently that journeys to that country
were in the highell degree meritorious, and even ab-
folutely neceflary. The multitudes of pilgrims which
now flocked to Paleftine meeting with a very rough
reception from the Turks, filled all Europe with com¬
plaints againft thofe infidels who profaned the holy
city by their prefence, and derided the facred myfte-
ries of Chriftianity even in the place where they were
fulfilled. Pope Gregory VII. had formed a dtiign of
uniting all the princes of Chriftendoin againft the Ma¬
hometans; but his exorbitant encroachments upon
the civil power of princes had created him fo many
ind rendered his fchemes 'fo fufpicious, that
however they may retard, the determined fates of he was not able to make great progrefs in this under¬
men. Crcefus has fuffered, and juftly fuffered, forthe taking. The work was referved for a meaner inftiu-
crime of his anceftor Gyges ; who, entrufted as chief ment.
of the guards, with the perfon of Candaules, the laft
king of the race of Hercules, was feduced by an im¬
pious woman to murder his mafter, to defile his bed,
and to ufurp his royal dignity. For this complicated
guilt of Gyges the misfortunes of Crcefus have atoned;
but know, that through the favour of Apollo, thefe
misfortunes have happened three years later than the
fates ordained.” The Pythia then proceeded to explain
her anfwers concerning the event of the war againft
Cyrus, and proved, to the conviftion of the Lydians,
that her words, if properly underftood, portended the
deftruiflion, not of the Perfian, but of the Lydian em¬
pire. Croefus heard with refignation the report of his
Peter, commonly called the hermit, a native of A-
miens in Picardy, had made the pilgrimage to Jeru-
falem; and being deeply affe6ted with the dangers to
which that aft of piety now expofed the pilgrims, as
well as with the oppreffien under which the eaftern
Chriftians now laboured, formed the bold, and, in all
appearance, imprafticable defign of leading into Afia,
from th* favtheft extremities of the Weft, armies fuf-
ficient to fubdue thofe potent and warlike nations that
now held the Holy Land in flavery. He propofed
his fcheme to Martin II. who then filled the papal
chair; but he, though fenfible enough of the advan¬
tages which mull accrue to himfelf from fuels an un-
meffengsrs, and acknowledged thejufticeof the Del- dertaking, refolved not to interpofe his authority till
phian oracle, which maintained and increafed the luftre he faw a greater probability of fuccels. He fummon-
©f its ancient fame. This fallen monarch furvived Cy- ed, at Placentia, a council confiding of 4000 ecclefia-
The manner of his death is not known.
CROFT, a little clofe adjoining to a dvvelling-
houfe, and inclofed for pafture or arable land, or any
other purpofe.— In fome ancient deeds, crufta occurs
as the Latin word for a “ croft;” but cum toftis & crof-
tis is more frequent. Croft is tranflated in Abbo Flo-
riacenfis, by pr a ilium a “ farm”.
* CROISADE, or Crusade, a name given to the
expeditions of the Chriftians againft the inftdels for the
conqueft of Paleftine.
Thefe expeditions commenced in the year 1096.
The foundation of them was a fuperftitious veneration
for thofe places where our Saviour performed his mi¬
racles, and accomplilhed the work of man’s redemp¬
tion. Jerufalem had been taken, and Paleftine con-
* See Ara- quered, by Omar the fucceflbr of Abu Beer*, who
6;<j, n° 76. fucceeded Mahomet himfelf. This proved a conft-
ftics and 30,000 feculars. As no hall could be found
large enough to contain fuch a multitude, the afiembly
was held in a plain. Here the Pope himfelf, as well
as Peter, harangued the people, reprefenting the dif-
mal frtuation of their brethren in the Eaft, and the in¬
dignity offered to the Chriftian name in allowing the
holy city to remain in the hands of the infidels. Thefe
fpeeches were fo agreeable to thole who heard them,
that the whole multitude fuddenly and violently decla¬
red for the war, and folemnly devoted themfelves to
perform this fervice, which they believed to be fo me¬
ritorious in the fight of God.
But though Italy feemed to have embraced the de¬
fign with ardour, Martin yet thought it neceffaty, in
order to ir.ft.re perfeft fuccels, to engage the greater
and more warlike nations in the fame enterprize. Ha-
ing therefore exhorted Peter to vifit the chief cities .
derable interruption to the pilgrims, who flocked from and fovereigns of Chrillendom, he fummoned another
all quarters to perform their devotions at the holy fe-
pulchre. They had, however, ftill been allowed this
liberty, on paying a fmall tribute to the Saracen ca¬
liphs, who were not much inclined to moleit them.
But, in 1065, this city changed its mailers. The
Turks took it from the Saracens ; and being much
inore fierce and barbarous than the former, the pil-
council at Clermont in Auvergne. The fame of this
great and pious defign being now univerfally diffufed,
procured the attendance of the greateft prelates, nobles,
and princes ; and when the Pope and the hermit re¬
newed their pathetic exhortations, the whole afiembly,
as if impelled by an immediate infpiration, exclaimed
with one voice, It is the will of God ! it is the will
5 of
C R O [ 559 1 G R O
Cioifade. of God !” Thefe words were deemed fo memorable,
   and fo much the effe<& of a divine impulfe, that they
were employed as the fignal of rendezvous and battle
in all future exploits of thefe adventurers. Men of all
ranks now flew to arms with the utmoft ardour, and a
crofs was affixed to their right ffioulder by all who in-
lifted in this holy enterprize.
At this time Europe was funk in the moft profound
ignorance and fnperftition. The ecclefiallics had
gained the greateft afcendant over the human mind ;
and the people, who committed the moft horrid
crimes and diforders, knew of no other expiation than
the obfervances impofed on them by their fpiritual paf-
tors.
But amidft the abjea fuperftition which now- pre¬
vailed, the military fpirit had alfo univerfally diffufed
itfelf; and, though not fupported by art or difcipline,
was become the general paffion of the nations govern¬
ed by the feudal law. All the great lords goffeffed
the right of peace and war. They were engaged in
continual hoftilities with one another: the open coun¬
try was become a fcene of outrage and diforder: the
cities, ftill mean and poor, were neither guarded by
walls nor prote&ed by privileges. Every man was
obliged to depend For fafety on his own force, or his
private alliances; and valour was the only excellence
which was held in efteem, or gave one man the pre¬
eminence above another. When all the particular fu-
perftitions, therefore, were here united in one great
objeft, the ardour for private hoftilities took the fame
dire&ion ; “ and all Europe (as the princefs Anna
Comnena expreffes herfelf), torn from its foundations,
- feemed ready to precipitate itfelf in one united body
upon Afia ”
All orders of men, now deeming the croifades the
only road to heaven, were impatient to open the way
with their fwords to the holy city. Nobles, artifans,
peafants, even priefts, inrolled their names ; and to
decline this fervice was branded with the reproach of
impiety or cowardice. The noblejs who inlifted them-
felves were moved, by-the romantic fpirit of the age,
to hope for opulent eftablifhments in the Eaft, the
chief feat of arts and commerce at that time. In pur-
fuit of. thefe chimerical proje&s, they fold at the low-
eft price their ancient caftlts and inheritances, which
had now loft all value in their eyes. The infirm and
aged contributed to the expedition by prefents and
money ; and many of them, not fatisfied with this, at¬
tended it in perfon, being determined, if poffible, to
breathe their laft in fight of that city where their Sa¬
viour had died for them. Women themfelves^ con¬
cealing their fex under the difguife of armour, attend¬
ed the camp ; and commonly forgot their duty ftill
more, by proftituting themfelves to the army. The
greateft criminals were forward in a fervice which they
confidered as an expiation for all crimes; and the’mofb
•enormous diforders were, during the ceurfe of thefe
expeditions, committed by men inured to wickednefs,
encouraged by example, and impelled by neceffity.
The multitude of adventurers foon became fo great,
that their more fagacious leaders became apprehenfive
left the greatnefs of the armament would be the caufe
of its own difappointment. For this reafon tliey per¬
mitted an undifciplined multitude, computed at 300,000
men, to go before them under the 'command of Peter
the hermit, and Gautier or Walter, furnamed the CroiAK
moneylefs, from his being ar foldier of fortune. Thefe ' v"~ '■ll
took the road towards Conftantinople through Hun¬
gary and Bulgaria ; and, truiting that heaven, by fu-
pernatural affiltance, would fupply all their neceffi-
ties, they made no provifion for fubfiftence in their
march. They foon found themfelves obliged to ob¬
tain by plunder what they vainly expe&ed from mi¬
racles ; and the enraged inhabitants of the countries
through which they pafled, attacked the difordely
multitude, and flaughtered them without refiftance.
The moie difciplined armies followed after; and, paf-
fing the ftraits at Conftantinople, they were muftered
in the plains of Alia, and amounted in the whole to
700,000 men.
This rage for conquering the Holy Land did not
ceafe with this expedition. It continued for very
near two centuries, and eight different croifades were
fet on foot, one after another. The firft was in the
year 1096, as already obferved. The princes enga¬
ged in it were, Hugo, count of Vermandois, brother
to Philip I. king of France ; Robert, duke of Nor¬
mandy ; Robert earl of Flanders ; Raimond, earl of
Touloufe and St Giles; Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of
Lorrain, with his brothers Baldwin and Euftace; Ste¬
phen, earl of Chartres and Blois; Hugo, count of St
Paul; with a great number of other lords. The sre-
neral Rendezvous was at Conftantinople. In this ex¬
pedition, the famous Godfrey befieged and took the
city of Nice. The city of Jerufalem was taken by the
confederated army, and Godfrey chofen king. The
Chriftians gained the famous battle of Afcalon againil
the foldan of Egypt; which put an end to the firft
croifade.
The fecond croifade, in the year 1144, was headed
by the emperor Conrad III. and Louis VII. king of
France. The emperor’s army was either deftroyed
by the enemy, or periftied through the treachery of
Manuel the Greek emperor; and the fecond army,
through the unfaithfulnefs of the Chriftians of Syria,,
was forced to break up the liege of Damafcus.
The third croifade, iu the year 1188, immediately
followed the taking of Jerufalem by Saladrn the foldan
of Egypt. The princes engaged in- this expedition
were, the emperor Frederic Barbaroffa ; Frederic
duke of Suabia, his fecond fbn; Leopald duke of Au-
ftria; Berthold duke of Moravia; Herman, marquis
of Baden ; the counts of. Naffau, Thuringia, Miflen,,
and Holland ; and above 60 other princes of the em¬
pire ; with the bilhops of Befanppn, Cambray, Mun-
ller, Ofnaburg, Miffen,, Paffau, Vilburg,. and feveral
others. In this expedition,, the emperor Frederic de¬
feated the foldan of Iconium : his fon Frederic, joined
by Guy Lulignon king of Jerufalem, in vain endea¬
voured to take Acre or Ptolemais. During which
tranfaftions, Philip Auguftus king of France, and Ri¬
chard II. king of England, joined the croifade ; by
which means the Chriftian army confilled of 300,000
fighting men : but great difputes happening between
the kings of France and England, the former quitted
the Holy Land, and Richard concluded a peace with-
Saladin.
The fourth croifade was undertaken, in the year
1195, by the emperor Henry VI. after Saladin’s death.
In this expedition the Chriftians gained feveral battles
again ft.
C R. O t i6o ] C R 0
Croifade. againfl. the infidels, took a great many towns, and
v—were in the way of fuccefs, when the death of the em¬
peror obliged them to quit the Holy Land, and return
into Germany.
The fifth croifade was publilhed, by order of'pope
Innocent III. in 1198; Thofe enagaged in it made
fruitlefs efforts for the recovery of the Holy Land : for,
though John de Neule, who commanded the fleet e-
quipped in Flanders, arrived at Ptolemais a little after
Simon of Montfort, Renard of Dampierre, and others;
yet the plague deftroying many of them, and the reft
either returning o>r engaging in the petty quarrels of
the Chtiftian princes, there was nothing done; fo
that the foldan of Aleppo eafily defeated their troops
In 1204.
The fixth croifade began in 1228; in which the
Chriftians took the town of Damietta, but were for¬
ced to furrender it again. The next year the em¬
peror Frederic made peace with the foldan for 10
years. About 1240, Richard earl of Cornwal, and
brother to Henry III. king of Englandj arrived in Pa-
leftine at the head of the Englifh croifade ; but find¬
ing it moft advantageous to conclude a peace, he re¬
embarked, and fleered towards Italy. In 1^44, the
Karafmians being driven out of Perfia by the Tartars,
broke into Paleftine, and gave the Chriftians a general
defeat near Gaza.
The feventh croifade w>as headed by St Lewis, in the
year 1249, who took the town of Damietta: but
'a. ficknefs happening in the Chriftian army, the king
endeavoured a retreat; in which being purfued by the
infidels, moft of his army were miferably butchered,
and himfelf and the nobility taken prifoners, Then a
truce was agreed upon for 10 years, and the king and
lords fet at liberty.
The eight croifade, in 1270, was headed by the fame
prince, who made himfelf mafier of the port and caftle
of Carthage in Africa; but dying in a fhort time, he
left his army in a very ill condition. Soon after, the
king of Sicily coming up with a good fleet, and join¬
ing Philip the Bold, fon and fucceffor of Lewis the king
of Tunis, after feveral engagements with the Chrifti¬
ans, in which he was always worfted, defired peace,
which was granted upon conditions advantageous to
the Chriftians: after which both princes embarked
for their own kingdoms. Prince Edward of England,
Who arrived at Tunis at the time of this treaty, failed
towards Ptolemais, where he landed with a fmall body
of 300 Englifh and French, and hindered Bendocdar
from laying fiege to Ptolemais : but being obliged to
quit the Holy Land to take poffeffion of the crown of
England, this croifade ended without contributing any
thing to the recovery of the Holy land. In 1291, the
town of Acre, or Ptolemais, was taken and plundered
by the foldan of Egypt, and the Chriftians quite dri¬
ven out of Syria.' There has been no croifade finde that
time, though feveral popes have attempted to ftir up
the Chriftians to fuch an undertaking; particularly
Nicholas IV. in 1292, and Clement V. in 1311.
Though thefe croifades were effe&s of the moft ab-
furd fuperftition, they tended greatly to promote the
good of Europe. Multitudes indeed were deftr >yed.
M. Voltaire computes the people who perifhed n the
different expeditions at upwards of two millions. Many
there were, however, who returned; and thefe, ha-
N° 94-
ving converfed fo long with people who lived in a
much more magnificent way than themfelves, began
to entertain fome -tafte for a refined and polifhed way
of life. Thus the barbarifm in which Europe had been
fo long immerfed, began to wear off foon after this
time. The princes alfq who remained at home, found
means to avail themfelves of the frenzy of the people.
By the abfence of fuch numbers of reftlefs and martial
adventurers, peace was eftablifhed in their dominions.
They alfo took the opportunity of annexing to their
crown many confiderable fiefs, either by purchafe, or
by the ext'indlion of the heirs ; and thus the mifchiefs
which muft always attend feudal governments were
confiderably leffened.
With regard to the bad fuccefs of the croifaders, it
was fcarce pofiible that any other thing could happen
them. The emperors of Conftantinople, inftead of
affitling, did all in their power to difconcert their
fchemes. They were jealous, and not without rea-
fon, of fuch an inundation of barbarians* Yet, had
they confidered their true intereft, they would rather
have aflifted them, or at leaft flood neuter, than en¬
tered into alliances with the Turks. They followed
the latter method, however, and were often of very
gyeat differvice to the weftern adventurers, which at
laft occafioned the lofs of their city *. But the worft *
enemies the croifaders had, were their own internalj}c
feuds and diffentions. They neither could agreed
while marching together in armies with a view to
conqueft, nor could they unite their cdnquefts under
one government after they had made them. They
fet up three fmall ftates, one at Jerufalem, another at
Antioch, and another at Edeffa. Thefe ftates, inftead
of afiifting, made war upon each other, and on the
Greek emperors ; and thus became an eafy prey to the
common enemy. The horrid cruelties they committed
alfo were fuch as muft hav^infpired the Turks with
the moft invincible hatred againft them, and made them
refift with the greateft obftinacy* They were fuch as
could have been committed only by barbarians inflamed
with religious enthufiafm. When Jerufalem was taken,
not only the numerous garrifon were put to the fword,
but the inhabitants were maffacred without mercy
and without diftindtion. No age nor fex was fpared,
not even fucking children. According to Voltaire,
fome Chriftians, who had been fuffered by the Turks
to live in that city, led the conquerors into the moft
private caves where women had concealed themfelves
with their children, and not one of them was fuffered
to efcape. What eminently {hows the enthufiafm by
which thefe conquerors were animated, is their beha¬
viour after this terrible {laughter. They marched
over heaps of dead bodies towards the holy fepulchre j
and while their hands were yet polluted with the
blood of fo many innocent perfoijs, fung anthems to
the common Saviour of mankind. Nay, fo far did
their religious enthufiafm overcome their fury, that
thefe ferocious conquerors now burft into tears. If
the abfurdity and wickednefs of this condiuft can be
exceeded by any thing, it muft be by what follows.
In the year 1204, the frenzy of croifading feized the
children, who are ever ready to imitate what they
fee their parents engage themfelves in. Their childifh
folly was encouraged by the monks and fchoolmafters ;
and thoufands of thofe innocents were conduced from
the
See Con*
itimpit.
C O H O UST A., o* HAL O . riate CL.
S/hn./Za/ /ay/P.
C R O L 561 1 C R O
Croifes the houfea of their parents on the faith of thefe words,
It. “ Out of the mouth of babes and fucklings haft thou
Cro'*' perfe&ed praife.” Their bafe condu&ors fold a part of
v " them to the Turks, and the reft periftred miferably.
CROISES, or Croizes, in Engliftr antiquity, pil¬
grims bound for the Holy Land, or fuch as had been
there ; fo called from a badge they wore in imitation
of a crofs. The knights of St John of Jerufalem, created
for the defence and prote&ion of pilgrims, were parti¬
cularly called croifes.
CROISIERS, a religious order founded in honour
of the invention or difcovery of the crofs by the emprefs
Helena. They are difpeifed in feveral parts of Europe,
particularly in the Low Countries, France, and Bo¬
hemia, chofe in Italy being.at prefent fuppreffed. Thefe
religious follow the rule of St Auguftine. They had
in England the name of crouchedfriars.
CROIX (FaANcrs Petis de la), fecretaryand in¬
terpreter to the king of France in the Turkifti and
Arabic languages, died November 4th 1695, in his
73d year; after having executed this employment for
the fpace of 44 years. And it appears, that he exe¬
cuted it with as much integrity as abilities: for,
when the Algerines fought for peace of Louis XIV.
conditions were offered, by which they were required
to reimburfe to this monarch 600,000 franks. The
terms being thought exorbitant, they had recourfe to
ftratagem: and they offered a large fum to La Croix,
who was the interpreter of all that paffed, if he would
put into the treaty “crowns of Tripoli,” inftead of
“ French crowns;” which would have made to the Al¬
gerines a difference of more than 100,000 livres. But
the integrity of the interpreter triumphed over the
temptation; which however was the greater, as it
was next to impoffible he ftrould be difcovered. Befides
the Turkifti and the Arabic, the Perfian and the Tar¬
tarian, he alfo underftood the Ethiopian and Arme¬
nian languages. He is well known to the learned
world by many works. He tranflated the “ Hiftory
of France” into the Turkifti language. He digefted
the three volumes of “ Voyages into the Eaft Indies”
of M. Thevenot. He made an accurate catalogue of
all the Turkifti and Perfian books which are in the
king’s library. He compofed two complete Didtion-
aries for the French and Turkifti languages: and,
when he was dying, he was about to prefent the world
with the hiftory of Genghifcan. He undertook this
hiftory by the order of M. Colbert: for this minifter,
altogether intent upon aggrandizing his mafter, was ac-
cuftomed every week to call together, either in the
king’s library or his own, certain of the learned, w’hom,
according as they excelled in their feveral departments
in literal ure, he conftantly fet to work. This hiftory, which
coft La Croix more than ten years labour, is ufeful, not
only to the learned who. are curious to know paft events,
or to geographers who had hitherto been greatly ig¬
norant of Grand Tartary, but like wife to all who
trade to China, Perfia, or other eaftern parts of the
world. There is a good map of northern Afia drawn
byM.de 1’Ifle, accompanying the work; which M.
Petis de la Croix, the author’s fon, not only revifed,
but, to render it more curious, added to it an abridge¬
ment of the lives of all thofe authors from whom it was
extra&ed. It was tranflated into Englifti, and publilh-
ed at London, 1722, 8vo.
Vol. V. Part II.
CROMARTY, the capital of the ftiire of Cromarty, Cromarty
in Scotland, with an excellent and fafe harbour ca- II
pable of containing the greateft fleets. W. Long. Cromvve‘b
3.40. N. Lat. 57. 54. _ _ _ v ‘
CROMLECH, in Britifti antiquities, arehuge, broad,
flat ftones, railed upon other ftones fet up on end for
that purpofe. They are common in Anglesy; under
which article a very large one is deferibed. See Plate
CL.
Thefe monuments are fpoken of largely by Mr Row¬
land, by Dr Borlafe, and by Wormius, under the name
or 4ra or altar, Mr Rowland, however, is divided in
his opinion; for he partly inclines to the notion of their
having been altars, partly to their having been fepul-
chres : he fuppofes them to have been originally tombs,
but that in after times facrifices were performed upon
them to the heroes depofited within. Mr Keiller pre-
ferves an account of King Harold having been interred
beneath a tomb of this kind in Denmark, and Mr
Wright difcovered in Ireland a fkeleton depofited under
one of them. The great fimilarity of the monuments T* ‘
throughout the north, Mr Pennant obferves, evinces
the fame religion to have been fpread in every part,
perhaps with fome flight deviations. Many of thefe
monuments are both Britifti and Danifh; for we find
them where the Danes never penetrated.
The cromlech, or cromleh, chiefly differs from the
Kist-iwh, in not being clofed up at the end andfides,
that is, in not fo much partaking of the cheft-like fi¬
gure ; it is alfo generally of larger dimenfions, and
fometimes confifts of a greater number of ftones : the
terms cromleh and kift-vaert are however indiferiminately
ufed for the fame monument. The term cromlech is by
fome derived from the Armoric word crum, “ crooked
or bowing,” and leh “ ftone,” alluding to the reverence
which perfons paid to them by bowing. Rowland
derives it from the Hebrew words carem-luach, fignify-
ing a “ devoted or confecrated ftone.” They are called
by the vulgar coetne Arthor, or Arthur’s quoits, it be¬
ing a cuftom in Wales as well as Cornwal to aferibe
all great or wonderful objedls to prince Arthur, the
hero of thofe countries.
CROMWELL (Thomas), earl of Effex, was the
fon of a blackfmith at Putney, and born in 1498.
Without a liberal education, but endowed with a ftrong
natural genius, he confidered travelling as the proper
means of improving his underftanding; and to this
early token of his found judgment he flood indebted
for the high rank and diftiuguiflied honours he after¬
wards enjoyed. He became by dregrees the confi¬
dential favourite and prime minifter of Henry VIII.;
and from the moment he acquired any authority in
the cabinet, he employed it in promoting the refor¬
mation, to his zeal for which he became a vitftim ;
for, the more firmly to fecure the Proteftant caufe, he
contrived to marry the king to Ann of Cleves, whofe
friends were all Lutherans. Unfortunately Henry
took a difguft to this lady, which brought on Crom¬
well’s ruin; the king, with his ufual cruelty and ca¬
price, taking this opportunity to facrifice this minifter
to the Roman Catholic party, to whom he feemed de-
firous of reconciling himfelf as foon as he had Catha¬
rine Howard in view. Cromwell was a great poli¬
tician, and a good man; but, like moft ftatefmen, was
guilty of great errors. In his zeal for the new reli-
4 gion„
C R O [ 562 ] C R 0
Cromwell, gjon, he had introduced the unjuilifiable mode of at- He continued at Huntingdon where he fettled after Cromwell.
' *  tainder in cafes of treafon and herefy ; and his ene- his marriage, till an eftate of between L. 400 and —
mies, who were numerous (confiding of two clafles, L.500 per annum devolved to him by the death of
the ancient nobility and gentry, who were enraged to his uncle Sir Thomas Stuart. This induced him to
fee the highed honours bedowed on a man of his mean remove to the ifle of Ely where the edate lay, and
extra&ion, and the Roman Catholics, who deteded here he embraced the puritanical do&rines. He was
him), having preferred many complaints againd him, ele&ed a member of the third parliament of Charles I.
availed themfelves of his own law. He was attaint¬
ed of treafon and herefy, convifted unheard, and be¬
headed in 1540. He was the chief indrument of the
Xuppreffion of the abbeys and monaderies, arid of the
dedru&ien of images and relics; to him alfo we are
hich met on the 20th of January 1628; and was a
member of the committee for religion, where he dif-
tinguidred himfelf by his zeal againd popery. After
the diffolution of that parliament, he returned again
into the country, where he continued to eStprefs much
indebted for the inditution of parilh-regiders of births, concern for religion, to keep company with filenced
marriages, and burials. miniders, and to invite them often to le&ures and fet>
Cromwell (Oliver), dykd Lord ProteSor of the mons at his houfe. Thus he brought his affairs again
commonwealth of England, one of the mod extraor- into a very indifferent fituation; fo that, by way of re¬
dinary perfonages mentioned in hidory, was the fon pairing the breaches he made in his fortune, he took
of Mr Robert Cromwell of Hinchinbrooke in the
county of Huntingdon. His ancedors were of very
honourable extra&ion: but no ways related to Tho¬
mas Cromwell earl of Effex, the prime minider and
favourite of Henry VIII. He was born in the parifh
of St John, Huntingdon, where his father modly li¬
ved, on the 24th or 25th of April 159$, and educated
at the free fehool of that town. Little is known con¬
cerning him in his younger years, or indeed concern¬
ing his behaviour in private life. It is, however, re¬
lated by authors of unfufpedfed veracity, that when at
fehool he gave many figns of a very turbulent and
redlefs difpofition. He is alfo faid from his early
years to have been fubjeft to the hypochondriac difor-
der, and to many deceptions of the imagination. He
had a very remarkable one while at fchool. It hap¬
pened in the day time, when he was lying melancho¬
ly upon his back in bed. A fpe&re, as he thought,
approached him, and told him that he fhould be the
greated man in the kingdom. His father, being in¬
formed of this, was very angry, and defired his ma¬
iler to corredl him feverely. This, however, produ¬
ced no effedl Oliver perfided in the truth of his do¬
ry, and would fometimes mention it though his uncle
told him “ it was too traiterous to be repeated.”—
From this fehool Oliver was removed to Sidney-eol-
lege in Cambridge, where he was admitted in 1616.
His progrefs in his dudies is uncertain ; but he fpent
much time in playing at foot-ball, cricket, and other
robud exercifes, at which he was very expert. Hi
a farm at St Ives, which he kept five years. But this
fcheme fucceeded fo ill, that he was obliged to give it
up; and at lad, chagrined with his difappointments,
and made uneafy by the treatment his party at that
time received, he formed a defign of going over to
New-England. In this, however, he was difappointed;
the king iffued out a proclamation againd all fuch emi¬
grations, and Cromwell was obliged to remain in Eng¬
land againd his will.
In 1638, Cromwell had fird an opportunity of get¬
ting himfelf publicly taken notice of. The earl of
Bedford, and fome other perfons of high rank, who
had edates in the fen country, were very defirous of
having it better drained * and though one project of
this fort had failed, they fet on foot another, got it
countenanced by royal authority, and fettled a part of
the profits upon the crown. This, though really in¬
tended for a public benefit, was oppofed as injurious
to private property : and at the head of the oppofers
was Mr Oliver Cromwell, who had coniiderable in¬
fluence in thefe parts. The vigour he fhowed on this
occaiion recommended him to his friend and relation
Mr Hampden ; who afterwards charafterized him in
parliament, as a perfon capable of contriving, and con¬
ducing great defigns. But for all this he was not ve¬
ry fuccefsful in his oppofition ; and as his private af¬
fairs were ftill declining, he was in very neceffitouS
circumftances at the approach of the long parliament.
In this critical fituation he got himfelf ele&ed member
of parliament in the following manner. In the puri-
father dying after he had been about two years at co- tanical meetings which he conftantly frequented, Oli-
lege, Cromwell returned home; but the irregularity ver had moft eminently diftinguilhed himfelf by his
of his life gave fuch offence to his mother, that, by the gifts of praying, preaching, and expounding. At one
advice of fome friends, fhe fent him to London, and of thefe meetings, he met with one Richard Tims, a
placed him in Lincoln’s-inn. This expedient by no tradefman of Cambridge. This man was fo much ta-
means anfwered the purpofe; her fon gave himfelf ken with Oliver, that he took it into his head to at-
up to gaming, wine, and women, fo that he quickly tempt getting him chofen burgefs for the approaching
diffipated all that was left him by his father. This
difiipation, however, could be but of very fhort conti¬
nuance ; for he was married, before he was 21 years
of age, to Elizabeth daughter of Sir James Bouchier
parliament. Being himfelf one of the common-coun¬
cil, Tims imagined this defign might be brought about;.
and with this view went to Mr Wildbore a relation of
Cromwell’s, to whom he communicated his intention.
of Effex. Soon after his marriage he returned to the Wildbore agreed as to the ritnefs of the perfon ; but
country, where he led a very grave and fober life.
This fudden reformation has been aferibed to his fal¬
ling in with the Puritans; but it is certain, that Mr
Cromwell continued then, and for fome time after, a,
zealous member of the church of England, and form-
«d a clofe friendlhip with fcveral eminent divines.
told him the defign was impracticable, becaufe Oliver
was not a freeman. Tims next addreffed one Evett
on the fame fubjedt, who alfo made the fame objec¬
tion. He recolleCted, however, that the mayor had
a freedom to bellow, and a fcheme was immediately
laid for fecuring this freedom to Cromwell. On ap¬
plication
C R O [ 563 ] C R 6
Cromwell, plication to the mayor, however, he told them that the
,W~V freedom was already difpofed of to another ; but this
objection being obviated by promifing that perfon a
freedom from the town, the mayor being informed
that Cromwell was a man of great fortune, fignified
his intention of bellowing the freedom upon him. Our
hero, being informed of the good offices of his friends,
made his appearance in the court dreffed in fcavlet
richly laced with gold, and having provided plenty of
claret and fweatmeats, they were fo freely circula¬
ted among the corporation, that Mr Mayor’s freeman
was unanimoufly declared to be a very civil worthy
gentleman. When the election came on, the mayor
difcovered his miftake, but it was now too late;
the party among the burgeffes was ftrong enough to
choofe him, and accordingly did fo at the eleftion
next year.
■When Cromwell firll came into parliament, he af-
fefted great plainnefs, and even careleflhefs, in his
drefs. His attention to farming had entirely rufti-
cated him, fo that he made a very uncouth appearance.
“ Who (fays Dr South) that had beheld fuch a bank¬
rupt, beggarly fellow, as Cromwell, firil entering the
parliament houfe, with a thread-bare torn coat and
greafy hat, and perhaps neither of them paid for, could
have fufpefted, that, in the fpace of fo few years, he
{hould, by the murder of one king, and the banilh-
meat of another, afcend the throne, be inverted with
the royal robes, and want nothing of the ftate of a
king but the changing his hat into a crown ?” Crom-
well was very adlive in promoting the famous Remon-
, See Bri- prance*; which in reality laid the foundation of the
MiI ,noI07.civil war. He declared afterwards to Lord Falkland,
that if the r-emonftrance had not been carried, he de-
figned to have converted the fmall remains of his ef-
tate into ready money the next day, and to have left
the kingdom by the firft opportunity. His firmnefs
on this occafion fo effedtually recommended him to
Hampden, Pym, and the other leaders of the popular
party, that they took him into ail their councils ; and
here he acquired that clear in fight into tilings, and
that knowledge of men, of which he afterwards made
fuch prodigious ufe. His exploits during the civil
war, his murder of the king, and ufurpation pf the
kingdom, are related under the article Britain, n° 139,
— 188.
With regard to the chara&er of Cromwell, Mr
Hume exprefles himfelf as follows: “ The writers
attached to this wonderful perfon make his charadler,
with regard to abilities, bear the air of the moft ex¬
travagant panegyric: his enemies form fuch a repre-
fentation of his moral qualities as refembles the moft:
virulent inveftive. Both of them, it muft be confef-
fed, are fupported by fuch ftriking circumftances in
his fortune and conduft, as beftow on their reprefen-
tation a great air of probability. ‘ What can be
more extraordinary (it is faid), than that a perfon of
private birth and education, no fortune, no eminent
qualities of body, which have fometimes, nor ihining
qualities of mind, which have often, railed men to the
higheft dignities, rtiould have the courage to attempt,
and the abilities to execute, fo great a defign as the
fubverting one of the moft ancient as well as beflr
eftabliffied monarchies in the world ? That he fhould
have the power and boldnefs to put his prince and
marter to an open and infamous death? Ihould banilh Cromwell,
that numerous and ftrongly allied family'? Cover all _' ’
thefe temerities under a feeming obedience to a par¬
liament, in whofe fcrvice he pretended to be retain¬
ed ? Trample too upon that parliament in their turn,
and fcornfully expel them as foon as they gave him
ground of diffatisfadlion? Ere6l in their place the do¬
minion of the faints, and give reality to the moft vi-
fionary idea which the heated imagination of any fa¬
natic was ever able to entertain ? Supprefs again that
monfter in its infancy, and openly fet’himfelf up above
all things that ever were called fovtreign in England ?
Overcome firft all his enemies by arms, and all his
friends afterwards by artifice ? Serve all parties patient¬
ly for a while, and afterwards command them vifto-
rioufly at lait ? Over-run each corner of the three na¬
tions, and fubdue with equal facility both the riches of
the fouth, and the poverty of the north ? Be feared and
courted by all princes, and adopted a brother to the
gods of the earth ? Call together parliaments with a
word of his pen, and fcatter them again by the breath
of his mouth ? Reduce to fubjedlion a warlike and dif-
contented nation by means of a mutinous army ? Com¬
mand a mutinous army by means of feditious and fac¬
tious officers ? Be humbly and daily petitioned, that he
would be pleafed, at the rate of millions a-year, to
be hired as niafter of thofe who had formerly hired
him for their fervant ? Have the eftates and lives of
three nations as much at his difpofal as was once tlie
little inheritance of his father, and be as noble and li¬
beral in the fpendingof them ? And, laftly, (for there
is no end of enumerating every particular of his glo¬
ry), with one word bequeath all this power and fplen-
dor to his pofterky ? Die pofftffed of peace at home,
and triumph abroad? Be buried among kings, and
with more than regal folemnity ? And leave a name
behind him not to be extinguirtied but with the whole
world; which, as it was too little for his praife, fo it
might have been for his conquefts, if the ffiort line of
his mortal life could have ftretched out to the extertt
of his immortal defigns ?’
“ My intention is not to disfigure this picture
drawn by fo mafterly a hand : I fhall oply endeavour
to remove from it fomewhat of the marvellous ; a cir-
cumilance which, on all occafions, gives much ground
for doubt and fufpieion. It feems to me that the
circumftance of Cromwell’s life in which his abilities
are principally difcovered, is his rifing, from a private
ftation, in oppofition to fo many rivals, fo much ad¬
vanced before him, to a high command and authority
in the army. His great courage, his fignal military
talents, his eminent dexterity and addrefs, were all
requifite for this important acquisition. Yet will not
this promotion appear the effett of fupernatural abi¬
lities, when we confider that Fairfax himfelf, a private
gentleman, who had not the advantage of a feat in
parliament, had, through the fame ftcps, attained even
to a fuperior rank ; and, if endued with common ca¬
pacity and penetration, had been able to retain it.
To incite fuch an army to rebellion againft the par¬
liament, required no uncommon 'art or induftry : to
have kept them in obedience had been the more diffi¬
cult enterprize. When the breach was once formed
' between the military and civil powers, a fupreme and
abfblute authority, from that moment, is devolved on
4 B 2 the
e r o [ 564
Cromwell the general; and if he is afterwards pleafed to em-
,l—'V—ploy artifice or policy, it may be regarded on moft
occafions as great condefcenfion, if not as fuperfluous
caution. That Cromwell was ever able really to blind
or over-reach either the king or the republicans, 'does
not appear : as they poffeffed no means of refitting the
force under his command, they were glad to temporize
with him ; and, by feeming to be deceived, to wait
for an opportunity of freeing themfelves from his do¬
minion. If he feduced the military fanatics, it is to
be confidered, that their intereft and his evidently con¬
curred ; that their ignorance and low education ex-
pofed them to the grofleft impofition ; and that he
himfelf was at bottom as frantic an enthufiaft as the
worft of them ; and, in order to obtain their confi¬
dence, needed but to difplay thofe vulgar and ridi¬
culous habits which he had early acquired, and on
which he fet fo high a value. An army is fo forcible,
and at the fame time fo coarfe a weapon, that any
hand which wields it, may, without much dexterity,
perform any operation, and attain any afcendant in
human fociety.
“ The domeftic adminiftration of Cromwell, though
it difcovers great ability, was conduced without any
plan either of liberty or arbitrary power : perhaps his
difficult fituation admitted of neither. His foreign
enterprifes, though full of intrepidity, were pernicious
to national intereft ; and feem more the refult of im¬
petuous fury or narrow prejudices, than of cool fore¬
fight and deliberation. An eminent perfonage, how¬
ever, he was in many refpedls, and even a fuperior
genius ; but unequal and irregular in his operations :
and, though not defeftive in any talent except that of
elocution, the abilities which in him were moft admi¬
rable, and which contributed moft to his marvellous
fuccefs, were the magnanimous refolution of his en-
terprizes, and his peculiar dexterity in difcovering
the characters and praCtifing on the weaknefies of
mankind.
“ If we furvey the moral character of Cromwell,
with that indulgence which is due to the blindnefs and
infirmities of the human fpecies, we ffiall not be in¬
clined to load his memory with fuch violent reproaches
as thofe which his enemies ufually throw upon it. A-
midft the paffions and prejudices of that time, that he
fhould prefer the parliamentary to the royal caufe, will
not appear extraordinary ; fince even at prefent many
men of fenfe and knowledge are difpofed to think,
that the queftion, with regard to the juftice of the
quarrel, may be regarded as doubtful and ambiguous.
The murder of the king, the moft atrocious of all his
aftions, was to him covered under a mighty cloud of
republican and fanatical illufions; and it is not impof-
fible but he might believe it, as many others did, the
moft meritorious aCtion which he could perform. His
fubfequent ufurpation was the effeCt of neceffity, as
well as of ambition ; nor is it eafy to fee how the va¬
rious fadions could at that time have been reftrained
without a mixture of military and arbitrary authority.
The private deportment of Cromwell as a fon, a huf-
band, a father, a friend, is expofed to no confiderable
cenfure, if it does not rather merit praife. And, up¬
on the whole, his character does not appear more ex¬
traordinary and unufual by the mixture offo muchab-
furdity with fo much penetration, than by his temper-
] c r o
ing fuch violent ambition and fuch enraged fanaticifm Cromwell,
with fo much regard to juftice and humanity.” lj/
That Cromwell continued a moft complete and bi-
gotted enthufiaft to the very laft, appears from his be¬
haviour in his laft ficknefs. His difeafe, which at fird
was a kind of flow fever, brought on by the cares
and anxiety of his mind, foon degenerated into a ter¬
tian ague. For about-a week the diforder continued
without any dangerous fymptoms, infomfich that every
other day he walked abroad ; but one day after din¬
ner his five phyficians coming to wait upon him, one
of them having felt his pulfe, faid that it intermitted..
At this Cromwell was furprifed, turned pale, fell into
a cold fweat, and, when he was almoft fainting, or¬
dered himfelf to be carried to bed; where, by the af-
fiftance of cordials, being brought a little to himfelf,
he made his will with refpect to his private affairs. The
next morning when one of his phyficians came to viiit
him, Cromwell afked him, why he looked fo fad ? and
when anfwer was made, that fo it became every one
who had the weighty charge of his life and health
upon him, “ Ye phyficians (fays Cromwell), think F
fhall die: I tell you I {hall not die this bout, I am fure
of it. Do not you think (faid he to the phyfician*
looking more attentively at him), do not think that !•
am mad: I fpeak the words of truth upon furer grounds
than your Hippocrates or Galen can furnifti you with*
God Almighty himfelf hath given that anfwer, not to
my prayers alone, but alfo to the prayers of thofe who
entertain a ftri<fter commerce and greater intereft with
him. Go on cheerfully, baniftiing all fadnefs from your
looks; and deal with me as you would do with a fer-
ving man. Ye may have a {kill in the nature of things;
yet nature can do more than all phyficians put toge¬
ther, and God is far more above nature.” Asthisphy-
fician was coming out of the chamber, he accidentally
met with another, to whom he expreffed his fear that
the proteftor was turning light-headed. But the o-
ther informed him that the chaplains, being difperfed
the preceding night into different parts of the houfe; .
had prayed for the prote&or’s recovery, and unani-
moufly received for anfwer that he ftiould recover.
Nay, to fuch a degree of madnefs did they at laft ar¬
rive, that, a public faft being kept at Hampton-court,
they did not fo much pray to God for the prfjteftor’g'
health, as return thanks for the undoubted pledges
they had of his recovery. On this account, though the
phyficians perceived his diftemper increafing every
hour, they took no notice of his danger, till it became-
neceffary for him to appoint a fucceffor while he had
any breath remaining. But being then in a lethargic
fit, he anfwered from the purpofe; upon which he was
again afleed whether he did not name his eldeft fon.
Richard? and to this queftion he anfwered, Yes. Be¬
ing then alked where his will was which he had for¬
merly made concerning the heirs of the kingdom ; he-
fent to look for it in his clofet and other places, but;
in vain ; for fomebody had either ftole it, or-he him¬
felf had burnt it. Soon after, he expired, on the 3d
of September 1658, agedfomewhat more than 59 years
and four months. This day of September he had al¬
ways reckoned to be the moft fortunate for him in the
whole year. A violent tempeft, which immediately
fucceeded his death, ferved as a fubjedl of difeourfe to
the vulgar. His partizans, as well as his opponents,
were
C R O L 565 ] c R O
Cromwell, were fond of remarking this event: and each of them
t endeavoured, by forced inferences, to interpret it as
heft fuited their particular prejudices.
It has been imagined by fome, that Oliver Crom¬
well was poifoned ; but for this there feems to be no
reafonable foundation. His body was opened by Dr
Bates. He found the brain fomewhat overcharged
with blood, and the lungs a little inflamed ; but what
he reckoned to have been the principal caufe of his
diforder was a total degeneracy of the fubftance of the
fpleen into a matter refembling the lees of oil. This,
he thought, alfo accounted for the hypochondriac dif-
pofitions to which Cromwell had from his infancy
been fubjeft. Though the bowels were taken out,
and the body filled with fpices wrapped in a fourfold
cere-cloth, put firil into a coffin of lead, and then into
one of wood, yet the corruption was fo great that the
humour wrought itfelf through the whole, and there
was a neceffity of interring the .body before the fo-
lemnity of the funeral. A very pompous funeral was
ordered at the public expence, and performed from
Somerfet-houfe, with a fplendor not only equal but
fuperior to that beftowed upon crowned heads. Some
have related that his body was depofited in Nafeby-
field: others, that it was wrapped in lead, and funk in
the deepeft part of the Thames, to prevent any iiifult
that might afterwards be offered to it. But it feems
beyond doubt that his body was interred at Weftmin-
fter; as we are informed, that on the order to difinter
him after the reftoration, his corpfe was found in a
vault in the middle aifle of Henry VII.’s chapel. In
the infide of the coffin, and on the bread; of the corpfe,
was laid a copper plate finely gilt, inclofed in a thin
cafe of lead. On one fide of this plate were engraven
the arms of England impaled with thofe of Oliver, and
on the reverfe the following legend : Oliverius Protector
Reipublics Anglia, Scotia, et Hibernia, natus 2 5 Aprilis
1599, inauguratus 16 Decembris 1653, mortms 3 Septem-
bris ann. 1658, hie fitus ejl.
Cromwell was of a robuft frame of body, and of a
manly, though not agreeable afpeft. His nofe being
remarkably red and finning, was often made the fub-
je& of ridicule. He left only two fons, Richard and
Henry: and three daughters; one married to General
Fleetwoodj another to Lord Fauconberg, and a third to
Lord Rich. His mother lived till after he was protec¬
tor ; and contrary to her orders he buried her with
great pomp in Weftminfter Abbey. She could not
be perfuaded that ever his power or his perfon was
in fafety. At every noife fhe heard fhe would exclaim
that her fon was murdered; and was never fatisfied
that he was alive if fhe did not receive frequent vifits
from him. She was a decent woman ; and by her
frugality and induftry had raifed and educated a nu¬
merous family upon a fmall fortune. She had even
been obliged to fet up a brewery at Huntingdon, which
fhe managed to good advantage. Hence Cromwell,
in the inve&ives of that age, is often fligmatized with
the name of brewer. Ludlow, by way of infult, men¬
tions the great acceffion which he would receive to his
royal revenues upon his. mother’s death, who pofTefTed
a jointure of 60 pounds a-year upon his eftate. She
was of a good family, of the name of Stuart; and is
by fome fuppofed to have been remotely allied to the
royal family,
CaoMWEtL (Richard), eldeft fon of Oliver Crom- Cromwell
well, was by his father appointed fucceflbr to the pro- II
tedlorfhip, but very foon depofed by the army*. They
difeharged his debts, took all the houfehold fluff, plate,
&c. gave him .a protection for fix months, and fo he I9o.
retired. He was by no means qualified to fupport the
fiation gained by the afpiring talents of his father. He
was of a moderate temper, and untainted with that fa¬
natical fpirit which his father had fo fuccefsfully culti¬
vated. On the refloration he went abroad ; but re¬
turned in 1680 under the aiTumed name of Clark, and
fettled at Chefhunt in Hcrtfordfhire, where he lived
privately, and died in 1712, aged 86,
CRONENBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the upper Rhine, and in the landgravate of Hefie
Caffel, with a flrong caftle. It is feated at the foot of
a high mountain, on a fertile foil, and is furround--
cd with a double wall. E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat. 50.
I*-
Cronenburg, a ftrong fortrefs of Denmark, in the
ifle of Zealand, at the entrance of the Sound,, where
the Danes take toll of fuch fhips as are bound for the
Baltic. It was very richly furnifhed, but pillaged by
the Swedes in 1658* who took away the furniture,,
among which were fome flatues of mafiy filver. It is
built upon piles. E. Long. 12. 50. N. Lat. 56. o.
CRONIUS, in chronology, the ancient name of
the Athenian month Hecatombaeon ;; which was the
firil of their year, and anfwered to the latter part of
our June and beginning of July.—There were feafts
called Cronienes celebrated at Athens in this month, in
honour of Saturn, anfwering to the Saturnalia of the
Romans.
CRONSLOT. See Cronstadt.
CRONSTADT, a fea-port town of Ruffia, where
the greateft part of the navy is fituatgd. It (lands up¬
on the ifland of Retufari in the Gulf of Finland ; and
was founded by Peter L as being provided with the
fafeft harbour in thefe parts, and as forming a ftrong
bulwark by fea for the defence of the new metropolis..
The only paffage by which (hips of burden can approach
Peteriburgh lies on the fouth fide of Retufari, through
a narrow channel p one fide whereof is commanded by
Cronftadt, and the oppofite by Cronflot and the cita¬
del. Cronilot, which (lands upon a fmall ifland of
fand, is a circular wooden building, and furrounded
with fortifications of wood that jut into the water. It
contains a garrifon of too men. The citadel is ano¬
ther fmall wooden fortrefs, conftrudled alfo upon au
adjacent fand-bank, and capable of holding about 30 •
foldiers. All large veflels muft fail between Cronftadt
and thefe two fortreffes expofed to the fire of the op¬
pofite batteries ; for the other parts of the gulf are
only from one to eleven feet in depth. All thefe for¬
tifications were, at the time of their conftruftion,.
efteemed places of confiderable (Length; but now they
derive their confequence more from their paft import¬
ance than from any refiftance they could make againft'
the attack of a powerful fleet.
Cronftadt is built upon the fouth eaftern extremity
of the ifland, and is defended towards the fea by
wooden piers projefting into the water, and towards
the land by ramparts and baftions. It is a very drag¬
gling place ; and occupies, like all the Ruffian towns,,
a larger fpace of ground than the number of habita- -
2. tionas
C R O [
Cronfladt tlons Teem to require*; the houfes are moftly of wood,
II excepting a few fronting the harbour, which are of
Croft, bnck ftuccoed white. Among the latter are the im-
^ perial hofpital for failors, the barracLa, and the aca¬
demy for marines and officers of the nary. That fe-
minary ufually contains between three and four hun¬
dred cadets, who are clothed, *maintained, and taught
at the expence of the crown. They are admitted at
the age of five, and are fuffered to remain until they
reach their feventeenth year. They learn accounts,
-mathematics, drawing, fortification, and navigation ;
and have mailers in the French, German, Englilh, and
Swedilh languages. They are trained to naval affairs, and
make an annual cruife in the Baltic as far as Revel..
566 ] c R o
at the top like a T, or in the middle of their length Croft,
excepting a few fronting the harbour, which are of like an X. The crofs to which our Saviour was failen-
. • , n j v-‘ A  ed, and on which he died, was of the former kind ;
being thus reprefented by old monuments, coins, and
croffes; and St Jerom compares it to a bird flying, a
man fwimming, or praying with his arms extended.
The punilhment of the crofs was common among the
Syrians, Egyptians, Perfians, Africans, Greeks, Ro¬
mans, and Jews.
The death of the crofs was the mod dreadful of
all others, both for the fhame and pain of it; and
fo fcansdalous, that it was inftkded as the laft mark
of detellation upon the vileft of people. It was the
puniffiment of robbers and murderers, provided that
Cronftadt has a feparatehaven appropriated to the men of they were Haves too ; but otherwife, if they were free.
•war, and another to merchant Ihips. Clofe to the haven
for merchant fhips is a canal and feveral dry docks, begun
in 1719 by Peter I. for the purpofe of refitting the men
of war. This ufeful work was negle&ed under his fuccef-
fors, and was not completed until the reign of his daugh¬
ter Elizabeth. It has been dill further beautified and im¬
proved by the prefent emprefs; and is now applied for
building as well as careening Ihips of the line. At the
extremity of thefe docks is a great refervoir, 568 feet
in length, which contains water fufficient, and half the
quantity over, to fupply all the docks ; which is pump-
and had the privileges of the city of Rome, this was
then thought a proditution of that honour, and too in¬
famous a puniffiment for fuch a one, let his dimes be
what they would.
The Mofaic law ordained, that the perfons executed
ffiould not be left upon the tree after fun-fet, becaufe
he that is hanged in this manner is accurfed of God.
Deut. xxi. 22. The Jews believe, that the fouls of
thofe who remain upon the gibbet, and without burial,
enjoy no peace, and receive no benefit from the prayers
of other people ; but wander up and down till their
ed into it by means of a fire engine, the diameter of bodies are buried: which agrees with the notions that
whofe cylinder is fix feet. The length of this work,
from the beginning of the canal to the end of the lad
Jock, is 4221 feet. The fides of the docks are faced
with done, and the bottom is paved with granite.
They are 40 feet deep and 105 broad; and are
capable of containing nine men of war upon the
CRONSTAT, a town of Tranfylvania, near the
frontiers of Moldavia, fubjeft to the houfe of Audria.
E. Long. 25. o. N. Lat. 47. o.
CROP, the highed part or end of any thing cut off.
It is particularly ufed for the corn gathered off a field
in harved. See Agriculture, Part II.
CROSIER, or Crozier, a ffiepherd’scrook; a fym- and tender.
the Greeks and Romans had of this matter, as may be
feen in Horn. II. 4. and Virg. JEneid. 6.
The form of a crofs being fuch as has been already
defcribed, the body of the criminal was fadened to the
upright piece by nailing the feet to it, and on the other
tranfveife piece generally by nailing the hands on each
fide. Now, becaufe thefe parts of the body, being the in-
druments of adfion and motion, are provided by nature
with a much greater quantity of nerves than others have
occafion for; and becaufe all fenfation is performed by
the fpirit contained in thefe nerves ; it will follow, as
Stanhope obferves, that wherever they abound, the
fenfe of pain mud needs in proportion be more quick
bol of padoral authority, confiding of a gold or filver
ftaff, crooked at the top, carried occalionally before
biffiops and abbots, and held in the hand when they
give the folemn benediftions. The cudom of bearing
a padoral daff before biffiops is very ancient, as appears
from the life of St Caefarea of Arles, who lived about
the year 500. Among the Greeks none but the patri¬
archs had a right to the crofier. The crofiers were at
fird no more than fimple wooden daves in form of a T,
ufed to red and lean upon. By degrees they were
made longer; and at length arrived to the form we
now fee them of. Regular abbots are allowed to offi¬
ciate with a mitre and croffer.
Crosier, in adronomy, four ftars in the fouthern
hemifphere, in the form of a crofs, ferving thofe who
faij in fouth latitudes to find the antarftic pole.
CROSLET, in heraldry, is when a crofs is eroded
again at a fmall didance from each of the ends. Up¬
ton fays it is not fo often borne by itfelf in arms as other
croffes are, but often in diminutives, that is, in fmall
croflets feattered about the field. See Heraldry.
CROSS, a gibbet made with two pieces of wood
placed crofswife, whether they crof# with right angles
The Jews confefs, that indeed they crucified people in
their nation, but deny that they inflidted this puniffiment
upon any one alive. They fird put them to death, and
then faftened them to the crofs either by the hands or
neck. But there are indifputable proofs of their cru¬
cifying men frequently alive. The worffiippers of
Baal-geor and the king of Ai were hung up alive ; as
were alfo the defeendants of Saul, who were put into
the hands of the Gibeonites, 2 Sam. xxi. 9.
Before crucifixion the criminal was generally fcour-
ged with cords: fometimes little bones, or pieces of
bones, were tied to thefe fcourges, fo that the con¬
demned perfon might differ more feverely. It was alfo
a cudom, that he who was to be crucified ffiould bear
his own crofs to the place of execution. After this
manner we find Chrid was compelled to bear his own
crofs; and as he funk under the burden, Simon the
Cyrenian was conftrained to bear it after him and with
him. But whereas it is generally fuppofed that our
Lord bore the whole crofs,». e. the long and tranfverfe
part both, this feems to be a thing impoffible; and
thereforeLipfius (in his treatife De Supplicio Cruets) has
fet the matter in a true light, when he tells us that
3 Jefus
C R O t 567 ] C R O
Crofs. Jefus only carried the tranfverfe beam ; becaufe the
V'" "'' long beam, or the body of the crofs, was either fixed
in the ground before, or made ready to be fet up as foon
as the prifoner came: and from hence he obferves,
that painters are very much miftaken in their defcrip-
tion of our Saviour carrying the whole crofs.
There were feveral ways of crucifying; fometimes
the criminal was faftened with cords to a tree, fome¬
times he was crucified with his head downwards. This
way St Peter chofe out of refpedt to his mafter Jefus
Chrilt, not thinking himfelf worthy to be crucified
like him ; though the common way of crucifying was
by fattening the criminal with nails, one through each
hand, and one through both feet, or one through each
of them : for this was not always performed in the fame
manner} the ancients fonaetimes reprefenting jefus
Chrift crucified with four nails, and fometimes with
three. The criminal was fixed to the crofs quite na¬
ked ; and in all probability the Saviour of the world
was not ufed with any greater tendernefs than others
upon whom this puniihment was infli&ed. The fol-
diers divided his cloaths among them, and caft lots for
his tunic, which is an under garment worn over the
fleih like a fliirt.
The text of the Gofpel {hows clearly, that Jefus
Chrift was faftened to the crofs with nails; and the
Pfalmift (xxxii. 17.) had foretold long before, that
they Ihould pierce his hands and his feet; but there
are great difputes concerning the number of thefe nails.
The Greeks reprefent our Saviour as fattened to the
crofs with four nails; in which particular Gregory of
Tours agrees with them, one at each hand and foot.
But feveral are of opinion, that our Saviour’s hands
and feet were pierced with three nails only, ‘viz. one
at each hand, and one through both his feet: and the
cuftom of the Latins is rather for this laft opinion ; for
the generality of the old crucifixes made in the Latin
church have only three nails. Nonnus thinks that rmr
Saviour’s arms were befides bound fail to the crofs with
chains; and St Hilary fpeaks of the cords wherewith
he was tied to it.
Sometimes they who were faftened upon the crofs
lived a good while in that condition. St Andrew is
believed to have continued three days alive upon it.
Eufebius fpeaks of certain martyrs in Egypt who were
kept upon the crofs till they were ftarved to death.
Pilate was amazed at Jefus Chrift’s dying fo foon }
becaufe naturally he mutt have lived longer, if it had
not been in his power to have laid down his life and to
take it up again. The thighs of the two thieves who
were crucified together with our Saviour were broken
in order to haften their death, that their bodies might
not remain upon the crofs on the Sabbath day (John
xix. 31, 32, 33-), and to comply with the law of Mo¬
les, which forbids the bodies to be left theie after
fun-fet. But among other nations they were fuffered
to remain upon the crofs a long time. Sometimes they
were devoured alive by birds and beafts of prey. Guards
were appointed to obferve that none of their friends
or relations Ihould take them down and bury them.
The ftory of the Ephefian matron and the foldier
who was fet .to guard the crofs, is very well known.
The Roman foldiers who had crucified Jefus Chrift and
the two thieves continued near the croffes till the bodies
were taken down and burkd.
Crofies were ufually, in former times, erected on
the tops of jiioufes, by which tenants pretended to claim
the privileges of the Templars Hofpitallers, to defend
themfelves againft their rightful lords. This was con¬
demned by the ftatuteWil.il. c. 37. It was ufual
alfo, in thofe days, to fet up crofles in places where
the corpfe of any of the nobility refted as it was carried
to be buried, that a tranfeuntibus pro ejus animo depre-
cttur. Croffes, &c. are forbidden, to be brought
into England by 13 Eliz. c. 2. on pain of a pramumre^
&c.
Invention of the Cross, an ancient feaft, folemnized
on the third of May, in memory of St Helena’s (the
mother of Conftantine) finding the true crofs of Chrift
deep in the ground on mount Calvary; where fire
erefted a church for the prefervation of part of it: the
reft being brought to Rome and repofited in the church
of the Holy Crofs of Jerufalem.
Theodoret mentions the finding of three crofles ^
that of Jefus Chrift and thofe of the two thieves; and
that they dillinguiftred between them by means of
a Tick woman, who was immediately healed by touch¬
ing the true crofs. The place is laid to have been
pointed out to her by St Quiriacus, then a Jew, after¬
wards converted and canonized.
Etcaltatwn of the Cross, an ancient feaft, held on the
14th of September, in memory of this, that Heracli¬
tus reftored to mount Calvary the true crofs in 642,
which had been carried off 14. years before by Cofroes
king of Perfia, upon his taking Jerufalem from the em¬
peror Phocas.
The adoration of the crofs appears to have been
pra&ifed in the ancient church ; inafmuch as the Hea¬
thens, particularly Julian, reproach the primitive Chri-
ftians with it. And we do not find that their apolo-
gifts difclaimed the charge. Mornay, indeed, afferted,
that this had been done by St Cyril, but could not
fupport his allegation at the conference of Fontainbleau.
Si Helena is faid to have reduced the adoration of the
crofs to its juft principle, fince (he adored in the wood,
not the wood itfelf, which had been direft idolatry and
Heathenifm, but him who had been nailed to this
wood. With fuch modifications fome Proteftants have
been induced to admit the adoration of the crofs. John
Hufs allowed of the phrafe, provided it were exprefsly
added, that the adoration was relative to the perfon of
Chriit. But however Roman Catholics may feem to
triumph by virtue of fuch diftinftion and mitigations,
it is well known they have no great place in their own
practice. Imbert, the good prior of Gafcony, was
feverely profecuted in 1683 for telling the people, that
in the ceremony of adoring the ciofs, praftifed in that
church on Good Friday, they were not to adore the
wood, but Chrift, who was crucified on it. The cu¬
rate of the parilh told them the contrary : it was the
wood! the wood! they were to adore. Imbert re¬
plied, it was Chrift, not the wood : for which he was
cited before the archbifliop of Bourdeaux, fufpended
from his fun&ions, and even threatened with chains
and perpetual jmprifonment. It little availed him to
cite the bifhop of Meaux’s dillinftion ; it was anfwer-
ed, that the church allowed it not.
CRoss-Bearer (port-croix, cruciger), in the Romifti
church, the chaplain of an archbifliop or a primate,
who bears a crofs before him on folemn occafions.
The pope has the crofs borne before him every
where; a patriarch any where out of Rome ; and pri¬
mates,
C R O [ J68 ] C R O
mates, metropolitans, and thofe who have a right to
the pallium, throughout their refpeftive jurifdiftions.
Gregory XI. forbad all patriarchs and prelates to
have it borne in prefence of cardinals. A prelate
bears a fingle crofs, a patriarch a double crofs, and the
pope a triple one on their arms.
Cuoss-Bearers alfo denote certain officers in the in-
jquilition, who make a vow before the inquilitors or
-their vicars to defend the Catholic faith, though with
the lofs of fortune and life. Their bufinefs is to pro¬
vide the inquifitors with neceflaries. They were for¬
merly of great ufe; but in procefs of time fome of their
contlitutions were changed, and they were called ^of
the penance of St Dominic.
Pectoral Cross, is a crofs of gold or filver, or other
-precious materials, often enriched with diamonds,
which the bifhops, archbifhops, &c. and regular ab-
.befies, wear hangiag from the neck.
Order of the Cross, or Croifade, an order of ladies
inftituted in 1668 by the emprefs Eleonora de Gonza-
gua, wife of the emperor Leopold; on occafion of
the miraculous recovery of a little golden crofs, where¬
in were inclofed two pieces of the true crofs, out of
the afhes of part of the palace. It feems the fire had
burnt the cafe wherein it was inclofed, and melted the
■cryftal, yet the wood remained untouched.
Maids of the Cross, a community of young women
inflituted in 1265 at Roye in Picardy, and fince dif-
perfed to Paris and other towns. They infirudt young
perfons of their own fex. Some take the three vows
of poverty, challity, and obedience ; others retain
their liberty. They are under the dire&ion of a fupe-
Cross, in heraldry, is defined by Guillim, an ordi¬
nary compofed of fourfold lines ; whereof two are per¬
pendicular, and the other two tranfverfe ; for fo we
muft conceive of them, though they be not drawn
throughout, but meet by couples, in four right angles,
near the feffpoint of the efcutcheon. See Heraldry.
This bearing was firft beftowed on fuch as had per¬
formed, or at leaft undertaken, fome fervice for Chrift,
and the Chriflian profeffion ; and is held by divers the
moft honourable charge in all heraldry. What brought
it into fuch frequent ufe, was the ancient expeditions
into the Holy Land ; and the holy war pilgrims, af¬
ter their pilgiimage, taking the crofs for their cogni¬
zance ; and the enfign of that war being the crofs. In
thofe wars, fays Mackenzy, the Scots carried St An¬
drew’s crofs ; the French a crofs argent; the Englifh
.a crofs or ; the Germans, fable ; the Italians, azure ;
the Spaniards, gules.
St George’s Cross, or the red crofs, in a field ar¬
gent, is now the ftandard of England; that faint being
the reputed patron of this nation.
Nor is it only in croffes that the variety is fo
•great; the like is found in many other bearings, and
particularly in lions, and the parts of them; wheieof
Colombiere gives us no lefs than 96 varieties. Leigh
mentions but 46 feveral crofies ; Sylvanus Morgan,
26; Upton, 30; Johannes de Bado Aureo, 12 ; and
fo others, whom it is needlefs to mention. Upton
owns he dares not prefume to afcertain all the various
croffes ufed in arms, for that they are at prefent almoft
innumerable ; and therefore he only takes notice of
fuch as he had feen ufed in his own time.
95-
Cross, Jn mining, two nicks cut on the fuperficies
of the earth, thus +, which the miners make when ~"
they take the ground to dig for ore. This crofs gives
the miners three days liberty to make and to fet on
ftones. As many of thefe croffes as the miner makes,
fo many mears of ground he may have in the vein,
provided he fet on ftpnes within three days after ma¬
king his crofs or croffes. But if he make but one crofs,
and a ftander-by makes the fecond, and a ftranger
makes the third, every one is ferved with the next
mear, according as they have firft or laft, fooner or
later, made their crofs or croffes upon the ground.
Cross, in coins, a name given to the right fide or
face, the other being called the pile or reverfe. It
has been a common error, that the reverfe was meant
by the crofs; becaufe at this time, with us, it is marked
with figures difpofed in that form: but the ftamping
the head of the prince in thefe kingdoms on the right
fide of the coin, was preceded by a general euftom of
ftriking on that part the figure of a crofs ; while the
other, called the pile, contained the arms, or fome
other device.
Cross, inftead of a fignature to a deed, &c. is de¬
rived from the Saxon praftice of affixing the fign of
the crofs, whether they could write or not.
CROss-Bar Shot, a bullet with an iron bar palling
through it, and Handing fix or eight inches out at
both fides. It is ufed at fea for deftroying the enemy’s
rigging-
Cross-BUI, \n ornithology. See Loxia.
Cross~BHI, in chancery, is an original bill, by which
the defendant prays relief againft the plaintiff.
Cross-Bows. See Bows and Archery.
CR0ss-grained Stuff, in joinery. Wood is fa id to be
crofs-grained, when a bough or branch has /hot out of
it; for the grain of the branch (hooting forward, runs
athwart that of the trunk.
In wood well grown this deleft is fcarce perceivable, ■
except in working; but in deal-boards thefe boughs
make knots. If the bough grew up with the young
trunk, inftead of a knot is found a curling in the fluff,
very fenfible under the plane.
Cross-Jack, pronounced cro-jeck, a fail extended on
the lower yard of the mizen-maft, which is hence called
the crofs-jack yard. This fail, however, has generally
been found of little fervice, and is therefore very fel-
dom ufed.
CRoss-Piece, a rail of timber extended over the
windlafs of a merchant-lhip from the knight heads to
the belfry. It is ftuck full of wooden pins, which are
ufed to fatten the running rigging as occafion requires.
See Windlass.
CROss-Tining, in hulbandry, a method of harrowing
land, confifting in drawing the harrow up the interval it
went down before, and down that which it was drawn up.
CROss-Trees, certain pieces of timber, fupported by
the cheeks and treftle-trees, at the upper ends of the
lower mafts, athwart which they are laid to fuftain
the frame of the top.
CRoss-Tree Tard, is a yard Handing fquare, juft un¬
der the mizen-top, and to it the mizen-top is fattened
below. See Cross-Jack.
CRoss-lVort, in botany. See Valentia.
Ordeal of the Cross, a fpecies of trial frequently
praftifed in the days of fuperftition. See Ordeal.
CROSS,
C R 0 l 569 ] C R O
Crcfs CROSS, an Engli(H srtift, famous only for copying,
I) in the reigns of Charles I. and Charles II. Of this ta-
.11 rota nm' lent there is a ftory current, more to the credit of his
flcill than of his probity. He is faid to have been em¬
ployed by Charles I. to copy the celebrated Madotia
of Raphael in St Mark’s church at Venice; and that,
having obtained leave of the ftate for that purpofe, he
executed his piece fo well as to bring away the origi¬
nal and leave his copy in the place of it. The decep¬
tion was not dete&ed until it was too late to recover
the lofs-; and this piece was bought in Oliver’s time
by the Spanifh ambaffador fqr his mafter, who placed
it in the Efcurial.
CROSSEN, a handfome town of Silefia in Germany,
and capital of a principality of the fame name. It is
fituated at the confluence of the rivers Bobar and Q-
der, in a fertile country abounding in wine and fruits.
There is a bridge over the Oder which is fortified.
E. Long. 15. 20. N. I.at. 52. 5.
CROSSOSTYLUS, in botany : A genus of the
polyandria order belonging to the monadelphia clafs
of plants. The calyx is a quadrangular, quadrifid, tur¬
binated peri'ti'.thium: the corolla confiits of four el¬
liptical petals ; the ftamina are 20 filiform filaments,
itlmoil the length of the calyx ; the antheras fmall and
' roundiflt; the pericarpium an hemifpherical, unilocu¬
lar berry, with many (trise on its upper part; the feeds
numerous and roundi/h.
CROTALARIA, Rattle-wort : A genus of
the decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranVug under
the 32d order, Papilionacea. The.legumen ij> turgid,
inflated, and pedicdlnted; the filaments are cod’ted
with a fiffure on the back. There are 1 x fpecies, vl
of them natives of warm climates. They rife from 18
inches to 5 feet in height, and are adorned with flowers
of a blue or yellow colour. The moll remarkable fpe¬
cies is the retufa, with fitnple oblong wedged leaves. It
is a native of the illand of Ceylon and fome other parts
of the Eaft Indies. The flowers are yellow, the pods
fmooth, cylindrical, inflated, and placed horizontally :
they are filled with feeds, which, when dried, and
fhaken by the flighteft .wind, emit a rattling noife :
and this, by the rude inhabitants of the countries
where the plant is native, is attributed to the devil,
who is thought to deliver his oracles in this whimfical
manner.
CROTALO, an inllrument of military mufic, like
that deferibed in the next article. The Turks are
the fir If, among the moderns, who introduced the
ufe of it for their troops. It is now common in Flan¬
ders and Florence, and other territories on the conti¬
nent. It has only one tone; but its effett in marking
time may be diftinctly heard through the noife of forty
drums. This is the fame inftrument with the ancient
cymbalum.
C ROT ALUM, an ancient kind of caftagnetta, or
mufical inftrument, found on medals, in the hands of
the prtefts of Cybele. The crotalum differed from
the liftrum; though authors frequently confound the
two. It coniifted of two little brafs plates or rods,
which were fliaken in the hand, and in ftriking again!!
each other made a noife.
It was fometimes alfo made of a reed fplit length-
Vol. V. Part JI.
wife; one part whereof they ftruckagainft the other; and Croulu*
as this made a noife fomewhat like that of a crane’s bill, •
they called that bird crota/t/lria, a player on the cro-
. tala : and Ariftophanes calls a great talker a crotahm.
Clemens Alexaudrinua attributes the invention to
the,Sicilians; and forbids the ufe thereof to the Chrif-
tians, becaufe of the indecent motions and geftures
that accompany it.
CROTALUS, or Rattle-snake, in zoology, a PI,u«
genus belonging to the order of amphibia ferpentes ;
the characters of which are thefe: the belly is furnifh-
ed with feuta, and the tail has both feuta and feales ;
but the principal charadteriftic of this genus is the
rattle at the end of the tail. The rattles confift of
feveral articulated cruftaceous, or rather horny, bags,
which make a confiderable rattling noife when the
creature moves, and ferves to warn people of their ap¬
proach. There are five fpecies; and the bite of every
one of them is fo highly poifonous, that it generally
kills in a fliort time. Of thefe we have no account
that can be depended upon, except that given by Mr
Catefby of the horridus, or American rattlo-fnake.
This grows fometimes to the length of 8 feet, and
weighs between 8 and 9 pounds. The colour of the
head is brown ; the eye red ; the upper part of the
body of a yellawifli-brown colour, tranfverfely marked
with irregular broad black lifts. The rattle is of a
brown colour, compofed of feveral horny, membra¬
nous, cells, of an undulated pyramidal figure. Thefe
are articulated within one another in fuch a manner
that the point of the firil cell reaches as far as the ba-
fis of the protuberant ring of the third, and fo on ;
which afficulation, being very loofe, gives liberty to
the parts of the cells that ait inclofed within the out¬
ward rings to ftrike againft the fides of them, and fo
to caufe the rattling noife which is heard when the
fnake fhakes its tail. This is the moft ina&ive and
flow moving of all the fnakes, and is never the aggref-
for except in what it preys upon. The abovq gentle¬
man is of opinion that no remedy is yet difeovered for
the bite of this animal. He had frequently accefs to
fee Indians bit by it, and always thought that thofe
who recovered were cured more through the force of
nature, or by reafon of the fiightn'efs of the bite, than
by the remedies ufed. He tells us, that the Indians
know their deftiny the moment they are bit; and if
the bite happens to be on. any; of the large veins, they
apply no remedies, as knowing .them to be entirely
ufelefs. He believes the reports of the fafeinating
power of this ferpent, though he never had an opportu¬
nity of feeing it. See the articles Poison and Serpent.
CROTALYSTRIAS, in antiquity, a kind of mo-
rice dancers, admitted to entertainments, in order to
divert the company with their dancing and playing
on an inftrument called crotalum, whence they had
their name.
CROTCHET, in mufic, one of the notes or cha-
rafters of time, equal to half a minim, and double of a
quaver.
Crotchets are alfo marks or characters, ferving to
inclofe a word or fentence which is diftinguilhed from
the reft, being generally in this form [ J.
CROTO, or Croton, (anc. geog.), a noble city
of the Bruttii, built by the Acheans; an hundred and
4 C fifty
C R O [ 570 1 C R O
fifty ftadia to the north of Lacinium, and in the neigh¬
bourhood of Metapontum. It was twelve miles in
compafs before the arrival ofPyrrhus into Italy; but after
the defolation produced by that war, fcarce half of it was
inhabited. The citadel on one fide hung over the fea,
on the other towards the land. It was naturally tlrong
from its fituation, but afterwards walled round; on
which fide it was taken by Dionylius by ftratagem, by
means of the rocks behind it.
Pythagoras, after his long peregrinations in fearch
of knowledge, fixed his refidence in this place, which
feme authors think his native one, at leaft that of
his parents, fuppofing him to have been born in the
ifle of Samos, and not at fame town of that name in
Italy. This incomparable fage fpent the latter part
of his life in training up difciples to the rigid exercife
of fublime and moral virtue, and inilrufting the Cro-
tonites in the true arts of government, fuch as alone
can infure happinefs, glory, and independence.
Under the influence of this philofophy, the Croto-
nites inured their bodies to frugality and hardihips,
and their minds to felf-denial and patriotic difintereft-
ednefs. Their virtues were the admiration of Greece,
where it was a current proverb, that the lalt of the
Crotonites was the firft of the Greeks. In one Olym¬
piad, feven of the vi&ors in the games were citizens
of Croton ; and the name of Milo is almoft as famous
as that of Hercules. The vigour of the men and
beauty of the women were afcribed to the climate,
which was believed to be endowed with qualities pe¬
culiarly favourable to the human fyftem. Their phy-
ficians were in high repute ; and among thefe, Alc-
meon and Democides rendered themfelves molt con-
fpicuous. Alcmeon was the firll who dared to ampu¬
tate a limb, in order to fave the life of a patient; and
alfo the firft writer who thought of inculcating moral
precepts under the amufing cloak of apologues. This
invention is more commonly attributed to iEfop, as*
he was remarkably ingenious in this fpecies of compo-
fition. Democides was famous for his attachment to
his native foil. Though carefled and enriched by the
king of Perfia, whofe queen he had fnatched from
the jaws of death, he abandoned wealth and honours,
and by ftrafagem efcaped to the humble comforts of a
private life at Croton.—The Pythagoreans are faid to
have difcovered that difpoiition of the folar fyftem,
which, with fome modifications, has been revived by
Copernicus, and is (now univerfally received, as being
moft agreeable to nature and experiment. Theano,
the wife of Pythagoras, and many other women, emu¬
lated the virtues of their hufbands.
In thofe fortunate days the ftate of Croton was moft
flouriftiing. Its walls inclofed a circumference of
12 miles. Of all the colonies fent out from Greece,
this alone furniftied fuccour to the mother-country
when invaded by the Perfians. By its avenging arms
the Sybarites were punifhed for their ftiameful dege¬
neracy ; but victory proved fatal to the conquerors,
for riches, and all their pernicious attendants, infinua-
ted themftlves into Croton, and foon contaminated
the purity of its principles. Indeed, the very confti-
tution of human nature militates againft any long con¬
tinuance in fuch rigid pra&ices of virtue ; and there¬
fore it. is no wonder if the Crotonites fell by degrees
into the irregularities they once abhorred. Not long
after, the Locrians, w'ho were lefs corrupted, defeated '
them on the banks of the Sagra, and reduced the re¬
public to diftrefs and penury. This reftored the re¬
maining Crotonites to their priftine vigour of mind,
and enabled them to make a brave, though unfuccefs-
ful, refiftancc, when attacked by Dionyfius of Syracufe.
They fuffered much in th<? w^ar with Pyrrhus, and, by
repeated misfortunes, decreafed in ftrength and num¬
bers, from age to age, down to that of Hannibal,
when they could not mufter 20,000 inhabitants. This
fmall population being incapable of manning the ex-
tenfive works erefted in the days of profperity, Cro¬
ton was taken by the Carthaginians, and its citizens
tranfported to Locri. The Romans fent a colony
hither 2QO years before Chrift. In the Gothic war,
this city rendered itfelf confpicuous by its fidelity to
Juftinian, and Totila befieged it long in vain.
CROTON, Wild ricinus : A genus of the adel-
phia order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
38th order, Tricocae. The male calyx is cylindrical
and quinquedentated, the corolla is pentapetalous; the
ftamina from 10 to ty. The female calyx is poly-
phyllous ; no corolla; three bifid ftyles; the capfule
trilocular; one feed. There are 21 fpecies; of which
the moft remarkable are, x. The tinftorium, or plant
from which the French turnfole is made. This grows
naturally in the fouth of France: it is an annual plant,
rifing about 9 inches high, with an herbaceous branch¬
ing ftalk, garnifhed with irregular or rhomboidal fi¬
gured leaves, which are near two inches long and an
inch and a quarter wide in their wideft part. Thefe
Hand upon flender footftalks near four inches.long. The
flowers are produced in ftiort fpikes from the fides of
the ftalks, at the end of the- branches; the upper part
of the fpike is compofed of male flowers, having many
ftamina which coalefce at the bottom ; the lower part
hath female flowers, which have each a roundifh,
three-cornered, germen; thefe afterwards become a
roundiftx capfule with three lobes, having three cells,
each including one roundiflx feed. This flowers in
July ; but unlefs the plants are brought forward on a
hot-bed, they do not ripen feeds in this country. From
this plant is made the turnfole ufed for colouring wines
and jellies. It is made of the juice which is lodged
between the empalement and the feeds; . which, if
rubbed on cloths, at firft appears of a lively green,
but afterwards changes to a bluilh purple colour.
If thefe cloths are put into water, and afterwards
wrung, they will dye the water to a claret colour.
The rags thus dyed are brought to this country, and
fold in the druggifts flrops under the name of turnfole.
2. The febifera, or tallow-tree, with rhomboidal egg-
ftiaped leaves, pointed, frirooth and very entire. It
is about the height of a cherry-tree ; its leaves in
form of a heart, of a deep, ftrining, red colour, and
its bark very fmooth. Its fruit is enclofed in a
kind of pod, or cover, like a chefnut, and confifts
of three round white grains, of the fize and form of a
fmall nut, each having its peculiar capfula, and within
that a little ftone. This ftone is encompafledwith a white
pulp, which has all the properties of true tallow, as to
confiftence, colour, and even fmell: and accordingly the
Chi-
C R O [ J71 1 C R O
Croton . Chinefc make their candles of it; which would doubtlefs rieft for food : this might be neceffary in a'cold cli-
_ I* be as good as thofe in Europe, if they knew how to pu- mate ; but why it fliould be wanted in a hot one feems
phata” nfy their vegetable tallow as well as we do our animal not clear, efpecially as it has not been obferved in
kind, and to make their wicks as well. 3. The aro- other birds. It generally has two broods in a year,
maticum, with heart-fhaped ferrated leaves, and an ar- except accidents happen ; in which cafe it has been
borefeent Item. The bark of this tree is the fame as the known to make three nefts. The eggs are about the
cafcarilla and eleutheria; though thefe have been con- fize of thofe of a pigeon, of a fea-green colour, fpot-
fidered by fome as diftinft barks, and fold in the (hops ted at the ends. Their food is various ; worms, in-
as different productions. It is a hot, acrid, aromatic fefts, fruits, and grain, according to the feafon. There
bitter, refembling in appearance the Peruvian bark, is a variety called the greater ani, which is about the
but is more bitter and pungent, though not fo rough fize of a jay, differing no otherwife from the former
and aftringent. It was firft introduced into Europe but in fize. They ought, however, to be confidered
about the end of the laft century, and feems firft to as two diftinft fpecies : for they never mix together ;
have been ufed in Germany, where it is ftill in very though each have the fame manners, with this differ-
high efteem. There it is frequently employed againft ence only, that the fmaller frequent the open favannas,
common intermittent fevers, in preference to the Peru- the larger only the falt-marfhes near the fea-coafts.
vian bark, as being lefs fubjeft to fome inconveniences, It is faid that they are eafily made tame, and will learn
which the latter on account of its great aftringency is to talk like parrots. The male and female are both
apt to occafion. It is alfo faid to have been employed alike. Both fpecies are eafy to be fliot, not being fo
with great fuccefs in fome very dangerous epidemic fe- wild as many other birds; but are known to chatter
vers attended with petechias ; and it is frequently em- much on the fight of a man, though they do not fly
ployed with advantage in flatulent colics, internal he- to a great diftance; hence are not well relifhed by
morrhagies, dyfenteries, diarrhoeas, and fimilar difor- fportfmen, as, like the jays in England, they are the
ders. In Britain it has been ufed by fome pra&ition- occafion of hindering his fport in refpeft to other game,
ers, particularly by the late Dr Keir of London, who without making him amends in their own fleffi, which
was of opinion that it was by no means employed fo is never fought after for food, being rank and unfavoury.
generally as it deferved to be. Its virtues are par- CROTOY, a town of France, in Picardy, and in
tially extra&ed by water, and totally by redlified fpi- Ponthieu. The fortifications are demolifhed. It is
rit, but it is mott effedtual when given in fubftance. feated at the mouth of the river Somme. E. Long.
4. The cafcarilla, deferibed by Linnaeus as producing I. 45. N. Lat. 50. 15.
the officinal bark of that name, is, according to Dr CROUCHED friars. See Croisiers.
^ Medical Wright f, the wild rofemary ffirub of Jamaica, the CROUP, in medicine. See Medicine-7/i^x.
'Journal, bark of which has none of the fenfible qualities of the Croup of a Horfe, in the manege, the extremity of
vol. viii. true cafcarilla or eleutheria above deferibed. the reins above the hips.
CROTONA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of CROUPADE, in the manege, a leap, in which the
Naples, feated on the gulph of Taranto, with a biffiop’s horfe pulls up his hind legs, as if he drew them up to
fee and a citadel. E. Long. 17. 27. N. Lat. 39. 10. his belly.
CROTOPHAGA, in ornithology,a genus of birds CROUTE, Sour Croute, or Kroute. As this
belonging to the older of picas; the charadteis of preparation of cabbage has been found of fovereign
which are : The bill is thin, compreffed, greatly arch- efficacy as a prefervative in long voyages from the fea»
ed, half oval, nnd cultrated at top; the noftrils are feurvy, it may not be unacceptable to give a concife
round ; the tongue flat, and pointed at the end ; the account of the procefs for making it, according to the
Plate CLI. tail confifts of ten feathers ; and the toes are placed information communicated by an ingenious German
two and two. The moft remarkable fpecies is the ani, gentleman.
which is about the fize of a blackbird : the colour of The foundeft and moft folid cabbages are feledted
the whole bird is black, in fome parts gloffed with for this ufe, and cut very fmall, commonly with an in¬
purple,. and about the heck faintly tinged with green ftrument made for this purpofe, not unlike the plain
on the margins : the bafe of the bill is furniffied with which is ufed in this country for flicing cucumbers,
black briftles, which turn forwards: the eye-lids A knife is ufed when the preparation is made with
have long hairs like eye-lalhes: the tail is fix inches greater nicety. The cabbage thus minced is put into
lon^, and much cuneated ; and the legs are black, a barrel in layers, hand high, and over each is ftrewed
This fpecies is found in Jamaica, St Domingo, and a handful of fait and carravvay feeds ; in this manner
other iflands in the Weft Indies; alfo at Cayenne and it is rammed down with a rammer Jlratum fuperfratum,
other parts of South America. Contrary to all other till the barrel be full; when a cover is put over it and
birds, they have the Angularity of many' laying in preffed down with a heavy weight. After Handing
the fame neft ; to make which, they all unite in con- fome time in this ftate it begins to ferment; and-it is
cert, and after laying their eggs, fit on them clofe to not till the fermentation has entirely fubfided that the
each other in order to hatch them, each unanimoufly head is fitted to it, and the barrel is finally (hut up and
ftriving to do the heft for the general good ; and when preferved for ufe. There is not a drop of vinegar em-
the young are hatched, the parents, without referve, ployed in this preparation. The Germans write this
do the beft to feed the whole flock. Still a greater preparation in the following manner: Sauer Irani, or
Angularity occurs, which is, that as foon as each fe- fauer lohl; that is, in their language, “ four herb, or
male lays her eggs {he covers them with leaves, doing four cabbage.”
•the fame thing whenever flic is obliged to leave the CROUSAZ (John Peter de"), a learned philofopher
4 C 2 and
Crotoy
l!
Croufaz.
C R O [ 572 1 C R O
Tfow, an(J mathematician, was born in 1663 : having made
Crowd, great progrefs in the mathematics and the philofophy
of Des Cartes, he travelled to Geneva, Holland, and
France ; was fucceffively profefibr in feveral univer-
fitie-s ; and at length was chofen governor to Prince
Frederic of Heffe-Caffel, nephew to the kjng of Swe¬
den. He wrote many works; the moft efteemed of
which are, 1. His Logic, the belt edition of which is
that of 1741, in 6 vols 8vo. 2. A Treatifeon Beauty.
3. A Treatife on the Education of Children, 2,vols
i2mo. 4. Several Treat!fes on Philofophical and Ma¬
thematical Subjects, See. He died at Laufanne in
1748. _ _ ^
CROW, in ornithology. See Corvus.
Crow, in mechanics, a kind of iron lever, with a
claw at one end and a (harp point at the other ; ufed
for heaving or purchafing great weights.
Cnotr’s Bill, among furgeons, a kind cf forceps
for drawing bullets and other foreign bodies out of
wounds.
Cro^’j- Fed,, in the military art, machines of iron,
having four points, each, about three or four inches
long, fo made, that whatever way they fall there is
flill a point up : they are thrown upon breaches, or in
palfes where the enemy’s cavalry are to march, proving
very troubjefoine, by running into the horfe’s feet and
kming them.
Cnow-Foot, on Ihip-board, a complication of fmall
cords fpreading out from a long block, like the fmaller
parts which extend from the back-bone of a herring
(Plate CL.}. It is ufed to fufpend the ownings ; or
to keep the top-fails from linking violently, and fret¬
ting againft the fops.
Crow-Net, is an invention for catching wild-fowl
in the winter feafon, and may be ufed in the day-time.
This net is made of double thread, or fine pack-thread ;
the methes Ihould be two inches wide, the length about
ten yards, and the depth three ; it mull be verged on
the fide with good Itrong cord, and ftretched out very
flilf on long poles prepared for that purpofe. When
you are come to the place where you would fpread
your net, open it, and lay it out at its full length and
breadth ; then fallen the lower end of the net all along
the ground, fo as only to move it up and down ; the
upper end of the net mult Hand extended on the long
cord; the further end thereof being llaked firft to the
earth by a llrong cord about five yards dillant from the
net. Place this cord in an even line with the lower
edge of the net. The other end mull be at leaft 25
yards diftant to reach into fome natural or artificial
fhelter, by the means of which yon may lie concealed
from the fowl, otherwife no good fuccefs can be ex-
pefted. The net mull be placed in fuch exadl order
that it may give way to play on the fowl on the leall
pull of the cord, which mull be done fmartly, left the
fowl Ihould prove too quick for you. This net may
be ufed for pigeons, cows, or other birds, on corn¬
fields newly fown ; as alfo in llubble-fields, provided
the Hubble conceals the net from the birds.
CROWD, in a general fenfe, iignifies a number of
people aflembled in a place fcarce big enough to hold
them all.
7*0 Crowd, in the fea-language, is to carry an ex¬
traordinary force of fail upon a Ihip, in order to ac¬
celerate her courfe on fome important occafion ; as in CrowlamJ*
purfuit of, or flight from, an enemy; to efcape any Crown.^
immediate danger, &c. ^ *
CROWLAND, a town in Lincolnfhire, feated in
the fens, in a dirty foil, and’ had formerly an abbey
of very great note. There is no coming at it but by
narrow caufeways, which will not admit a cart. It
has three llreets, feparated from each other by water-
courfes, whole banks are fupported by piles, and fet
with willow trees. Their chief trade is in fifti and
fowl,, which are in great plenty in the adjacent pools
and marfhes. W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 52. 40.
CROW^N, an ornament worn on the head by kings,
fovereign princes, and noblemen, as a mark of their
dignity. _
In feripture there is frequent mention of crowns,
and the ufe of them feems to have been very common
among the Hebrews. The high pried wore a crown,
which was a fillet of gold placed upon the forehead,
and tied with a ribbon of hyacinth colour, or azure
blue. It feems alfo as if private priefts, and even
common liVaelites, wore alfo a fort of crown, fince
God commands Ezekiel not to take off his crown, nor
affume the marks of one in mourning. Tim crown
was no more than a ribbon or fillet, with which the
Jews and feveral people in the eaft girt their heads.
And indeed the firft crowns were no more than a ban¬
delet drawn round the head, and tied behind, as we
Hill fee it reprefented on medals round the heads of
Jupiter, the Ptolemies, and kings of Syria. After¬
wards they confifted of two bandelets ; by degrees
they took branches of trees of divers kinds ; at length
they added flowers, infomueh that Claudius Saturni-
nus fays, there was not any plant whereof crowns had
not been made. The woods and groves were fearched
to find different crowns for the feveral deities; and they
were ufed not only on the ftatues and images of the
gods, by the priefts in facrificing, and by kings and
emperors, but alfo on altars, temples, doors of houfes,
facred veffels, victims, fhips, See.
The Roman emperors had four kinds of crowns,
flill feen on medals, viz. a crown of laurel, a radial
or radiating crown, a crown adorned with pearls and
precious ftones, and the fourth a kind of bonnet op
cap, fomething like the mortier.
The Romans had alfo various kinds of crowns,
which they diftributed as rewards of military atchieve-
ments; as, 1. The oval crown, made of myrtle, and
beftowed upon generals, who were intitled to the ho¬
nours of the leffer triumph, called ovation. 2. The
naval or roilral crown, compofed of a circle of gold,
with ornaments reprefenting beaks of (hips, and given %
to the captain who firft grappled, or the foldier who
firft boarded, an enemy’s fhip. 3. The crown called
in Latin vallarh, or ra/lrenfis, a circle of gold raifed
with jewels or palifades ; the reward of him who firft
forced the enemy’s entrenchments. 4. The mural
crown, a circle of gold indented and embattled j given
to him who firft mounted the wall of a befieged place,
and there lodged a ftandard. .5. The civic crown,
made of the branchy of a green oak, and given him
who had faved the life of a citizen. 6. The trium¬
phal crown, confiding at fir ft of wreaths of laurel,
but afterwards made of gold ; proper to fuch generala
as
c R O [ 573 ] c R O
as had the honour of a triumph. 7. The crown call¬
ed objidionalis, or graminea, made of grafs growing on
the place ; the reward of a general who had delivered
a Roman army from a fiege. 8. The radial crown,
given to princes at their tranflation among the gods.
We meet alfo with the corona aurea, often beftowed
on foldiers, without any other additional term ; ath¬
letic crowns, and crowns of laurel, deftined to crown
vi&ims at the public games, poets, orators, &c. AH
thefe crowns were marks of nobility to the wearers ;
and upon competitions with rivals for rank and digni¬
ties, often determined the preference in th$r favour,
See Plate CL. For an account of modern crowns,
fee Heraldry.
Crown is alfo ufed to fignify the pofieflions and
dignity of a king. The crown of England, according
to Sir William Blackitone, is, by cOmmOn law and
' conftitutional cuftom, hereditary ; and this in a manner
peculiar to itfelf: but the right of inheritance may
from time, to time be changed or limited by a6t of par¬
liament, under which limitations, the crown ftill con¬
tinues hereditary. See Succession.
Pleas of the Crown. See Pleas.
Crown, in'commerce, is a general name for coins,
both foreign and domeftic, of or near the value of five
fhillings Sterling. In its limited fenfe, crown is only
applicable to that popular EngTilh coin which bears the
name, and which is equivalent to fixty Englifh pence or
five Ihillings, or to fix livres French money. But, in its
extenfive (enfe, it takes in feveral others ; as the French
ecu, which we call the French crown, ftruck in 1641
for fixty fols, or three livres ; alfo the patagon, dollar,
ducatoon, rixdollar, and piaftre or piece of eight.
Crown, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, is ufed for the
clerical tonfure ; which is the mark or chara&er of the
Romifh ecclefiaftics. This is a little circle of hair
fhaved off from the crown of the head ; more or lefs
broad, according to the quality of the orders received :
That of a mere clerk is the fmalleft; that of priefts
and monks the largeft. The clerical crown was an¬
ciently a round lift of hair, fhaved off around the head,
reprefenting a real crown : this is eafily obfervable in
feveral ancient ftatues, &c. The religious of St Do¬
minic and St Francis ftill retain it.
Crown, among jewellers, the upper work of the
rofe diamond, which all centres in the point at the top,
and is bounded by the horizontal ribs.
tnoWN-Cffice, an office belonging' to the king’s
bench court, of which the king’s coroner or attorney
is commonly mailer. In this office, the attorney-ge¬
neral and clerk of the crown feverally exhibit infor¬
mations for crimes and mifdemeanours at common
law, as in the cafe of batteries, con’fpiracies, libelling,
&c. on which the offender is liable to pay a fine to
the king.
CRoirN-Glafs, denotes the fineft fort of window-
glafs. See Glass.
Crowk-Seals, in farriery. See there, $ xxxvi. 2.
Crown-Wheel of a Watch, the upper wheel next the
balance, which by its motion drives the balance, and
in royal pendulums is called the fwing-wheel.
Crown Imperial, in botany. See Futillaria.
CRowN-Work, in fortification, is an out-work run¬
ning into the field; defigned to keep off the enemy.
gain fome hill or advantageous poft, and cover the
other works of the place. The crown-work confifts
of two demi-baftions at the extremes, and an entire
baftion in the middle, with curtains.
CROWNE (John), a celebrated dramatic writer,
born in Nova Scotia, v/here his father was a minifter.
Being impatient of the gloomy reftraint of that coun*
try, he came to England, where he was reduced to
enter into the fervice of an old lady ; of which he
was foon as weary as he had been o.f America. Fie
then had recourfe to his pen, which quickly procured
him favour at court; but this kind of fubfiftence pro-
ving precarious, he ventured to folicit Charles II. for
fome eftabliffiment. Charles promifed to provide for
him, but infifted firft on having another comedy ; and
fuggefted to him the plan of a Spaniffi play, from
which Crowne produced the comedy of Sir Courtly
Nice: but the fudden death of the king on the laft
day of the rehearfal, plunged him at once from his
pleafing expectations into difappointment and diftrefs,
and left him no refource but his wits. He died fome
time about the year 1703 ; and left behind him 17 tra¬
gedies and comedies, fome of which are adted with
great fuccefs. His chief excellency lay in comedy 5
yet his tragedies are far from being contemptible.
His plots are for the moft part his own invention ; his
characters are in general ftrongly coloured and highly
finifhed ; and his dialogue lively and fpirited, attentive¬
ly diverfified, and well adapted to the feveral fpeakers.
So that on the whole he may affuredly be allowed to
ftand at leaft in the third rank of our dramatic writers.
CROWNING, in architecture, is underftood, in
the general, of any thing that terminates or finifties
a member or decoration. Thus, a cofniche, a pedi¬
ment, &c. are called crownings. Thus alfo the abacus
is faid to crown the capital; and thus any member or
moulding is faid to be crowned when it has a fillet over
it ; and a niche is crowned when it is cohered with a
capital.
Crowning, in fea-language, denotes the finiftiing
part of a knot made at the end of a rope. It is per¬
formed by interweaving the ends of the different ftrands
artfully amongft each other, fo as that they may not
become loofened or untwifted. They are ufeful in all
kinds of Hoppers.
GROWTH, or Cruth. See Crutu.
CROXAL (Samuel), an ingenious Engliffi divine,
who in his youth wrote the celebrated poem intitled
The Fair Circafian. He had the livings of Hampton
in Middlefex ; and the united parifhes of St Mary So-
merfet, and St Mary Mounthaw, in London ; both
which he held till his death in 1751. He publiftied
many other poems and tranffations, with an entire
Englilh edition of Efop’s Fables. In confequence of
his attachment to Whig principles, he enjoyed fome
other preferments, and was chaplain in ordinary t®
George II.
CROYDON, a town in Surry in England. Itr
fituation is low, near the fpring-head of the river
Wandel, and it is in a manner furrounded with hills.
It is pretty large, and is chiefly noted for being the
feat of the archbifhqp of Canterbury. It has a large
handfome church, an hofpital, and a free fchool. W.
Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 51. 22.
5 CRUCIAL
Crucial
II
Crumcn-
C R U C 574 J C R U
CRUCIAL incision, in furgery, an incifzon made
in the form of a crofs.
CRUCIANELLA, petty madder : A genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafa
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 47th order, Stellata. The corolla is monopetalous
and funnel-fhaped, with the tube filiform and the limb
unguiculated, or having an inflexed fegment on the
top of each fegment; the calyx is diphyllous, and there
are two linear feeds. There are five fpecies, natives
of the fouthern parts of Europe ; but none of them
poffefled of any remarkable quality.
CRUCIBLE, a chemical velfel made of earth, and
fo tempered and backed as to endure the greateft fire.
They are ufed to melt metals, and to flux minerals,
ores, &c. See CHEMiSTRY-iWe*.
CRUCIFIX, a crofs upon which the body of Chrift
is faftened in effigy, ufed by the Roman Catholics to
excite in their minds a ftrong idea of our Saviour’s
paffion.
They efteem it an eflential circumftance of the reli¬
gious worftup performed at the altar; and on Good
Friday they perform the ceremony of adoring it, which
is done in thefe words, 0 crux avc, fpes unlca ; “ Hail,
thou crofs, our only hope.” The officiating prieft un¬
covers the crucifix, elevates it with both his hands,
and fays? Ecce lignum cruets ; “ Behold the wood of
the crofs.” The people anfwer, in quo falus mundi pc-
pendit; “ on which the Saviour of the world fuffered
death.” Then the whole congregation bow with great
reverence, and devoutly kifs the holy wood.
CRUCIFIXION, a captital puniftiment by nailing
the criminal to a crofs. See Cross.
CRUCIFORM, in general, fomething difpofed
crofs-ways; but more efpecially ufed by botanifts, for
flowers confiding of four petals difpofed in the form of
a crofs.
CRUCITA, in botany, a genus of the digynia or¬
der, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants, and
in the natural method ranking with thofe the order
of which is doubtful. The interior calyx is tetra-
phyllous, the exterior calyx triphyllous; there is no
corolla, and only one feed.
CRUDE, an epithet given to fomething that has
not pafled the fire or had a proper degree of coc-
tion.
CRUDITY, among phyficians, is applied to undi-
gefted fubftances in the ftomach; to humours in the
body which are unconcofted, and not prepared for ex-
pulfion ; and to the excrements.
CRUISE,from the Germen kruifs, “acrofs,”fignifies
to crofs to and fro, to fail up and down within a cer¬
tain fpace of the fea, called the cruifmg latitude, in
quell of veffels, or fleets of an enemy, &c.
CRUISERS, in the navy, are fmall men of war
made ufe of to and fro in the channel, and elfewhere,
to fecure our merchant flaps and veflels from the ene¬
my’s fmall frigates and privateers. They are gene¬
rally fuch as fail well, and are commonly well man¬
ned: and indeed the fafety of the trade in the chan¬
nel, and up and down the foundings, and other places,
abfolutely requires the conflant keeping out fuch fhips
at fea.
CRUMENTATA, among zoologifts, animals fur-
nilhed with a pouch or bag, wherein to receive their
young in time of danger; as the opoffum. See Di-
DELPH1S.
CRUOR, fometimes fignifies the blood in general;
fometimes only the venous blood ; and fometimes ex-
travafated or coagulated blood ; but is moll frequent¬
ly ufed for the red globules of the blood, in contrad.*
llinftion to the limpid or ferous part.
CRUPPER, in the manege, the buttocks of a horfe,
the rump ; alfo a thong of leather put under a horfe’s
tail, and drawn up by thongs to the buckle behind the
faddle, f@j as to keep him from calling the faddle for¬
wards on his neck.
CRUILEUS, or Crureus, Mufculus, in anatomy,
a flelhy mafs, covering almoil all the forefide of the
os femoris, between the two vafti, which like wife cover
the edges of this mufcle on each fide. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
CRURAL, in anatomy, an epithet given to the ar¬
tery which conveys the blood to the crura or legs, and
to the vein by which this blood- returns towards the
heart. See Anatomy, p. 751.
CRUS, in anatomy, all that part of the body con¬
tained between the buttocks and the toes.
CRUS ADO, in commerce, a Portuguefe coin, llruck
under Alphonfus V. about the year 1457, at the time
when pope Calixtus fen? thither the bull for a croifade
againll the infidels. This coin has a crofs on one fide
and the arms of Portugal on the other.
CRUSCA> an Italian term lignifying bran, is in ufc
amongft us to denote that celebrated academy called
della Crufca, ellablilhed at Florence for purifying and
perfe&ing the Tufcan language. See Academy,
n° 11. The academy took its name from its office,
and the end propofed by it; which is, to refine the
language, and as it were to feparate the bran from
it. Accordingly, its device is a fieve ; and its motto,
II piu bel for ne csglie; that is, “ It gathers the fi¬
ned flour thereof.” In the hall or apartment where
the academy meets, M. Moneonis informs us, that eve¬
ry thing bears an allufion to the name and device: the
feats are in form of a baker’s balket; their backs like
a ftiovel for moving of corn 5 the culhions of grey fat-
tin, in form of facks or wallets; and the branches
where the lights are placed refembling facks. The
vocabulary Della Crufca is an excellent Italian diction¬
ary, compofed by this academy.
CRUSTA lactea, in medicine, the fame with
Achor.
CRUSTACEOUS fish, in natural hiftory, are
thofe covered with fiiells, confifting of feveral pieces or
feales; as thofe of crabs, lobfters, &c.
Thefe are ufually fofter than the fliells of the tefta-
ceous kind, which confift of a Angle piece, and gene¬
rally much thicker and itronger than the former; fuch
as thofe of the oyfter, feallop, cockle, &c.
Dr Woodward obferves, in his Natural Hitlory, that
of all the fliells found in beds of all the different mat¬
ters dug out of the earth, there are fcarce any of the
cruftaceous kind: the reafon he gives for it is, that
thefe being much lighter than the reit, mull have
floated on the furface at the time of the deluge, when
all the llrata were formed; and there have corrupted
and perilhed.
CRUTH,
Cruor
CRY [ 575 1 CRY
Cruth CRUTH, or Growth, a kind of mufical inftru-
II ment formerly in ufe among the common people in
Crypta. 'Wales. It it of the fidicinal kind, fomewhat refem-
bling a violin, 12 inches in length, and an inch and an
half in thicknefs. It has fix firings fupported by a
bridge, and is played on with a bow: the bridge dif¬
fers from that of a violin, in that it is flat and not
convex on the top; a circumftance from which it is
to be inferred, that the firings are to be ftruck at the
fame time, fo as to afford a fucceflion of concords.
The bridge is not placed at right angles with the fides
of the inftrument, but in an oblique dire&ion ; and,
which is further to be remarked, one of the feet of
the bridge goes through one of the found-holes,
which are circular, and refts on the infide of the back;
the other foot, which is proportionably Ihorter, refting
on the belly before the other found-hole. Of the firings,
the four firft are conduced from the bridge down the
ffnger-boaid, as in a common violin ; but the fifth
and fixth, which are about an inch longer than the
others, leave the fmall end of the neck about an inch
to the right. The whole fix are wound up either by
wooden pegs in the form of the letter T,-or by iron
pins, which are turned , with a wrefi like thofe of a
harp or fpinet. Of the tuning, it is to be remarked,
that the fifth and fixth firings are the unifon and oc¬
tave of G ; the fourth and fifth, the fame of C ; and
the fecond and firft, the fame of D; fo that the fecond
pair of firings are a fourth, and the third a fifth, to the
firft. See Plate CL.
Concerning the antiquity of this inftrument, there
is but little written evidence to carry it further back
than the time of Leland ; neverthelefs the opinion of
its high antiquity is fo ftrong among the inhabitants of
the country where it was ufed, as to afford a probable
ground of conjefhire, that the cruth might be the pro¬
totype of the whole fidicinal fpecies of mufical inttru-
ments. Another evidence of its antiquity, but which
tends alfoto prove that it was not peculiar to Wales,
arifes from a difcovery lately made and communica¬
ted to the fociety of antiquarians, refpedling the abbey-
church of Melrofe in Scotland, fuppofed to have been
built-about the time of Edward II. It feems that a-
mong the outfide ornaments of that church there is
the reprefentation of a cruth, very little different from
the defcription above given. The inftrument is now
difufed, in fo much that Sir John Hawkins, from whom
we extraft, tells us, that there is but one perfon in
the whole principality of North Wales that can play
upon it; and as he was at that time near 60 years of
age, the fucceffion of performers is probably near an
end.
CRUX, or St Croix, one of the Caribbee iffands,
fituated about 60 miles fouth-eaft of Porto-Rico, and
fubjedt to Denmark. From being a perfect defart, it
has begun to flourifh exceedingly, being made a free
port, and receiving great encouragement from govern¬
ment. W. Long. 64. o. N. Lat. 17. 30.
CRYMODES, among phyficians, a kind of fever
attended with a Ihiyering cold,' and inflammation of the
internal parts of the-body.
CRYPTA, a fubterraneous cell or vault, efpecially
under a church, for the interment of particular families
or perfons. S. Ciampini, defcribing the outfide of
the Vatican, fpeaks of the crypto: of St Andrew, St Paul,
&c. The word is formed of alfcondo, “ I hide;” Crypta,
whence xpurro, crypta, il
Vitruvius ufes the word crypta for a part of a build-
ing, anfwering nearly to our cellar; Juvenal for a cloaca. ’
Hence crypto-portlcus, a fubterraneous place arched or
vaulted ; ufed as an under-work or paflage in old walls.
The fame is alfo ufed for the decoration at the entry
of a grotto.
Crypta is alfo ufed by fome of our ancient writers
for a chapel or oratory under-ground.
Crypta;, in anatomy, a name given by Ruyfch to
glands fituated on the back of the tongue, and to glands
of the inteftines.
CRYPTOGAMlA, (from xjutt®-. occultus, “ con¬
cealed,” and tiuptia, “ nuptials”), the 24th
clafs in the Linnaean fyftem, comprehending thofe
plants whofe fructification is concealed, either through
minutenefs, or within the fruit. See Botany, the
Scheme and Explanation, Vol. III. p. 430.
CRYPTOGRAPHY, the art of writing in cipher,
or with fympathetic ink. See Cipher and Ink.
CRYSTAL, a fpecies of ftones of the quartz kind,
belonging to the filiceous clafs. It always appears,
when there has been no interruption to its cryftalliza-
tion, in hexagonal prifms pointed at both ends. It is
found of different kinds and colours. 1. Opaque or
femitranfparent, and white or of a milk colour. 2.
Opaque and red, or of a cornelian colour, from Oran
in Barbary. 3. Opaque and black, from the fame
place. 4. Clear. The fpecific gravity of thefe kinds
of cryftals is from 2650 to 2700. Profeffor Bergman
extra&ed from them about fix parts of argilla and one
of calcareous earth per hundred weight; but Mr Ger¬
hard found fome fo pure as to contain neither.
5. Clear and blackifh brown, the fmoky topaz, or ranch
topa% of the Germans. It is found at Egan in Nor¬
way, and at Lovifa in Finland. Thefe cryftals are
faid to become clear by boiling them in tallow. 6. Clear
and yellow; found in Bohemia, and fold inftead of
topazes. 7. Clear and violet-coloured ;■ the amethyft,
from Saxony, Bohemia, and Dannemore in Upland.
The moft tranfparent of thefe are called falfe diamonds.
Briftol, Kerry ftones, Alen$on diamonds, &c. 8. Co-
lourlefs rock cryftal, properly fo called, found in Bo¬
hemia, the province of Jemtland, and many other
places. 9. Pyramidal cryftal with one or two points.
Thefe have no prifmatic fliape, but either ftand upon
a bafe in cavities of quartz-veins, have only a Angle
pyramid, and are of various colours ; or they lie in a
clayey earth,.and have both pyramids, but no prifm.
They are found at Blackenburg upon the Hartz, and-
at Morferolh in the Silverland in Tranfylvania.
The coloured tranfparent cryftals derive their tinge
from an exceedingly fmall portion of metallic calces,
but lofe them entirely when ftrongly heated. They
are called falfe gems ■, viz,, the red from Oran in Bar¬
bary, falfe rubies ; the yellow from Saxony, falfe to¬
pazes ; the green from Dauphiny, very rare, falfe
emeralds or prafes; the violet from Vil in Catalonia,
falfe amethyfts; the blue from Puy in Valay in France,.
falfe fapphires. There are likewife opal or rainbow
cryftals, the various colours of which are thrown out
in zones acrofs the furface. They make a very fine
appearance, though they never fhine like the oriental ’
opal.
Mi.
CRY
Cryftal. M. Fourcroy makes a remarkable difference between
V*"""v the cryftals and quartz, by affirming that the former
are unalterable in the fire, in which they neither lofe
their hardnefs, tranfparency, nor colour*—while the
* quartz lofes the fame qualities, and is reduced by it to
a white and opaque earth. He claffes the rock-cry-
ftals,
I. According to their form, vh. i. Infulated hexa¬
gonal cryftahr ending in pyramids of fix faces, which
have a double refraftion, or fhow two images of the
fame objedt when looked through. 2. Hexagonal
cryilals united, having one or two points. 3. Te-
traedral, dodecaedral, flatted cryftals; and which,
though hexagonal, have neverthelefs their planes irre¬
gular. 4. Cryftals in large maffes, from the ifland of
Madagafcar, which have a Ample refraftion.
II. With regard to their colour, as being either
diaphanous, reddiih, fmoky, or blackifh.
III. With regard to accidental changes, fome are
hollow ; fome contain water within one or more cavi¬
ties ; fome are cafed one within the other 5 fome are
of a round form, as the pebbles of the Rhine ; fome
have a cruft of metallic calces or of a pyrites; fome
are found cryftallized in the infide of a cavity ; while
fome feem to contain amianthus orafbeftus; and others
contain fhirls. The fame author reckons among cry¬
ftals the oriental topaz, the hyacinth, the oriental
fapphire, and the amethyft. Mr Daubenton has al¬
ways looked upon this laft as a quartz of a cryftal.
When the rock-cryftals are femitranfparent or inter¬
mixed with opaque veins, they are called by the S’we-
difh lapidaries milk-cryjlah. When they are found in
the form of round pebbles, which is occafioned by
their being teffed about and rubbed againft one another
by floods or by the fea, they^are called by the Ehgliih
lapidaries pelble-cryjlals. They come from the Indies,
Siberia, and other places,
According to Bomare, the rock-cryftals are gene¬
rally formed upon or among quartz, which fhows their
great affinity, and are to be found in all parts of the
world. The greateft quantity of them is brought
from Mount Saint Gothard in Switzerland. Large
pieces of thefe, weighing from 5 to 800 pounds, were
found there at Grimfelberg ; another of about izco
pounds weight was found fome years ago at Filbach in
the Wallais ; and a piece fix feet long, four wide, and
equally thick, was found in the ifiand of Madagafcar,
where thefe natural produftions are of the moft extra¬
ordinary fize and perfection.
In the imperial collection at Vienna, there is a py¬
ramidal cryftal vafe two ells in height, cut wholly out
of one piece. It is ufual with the largeft cryftals of
the German mountains to be full of cracks and flaws,
and to be fo conftruCted internally as to fhow all the
prifmatic colours ; but the above mentioned ones were
quite free from tkefe blemifties, and refembled columns
of the pureft glafs, only much clearer than any glafs
can be made. Cryftal is alfo ‘found in many parts of
Britain and Ireland. About Briftol it is found of an
amethyftine tinge. In Silefia and Bohemia in Ger¬
many it is found ftained with the colours of the ruby,
fapphire, emerald, and topaz ; in which cafe jewellers
take great advantage of it, felling it under the name
of accidental fapphire.
The orders of pure cryftal are three: The firft is
N° 95.
^ ' ] CRY
perfect columnar cryftals, with double pyramids, com- Cryftal. '
poied oi 18. planes, in an hexangular column, termi- 11 * "uJ
nated by an hexangular pyramid at each end: the Te-
cond order is that of per fed! cryftals, with double py¬
ramids, without a column, compofed either of 12 or
of 16 planes, in two hexangular pyramids, joined
clofely bafe to bafe, without the intervention of any
column : the third order is that of imperfect cryftals,
with Angle pyramids, compofed either of 12 or 10
planes, in an bexangular or pentangular column, affix¬
ed irregularly at one end to fome folid body, and ter¬
minated at the other by an hexangular or pentangular
pyramid.
Thefe are all the general forms into which cryftal,
when pure, is found concreted: but under thefe there
are almoft infinite varieties in the number of angles,
and the length, thicknefs, and other accidents of the
columns and pyramids.
When cryftal is blen’ded with metalline particles |pt
the time of its formation, it affumes a variety of fi¬
gures wholly different from thefe, conftituting a fourth
order, under the name of metalline cryjlals : when that
metal is lead, the cryftal affumes the form of a cube;
when it is tin, of a quadrilateral pyramid, with a broad
bafe ; when iron, the cryftal is found concreted in
rhomboidal figures: thefe cryftals are very common
about mines; but the common fpars, which are liable
to be influenced in the fame manner by the metals,
and to appear in the very fame form, are to be care¬
fully diftinguiflied from them. There is one, very
eafy teft for this purpofe, which is, that all fpars are
fubjedt to be diffolved by aquafortis, and effervefee
violently only on its touching them : but it has no fuch
effefts on cryftal.
The pebble-cryftal is common enough in all parts of
the world; but that which is formed of hexangular
columns, affixed to a folid bafe at one end, and termi¬
nated by a hexangular column at the other, is infi¬
nitely more fo : this is what we call fprlg or rock
cryjhil, and is the fpecies deferibed by moft author*,
under the name of cryjlal of the Jhops, or that kept for
medicinal ufes.
With regard to the formation of cryftals, it is cer¬
tain that they muft have been once in- a foft Hate,
fince fome are found to have water in their cavities.
Profeffor Bergman obtained 13 regular formed cry¬
ftals, by buffering the powder of quartz to remain in a
veffel with fluor acid for two years. Thefe were about
the fize of finall peas, and were lefs hard than quartz.
Mr Magellan informs us, that he received from Mr A-
chard two cryftals, one of the fparry kind, and the
other as hard and tranfparent as rock-cryftal. The
firft he procured by means of calcareous earth, and the
latter from the earth of alum, both diffolved in water
impregnated with fixed air, the water filtrating very
flowly through a porous bottom of baked clay. The
apparatus is deferibed by the author in the 'Journal de
Phyfique for January 1778: but though the procefs
was attempted by Mr Magellan, and afterwards a fe-
cond time by Mr Achard himfelf, neither of them
were able to fucceed. Mr Morveau, however, in the
firft volume of the Dijon Memoirs for 1785, afferts
that he has produced a very fmall artificial cryftal;
and gives the proper method for fucceeding in the
procefs.
In
CRY
Cryftal. In the natural way many of the more compound foffile
bodies are formed chiefly either of cryftal, or of fpar, a
body in many things refembling it. The original forma¬
tion and coalefcence of thofe bodies ot which fpar is the
bafts, we know, may have been but of yefterday, fince
we have evident proofs that fpar is concreting to this
day, and that fparry bodies are forming every mo¬
ment. This is evident from the fparry ftala&ia: in
the arches of modern buildings, particularly in one fo
lately built as the new bridge at Weftminfter ; the
roofs of the arches of which were filled with thefe
fpars within a year after they were built. It is alfo
demonftrable that the fpars are not formed of matter
exfuding from the ftone, fince brick arches abound
equally with them ; and the brick vault which fup-
. ports part of the grand terrace at London, was fome
time ago fo full of them that there was not room to
walk. Thefe obfervations fufficiently demonftrate the
growth of fpar; but the vegetation of cryftal re¬
mained dubious till Dr Hill ftiowed by fome experi¬
ments that cryftal, as well as fpar, is diflblved in every
kind of water, even fuch as appears to be moft pure
and clear. This is alfo probable from an obfervation
1 577 ]
CRY
a ftate proper for making glafs with alkaline falts, and CryftaT.
thus becomes a very,valuable fritt. The _method ofu—"V*”""’1
doing it is as follows : calcine natural cryftal in a cru¬
cible ; when it is red-hot, throw it into cold water,
Repeat this eight times, covering the crucible that no
duft or allies may get in among the cryftal. Dry this
calcined mafs, and reduce it to an impalpable powder.
Colouring Crystal, for the imitation of gems. See
Doublet.
Crystal is alfo ufed for a faftitious body, call in
glafs-houfes, called cryftal-glafs } being in fad no mo^
.than glafs carried, in the compofition and manu-
fadlure, to a greater perfe&ion than the common
glafs.
The beft kind of glafs-cryftal is that called Venice-
cryjlal, made at Moran near Venice. See Glass.
IJland or Iceland Crystal, a tranfparent fifiile ftone,
brought from Iceland, foft as talc, clear as rock-cry-
ftal, and without colour; remarkable for its unufual
refractions.
It is there found in great abundance all over the
country, but is particularly plentiful in a mountain,
not far from the bay of Roezfiord, where the fineft
of Neumann’s, who tells us, that he has feen leaves, and moft pellucid pieces are found on digging. The
ftalks of plants, hay, ftraw, hogs briftles, &c. inclofed mountain lies in 65 degrees latitude, and has its whole
in fprigs of cryftal. From the regular forms in which
thefe natural cryftals are found, the regular arrange¬
ment of falts into different figures takes the name of
cryftallization, and both are probably owing to the
® See Cry- fame caufe*. Henckel gives us a remarkable account
Jlalliaation. 0f the formation of cryftal out of human urine. He
once filled a large round glafs-vefiel half way up with
the recent urine of a young lad, and tying a bladder
over the mouth of the vefiel, fet it -in a ftove for four
years together, never ftirring it during, -that whole
time. At the end of this time he found a number of
fmall white Hones growing to the infide of the glafs ;
they were of the fize of an oat-feed, of a prifmatic
figure, and tolerably pellucid: they ftuck fo fall to the
fides of the glafs that they could not be walhed off by
outfide made up of it; but though this makes a veiy
bright and glittering appearance, it is not fo fine as
that which lies at a little depth, and is met with on
opening the furface. This is generally taken up out
of the earth in maffes a foot long, and its corners very
frequently are terminated in thefe large maffes, by a
fort of cryftals, very different in figure and qualities
from the reft of the mafs. The ftone itfelf is of a
parallelepiped figure; but thefe excrefcences are ei¬
ther fingle pyramids, affixed to columns like common
cryftal, or double pyramids with or without columns
between. The ftone itfelf is foft; thefe are hard, and
cut glafs : the ftone calcines to lime in the fire ; thefe
run into glafs: in ftiort, the ftone itfelf is true fpar,
and thefe are true cryftal. Befide thefe, there fome-
the ftiaking about of the urine ; and when taken out times grows out of the ends of the larger maffes a pure
bad no faline tafte, and were not foluble even in hot fine albeftos. This likewife is the cafe fometimes in
Cryftal is frequently cut; aiid luftres, vafes, and
toys, are made of it as of other beautiful ftones. For
this purpofe it is to be chofen perfedlly clear and tranff
parent. It is to be tried by aquafortis, or by draw¬
ing it along a pane of glafs. The genuine cryftal wiT
the fpar found about Barege in France, and Ihows
how nearly together the formation of bodies, wholly
different from one another, may happen. The gene¬
ral figure of the ftone is parallelepiped; or, as fome
exprefs it, rhomboide ; and it retains this not only
while whole, but alfo when broken to pieces. Every
r ....  .1 1 r r ,f
not be affetfted by the acid, and will cut glafs almoft fragment it naturally falls into, though ever fo fmall,
like a diamond. When any piece of workmanlhip of being truly of that ftiape. But it is remarkable, that
natural cryftal is become foul and dark, the following
•method is to be ufed for recovering its brightnefs
without hurting the pcTlifn. Mix together fix parts
of common water and ohe part of brandy ; boil thefe
over a brilk fire, and let the cryftal be kept in it, in a
boiling ftate, a quarter of an hour; then take it out
and rub it carefully over with a brufh dipped in the
fame liquor; after this it is to be wffped with a nap¬
kin, and by that means its furface will be perfectly
cleaned, and rendered as bright as at firft, without
in fome places of this mountain, the fame fort of mat¬
ter is found in form of triangular pyramids, all which
have the fame property of the double refratflion with
the parallelepipeds of the fame fubftance ; fo that the
original error of fuppofing its qualities owing to its
fliaps, is refuted by this, as well as by the trials made
with other pellucid bodies of the fame figure, which
do not (how this remarkable property.
The Iceland cryftal is electrical, and when rubbed
will draw up ftraws, feathers, and other light fub-
any injury to the points of the cutting or the poliffi-of fiances, in the fame manner that amber does,
the planes or faces, which would probably have hap- The vail maffes of w hite fpar wbich are found in the
pened had the cleaning been attempted by mere rub- lead mines of Derbylhire, though they are not exter-
birigwith a cloth. nally of the parallelepiped figure of the Iceland cry-
Natural cryftal may be reduced by calcination into Hal, nor have any thing of its brightnefs or tranfparence
Vol.V, Part 11, / 4D i«
CRY
in the general lump ; yet when they are broken they
feparate into rhomboidal fragments, and fome of thefe
are found to be tolerably pellucid : all thofe which are
fohave the property of the Iceland cryllal; and being
laid upon paper, where a black line is drawn, they all
fhow that line double in the fame manner as the real
Iceland cryllal does.
Iceland cryllal bears a red heat without lofing its
tranfparency; and in a very intenfe heat calcines with-
cut fufion : fteeped a day or two in water, it lofes its
natural polilh. It is very foft and ealily fcratched with
the point of a pin; it will not give fire on being ftruck
againft. Heel; and ferments and is perfectly dilfolved in
aquafortis. It is found in Iceland, from whence it has
its name; and in France, Germany, and many other
places. In England fragments of oAer fpars are* very
often miftaken for it, many of them having in fome
degree the fame property. It has none of the diltin-
guilhing characters of cryllal; and is plainly a genus of
fpars, called from their figure paralklopipedia, which,
as well as fome other bodies of a different genus, have
the fame properties. Bartholine, Huygens, and Sir
Ifaac Newton, have defciibed the body at large, but
have accounted it either a cryllal or a talc; errors
which could not have happened, had the criterions of
foffils been at that time fixed ; fince Sir Ifaac Newton
has recorded its property of making an ebullition with
aquafortis, which alone mull prove that it is neither
talc nor cry Hal, both thofe bodies being wholly unaf-
feCked by that menllruumi It is always found in form
of an oblique parallelepiped, with fix Tides, and is found
of various fizes, from a quarter of an inch to three
inches or more in diameter. It is pellucid, and not
much lefs bright than the pureft cryllal, and its planes
are all tolerably fmooth, though when nicely viewed
they are found to be waved with crooked lines made
by the edges of imperfed plates. What appears very
fingular in the llru&ure of this body is, that all the
furfaces are placed in the fame manner, and confequent-
ly it will fplit off into thin plates, either horizontally
or perpendicularly ; but this is found, on a mierbfeo-
pic examination, to be owing to the regularity of fi¬
gure, fmoothnefs of furface, and nice joining of the
feveral fmall parallelopiped concretions, of which the
whole is compofed, and to the fame caufe is probably
owing its remarkable property in refraction.
The phenomena of this Hone are very remarkable,
were firll fuggelled by Bartholin, and have been exa¬
mined with great accuracy by M. Huygens and Sir
Ifaac Newton.
* i. Whereas in other pellucid bodies there is only one
refra&ion, in this there are two ; fo that objeCts view¬
ed through it appear double.
2. Whereas in other tranfparent bodies, a ray falling
perpendicularly on the furface, paffes ftraight through,
without fuffering, any refraCtion ; and an oblique ray
is always divided ; in Iceland cryllal, every ray, whe¬
ther perpendicular or oblique, becomes divided into
two, by means of the double refraftion. One of thefe
refraCtions is, according to the ordinary rule, the fine
of incidence out of air into cryllal, being to the fine of
refraftion as five to three ; but the other is perfectly
new. The like double refraClion is alfo obferved in
cryllal of the rock, though much lefs fenfibly. When
3n incident ray is thus divided, and each moiety ar-
a.
CRY
rives at the farther furface, that refraCled in the firll Cryflal.
furface after the ufual manner, is refracted entirely  r—*
after the ufual manner at the fecond ; and that re¬
fraCled in the unufdal manner in the firll is entirely re¬
fraCled after the like manner in the fecond; fo that
each emerges out of the fecond furface parallel to the
firll incident ray. Again, if two pieces of this cryllal
be placed over each other, fo that the furfaces of the
one be parallel to the correfponding ones of the other;
the rays refraCled in the ufual manner in the firll fur¬
face of the firlt, are refraCled after the ufual manner in
all the other furfaces; and the fame uniformity appears
in the rays refraCled after the unufual manner; and
this in any inclination of the furfaces, provided their
planes of perpendicular refraClion be parallel.
From thefe phenomena Sir Ifaac Newton infers,
that there is an original difference in the rays of light;
by means whereof fome are here conllantly refraCled
after the ufual manner; and others in the unufual
•manner. Were not the difference drigJhal, and did it
arife from any new modifications impreffed on the rays
at their firll refraClion, it would be altered by new
modifications in the three following ones; whereas, in
fad, it fuffers no alteration at all. Again, he hence
takes occafion to fufped, that the rays of light have
feveral fides, endued with feveral original properties :
for it appears from the circumltances, that thefe are
not two forts of rays differing in their nature from
each other, one conllantly, and in all pofitions, refrad-
ed in the ufual, and the other in the unufual manner;
the difference in the experiment mentioned being only
in the pofition of the fides of the rays to the plane of
perpendicular refradion. For one and the fame ray
is refraded fometimes after the ufual, and fometimes
after the unufual manner, according to the pofition of
its fides to the cryllal: the refradion being alike in
both, when the fides of the rays are pofited the fame
way to both, but different when different. Every ray
therefore may be confidered as having four fides or
quarters ; two of which, oppofite to each other, dif-
pofe the I'ay to be refraded after the unufual mannei ;
and the other two in the ufual. Thefe difpofitions,
being in the rays befoie their incidence on the fecond,
third, and fourth furfaces, and fuffering no alterations;
for what appears in their paffage through them mull
be original and connate.
Father Beccaria correds the obfervations of Huy¬
gens and Newton concerning the refradion of rock or
mountain cryllal. The double refradion of the latter
happens when a ray paffes through two fides that are
inclined to each other, and confequentiy iffues colour¬
ed ; whereas that of the Iceland cryllal is made by the
paffage of a ray through two parallel fides, and there¬
fore it iffues colourlefs. He fuggefts, that there may
be other fubftances in which there is a manifold re¬
fradion. Gravefande had a prifm of Brafil pebble,
which had a double refradion at each angle, but of a
different kind from one another. Mr B. Martin pre¬
pared feveral prifms of Iceland cryllal, which exhibited
not only a double but a multiple refradion. A iingle
prifm produced a fix-fold refradion; and by combining
feveral prifms, a number of refradions was obtained
equal to the produd of thofe of the fingle prifms; i. e.
a prifm which afforded two images applied to one of
fix, produced a prifm of twelve images, &c. He far—
[ 578 ]
CRY [ 5;
CryftaUine thcr obferves, with refpeft to Iceland cry ftal, that tho'
11 the fides of its plane of perpendicular refraftion be pa-
ra^ t0 one another, a beam of light tranfmitted thro’
>' them will not be colourlefs ; in which property it dif¬
fers from all other known fubftances.
CRYSTALLINE, in general, fomething compofed
of, or refembling, cryftal. See Crystal.
Crtstalline Heavens, in ancient aftronomy, two
fpheres, imagined between the primum mobile and
the firmament, in the Ptolemaic fyltem, which fup-
pofes the heavens folid, and only fufceptible of a Angle
motion. See Astronomy, n° 247.
CxrsTALUNE Humour. See Anatomy, p. 767.
CRYSTALLINE, or Crystallines, in medi¬
cine, are. puftules fil'ed with water, and fo called on
account of their tranfparency. They are one of the
worft fymptoms attendant on a gonorrhoea. They
are lodged on the prepuce, without pain ; and though
caufed by coition, have nothing of infection attending
them. The caufe is fuppofed to be a contufion of the
lymphatic veffels in the part affefted. Dr Cockburn,
who hath defcribed this cafe, recommends for the cure
a mixture of three parts of lime-water and two of
re&ified fpirit of wine, to be ufed warm, as a lotion,
three times a-day.
CRYSTALLIZATION, in general, fignifies the
natural formation of any fubftance into a regular
figure, refembling that of cryftal. Hence the phrafes
of cryftallized ores, cryftallized falls, &c. and even
the bafaltic rocks are now generally reckoned to 'be
effe&s of this operation : (See Basaltes and Vol¬
cano). The term, however, is moft commonly ap¬
plied to bodies of the faline kind, and their feparation
in regular figures from the water, or other fluid in
which they are difiblved, is called their cryJlalUxa-
* See Che- tton * • The word cryftallization is never applied to the
freezing of water, or to the confolidation of metals
dex. after they have been melted; though it might certainly
be applied with as much juftice to thefe fubftances as
to any others ; for all of them concrete into a certain
regular form, from which they never deviate, unlefs
* . difturbed. When w’ater freezes flowly, it always
between forms regular cryftals of ice, which are conftantly of
congelation the fame form. They are long, needle-like mafles,
and cryftal- flattened on one fide, and joined together in fuch a
lization. manner, that the fmaller are inferted into the fides of
the greater ; and thus thefe compound cryftals have
the appearance of feathers, or branches of trees with
leaves. The moft remarkable circumftance attending
this cryftallization is, that the angle formed by the
infection of the fmaller pieces into the larger is either
60 or 120 degrees. The figures aflumed by metals
of different kinds have not been fo exa&ly inveftiga-
ted, except in the reguliis of antimony, which is ob-
ferved always to take a ftellated form. Experience
alfo ihows, that all kinds of earths, or other mineral
matters, are capable of affuming a cryftalline form,
and may eafily be made to do fo by taking away part
of the water which diffolves them.
Different falts affume different figures in cryftalliza¬
tion, and are thus moft eafily diftinguiftied from one
another. The methods of reducing them into this
form, for fale, are mentioned under the article Che¬
mistry, n° 573. But befides the large cryftals pro¬
duced in this way, each fait is capable of affuming a
9 1 C R Y
very different appearance of the cryftalline kind, when Cryftalliza-
only a Angle drop of the faline folution is made ufe of,. tl0n' .
and the cryftallization viewed through a microfcope.
For our knowledge of this fpecies of cryftallization we Microfco-
are indebted to Mr Henry Baker, who was prefented pical cry-
with a gold medal for the difcovery, in the year 1744. ^als dlfco'
Thefe microfcopical cryftals he diftinguifties from the MrBaker.
large ones by the name of configurations; but this
term feems inaccurate, and the diftinftion may well
enough be preferved by calling the large ones the
common, and the finall ones the microfcopical, cryftals
of the fait. His method of making thefe obfervations
he gives in the following words : ^
n I diffolve the fubjeft, to be examined, in no His method
larger a quantity of rain or river water than I am cer- of procu-
tain it is fufficient to faturate. If it is a body eafily rin2 thetn*
diffolvable, I make ufe of cold water; otherwife I
make the water warm, hot, or even boiling, accor¬
ding as I find it neceffary. After it is perfedUy dif-
folved, I let it reft for fome hours, till, if overcharged,
the redundant faline particles may be precipitated and
fettle to the bottom, or (hoot into cryftals; by which
means I am moft likely to have a folution of the fame
ftrength at one time as at another; that is, a folution
fully charged with as much as it can hold up, and no
more ; and by thefe precautions the configurations ap¬
pear alike, how often foever tried : whereas, if the
water be lefs faturated, the proportions at different
times will be fubjeft to more uncertainty; and if it
be examined before fuch feparation and precipitation
of the redundant falls, little more will be feen than a
confufed mafs of cryftals.
“ The folution being thus prepared, I take up a
drop of it with a goofe quill cut in fafhion of a fcoop,
and place it on a flat flip of glafs of about three quar¬
ters of an inch in width, and between three and four
inches Ibng, fpreading it on the glafs with the quill, in
either a round or an oval figure, till it appears a quar¬
ter of an inch, or more, in diameter, and fo fhallow
as to rife very little above the furface of the glafs.
When it is fo difpofed, I hold it as level as I can over
the clear part of ,a fire that is not too fierce, or over
the flame of a candle, at a diftance proportionable to
the heat it requires (which experience only can di-
reft), and watch it very carefully till I difcover the
faline particles beginning to gather and look white, or
of fome other colour, at the extremities of the edges.
Then (having adjufted the microfcope before-hand for
its reception, armed with the fourth glafs, which is the
fitteft for moft of thofe experiments), I place it under
my eye, and bring it exaftly to the focus of the mag¬
nifier ; and, after running over the whole drop, I fix
my attention on that fide where I obferve any increafe
or puftiing forwards of cryftalline matter from the cir¬
cumference towards the centre.
“ This motion is extremely flow at the beginning,
unlefs the drop has been overheated, but quickens as
the water evaporates ; and, in many kinds, towards
the conclufion, produces configurations with a fwift-
nefs inconceivable, compofed of an infinity of parts,
which are adjufted to each other with an elegance,
regularity, and order, beyond what the exafteft pen¬
cil in the world, guided by the ruler and compaffes,
can ever equal, or the moft luxuriant imagination
fancy.
4 D 2 «
When
Cryfialliea-
Defcription
cf the mi-
crofcopical
cryftals of
various
felts.
CRY [ 580 1 CRY
“ When this adtion once begins, the eye cannot be
taken off, even, for a moment, without lofing fome-
thing worth obfervation : for the figures alter every
inftant till the whole procefs is over; and, in many
forts, after all feems at an end, new forms arife, dif¬
ferent entirely from any that appeared before, and
which probably are owing to fome fmall quantity of
fait of another kind, which the other feparates from,
and leaves to a£t after itfelf has done : and in fome
fubjedts, three or four different forts are obfervable,
few or none of them being fimple and homogeneous.
“ When the configurations are fully formed, and
all the water evaporated, moil: kinds of them are foon
deilroyed again by the moifture or action of the air
upon them ; their points and angles lofe their iharp-
nefs, become uneven and defaced, and moulder, as it
were, away. But fome few are permanent, and be¬
ing inclofed between glaifes, may be preferred months,
or even years, entertaining objedts for the microfcope.
“ It happens oftentimes that a drop of faline folu-
tion can hardly be fpread on the flip of glafs, by rea-
fon of the glafs’s fmoothnefs, but breaks into little glo¬
bules, as it would do if the furface were greafy : this
was very troublefome, till I found a way of prevent¬
ing it, by rubbing the broken drop with my finger
over the glafs, fo as to leave the furface fmeared with
it *, on which fmeared place, when dry, another drop
of the folution may be fpread very eafily in what form
one pleafes.
“ It likewife fometimes happens, that when a heat¬
ed drop is placed properly enough for examination,
the obferver finds he can diftinguilh nothing : which
is owing to faline fleams that, rifing from the drop, co¬
ver and obfcure the objedl-glafs, and therefore mull
immediately be wiped away with a foft cloth or lea¬
ther.
“ In all examinations by the microfcope of faline
folutions, even though made in the day-time, I always
employ the light of a candle, and advife every obfer¬
ver to do fo likewife : for the configurations being ex¬
ceedingly tranfparent, are rendered much more diftin-
guifhable by the brown light a candle affords, than by
the more white and tranfparent day-light; and be-
fides, either by moving the candle or turning the mi¬
crofcope, fuch light may be varied or directed juft as
the objedt requires.”
In this manner were produced the beautiful cryftal-
lizations reprefented Plate CLII. They are vaftly
different from fuch. cryftals of the fame falts as are
obtained by the common proceffes; but Mr Baker af-
fures us they are no lefs conftant and invariable than
they, and that he has repeated the experiments a great
number of times with the fame fuccefs.
Fig., 1. fhows the microfcopical cryflals of nitre or
falt-petre. Thefe fhoot from the edges, with very
little heat, into flattifh figures of various lengths, ex -
ceedingly tranfparent, and with ftraight and parallel
fides. They are fhown in their different degrees of
progreffion at the letters a, l, c, d, e ; where a repre-
fents how they firft begin. After numbers of thefe
are formed,, they will often diffolve under the eye, and
difappear entirely ; but if one waits a little, new fhoots
will pufh out, and the procefs go on afrefh. Thefe
fiift figures fometimes enlarge only without altering
their fhapes, and fometimes form in fuch fort as the C yftalliza-
drop reprefents ; but if the heat has been too great, tlon-
they fhoot haflily into ramifications very numerous /~_
and beautiful, but very difficult to be drawn; and
which Mr Baker thertfore did not attempt. There
feems all the while a violent agitation in the fluid, and
molt commonly, towards the conclufion, a few odtae-
dra (compofed of eight triangular planes, or two quaj
drangular pyramids, joined bafe to bafe) make their,
appearance.
2. Blue vitriol, produces cryllals round the edges,
very fhort at the beginning, but increalxng gradu¬
ally, as reprefented at the figures 1, 2, 3, which de¬
note their difference of form, and the progrefs of their
growth. Thefe cryftalline fhoots are folid, regular,
tranfparent, and reflect the light very beautifully from
their polifhed fides and angles. As the watery part
evaporates, numbers of long flender bodies like hairs
are feen here and there, fome lying fide by fide, or
croffing each other as at 4, others forming flar-like
figures with many radiations (5, 5}. This fait fhoots but
flowly, and therefore requires patience. 'Atlaflthe
true cryftals begin to appear commonly in the middle
of the drop, and are very prettily branched, as at 6.
3. Dijlilled verdigreafe, difiblved as above diredted,
and immediately applied to the microfcope, fhows a-
bundance of the regular figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 :
but if the folution is fuffered to Hand for a few hours,
and a drop of it is then heated over the fire on a flip
of glafs, till it begins to concrete about the fides, and
then examined, fharp-pointed, folid, figures, bifedled
by a line cut through the middle, from which they are
cut away towards the edges, begin to appear, and
fhooting forwards (1, 1, 1). Thefe figures are often
ftriated very prettily from the middle line to the edges
obliquely (2, 2); and frequently they arife in clufters;
and fhooting from a centre (3, 3). Thefe figures are
a long time in growing; and whilft they are doing
fo, regular cryftals appear forming in feveral parts
of the drop, of the moft lovely emerald colour, and
refle&ing the light from their fides and angles, which
are moft exactly difpofed, and finely polifhed. No
cryftals are formed in the middle till the water is
nearly evaporated; and then they begin to form ha-
ftily, for ^which reafon they muft be carefully attend¬
ed. Their common figure refembles two long^y crof¬
fing each other in an angle of about 6o°, and fhooting
branches every vtfay; each of which again protrudes
©they branches from one, and fometimes from both, its
fides ; making together an appearance like four leaves
of fern conjoined by their ftalks (5, 5). Separate
clufters of the fame ffiarp pointed figures, as thofe at
the edges of the drop, are alfo formed in the middle
of it (6). Sonaetimes alfo they put on another form,
like the leaves of dandelion (7). Very beautiful fi¬
gures are likewife produced by a kind of combination
of fharp points and branches (8, 8). All thefe cry¬
ftals are of a moft beautiful green colour, but deeper
or lighter, according to the time of their production, ‘ - \
The deepeft are conftantly produced firft, and the
paler ones afterwards. Towards the end of the pro¬
cefs fome circular figures are formed, extremely thin,
and fo {lightly tinged, with green lines radiating from
a centre, as to be. almoft colourlefs (9, 9). When all
feems
Plate Clill.
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CRY L s8i 1 CRY
Cryftalliza- feems in a manner over, bundles of hair-like bodies
don. appear frequently fcattered here and there throughout
the drop, like thofe of blue vitriol already defcribed.
4. Alum. The microfcopical cryftals of this fait
prove more or lefs perfeft according to the ftrength
of the folution and the degree of heat employed in
making the experiment. The folution of alum, how¬
ever faturated with the fait, will not be found over-
ftrong after Handing fome days; for in that time
many cryftals will have formed in it. This feparation
will often leave the remainder too weak for the pur-
pofe ; but by holding the vial over, or near the fire,
the cryftals will again diflblve. After it has flood about
half an hour, it may then be ufed. The drop put on
the glafs, and properly heated, exhibits commonly at
firft a dark cloud which appears in motion fomewhere
near the edge, and runs pretty fwiftly both to the
'right and left, until it is either flopped by the inter¬
vention of regular cryftals, or elfe it proceeds both
ways at once, till having furrOunded the whole drop,
the two ends rufh together, and join into one (a, a).
This cloudy part, which feems to be violently agitated
while it is running round, appears on a ftridt examina¬
tion to conlift of falts, Ihot into long and very {lender
lines, much finer than the fmalleft hair, crofting each
other at right angles. As they go along, rows of folid
cryftals are produced from their internal edges, Thefe
are compofed of many oblique plain iides (b, b), and
which have all a tendency towards the figures of the
regular cryftak to be defcribed prefently. But it fre-
• quently happens, that, in fome parts of the drop, many
minute and circular figures are feen, rifing at fome
little diftances from the edge, which enlarging them-
felves continually, appear at laft of a ftar-like form
(e, 4). The cryftals in the middle feldom appear till
the fluid feems almoft wholly evaporated ; when, on a
fudden, many ftraight lines appear pulhing forwards,,
whofe fides or edges are jagged, and from which o-
ther fimilar ftraight and jagged lines fhoot out at right
angles with the firft. Thefe again have other fmall
ones of the fame kind (hooting out likewife from them-
felves, and compofe altogether a moft beautiful and
elegant configuration (D). Each of thefe lines increa-
fing in breadth towards its end, appears fomewhat
club-headed (e, r, e). Sometimes, inftead of fending
branches from their fides, many of thefe lines rife pa¬
rallel to each other, refembling a kind of palifadoe,
and having numberlefs minute tranfverfe lines running
between them (F). But the moft wonderful part of
all, though not producible without an exadl degree of
heat and right management, is the dark ground work
■ (G). It confifts of an infinity of parallel lines, having
others crofting them at right angles, and producing a
variety fcarce conceivable from lines difpofed in no o-
ther manner: the direction of the lines (which are ex-
quifitely ftraight and delicate) being fo frequently and
differently changed, that one would think it the refult
of long ftudy and contrivance. During the time this
ground work is framing, certain lucid points prefent
themfelves to view moft commonly, on one fide. Thefe
grow continually larger, with radiations from a centre,
and become ftar-like figures as before mentioned.
Some of them fend out long tails, which give them the
appearance of comets : and at the end of all, a dark
lineation in various directions darts frequently through,
and occupies all or moft of the fpaces between them, Cryflalliza-
making thereby no ill reprefentation, when viewed by “or)'
candle-light, of a dark (Icy, illuminated with ftars and " "v
comets. The regular cryftals are often formed in the
fame drop with the others (/').
5. Borax. If a drop of folution of borax is held
too long over the fire, it hardens on the (lip of glafs
in fuch a manner that no cryftals can. appear. The
beft method is to give it a briik heat for about a fe¬
cund, and then applying it to the microfcope, the
cryftals will quickly form themlelves as reprefented in
the figure.
6. Sal ammoniac begins with (hooting from the edges
great numbers of (harp, but thick and broad, fpiculae;
from whofe fides are protruded, as they rife, many o-
thers of the fame (hape, but very (hort; parallel to
each other, but perpendicular to their main ftem (1).
Thefe fpiculse arrange themfelves in all diredtions;
but for the moft part obliquely to the plane from
whence they rife, and many are frequently feen pa¬
rallel to one another (1, 1). As they continue to
pu(h forwards, which they do without increafing much
in breadth, fome (hoot from them the fmall fpiculas
only (2); others divide in a-Angular manner by the
fplitting of the ftem (3) ; and others branch out into-
fmaller ramifications (4). Before the middle of the
drop begins to (hoot, feveral exceedingly minute bo¬
dies may be difcerned at the bottom of the fluid.
Thefe in a little while rife to the top, and foon diftin-
guifh their (hape as at (5). Their growth is very
quick, and for fome time pretty equal; but at laft
fome branch gets the better of the reft, and forms the
figure (6). The other branches enlarge but little af¬
ter this, all the attraction feeming to be lodged in
that one that firft began to lengthen ; and from this,,
more branches being protruded, and they again pro¬
truding others, the whole appears as at (8). It is not
uncommon to fee in the middle of the drop fome cry¬
ftals, where, inftead of the ftraight Items above defcri¬
bed, there is formed a kind of zig-zag, with fpiculse like
thofe in the other figures (7).
7. Salt of Lead, or faccharum faturni. A little of
this fait diffolved in hot water, which it immediately
renders milky, after (landing a quarter of an hour to
fubfide, is in a fit condition for an examination by the
microfcope. A drop of it then applied on a (lip of
glafs, and held bver the fire to put the ^particles in
aCtion, wall be feen forming round the edge a pretty-
even and regular border of a clear and tranfparent
film or glewy fubftance (aaaa); which if too fudden.
and violent a heat be given, runs over the whole area
of the drop, and hardens fo on the glafs as not to be
got off without great difficulty. But if a moderate,
warmth be made ufe of, which likewife mint not be
too long continued, this border proceeds only a little
way into the drop, with a kind of radiated figure-
compofed of fine lines, or rather bundles of lines, be¬
ginning from the centres in the interior edge of the
border, and fpreading out at nearly equal diftances
from each other every way, towards the exterior
(bbbb). From the fame centres are produced after¬
wards a rad atioh inwards, compofed of parallelograms
of different lengths and breadths; from one, and
fometimes both the angles of thefe, are frequently,
feen (bootings fo exceedingly (lender, that they are.
' Bsr--
CRY [ 582 ] CRY
'Cryfblliza perhaps the heft poffible reprefentations of a mathema-
tio"- tical line. The extremities of the parallelograms are
^ generally call; off at right angles ; but they are fpme-
times alfo feen oblique (eccc). Centres with the like
radii iffuing from them, and fome of the glutinous mat¬
ter for their root, are fometimes formed in the drop,
entirely detached from the edges; and in thefe it is
very frequent to find a kind of fecondary radii pro-
•ceeding from fome of the primary ones; and others
from them again to a great number of gradations,
forming thereby a very pretty figure (D).
8. Salt of Tin, produces at the edges of the drop a
number of otfaedra, partly tranfparent, Handing on
long necks, at fmall diftances from each other, with
angular fhoots between them (aa). At the fame
time, folid and regular opaque cubes will be feen form¬
ing themfelves in other parts of the drop [hb). In
the middle of the fame drop, and in feveral other parts
of it, very different figures will alfo be formed; parti¬
cularly great numbers of flat, thin, tranfparent, hex-
angular bodies (ccc) ; fome among which are thicker
(e), and a few appear more folid, and with fix Hoping
fides rifing to a point, as if cut and polifhed (d). The
figure (f) is compofed of two high pyramids united
at their bafe. Some in this kind of form are found
truncated at one of their ends, and others at both. Se¬
veral of the hexagonal bodies may be obferved with
Hoping fides, forming a fmooth, triangular, riiing
plane, whofe angles point to three intermediate fides
of the hexagon (g).
9. Epfom Salt, begins to fhoot from the edge in
jagged figures (u). From other parts differently fi¬
gured cryftals extend themfelves towards the middle,
fome of which have fine lines proceeding from both
fides of a main Item, in an oblique direction; thofe on
one fide fhooting upwards in an angle of about 6o°, and
thofe on the other downwards in the fame obliquity
(r,/). Others produce jags from their fides nearly
perpendicular to the main Item, thereby forming fi¬
gures that refemble fome fpecies of the polipody (e);
but in others the jags are fhorter (d). Now and then
one of the main ftems continues fliooting to a confi-
derable length, without any branchings from the fides;
but at laft fends out two branches from its extremity
(jr). Sometimes a figure is produced having many
fine and minute lines radiating from a centre {b).
The laft ftiootings in the middle of the drop [h) are
* not unlike the frame-work for the flooring or roofing
of a houfe, but with the angles oblique : and fome¬
times a form of another kind prefents itfelf (i).
10 Scarborough Salt, begins to flioot from the edges:
firft of all in portions of quadrilateral figures, much
refembling thofe of common fait; but two of their
angles, inftead of 90, are about ioo°. They ftioot
in great numbers round the borders of the drop, ha¬
ving their fides as nearly parallel to one another as the
figure of the drop will allow : fome proceed but a lit¬
tle way, others farther, before they renew the flioot
{aa). In fome places they appear more pointed and
longer {b)', and fometimes, inftead of the diagonal,
one of the fides is feen towards the edge, and the o-
ther (hooting into the middle (c). The middle cryf¬
tals {def) feem to be of the vitriolic kind.
11. Glauber’s Salt, produces ramifications from the
fide of the drop, like the growth of minute plants, but
extremely traafparent and elegant (c). Some of them.Cryftaltiza-
however, begin to ftioot fiom a centre at fome dif- tlQU' .
tance from the edge, an4 protrude branches from that ' -
centre in a contrary direction (£). Sometimes they
flioot from one, and fometimes from more fides of the
central point in different varieties {d). Other figure*
are produced from different parts of the edge of the
drop [a, f, e) ; but the moft remarkable and beautiful
cryftallization forms laft of all near the middle of the
drop. It is compofed of a number of lines proceeding
from one another at right angles with tranfparent
fpaces and divifions running between them, appear¬
ing altogether like ftreets, alleys, and fquares, {gg).
When this cryftallization begins, it forms with great
rapidity, affording the obferver a very agreeable en¬
tertainment : but its beauty is of very ftiort duration:
in a few moments it diffolves and vanifties like melt¬
ed ice, which renders the drawing of it very diffi¬
cult.
1 z Salt 'of Jefuits bark. The few (hootings which
this fait produces at the edge of the drop are of no re¬
gular figure {a). The whole area becomes quickly
filled with great numbers of rhombi, of different fizes,
extremely thin and tranfparent (b). Some of thefe
enlarge greatly and acquire a confiderable thicknefs,
forming themfelves into folids of many fides (c c).
Near the conelufion fome cryftals of fea-falt are form¬
ed (dd), and likewife a few odd triangular figures (e).
13.. Salt of Liquorice, begins fliooting from the edge
with a fort of rhombic fpicula: (a). Some four-branch¬
ed figures like thofe of vitriol commonly appear, but
moulder away before their ramifications are completed,
leaving only their (lamina behind (bb). The middle
of the drop is ufually overfpread with great numbers of
parallelograms, fome exceedingly tranfparent, being
mere planes ; having fometimes one, fometimes more,
of the angles canted in fuch a manner as to produce
pentagonal, hexagonal, and other figures. Others
have much thicknefs, and form parallelepipeds or prifms
(r). Some of the plane figures now and then pro¬
trude an irregular kind of (hooting which appears very
pretty (d).
14. Salt of Wormwood. The firft (hootings of this
fait from the edges of the drop appear of a confider-
ablethicknefs in proportion to their length: their fides
are deeply and (harply jagged or indented, being
made up of many fomewhat obtufe angles, and their
ends pointed with angles of the fame kind (a). But
other (hoots frequently branch out from thefe original
ones, and they again fend forth others, making alto¬
gether a very pretty appearance {bb). The cryftals
of this fait are very different from each other, confiding *
of fquares, rohmbi, parallelograms, &c. (c).
if. Salt of Tobacco. If a moderate degree of heat
is given to a folution of this fait, its firft (hootings will
be from the edges of the drop, in (lender tapering fi¬
gures, ending with very (harp points, but at confider¬
able diftances from one another. Along with thefe
are formed other cryftals, nearly of the fame kind,
but entirely detached, and farther within the drop,
having the thicker ends towards the centre of the
drop, and the (harp points turned towards its edge
(«). When a little more heat has been given, other
fpiculae are produced from the edge, whofe ends
fpread on either fide, and then terminate' in a point;
CRY t 583 3 . . C R Y
Cryftalliza- and which have all along their fides triangutar pointed produced /hooting feveral flems from -one point, and CryfiafUai.
cryftals, placed alternately fo as to reprefent a zig- refembling a kind of fea-mofs (E)- tl0n- ,
zag, with a line drawn through its middle (6). The 19. Camphirc, though infoluble in water, diffolves very v
regular cryftals are produced in the middle of the readily in fpirit of wine. A drop of this fclution
drop, and are either hexagons or rhombi (c). When fpread upon a flip of glafs cryftallizes inftantly in the
the moifture is nearly exhaled, there are fom^times beautiful manner reprefented in the figure,
feen to (hoot from, or rather under the fpicube, upon 20. Manna eafily diflblves in water, and a drop of
the plane of the glafs, a reprefentation of leaves very the folution is a very pretty objeft. Its firft fhootings
fmall at their fir ft appearance, but gradually increafmg are radiations from points at the very edge of the
(</). A violent agitation may be difcovered in the drop: the radiating lines feem opaque, but are very
fluid by the firft magnifier during the whdie procefs; fleiider (aaa). Amongft thefe arife many minute
but efpecially at the beginning, and extremely minute tranfparent columns, whofe ends grow wider gradual-
cryftals rifing from the bottom. ly as they extend in length, and terminate at laft with
16. Salt of Hartjhorn. On the application of a ve- fome degree of obliquity (3). Some few figures ra-
ry fmall degree of heat, fait of hartfhorn (hoots near dialing from a centre every way, and circumfcribcd
the edges of the drop into folid figures fomewhat re- by an outline, are produced within the drop {del).
fembling razors or lancets, where the blade turns into But the moft furpriling and elegant configuration is
the handle byaclafp {d). The cryftals of this fait are compofed of many clufters of radiations (hooting one
produced with great velocity, and. are fomewhat o- from another over-great part of the drop, and ma-
paque, (hooting from the edges of the drop, on both king all together a figure not unlike a certain very
fides a main ftem, and with a kind of regularity, rug- beautiful fea-plant (C).
ged branches like thofe of fome forts of coral (a 0). The phenomena of cryftallization have much engaged
But fometimes, inftead of thefe branches, (harp fpicu- the attention of modern chemifts, and a vaft number of
he, fome plain, and others jagged, are protruded to a experiments has been made with a view to determine
confiderable depth on one fide only {b). As the fluid exa&ly the different figures affumed by (alts in pafling
exhales, fome one of the branching figures generally from a fluid to a folid form. It does not, however, ap- Exceflive
extends to a great length, producing on one fide (hoots pear, from all that has yet been done, that any certain variety in
that are rugged and irregular, and on the other cu- rule can be laid down in thefe cafes, as the figure of falinetheformso^
rious regular branches refembling thofe of fome plant cryftals may be varied by the flighteft circumftances. cr^ri 3 **
(c). Thus, fal ammoniac, when prepared by a mixture of
17. Salt of Urine, (hoots from the edges of the drop pure volatile alkali with fpirit of fait, (hoots into
in long parallelograms like nitre (00). But in other cryftals refe^ling feathers; but if, inftead of a pure
places, along the fides of the drop folid angles are alkali, we mmee ufe of one juft diftifled fiom bones,
formed, that feem to be the rudiments of common and containing a great quantity of animal oil, we (hall,
fait [b). Some of the parallelograms increafe much after fome cryftallizations of the feathery kind, obtain
in fize, and fpread themfelves in the middle, fo as the very fame fait in the form of cubes,
to change their firft figure, and become three or four Such falts,,as are fublimeable cryftallize not only in
times bigger than the reft : and thefe have a dividing the aqueous way by folution and evaporation, but alfo
line that runs through their whole length from end to by fublimation ; and the difference betwixt the figures
end, whence iffue other (hort lines at fmall diftances, of thefe cryftals is often very remarkable. Thus fal
oppofite to one another ; all pointing with the fame ammoniac by fublimation never exhibits any appear-
degree of obliquity towards the bafe (c c). Among ance of feathery cryftals, but always forms cubes or
thefe enlarged figures, fome few (hoot (till forward parallelepipeds. This method of rryftallizing falts by
and tapering towards a point, but, before they form fublimation has not as yet been inveftigated by che-
one, fwell again, and begin as it were anew; and miffs: nor indeed does the fubjeft feem capable of in-
ithus they proceed feveral times before their figure is veftigation without much trouble ; as the lead aug-
quite finilhed (00). The figures 1, 2,'3, 4, 5, 6, are mentation of the heat beyond the proper degree would
the regular cryftals of this fait when it is allowed to make the cryflals run into a folid cake, while a dimi-
diffolve in the air, and no heat at all is given.
18. Rheum, or the clear liquor which diftils from
the noftrils when people catch cold, is ftrongly fatura-
ted with fait. A drop of it on a flip of glafs will foon
cryftallize in a beautiful manner, either with or with¬
out heat; but if heated to about the warmth of the
nution of it would caufe them fall into powder. In
aqueous folutions, too, the circumftances which de¬
termine the (hapes of the cryftals are innumerable; and
the degree of heat, the quantity of fait contained in
the liquor, nay, the quantity of liquor itfelf, and the
various conftitutions of the atmofphere at the time of
blood, and then viewed through the microfcepe, many cryftallization, often occafion fuch differences as feem
lucid points will be feen rifing and increafing gradually, quite unaccountable and furprifing. ^
till their form is (hown to be quadrangular, with two Mr Bergman has given a differtation on the various jvir Ber<r-
tranfparent diagonals eroding each other {d d). Thefe forms of cryftals; which, he obferves, always referable n '
thus they go on to form the moft elegant and beautiful tion it will be found, that a great number of cryftals,a
cryftals [bb,cc). When a drop of rheum is fet to feemingly very different from each other, may be pro-
cryftallize without any heat, inftead of branched cryf- duced by the combination of a fmall number of origi-
tals over the whole area, fuch are formed only in the nal figures, which therefore he thinks may be called
•fiddle ; but, about the edges, plant-like figures are primitive. On this principle be explains the formation
oft
CRY [ 584 ] CRY
Cryfhlliza- of the cryflalline gems as well as falts; -and the refults It is not uncommon to find the original
^ t r i  • r n • , . , ^ , P
. . - .  0  ; ftals Cfyrtalllaai
of his obfervations are as follow. themfelves imperfect; in which cafe the large cryitals,
I. One of the primitive forms is that named by our formed by combining them together, mull deviate
author fpathaceom; and thefe, he fays, properly agglu- more or lefs from the perfect form. Thus let
tinated, may form the great variety of diffimilar bodies A B C D E F G (fig. 4 ) reprefent the three rhombi froma10”*
found amnno- mrftalfi. whieh ran It i 11 if p flip pnnv C'  i _ rom a
In the calcareous fpar we find a combination of cryftal; and let us next fuppoft the rhombus A G trun-bnc form.
fthoerlace- rhombi, whofe obtufe angles contain loxlr degrees, cated in the direftion of the lineal, CGalonfre^,
eus crvital , ., . _oi n-- „  •  1 it .r T"  _
1 and the acute yS-y. By a combination of thefe is and E G along ey. Thus, the regular hexagonal fi-
formed the calcareous fpar, which appears in the form gure of the prifm A B C D E F will be changed into
of a teffera or oblique parallelepiped; but by other an irregular one a 3ct/DeyF, confiding of nine un¬
combinations of the fame planes, cryftals apparently equal fides, whofe apex is compofed of three irregular
of the moft: oppofite forms may be generated. Thus, pentagons, <z £ B G F, c </D C B, and e/F G D. The
for the formation of an hexaedral prifm, confiding of fix rough tourmalins of Tyrol and Ceylon oarticularlv af-
il pnim, confiding of fix rough tourmalins of Tyrol and Ceylon particularly af-
cqual and fimilar parallelograms terminating at both fume this form, though it fometimes belongs to bodies
ends in three rhombi which form a folid angle, we have both of the calcareous and fchoerlaeeous kind,
only to fuppofe a continual addition of rhombi equal, Triangular crydals may be fuppofed to arife from Tii intular
fimilar, and parallel to the oblique parallelepiped or thofe of the pentagonal kind; it being obvious, that cryfials.
crydal of the calcareous fpar. Thus, fuppofe the fi- the periphery of a pentagon, as B G F, approaches
Plate gure ABCDE (fig. I.) to reprefent a nucleus of the more nearly to a triangle in proportion as the didance
CLIII. kind juft mentioned, the axis of which paffes through between a ^ and B F grows lefs: and when thefe di-
the two oppofite angles BE; it is evident, that by a ttances vanidr entirely, a triagonal prifm is formed,
continual application of rhombi, fuchas F G, HI, &c. terminated by three triangles-; if the cutting line ab
to both fides of tire axis, we lhall at lad produce the approach dill nearer to the centre G, the form dill
figure A B, fig. 2. and which reprefents the hexae- remains the fame.
dral prifm required. This kind of crydal, our author Let us now fuppofe, that the garnet cryftal, whofe Varieties of
tells us, belongs chiefly to the ftones called fchoerls, diape k reprefented fig. 5. indead of complete 1 hombi, the garnet
and is therefore called the fchoerlaceous form. It be* has others accumulated about its axis, whofe three ex- CI7dal.
8 longs likewife to fome others of the calcareous tribe. ternal angles are truncated ; or, which is the fame
Garnet cry- From the fchoerlaceous cryftal that of the garnet is thing, if the longitudinal margins of the prifm be cut by
^a1, eafily produced by a ftoppage of the accumulation of planes parallel to the axis, cryftals will be formed, whofe
the planes as foon as the fides of the priim have acqui* diape is reprefented by the fmall letters in the figure,
red a rhomboidal figure. Thus a complete dodecahe- Calcareous cryftals are fometimes found of this fhape ;
■dron is formed, w’hich is always the figure of the gar* but generally fo low, that e nearly coincides with a, c
9 net when perfect. with d. See. and hence the pentagon abcde becomes
H) acinth. The figure of the garnet is eafily changed into ano- almoft of a triangular figure, which has been attributed
ther, frequently affumed by the hyacinth, by the regular to thefe cryftals by fome authors who did not under¬
application of equal and fimilar rhombi to each of the ftand their true origin. The pyritaceous cryftals fome-
folid .angles, which angles are formed by four planes, times afford indances of this kind complete. Some-
The garnet, when complete, has fix angles compofed of times the garnet con lifts of 24 fides, by having all the
four planes, and eight with three. The formation of margins truncated 5 a change which may ealily be
* this kind of cryftal wall be underftood from an infpec- underftood from what has been already mentioned,
tion of fig. 3. In this operation the four rhombi are If the inteifedfion c d oi the planes e c and c r fall
changed into an equal number of oblong hexagons; without the plane B G, a figure of a very different
L HAB into LHAa^B: and fo of the other kind will be generated.
rhombi reprefented by the different letters of the Sometimes the hyacinthine cryftal affumes the cru- Cruciform
lcj* figure. _ ciform appearance ABC DE FGHIKLM, fig. 6.hyacinthine
Pyramidal I« fome oafes the original planes decreafe according Here the apex is at C, the figure A B being allcrJrftab
crjilals. to a certain law; and this, from whatever caufe it may in the fame inclined plane, which is the cafe with thb
arife, mud neceffarily change the appearance of the other three homologous figures. Now, in order to
terminating planes, and occafionally either augment inveftigate the formation, of thefe cryftals, let us fup-
OT diminifli their number. Thus, inftead of a prifm, pofe the rhombi C O, _C P, and C to be comple- *
we lhall have a double pyramid, one tending upwards ted, which to an eye placed in the high axis C will
and the other downwards, as will be eafily undevftood appear like as many fquares fituated in the fubja-
from what has been already faid. This is the form af- cent plane. Thus we may underftand the formation
fumed by the calcareous cryftals commonly called/(§•- of the cryftals of granite as well as of the hyacinth.
tooth by the miners. The former may be fuppofed a quadrangular prifm
If the decreafing feries of rhorttbi is ftopfied before compofed of four rhombi, touching one another only
they vanilh ultimately in a point, the formation of at their apices, and terminated at each end by four
truncated pyramids, of which many examples are to rhonabi meeting atjhe apex. When this form is a
be met with in the mineral kingdom, mud neceffarily little protracted, or augmented by applying to the
take place. In cafes of this kind, it is eafy to fee why apices fimilar and equal planes, it becomes that of tire
the pyramids, if ftruck in one direction, will break hyacinth ; whence the granite cryftal may be called
over fmoothly and eafily, but not in another. the rudiment of the hyacinth alfo. The variety here
N° 95. . ■ mentioned
—— ' ■ —  - ■■ ■■- 
CRY [ 585 7 CRY
Cryftalli- mentioned, of hyacinthine cryftals, is met with in the fix quadrangular hollow pyramid?, joined by their Cryflalli-
, ZAtl‘in- Hartz mines. Mr Ehrhart fays, that they are of a ii- apices and external furfaces; each of thefe filled up zation* ,
liceous, and not of a calcareous, nature. by others fimilar, but gradually decreafmg, completes
Other va- If planes fimilar to one another, but diffimilar to the form. By a due degree of evaporation, it is no
rieties of the fundamental ones, be added, a vail variety of difficult matter to obtain thefe pyramids feparate and
the forms ffiapes may be produced, of which it is needlefs to dillinft, as in fig. 8. or fix of fuch, either;hollow, or
•f cryftals. gjve more examples at prefent. Our author appeals more or lefs -folid, joined round a centre. This is the
to experience for the truth of it ; and alferts, that the whole courfe of the operation from beginning to end.
loofe texture of calcareous cryftals will clearly Ihow This takes place in the falited vegetable alkali, or fal
their conftru&ion, if carefully and completely broken, digejlivus Syhii; in the cryftallized luna cornea ; the
The harder cryftals can fcarcely be broken in fuch a galena or fulphurated. lead; and quadrangular nitre,
manner as to Ihow their ftrufture; but thefchoerls dif- which is of the fpathaceous form, produces a fimilar
cover it very plainly, and even the garnets (how them- congeries of pyramids, and thefe almoft equally diftincl
felves to be compofed of laminae. with the preceding cubic cryftals. A folution "of alum,
“ Finally (fays Mr Bergman), we may add one upon evaporation, generally produces folid oclaedra;
particular obfervation concerning prifmatic and hexa- but fometimes alfo it exhibits hollow pyramids, and
gonal calcareous cryftals truncated perpendicularly; upon fuch of them as are complete, the junctures are
fuch fometimes occur, and they cannot derive their very'diftinftly marked by confpicuous lines,
origin, in the manner above defcribed, from the fpa- 4. “ Sometimes, too, other falts indicate the fame
thaceous particles, and by no other way can hexago- conftrudtion by vifible diagonals. Fig. 9. reprefents a
nal prifms be generated. What, then, is the caufe fedlion of the hexagonal prifm formed by Rochelle fait,
which deftroys their apices ? I confefs this to be a The arrangement of the internal particles of this fait
queftion which I am wholly unable to anfwer, unlefs cannot be known when the cryftal is complete: but when
we may affume an accumulation of planes more and it is formed on the bottom of the veflel, as reprefented
more deficient around the axis. We may from hence fig. «o. the lower fide cannot be perfeft ; and this paral-
conclude, that fomething unufual occurs; as the trun- lelogram exhibits two diagonalsdiftindtly, as reprefented
cated extremity is opaque, while the reft of the prifm fig. 11. This is likewife the cafe with the fait extra£led
is tranfparent; but the upper hexagonal feftion is from human urine, called microcofmic fait. Befides, we
fmooth and poliflied.” ffiould obferve of the vertical triangles, that they are al-
On the whole, our author obferves, that the greateft ternately tranfparent and opaque in pairs; which plainly
varieties may occur in the figures of cryftals, though points out a difference in the fituation of their elements,
all of them may be generated from thofe of the fpatha- Some cryftals of nitre are alfo marked with diagonals;
ceous form, and the fubftance of alj may be ultimately a circumftance which in others is generally concealed
the fame ; whence we ihould be induced to put but by the clofe connexion of the particles,
little confidence in the figure. “ If, then, (fays he), 5. “ If we examine the hollow pyramid of common
this teft, which undoubtedly is the moft remarkable fo fait farther, we ihall find it compofed of four triangles,
far as externals reach, is of fo little ufe, of what value and each of thefe formed of threads parallel to the
can the others be ? and with what fuccefs can we hope bafe ; which threads, upon accurate examination, are
to form a fy'ftem of mineralogy upon fuch diftinftions? found to be nothing elfe than a feries of fmall cubes:
External criteria fhould certainly not be neglefted, but Therefore, although the above circumftances feem
he who trufts implicitly to them deceives himfelf.” plainly to point out the formation of all cryftals from
II. From a confideration of the larger lamella: of the union and cohefion of pyramids, ,whofe fides, be-
which cryftals are compofed, our author naturally pro- ing different in form and magnitude, occafion the dif-
ceeds to an inveftigation-of their fmaller conftituent ferences of forms; it yet remains uncertain whether
parts. Here he is of opinion, that the diffei-ent ex- the fame internal ftrufture takes place in thofe vvhofe
ternal appearance of all cryftals is owing to varieties in . minutenefs renders them totally invifible ; and whether
their mechanical elements. A queftion, however, oc- the primary ftamina poffefs a determinate figure, or
curs, Whether thofe very minute molecules, which are compofed by the union of many ihapelefs particles,
may, as it were, be called the Jlamina of cryftals, be We have long known, that the imalleft concretions
naturally poffeffed of a determinate angular figure, or which are vifible by a microfcope poffefs a determined
whether they acquire it by cryftallizat ion ? In anfwer figure; but thefe are compounds. In the mean time,
to this, he mentions the following fadls, which he until this veil be removed in fome meafure at leaft, we
has had an opportunity of cbferving himfelf. cannot avoid comparing the procefs of cryftallizatiou
1. “ If the fmall particles which feparate from lime- with the congelation of water,
water, when expofed to the air, be infpe&ed with a “ While the watery particles are concreting, they
microfcope, they will be found fpathaceous. exert a double tendency; by one of which they are
2. “ The greater fpathous tefferae, when accurately formed into fpiculas, by the other thefe fpiculte are
■examined,. are frequently found with ftria: running di- ranged in fuch a manner with refpect to one another
agonally, fuch as often appear in faline cryftals, by as to form angles of 60 degrees: from hence the va-
which their internal ftrudlure is difcovered. rieties obferved in the particles of .fnovv may be eafily
3. “ The cubes of common fait not only exhibit explained. The moft fimple figure is that where fix
diagonal ftriae, but frequently, upon each fide, ffiow equal radii diverge from a centre in the angle above
fquares parallel to the external furface, and gradually mentioned, as in fig. 12. The fame angle will be
decreafing inwards (fig. 7.), by which we difcover preferved if the extremities of thefe be joined by right
their internal ftrufture : for every cube is compofed of 'lines; which will alfo be the cafe, if each of the tri-
ftituent
parts of
cryftals.
VOL.V. Part II.
4E
ingles
CRY l 586 1 CRY
CryftalK- angles thus formed be filled with right lines parallel to
gatiun. t|ie asjn gg#
. " * “ Let us now fuppofe the particles which are em¬
ployed in cryftallization endowed with a tendency to
form fpiculae, and thefe fpicuhe with a tendency to
arrange themfelves at equal angles of inclination, and
vre (hall have both the triangles and the pyramids com-
pofed of them, even although the primary (lamina had
not a determined figure. As the angles of inclination
vary, the triangles and pyramids will alfo vary; and
hence the different forms of cryftals will be produced,
which may to a certain degree be inveftigated geome-
trically, the angles being given.
DifFeient III. Mr Bergman now coniiders the various ways in
ways in which cryftals may be produced ; which are, i.By wa-
^hkhthey ter; 2. By a liquefying heat; 3. By a volatilizing heat.
produced. r* The moft common method of obtaining cryftals is
by means of water ; as by this medium faline fubftan-
ces are very readijy taken up, and appear again in a
folid form vi(hen the liquid is properly diminifhed by
evaporation. It is not only when diffblved in water
that they acquire determinate forms ; this happens
alfo when they are fufficiently attenuated and mixed
with it; for fubftances not foluble in water will re¬
main fufpended in it, when, by fufficient divifion, they
have acquired as much furface as makes them approach
the fpecific gravity of the fluid; and it feems very
probable, that many of the earths met with in the mi¬
neral kingdom, which have a regular form, have cealef-
ced in this way. We muft, however, carefully di-
ftinguiflr between mechanical mixture and true folu-
tion, even though both (hould agree in weight. When
folid bodies are mechanically mixed with water, they
will remain at the bottom of the vefiel if laid there in
powder, unlefs diffufed by agitation ; but foluble fub¬
ftances totally and fpontaneoufly diftribute themfelves
through the menftruum even without any agitation,
though this certainly accelerates the folution.
2. Another method of obtaining cryftals is by fufion
and (low cooling. Thus fulphur, when melted and
cooled, (hoots into long ftriae, acquiring at the fame
time an eleftrical property t bifmuth, zinc, and rega¬
ins of antimony, acquire a teffciated appearance ; nay,
the laft of thefe, when fet to cool in a conical .mould,
becomes deflated, not only on the upper furface or ba-
fis of the mafs, but along the whole axis. Glafs alfo,
when melted and (lowly cooled, will fometimcs (hoot
into beautiful cryftals. Our author mentions his ha¬
ving fometimes feen the fcoria of furnaces, where iron
had been melted with the addition of calcareous earth,
of a regular prifmatic figure ; and when crude iron has
been melted with lime, he has (bmetimes alfo found
complete o&aedra in the fcoria. In large metallic
maflls, however, the under parts are generally fo much
preffed by the weight of thoft above, that they (how
no figns of cryftallization, though beautiful cryftals
are often formed on the furface of gold, filv.rr, iron, &c..
3. 1 he particles of bodies volatilized by heat, t( du¬
ring cooling they are fufficiently at liberty, often obey
the laws of attraction, and form cryftals. Tothisclafs
we may refer thofe which are condenfed from the va¬
pours of regulus of antimony, called the jlores argen-
tini. The galena which is frequently intertperied a-
mong the copper-ore at Fahlun lends forth a vapour
which, condenfes on the upper ftrata, forming hollow
pyramids, which are the bafts of the cubes of galena, Cryftalli-
entirely fimilar to thofe which compofe common fait, nation.
In the heaps of arfenical ore expofed to the fire atv——'
Loefa, our author has collected very beautiful cryftals,
of white, yellow, and red colours, partly tetraedral
and partly odtaedral. Some of thefe exhibit hollow
pyramids, whofe Tides confift of threads parallel to the
baft, and exadtly fimilar to thofe formed in the moift
way. Thefe cryftals, when complete, frequently (how
the junctures of the pyramids very diftinCtly by ftraight
lines ; and by careful examination, we may be able to
trace the whole ptocefs through its various fteps, from
the very beginning to the end of the operation. jg
Prifms of any kind may be formed by the apices of Formation
proper pyramids meeting together in a certain number of P! i,'ms
round the fame point. The apex may alfo be,formed^n^nou*
by a Angle pyramid having its vertical angle turned
outward. Thus, by adding to the cube ABCD the
quadrangular pyramids ABE DCF, we (hall have a
four-fided prifm (fig. 16.) ; and thus, though very fel-
dom, common fait (bmetirnes acquires an apex. If
we apply to one or both of the apices of the oCtae-
dron ACBD, tig. 17. a hollow pyramid adb, fimilar
and equal to the fundamental figure, we will have a
prifm of the fame kind: alum, however, has never
been obferved of a prifmatic form by our author, though
fometimes confiding of octaedra imperfectly joined to¬
gether, as in fig. 18. Four-fided pyramids may be
compoied of four tetraedra, and confequently 24 of
the lame may make up a cube; “ and (fays our au¬
thor) it has alfo a double apex of 32. Thus we have
a new conitruCtion, which undoubtedly fometimes takes
place; for, as I have already faid, arfenical cryftals (ome-
times take the tetraedral, fometimes the oCtaedral, form,
which may therefore eafily be mutually exchanged.
“ It is with lefs facility that hexagonal prifins are
formed of fuch pyramids as have the fame number of
(ides, unlefs tetraedra be admitted. In fig. 19. four
hexagonal and fix tetragonal pyramids meet ; the for¬
mer are eafily refolved into fix and the latter into four
tetraedra (fig. 20.) ; 48 of which confequently make
up the whole mafs, fuppofing this to be the method
followed by nature. I have no doubt that this con-
ftruCtion is probable on many accounts ; for it requires
only the moft fimple elements, and fuch as are con¬
formable to the figures of all cryftals. That tetraedra
adapted to this purpofe have fometimes diffimilar and
unequal fides, makes not a;:ainft the fuppofition : but
what is moft to the purpofe is, that fometimes fuch
tetraedra are employed without the fmalleft doubt.
All thefe circumitances are of no fmall weight; but
as long as no traces of tetraedra are to be found among
the pyramids of common fait, the laws of found rea-
foning forbid ns to draw arty general conclufion. I
am perfectly certain that nature does frequently employ,
pyramids in this operation ; it remains forfutufe expert-
ments to determine whether this be always the cafe.”
IV. We come now to conlider the ultimate caufe of
cryftallization, concerning which there have been ma-
ny different theories. Some have, been of opinion that Different
there cannot be any cryftallization without a falint
principle in feme degree exifting in the cryftallizing t;^n 1
fubftance. This opinion, however, is oppoied by Mr
Bergman on the following grounds :
1. He fuppofes cryftallization to be an effedt of at¬
traction j.
CRY [ 587 1 CRY
Cryftalli- traftion ; confequently, as all other matters as well as
*atlon- . falts are fubjed to the laws of that attra&ion, we can-
Y " not confider the regular and fymmetrical form in which
they arrange themfelves as peculiar to faline bodies ;
and hence cryftals are alfo produced by fuch methods
as will fufficiently attenuate and difengage the inte¬
grant parts from each other.
2. The more fimple that any faline body is, and
the more free from any kind of heterogeneous mat¬
ter, the mere difficult it is to reduce it into a cryftal-
line form. Thus the pure acids and cauftic alkali
cannot be made to affume the form of cryftals without
the greateft difficulty.
3. The fimilarity of forms in cryftals, Mr Bergman ob-
fer ves, “ does not depend upon the acid ; as the prifma-
tic and quadrangular nitre areformed from thefame acid,
though joined indeed to different alkalies. Neither is the
bafts fufficient to determine the figure ; for the vege¬
table, as well as the mineral alkali, when faturated with
marine acid, will produce cubical cryftals. The external
appearance, therefore, depends on the menftruum and
the bafe jointly. We are not, however, to imagine
from thence that there is prefent a neutral or middle
fait whenever the figure of fuch a one is difcoverable ;
for not the fmalleft particle of alum is found in nickel
or lead when united with nitrous acid, though both
thefe compounds yield oftaedral cryftals.” Here we
may again remark, that the figure of cryftals depends
upon circumftances altogether unknown, of which Dr
Eafon, in a paper on this fubjeft in the Manchefter
Tranfa&ions, gives a remarkable inftance in gypfum,
which is known to be a combination of the vitriolic
acid with a calcareous bafis; yet this compound is
found naturally cryftallized in five ways, fo very dif¬
ferent from each other, that mineralogifts have diftin-
guiffied them by five diftindt names, viz. 1. Lapis fpe-
cularis. 2. Striated gypfum. 3. Gypfeous alabafter.
4. Selenites properly lo called. 5. A gypfeous fpar
frequently adhering to the veins of ore in mountains.
All of thefe, when chemically examined, exhibit pre-
cifely the fame phenomena, and are really nothing but
different cryftallizations of the fame compound fait.
4. Mr Bergman likewife obferves, that there is a
great variety in the forms of cryftals, though the mat¬
ter remains the fame ; of which examples have been
given in the calcareous cryftals, and in the different
kinds of gypl'um juft mentioned. Among the pyrites
alfo we meet with cubes ftriated in a very fingular
manner 5 the lines of one fide being perpendicular to
thofe which diftinguilh the different fides, as reprefented
fig. 14.; but among thefe there are likewife tetraedra,
oftaedra, dodecaedra, and icofaedra, to be met with.
5. A great number of cryftals are either totally de-
ftitute of any faline matter, or poffefs it in fuch afinall
degree that no experiments hitherto tried have been
able to difcover the fmalleft fenfible traces of it. Thus
mica fometimcs (hoots into hexangular prifms compo-
fed of parallel lamellre, the elementary fpiculte of which
are difpofed as in fig. 1 y. ; gems, fchoerls, granites,
and other earthy bodies, are frequently found figured,
though no faline matter can be difcovered by analyfis ;
and the fame holds good of gold, filver, lead, tin, bif-
muth, and zinc,united with mercury,all of which regular
forms, according to the quantity of the mercury.
*( If we have recourfe (concludes Mr Bergman) to
the fuppofitioti of an hidden faline fubftanee which Cryftdli-
cannot be difcovered by art, it muft furely be untea-, zatl0n- ^
fonable to attribute to fuch a principle fo great a pow- *
er as that of arranging the particles in the order ne-
ceffary for cryftallization ; a caufe, beyond queftiori,
unequal to the magnitude of the effedt s for how is it
poffible that a faline matter, the prefence of the fmall¬
eft atom of which cannot be difcovered by the moft
delicate lefts, (hall in pure water have yet power t»
effedt the icy cryftallization with fuch forte as to over¬
come the ftrongell obftacles ? How can a faline mat¬
ter, which by no left can be difcovered, have power,
in an amalgam of gold, to arrange the ponderous par¬
ticles of both metals in a particular manner ? What
fait is able to form the ftellated regulus of antimony l
What the hexagonal lamellae of mica !” 20
On this fubjedl we may remark, that whether we All of them
affirm or deny a faline principle to be the caufe of cry- infufficient.
ftallization, the ultimate power by which it is effedted
muft be equally unknown. A faline principle can
make other bodies cryftallize along with it only by vir¬
tue of the difpofition it has of itfelf to affume a cry-
ftalline appearance ; and we muft therefore feek for
the caufe of this cryftallization of the fait, as well as
of the fubftance with which it is mixed. Mr Berg¬
man, as well as others, have endeavoured to account
for this on the principle of attradlion ; but with little
fuccefs. Sir Ifaac Newton fuppofes the particles of
fait to be diffufed through the folvent fluid at equal
diftances from each other; on which account he con¬
cludes that they muft come together in regular fi¬
gures. Mr Bergman confiders the particles which
form faline fubftances as endowed with a twofold ten¬
dency ; one to arrange themfelves in fpiculae, the other
for the fpiculae to arrange themfelves at certain angles
of- inclination ; and as thefe angles vary, different forms
of cryftals muft be produced. Both thefe effedls, he
thinks, maybe owing to the fame caufe, viz. a mutual
attradtion between the particles ; which, according to
the various (hapes and particular figures of the atoms,
at one time arranges them in the form of fpiculae, and
again connedts the fpiculae already formed under dif¬
ferent angles of inclination.
This feems to be much the fame with what other
chemifts underhand by the polarity of the faline par¬
ticles, by which they are arranged in certain diredfions-
All this, however, is totally infufficient -to explain the
phenomenon. If, according to Sir Ifaac Newton’s
fuppofition, the particles were brought together by a
general attradtion, after being ^placed at equal di¬
ftances by the folvent for fome time, we muft; expedt
to find all kinds of falts cryftallized in the fame man¬
ner, or rather running into one folid lump. The ar¬
rangement of the particles, or their tendency to ar¬
rangement, affigned by Mr Bergman as a caufe, is on¬
ly explaining the phenomenon by itfelf; for it is thte
caufe of this tendency which is the point in queftion,
Now, that the attradtion of the faline particles to each
other cannot be the caufe of cryftalline arrangements,
is evident-from the following confiderations: 1. The
cryttals of every kind of fait contain water as an effen-
tial part of their compofition 5 and if deprived of this,
they lofe their cryftalline form entirely, and fall into
powder. It is plain, therefore, that the faline par¬
ticles attradt not only one anothef, but fome part of
, 3 E 2 the
CryfoUi-
zation
‘ li
Ctefibius.
| See 'Ejfli-
C T E [ 58B ] CUB
the water which diflblves them ; whence it feems pro¬
bable that the proc< flee, of cryftallization and vegeta¬
tion are analogous to each other. This is likewife
confirmed by the many curious vegetations of falls
known by the name of ejjlenfcences. Thefe cannot be
owing inertly to attradtion ; becaufe they frequently
protrude from a large faline mafs, in which they ought
rather to be detained by the attradtion of the reft.
Thus, if a quantity of the refiduum of Glauber’s
fpirit of nitre diftilled with a large proportion of vi¬
triolic acid, be expofed to a inoift air, beautiful rami¬
fications fomewhat refembling fhrubs will fometimes
flioot out to the length of more than an inch. This
furely cannot be the effedt of attradtion ; but ra¬
ther of fome repulfive power by which the particles of
the large mafs at firft tend to feparate from one ano¬
ther -f. 2, Attradtion, in fuch a manner as would dif-
pofe the particles into certain determinate forms, can¬
not take place where they are all homogeneous, which
muft be the cafe with metals; all of which are capable
of forming cryftals when llowly cooled ; fuch cryftal-
lizations, therefore, muft be produced by fome other
power.
Mr Bergman confiders the congelation of water as
a fpecies of cryftallization ; and in order to prove the
limilitude, he takes notice, that it is by means of the
matter of heat that this element becomes fluid. He
obferves likewife, that falls, in the adl of cryftallizing,
part with heat as water does in the adt of being con¬
verted into ice. It would feem, therefore, that the
particles were arranged in certain forms by the adtion
of the heat when palling from a latent to a fenfible
ftate. From, a late experiment, it would feem that
the eledtric fluid was principally concerned. This was
firft difeovered by Lichtenberg, and confifts only in
fprinkling powdered rofin upon an eledtiophorus, which
in certain circumftances arranges itfelf into ftars with
radii fimilar to thofe of the cryftals of fnow. See
Electricity.
CRYSTALS, in chemiftry, falls or other matters
(hot or congealed in the manner of cryftal. See Che-
M1 strx-Index ; and Crystallization.
CTESIAS, a native of Cnidos, who accompanied
Cyrus the fon of Darius in his expedition againft his
brother Artaxerxes ; by whom he was taken prifoner.
But curing Artaxerxes of a wound he received in the
battle, he became a great favourite at the court of
Perfia, where he continued pradtifing phyfic for 17
years, and was employed in feveral negociations. He
wrote the Hiftory of Perfia in 23 books, and a Hi-
ftory of the Indies : but thefe works are now loft, and
all we have remaining of them is an abiidgement com¬
piled by Photius. The moft judicious among the an¬
cients looked upon Ctefias as a fabulous writer ; yet
feveral of the ancient hiftorians and modern Chriftian
writers have adopted in part his chronology of the Af-
fyrian kings.
CTESIBIUS, a mathematician of Alexandria, a-
bsut 120 years before Chrift. He was the firft who
invented the pump. He alfo invented a clepfydra, or
a water clock. This invention of meafuring time by
water was wonderful and ingenious. Water was let
drop upon wheels which it turned: the wheels com¬
municated their regular motion to a fmall wooden
image, which by a gradual rife pointed with a flick to
the proper hours and months, which were engraved Ctefiphon
on a column near the machine. This artful invention ,11
gave cife to many improvements ; and the modern man-, Cu1,a' ,
ner of meafuring time with an hour-glafs is in imita- y
tion of the clepfydra of Ctefibius.
CTESIPHON, a celebrated Greek architeff, who
gave _ the defigns for the famous temple of Ephefus,
and invented a machine for bringing thither the co¬
lumns to be ufed in that noble ftruClure. He flourifh-
ed 544 B. C.
Ctesiphon (anc. geog.), a large village, or rather
a fine city, of Chalonitis, the moft fouthern province
of Aflyria. It was fituated on the left or eaft fide of
the Tigris, oppofite to Seleucia on this fide ; and built
by the Parthians, to rival Seleucia. Here the kings
of Parthia pafled the winter (Strabo) j. as they did
the fummer at Ecbatana.
Ctesiphon was alfo the name of feveral noted per-
fons of antiquity. 1. An Athenian, who advifed his
fellow-citizens to crown publicly Demotthenes with a
golden crown for his probity and virtue. This was
oppofed by the orator fEfchines, the rival of De-
mofthenes, who accufed Ctefiphon of feditious views.
Demofthenes undertook the defence of his friend, in
a celebrated oration ftill extant, and fEfchines was ba-
niihed. 2. A Greek architect, who made the plan of
Diana’s temple at Ephefus. 3. An elegiac poet,
whom king Attalus fet over his pofleflions in iEolia.
4. A Greek hiftorian, who wrote an hiftory of Boe-
otia.
CUB, a bear’s whelp. Among hunters, a fox and
marteon of the firft year are alfo called cubs. See
Ursus.
CUBA, a large and very important ifland in the
Weft Indies, belonging to Spain. On the eaft fide it
begins at 20. 20. N. Lat. touches the tropic of Can¬
cer on the north, and extends from 74. to 85. 15. W»
Long. It lies 60 miles to the weft of Hifpaniola, 25
leagues north of Jamaica, 100 miles to the eaft of Ju-
catan, and as many to the fouth of Cape Florida ; and
commands the entrance of the gulphs both of Mexi¬
co and Florida, as alfo the windward paflages. By.
this fituation it may b« called the iey of the Weft In¬
dies. It was difeovered by Columbus in'1492, who
gave it the name of Ferdinando, in honour of king
Ferdinand of Spain ; but it quickly after recovered its
ancient name of Cuba. The natives did not regard
Columbus with a very favourable eye at his landing ;
and the weather proving very tempeftuous, he foon-
left this ifland, and failed to Hayta, now called Hifpcir
niohy where he was. better received. The Spaniards,
however,, foon became matters of it. By the year
1511 it was totally conquered ; and in that time they
had deftroyed, according to their own accounts, feve¬
ral millions of people. But the poffeffion of Cuba was.
far from anfwering the expectations of the Spa-
nifti adventurers, whofe avarice could be fatiated
with nothing but gold. Thefe monfters finding that
there was gold upon the ifland, concluded that it
muft come from mines ; and therefore tortured the
few inhabitants they had left, in order to extort from
them a difeovery of the places where thefe mines lay.
The miferies endured by thefe poor creatures were
fuch that they ahnoft unanimoufly refolved to put an
end to their own lives ; but were prevented by one of
1 * the
CUB C 589 1 CUB
the Spanifh tyrants called Vu/cq Ponellos. This wretch
threatened to hang himfelf along with them, that he
might have the pleafure, as he faid, of tormenting
them in the next world worfe than he had done in.
this j and fo much were they afraid of the Spaniards,
that this threat diverted thefe poor favages from their
defperate refolution. In 15n, the town of Havan-
nah was built, now the principal place on the ifland.
The houfes were at Srft built only of wood ; and the
town itielf was for a long time fo inconfiderable, that
in 1536 it was taken by a French pirate, who obliged
the inhabitants to pay 700 ducats to fave it from be¬
ing burnt. The very day after the pirate’s departure,
three Spanifh fhips arrived from Mexico, and having
unloaded their cargoes, failed in purfuit of the pirate
fhip. But fuch was the cowardice of the officers,
that the pirate took all the three fhips, and returning
to the Havannah, obliged the inhabitants to pay 700
ducats more. To prevent misfortunes of this kind,
the inhabitants built their houfes of Hone ; and the
place has iince been ftrongly fortified. See Havan¬
nah.
According to the Abbe Raynal, the Spaniffi fettle-
ment at Cuba ds very important, on three accounts :
x. The produce of the country, which is confiderable.
2. As being the ftaple of a great trade,- and, 3. As
being the key to the Weft Indies. The principal pro¬
duce of this ifland is cotton. The commodity, how¬
ever, through neglect, is now become fo fcarce, that
fometimes feveral years “pafs without any of it being ■
brought into Europe. In place of cottony coffee has
been cultivated : but, by a fimilar negligence, that is
produced in no great quantity ; the whole produce
not exceeding 30 or 35 thoufand weight, one-third of
which is exported to Vera Cruz, and the reft to Ma¬
drid. The cultivation of coffee naturally leads to that
of fugar; and this, which is the moft valuable pro-
du&ion of America, would »f itfelf be fufficient to
give Cuba that ftate of profperity for which it feems
defignedby nature. Although the furface of the ifland
is in general uneven and mountainous, yet it has plains
fufficiently extenfive, and well enough watered, to fup-
ply the confumption of the greateft part of Europe
with fugar. The incredible fertility of its new lands,
if properly managed, would enable it to furpafs every
other nation, however they may have now got the
ftart of it: yet fuch is the indolence of the Spaniards,
that to this day they have but few plantations, where,
with the fineft canes, they make but a fmall quantity
of coarfe fugar at a great expence. This i'erves partly
for the Mexican market, and partly for the mother-
country ; while the indolent inhabitants are content
to import fugar for themfelves at the expence of near
220,000 1. annually-. It has been expedted with pro¬
bability, that the tobacco imported from Cuba would
compenfate this lefs; for after furnifhing Mexico, and
Peru, there was fufficient, with the little brought from
Caracca and Buenos Ayres, to fupply all'Spain. But
this trade too has declined through the negligence of
the court of,Madrid, in not gratifying the general
tafte for tobacco from the Havannah. The Spanifh
colonies have an univerfal trade in fkins; and Cuba
fupplies annually about 10 or 12 thoufand. The num¬
ber might eafily be increafed' in a country abounding
with wiki cattle where fome gentlemen poffefs large
trails of ground, that for want of population can
fcarce be applied to any other purpofe than that of
breeding cattle. The hundredth part of this ifland is
not yet cleared. The true plantations are all confined
to the beautiful plains of the Havannah, and eves thofe
are not what they might be. All thefe plantations
together may employ about 25,000 male and female
flaves. The number of whites, meftees, nvulattoes, and
free negroes, upon the whole ifland, amounts to about
30,000. The food of thefe different fpecies confifts
of excellent pork, very bad beef, and caffava bread.
The colony would be more flourifliing, if its produc¬
tions had not been made the property of a company,
whofe exclufive privilege operates as a conftant and
invariable principle of difeouragement. If any thing
could fupply the want of an open trade, and atone for
the grievances occafioned by this monopoly at Cuba,
it would be the advantage which this ifland has for
fuch a long time enjoyed, in being the rendezvous of
almoft all the Spaniffi veffels that fail to the new
world. This pradlice commenced almoft with the
colony itfelf. Ponce de Leon, having made an at¬
tempt upon Florida in 1512, became acquainted with
the new canal of Bahama. It was immediately dif-
covered that this was the heft route the (hips bound
from Mexico to Europe could poflibly take ; and to
this the wealth of the ifland is principally, if not al¬
together, owing.
’CUBE, in geometry, a folid body confifting of fix-
equal fides. See Geometry.
Cube-Root of any Number or Quantity, is fuch a num¬
ber or quantity, which, if multiplied into itfelf, and
then again the product thence ariiing by that number
or quantity, being the cube-root, this laft product ffiall
be equal to the number or quantity whereof it is the
cube-root; as 2 is the cube-root of 8 ; becaufe two
times 2 is 4, and two times 4 is 8 ; and a+b is the
cube-root oia%^aab^abb-\. See Algebra.
CUBEBS, in the materia medica, a fmall dried fruit
refembling a grain of pepper, but often fomewhat-
longer, brought into Europe from the ifland of Java.
In aromatic warmth and pungency, they are far infe¬
rior to pepper.
CUBIC equation. See Algebra.
CUBIDIA, a genus of fpars. The word is derived
from xuf©-, “ a die;” and is given them from their be¬
ing of the flxape of a common die, or of a cubic fi¬
gure. Thefe bodies owe this lhape to an admixture
of lead, and there are only two known fpecies of the
genus. 1. A colourlefs cryftalline one, with thin-
flakes, found in the lead-mines of Yorkftiire, and fome
other parts of the kingdom ; and, 2. A milky white
one with thicker crufts. This is found in the lead-
mines of Derbylhire and Yorkftiire, but is ufually
fmall, and iS not found plentifully.
CUBIT, in the menfuration of the ancients, a long,
meafuve, equal to the length of a man’s arm, from the
elbow to the tip of the fingers.
Dr Arbuthnot makes the Englifli cubit equal to 18-
inches; the Roman cubit equal to 1 foot 5.406 inches
and the cubit of the feripture equal to x foot 9.888
inches.
CUBITALUS muscles, the name of two mufcles'.
of the hand. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
CUBITUS, in anatomy, a bone of the arm, reach¬
ing*.
cue [ 59° ] cue
■ Guboldes ing from the elbow to the wrift; otherwife called ulna,
Cucubalus or greater foffile. Some ufe the word for all that
■ , ' part of the arm between the elbow and the wrift ; in¬
cluding the ulna or cubitus, properly fo called, and the
radius.
CUBOIDES, or Os Cussforms, in anatomy, the
feventh bone of the foot; fo c.alled from its being in
form of a cube or die.
CUCKING-stool, an engine invented for punifh-
ing fcolds and unquiet women, by ducking them in
water; called in ancient times a tumbrel, and fome-
times a trebiuhet. In Domefday, it is called cathedra
Jlercoris: and it was in ufe even in the Saxons time,
by whom it was deferibed to be cathedra, in qua rix-
qfte mulieres fedentes aquis demergebantur. It was an¬
ciently alfo a punilhment infli&ed upon brewers and
bakers tranfgreffing the laws; who -were thereupon
in fuch a ftool immerged over head and ears in Jlercore,
fome flunking water. Some think it a corruption
from ducking-Jlool; others from choaking-Jlool, quia hoc
modo demerjic aquis fere fufjbeantur. See Castioa-
TORY.
- CUCKOW, in ornithology. See Cuculus.
CucKoir-Spit, the fame with froth-fpit. See Froth-
Spit, and Cicada.
CUCUBALUS, berry-bearing chickweed: A
genus of the trigynia order, belonging to the decan-
dria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 2 2d order, Caryophillei. ! he calyx is
inflated ; the petals five, unguiculated without a nec¬
tariferous corona at the throat; the capfule is trilocu-
lar. There are 13 fpecies, the moft remarkable of
which are,
1. The beken, Swedilh lychnis, or gumfepungar, is
a native of feveral parts of Europe. The empale-
ment of its flower is curioufly Wrought like a net¬
work, and- is of a purplifh colour. The leaves have
fomewhat of the flavour of peafe, and proved of
great ufe to the inhabitants of Minorca in 1685,
when a fwarm of locufts had deftroyed the harveft.
The Gothlanders apply the leaves to eryfipelatous
eruptions. Horfes, cows, fheep, and goats, eat this
plant.
2. The no&iflora, or night-flowering lychnis, grows
naturally in Spain and Italy. It is a perennial plant,
rifing with an upright branching ftalk, a foot and an
half high, garnifhed with very narrow leaves placed
oppofite. The upper part of the ftalk branches very
much; the flowers Hand upon long naked footftalks,
each fupporting three or four flowers which have long
tubes with ftriped empalements: the petals are large,
deeply divided at top, and of a pale-bluilh colour. The
flowers are clofed all the day; btSt when the fun leaves
them, they expand, and then emit a verv agreeable
feent. It may be propagated by feeds {own in the
fpring on a bed or light earth ; and when the plants
are fit to remove, they flrould be planted in a nurfery-
bed at about four inches diftance, where they may re¬
main till autumn. They may then be planted in^the
borders where they are to remain, and will flower the
following year.
3- The otites, or catch-fly, is a native of Britain,
and other European countries. It hath a thick, flefhy,
perennial root, which ftrikes deep into the ground,
from whence rifes a jointed ftalk three or four feet Cundu*.
high. At the joints there exfudes a vifeous clammy  v J
juice, that flicks to the fingers when handled; and the
fmall infects which fettle upon thofe parts of the ftalks
are thereby fo faftened that they cannot get off. The
flowers are fmall, and of a greenifh colour. The
plant is propagated by feeds.
CUCULUS, the Cucxow, in ornithology, a genus piate qj^
belonging to the order of piece: the charafters of
which are : The bill is fmooth, and more or lefs bend¬
ing ; the noftrils are bounded by a fmall rim; the
tongue is ftiort and pointed; the feet and toes formed
for climbing. The moft remarkable fpecies are :
1. The canorus, or common cuckow, weighs about
five ounces; and is in length 14 inches, in breadth 25.
The bill is black, and about two thirds of an inch in
length. The head, hind part of the neck, coverts of
the wings and rump, are of a dove colour ; darker on
the head and paler on the rump. The throat and
upper part of the neck are of a pale grey ; the breaft
and belly white, croffed elegantly with undulated lines
of black. The tail confifts of ten feathers of unequal
lengths; the two middle tail-feathers are black tipped
with white; the others-are marked with white fpots
on each fide their {hafts. The legs are fhort; and the
toes difpofed two backwards and two forwards, like
thofe of the wood-pecker, though it is never obferved
to run up the fides of trees. The female differs in
fome refpedts. The neck before and behind isi of a
brownifli-red; the tail barred with the fame colour
and black, and fpotted on each fide the fliaft with
white. The young birds are brown mixed with black,
and in that ftate have been deferibed by fome authors
as old ones.
This bird appears in our country early In the fpring,
and makes the fliorteft flay with us of any bird of paf-
fage. It is compelled here, as Mr Stilingfleet obferves,
by that conflitution of the air which caufes the fig-
tree put forth its fruit: though it has been fuppofed
that fome of thefe birds do not quit this ifland during
the wunter; but that they feek fhelter in hollow trees
and lie torpid, unlefs animated by unufually warm
weather. Mr Pennant gives two inftances of their
being heard in February; one in 1771, in the end of
that month ; the other in 1769, on the 4th day ; but
after that they were heard no more, being probably
chilled again into torpidity. There is a remarkable
coincidence between the fong of thefe birds and the
mackarels continuing in full roe ; that is, from about
the middle of April to the latter end of June. The
cuckow is filent for fome time after his arrival; his
note is a call to love, and ufed only by the male, who
fits perched generally on fome dead tree or bare bough,
and repeats his fong, which he lofes as foon as the
amorous feafon is over. His note is fo uniform, that
his name in all languages feems to have been derived
from it; and in all countries it is ufed in the fame re¬
proachful fenfe :
The plain.fong cuclovo grey,
Whole note full n:any a man doth mark,
And dares not anfwer nay.. Shaicfpeart.
The reproach feems to arife from the cuckow’s ma¬
king ufe of the bed or nfeft of another to depofite its
eggs in, leaving the care of its young to an improper
* ' parent;
CUC [ 591 ] cue
Cucuhis. parent; but Juvenal with more juftice gives the infa- demolilhed ; but all are left to perilh together, either Cutulw.
u-’-v—' my to the bird in whofe neft the fuppofititious eggs entangled ..about the bulh which contains the neft, or v—'
were laid : tying on tbe ground under it.
Tk tibi nunc CO TUca places
On the natural hiftory of this fingular bird, we have
a very curious paper by Mr Jenner, publilhed in the
t PartII. Philofophical Tranfa&ions for tySSf. The hrft ap¬
art. 14. pearance of cuckows in this country, as already ob-
ferved, is about the middle of April; (the 17th, ac¬
cording to Mr Jenner, whofe obfervations were made
in Gloucefterfhire). The fong of the male, which is
well known, foon proclaims its arrival. i’he fong of
the female (if the peculiar notes of which it is com-
pofed may be fo called) is widely different, and Uas
been fo little attended to, that perhaps few are ac¬
quainted with it: the cry of the dab-chick bears fome
refemblance to it.
Unlike the generality of birds, cuckows do not pair.
When a female appears on the wing, fhe is often at¬
tended by two or three males, who feetn to be earneft-
ly contending for her favours. From the time of her
appearance till after the middle of furamer the nells of
the birds felected to receive her egg are to be found
in great abundance ; but, like the other migrating
birds, (he does not begin to lay till fome weeks after
her arrival.
It is on all hands allowed, that the cuckow does not
hatch its own eggs; for which different reafons have
been given, as will be afterwards noticed. The hedge-
fparrow, the water-wagtail, the titlark, the red-
breaft. the yellow hammer, the green linnet, or the
whinebat, is generally the nurfe of the young cuckow:
but Buffon enumerates 2.0 forts of nefts at leaft in
which they have depolited their eggs. It may be fup-
pofed, that the female cuckow lays her egg in. the
abfence of the bird in whofe neft fhe intends to de-
pofite; as it has been known, that on fight of one
of thefe a redbreaft and its mate jointly attacked her
on approaching the neft, putting her to flightand fo
effectually drove her away, that fhe did not dare to
return. Among the birds above mentioned, it gene¬
rally, according to Mr Jenner’s obfervations, feleCLs
the three firft, but fhows a much greater partiality to
the hedge fparrow. This laft commonly takes up four
or five days in laying her eggs. During this time
(generally after fhe has laid one or two), the cuckow
contrives to depofite her egg among the reft, leaving
the future care of it entirely to the hedge-fparrow.
This intrufion often occasions fome difeompofure; for
the old hedge-fparrow at. intervals, whilft fhe is fitting,
not unfrequently throws out fome of her own eggs,
and fometimes injures them in fuch a way that they
become addle ; fo that it more frequently happens that
Only two or three hedge-fparrows eggs are hatched
with the cuckow’s than otherwife. But whether this
be the cafe or not, Ihe fits the fame length of time
as if no foreign egg had been introduced, the cuckow’s
egg requiring no longer incubation than her own.
When the hedge-fparrow has fat her ufual time,
and difengaged the young cuckow and fome of her:
•The own offspring from the fhell*, her own young ones,
young cue and any of her eggs that remain unhatched, are foon
^*1\scom'turned out, the young Cuckow remaining pofleffor of
hatched t^ie nt^» anc* f°‘e objeft of her future care. The
firft. young birds are not previoufly killed, nor are the eggs
“ The early fate of the young hedge-fparrows (Mr
Jenner obferves) is a circumftance that has been noti¬
ced by others, but attributed to wrong caufes. A
variety of conjeftures have been formed upon it. Some
have fuppofed the parent cuckow the author of their
deftruCtion ; while others, as erroneoufly, have' pro¬
nounced them fmothered by the difproportionate fize of
their fellow-neftling. Now the cuckow’s egg being
not much larger than the hedge-fpar ow’s (as I {hall
more fully point out hereafter), it ntceffarily follows,
that at firft there can be no great difference in the fize
of the birds juft bunt from the fhell. Of the fallacy
of the former affertion alfo I was fome years ago con-
viiiced, by having found that many cuckows eggs
were hatched in the nefts of other birds after the old
cuckow had dilappeared, and by feeing the fame fate
then attend the neftling fparrows as during the appear¬
ance of old cuckows in this country. But before I
proceed to the facts relating to the death of the young
fparrows, it will be proper to lay before you fome ex¬
amples of the incubation of the egg, and the rearing
of the young cuckow; fince even the well-known fadt,
that this bufinefs is intrufted to the care of other birds,
has been controverted by an author who has lately
written on this fubjedl f ; and fince, as it is a fadl fof-TheHon.
much out of the ordinary courfe of nature, it may ftillT.. :es
probably be difbelieved by others. Barrington,
“ Example 1. The titlark is frequently feledled by
the cuckow to take charge of its young one ; but as it
is a bird lefs familiar than many that I have mentioned,
its neft is not fo often difeovered. I have, neverthe-
lefs, htfd feveral cuckows eggs brought to me that
were found in titlarks nefts, and had one opportunity
of feeing the young cuckow in the neft of this bird.
I faw the old birds feed it repeatedly ; and, to fatisfy
myfelf that they were really titlarks, flrot them both,
and found.them to be fo
“ Example 2 A cuckow laid her egg in a water-
wagtail’s ndt in the thatch of an old cottage. The
wagtail fat her ufual time, and then hatched all the eggs
butane; which, with all the young ones except the
cuckow, was turned out of the neft. The young
birds, confifting of five, were found upon the rafter that
projedted from under the thatch, and with them was the
egg not in the leaft injured. On examining the egg,,
I found the young wagtail it contained quite perfedt,
and juft in fuch a ftate as birds are when ready to be
dilengaged. from the fhell. The cuckow was reared
by the wagtails till it was nearly capable of flying,
when it wms killed by an accident.
“ Example 3. A hedge-fparrow built her neft in a
hawthorn bufh in a timber-yard. After fhe had laid
two eggs, a cuckow dropped in a third. The fparrow
continued laying as if nothing had happened,, till fhe
had laid five, her ufual number, and then fat.
^ “ June 20. 1786. On infpedting the neft, I found,
that the bird had hatched this morning, and that every
thing but the young cuckow was thrown out. Under
the neft Ifound one of the young hedge-fparrows dead,
and one egg by the fide of the neft entangled with the
coarfe woody materials that formed its outfide cover¬
ing. On examining the egg, I found one end of the
4, Ihell:
CUC [ 592 ] cue
Cuculss {hell a little cracked, and could fee that the fparrow
-*"■ v it contained was yet alive. It was then reft, .ed to
the neft, but in a few minutes was thrown out. The
egg being again fuipended by the outfide of the neft,
was faved a fecond time from breaking. To fee what
would happen if the cuckow was removed, I took out
the cuckow, and placed the egg containing the hedge-
fparrow in the neft in its ftead. The old birds, du¬
ring this time, flew about the fpot, {bowing figns of
great anxiety; but when I withdrew, they quickly
came to the neft again. On looking into it in a quar¬
ter of an hour afterwards, I found the young one com¬
pletely hatched, warm, and lively. The hedge-fpar-
rows were fuffered to remain undifturbed with their
new charge for three hours (during which time they
paid every attention to it), when the cuckow was
again put into the neft. The old fparrows had been
fo much difturbed by thefe intrufions, that for fome
time they {bowed an unwillingnefs to come to it.
However, at length they came; and on examining the
neft again in a few minutes, I found the young fpar¬
row was tumbled out. It was a fecond time reftored,
but again experienced the fame fate.
“ From thefe experiments, and fuppofing, from the
feeble appearance of the young cuckow juft difengaged
from the ftiell, that it was utterly incapable of difpla-
cing either the egg or the young fparrows, I was in¬
duced to believe that the old fparrows were the only
agents in this feeming unnatural bufinefs. But I af¬
terwards clearly perceived the caufe of this ftrange
phenomenon, by difeovering the young cuckow in the
aft of difplacing its fellow-neftlings, as the following
relation will fully evince.
“ June 18. 1787, I examined the neft of a hedge-
fparrow, which then contained a cuckow’s and three
, hedge-fparrow’s eggs. On infpefting it the day fol¬
lowing, I found the bird had hatched, but that the
neft now contained only a young cuckow and one
young hedge-fparrow. The neft was placed fo near the
extremity of a hedge, that I could diftinftly fee what
was going forward in it; and, to my aftonifhment,
faw the young cuckow, though fo newly hatched, in
the aft of turning out the young hedge-fparrow.
“ The mode of accompliihing this was very curious.
The little animal, with the afliftance of its rump and
wings, contrived to get the bird upon its back ; and
making a lodgement for the burden by elevating its
elbows, clambered backward with it up the fide of the
neft till it'reached the top; where refting for a mo¬
ment, it threw off jits load with a jerk, and quite dif-
engaged it from the neft. It remained in this fitua-
tion a (hort time, feeling abeut with the extremities of
its wings, as if to be convinced whether the bufinefs
was properly executed, and then dropped into the
neft again. With thefe (the extremities of its wings)
I have often feen it examine, as it were, an egg and
neftling before it began its operations ; and the nice
fenfibility which thefe parts appeared to pofiefs, feemed
fufficiently to compenfate the want of fight, which as
yet it was deftitute of. I afterwards put in an egg ;
and this, by a iimilar procefs, w'as conveyed to the
edge of the neft and thrown out. Thefe experiments
I have fince repeated feveral times in different nefts,
and have always fouftd the young cuckow difpofed to
aft in the fame manner. In climbing up the neft, it
95-
fometimes drops its burden, and thus is foiled in its Cncnlut.
ndeavours; but, after a little refpite, the work is re- ’r~~*
lumed, and goes on almoft inceffantly till it is effefted-.
It is wonderful to fee the extraordinary exertions of
the young cuckow, when it is two or three days old,
if a bird be put into the neft with it that is too weigh¬
ty for it to lift out. In this ftate it feems ever reftlefs
and uneafy. But this difpofition for turning out its
companions begins to decline from the time it is two
or three till it is about twelve days old ; when, as far
as I have hitherto feen, it ceafes. Indeed, the difpo-
fition for throwing out the egg appears to ceafe a few
days fooner; for I have frequently feen the young
cuckow, after it had been hatched nine or ten days,
remove a neftling that had been placed in the neft
with it, when it fuffered an egg, put there at the fame
time, to remain unmolefted. The Angularity of its
ftrape is well adapted to thefe purpofes ; for, different
from other newly-hatched birds, its back, from the
fcapulse downwards, is very broad, with a confiderable
depreflion in the middle. This depreffion feems form¬
ed by nature for the defign of giving a more fecure
lodgement to the egg of the hedge-fparrow or its young
one when the young cuckow is employed in removing
either of them from the neft. When it is about 12
days old, this cavity is quite filled up, and then the
back affumes the ftiape of neftling birds in general.
“ Having found that the old hedge-fparrow esm-
monly throws out fome of her own eggs after her neft
has received the cuckow’s, and not knowing how file
might treat her young ones if the young cuckow was
deprived of the power of difpoffefiing them of the neft,
I made the following experiment.
“ July 9. A young cuckow, that had been hatched
by a hedge-fparrow about four hours, was confined in
the neft in fuch a manner that it could not poffibly
turn out the young hedge-fparrows which were hatch-'
ed at the fame time, though it was almoft inceffantly
making attempts to effedl it. The confequence was,
the old birds fed the whole alike, and appeared in
every refpeft to pay the fame attention to their own
young as to the young cuckow, until the 13 th, when
the neft was unfortunately plundered.
“ The fmallnefs of the cuckow’s egg, in proportion
to the fize of the bird, is a circumftance that hitherto,
I believe, has efcaped the notice of the ornithologift.
So great is the difproportion, that it is in general
fmaller than that of the houfe-fparrow; whereas the
difference in the fize of the birds is nearly as five to
, one. I have ufed the term in general, becaufe eggs
produced at different, times by the fame bird vary very
much in fize. I have found a cuckow’s egg fo light
that it weighed only 43 grains, and one fo heavy that
it weighed 55 grains. The colour of the cuckow’s
eggs- is extremely variable. Some, both in ground
and penciling, very much refemble the houfe-fparrow’s;
fome are indiftinftly covered with bran-coloured fpots;
and others are marked with lines of black, refembling,
in fome meafure, the eggs of the yellow' hammer.
“The circumftance of. the young cuckow’s being
deftined by nature to throvy out the young hedge-
fparrows, feems to account for the parent cuckow’s
dropping her egg in the nefts of birds fo fmall as thofe
I have particularifed. If {he were to do this in the
neft; of a bird which produced a large egg, and confe-
quently.
cue
Cactilus, quently a large neftling, the young cuckow would
i— . ■ v—■ ' probably find an infuttnountable difficulty in folely
poffeffing the neft, as its exertions would be unequal
to the labour of turning out the young birds. Befides,
though many of the larger birds might have fed the
neftling cuckow very properly had it been committed
to their charge, yet they could not have fuffered their
own young to have been facrificed for the accommoda¬
tion of the cuckow in fuch great number as the fmaller
ones, which are fo much more abundant; for though
it would be a vain attempt to calculate the numbers of
[ 593 1
CUC
not confidered that many of the birds which incubate Caculns.
have ftomachs analogous to thofe of cuckows. The v "
ftomach of the owl, for example, is proportionably
capacious, and is almoft as thinly covered with exte-r-
nal integuments. Nor have they confidered, that the
ftomachs of neftlings are always much diftended with
food ; and that this very part, during the whole time
of their confinement to the neft, fupports in a great
degree the weight of the whole body : whereas, in a
fitting bird, it is not nearly fo much prefled upon, for
the breaft in that cafe fills up chiefly the cavity of the
neftlings deftroyed by means of the cuckow, yet the neft ; for which purpofe, from its natural convexity, it
flighteft obfervation would be fufficient to convince us is admirably well fitted.
that they muft be very large.”
Here Mr Jenner remarks, that though nature per¬
mits the young cuckow to make this great wafte, yet
the animals thus deftroyed are not thrown away c
rendered ufelefs. At the feafon when this happens,
great numbers of tender quadrupeds and reptiles are
feeking provifion ; and if they find the callow neftlings
which have fallen vi&ims to the young cuckow, they
are furnifhed with food well adapted to their peculiar
ftate.
It appears a little extraordinary, that two cuckows
eggs fhould ever be depofited in the fame neft, as the
young one produced from one of them muft inevitably
perifti; yet two inftances of this kind fell under our
Thefe obfervations may be fufficient to (how, that
the cuckow is not rendered incapable of fitting through
any peculiarity either in the fituation or formation of
the ftomach4; yet, as a proof ftill more decifive, our
obferver adduces the following fa£t.
“ In the fummer of the year 1786, I faw, in the
neft of a hedge-fparrow, a cuckow, which, from its
fize and plumage, appeared to be nearly a fortnight
old. On lifting it up in the neft, I obferved two
hedge-fparrows eggs under it. At firft I fuppofed
them part of the number which had been fat upon by
the hedge-fparrow with the cuckow’s egg, and that
they had become addle, as birds frequently fuffer fuch
eggs to remain in their nefts with their young; but on
author’s obfervation, one of which he thus relates: breaking one of them I found it,contained a living
“ June 27. 1787. Two cuckows and a hedge-fparrow foetus: fo that of courfe thefe eggs muft have been
were hatched in the fame neft this morning ; one hedge- laid feveral days after the cuckow was hatched; as the
fparrow’s egg remained unhatched. In a few hours latter now completely filled up the neft, and was by
after, a conteft began between the cuckows for the this peculiar incident performing the part of a fitting-
pofleffion of the neft, which continued undetermined bird. At this time I was unacquainted with the fact,
till the next afternoon, when one of them' which was that the young cuckow turned out the eggs of the
fomewhat fuperior in lize, turned out the other, toge- hedge-fparrow ; but it is reafonable to conclude, that
ther with the young hedge-fparrow and the unhatched it had loft the difpofition for doing this when thefc
egg. This conteft was very remarkable. The com¬
batants alternately appeared to have the advantage, as
each carried the other feveral times nearly to the top
of the neft, and then funk down again, opprefled by
the weight of its burden ; till at length, after various
efforts, the ftrongeft prevailed, and was afterwards
brought up by the hedge-fparrows.” ^ ^
But the principal circumftance that has agitated the
mind of the naturalift refpe&ing the cuckow is, Why,
like other birds, it fhould not build a neft, incubate
its eggs, and rear its own young?
There is no apparent reafon, Mr Jenner thinks, why
this bird, in common with others, fhould not perform
all thefe feveral offices; for it is in every- refpedf per-
feftly formed for colle&ing materials ^nd building a
Be ft. Neither its external fhape nor infernal ftru&ure
prevent it from incubation ; nor is it by any means
incapacitated from bringing food to its young. ,1*
eggs were depofited in the neft.
“ Having under my infpeftion, in another hedge-
fparrow’s neft, a young cuckow about the fame fize as
the former, I procured two wagtails eggs which had
been fat upon a few days, and had them immediately
conveyed to the fpot, and placed under the cuckow.
On the ninth day after the egg* had been in this fitu¬
ation,'the perfon appointed to fuperintend the neft
(as it was fome dillance from the place of my refi-
dence) came to inform me that the wagtails were
hatched. On going to the place, and examining the
neft, I found nothing in it but the cuckow and the
fhells of the wagtail’s eggs. The |fa£t, therefore, of
the birds being hatched, I do not give you as coming
immediately under my own eye ; but the teftiiqony of
the perfon appointed to watch the neft was corrobo¬
rated by that of another witnefs.”
In confidering to what caufes may be attributed the
would be needlefs to enumerate the various opinions fingularities of the cuckow, Mr Jenner fuggefts the
of authors on this fubjedf from Ariftotle to the prefent following as the moft probable : “ The Jhort refidenct
time. Thofe of the ancients appear to be either vi- this bird is allowed to make in the country where it is dt-
fionary or erroneous; and the attempts of the moderns Jlined to propagate its fpecies; and the call that nature has
towards its inveftigation have been confined within upon it, during that Jhort rejidence, to produce a numerous
very narrow- limits : for they have gone but little fur- progenyl The cuckow’s firft; appearance here is about
ther in. their refearches than to examine the conftitm
tion and ftru&ure of the bird ; and having found it
poffeffed of a capacious ftomach with a thin external
covering, concluded that the preffure upon this part,
in a fitting pofture, prevented incubation. They have
Vou. V. Part II.
the middle of April, commonly on the 17th. Its
egg is not ready for incubation till fome weeks after
its arrival, feldom before the middle of May. A fort¬
night is taken up by the fitting-birddn hatching the
egg. The young bird generally continues three weeks
4 F iu
, C. u c f 594 1 . CUC
in the nell before it flies, and the fofter-parents feed time during the feafon appointed for them to lay; but Cuculai,
it more than five weeks after this period ; id that if a the cuckow, not being fubjeft to the common inter-
cuckow ftiould be ready with an egg much fooner than, ruptions, goes on laying from the time ihe begins till
the time pointed out, not a Angle nedling, even one the eve of her departure from this countiy : for al-
of the earlieft, would be fit to provide for itfelf before though old cuckows in general take their leave the firlt
its parent would be inftindtively direfted to feek a new week in July (and I never could fee one after the cth-
refidence, and be thus compelled to abandon its young day of that month, though I conceive it poffible thjit
one; for old cuckows take their final leave of this here and there a itraggling cuckow may be feen after
country the firft week in July. this time) ; yet I have known an inftance of an egg’s
“ Had nature allowed the cuckow to have ftaid here being hatched in the neft of an hedge-fparrow fo late
as long as feme other migrating birds, which produce as the 15th. And a farther proof of their continuing'
a Angle fet of young ones (as the fwift or nightingale, to lay till the time of their leaving us may, I think be
for example), and had allowed her to have reared as fairly deduced from the appearances on diffeftion of
large a number as any bird is capable, of bringing up the female cuckow above mentioned, killed on the
’ ' • ■ ' " " ' of July.” 6
i Among the many peculiarities of the young cuckow,
’x.e is one that /hows itfelf very early. Loug before
it leaves the neft, it frequently, when irritated, af-
fumes the manner of a bird of prey, looks ferocious,
fpended. Of this we have a familiar example in the throws itfelf back, and pecks at any thing prefented
common domcftic fowl. That the cuckow actually to it with great vehemence, often at the fame time
lays a great number of eggs, difte&ion feems to prove making a chuckling noife like a young hawk. Hence
very decifively. Upon a comparifon I had an oppor- probably the vulgar opinion, that this bird changes
tunity of making between the ovarium, or racemus vi- into a hawk and devours its nurfe on quitting its neft •
trllorum, of a female cuckow, killed juft as file had whence the French proverb, Ingrat comme un couoou.
begqn to lay, and of a pullet killed^ in the fame ftate. Sometimes, when difturbed in a fmaller degree, it
at one time, thefe might not have been fufficient to
have anfwered her purpofe ; but by fending the cuc¬
kow from one Heft to another, file is reduced to the
fame ftate as the bird whofe neft we daily rob of an.
egg, in which cafe the ftimulus for incubatioa is fu-
3 effential difference appeared. The uterus of each
contained an egg perfe&ly formed, and ready for ex-
elulion ; and the ovarium exhibited a large clufter of
eggs, gradually advanced from a very diminutive fize
makes a kind of hilling noife, accompanied with a hea¬
ving motion of the whole body.
The growth of the young cuckow is uncommonly-
rapid. Its chirp is plaintiff, like that of the hedge-
to the great eft the yolk acquires before it is received fparrow ; but the found is not acquired from the fo-
iinto the ovidueft. The appearance of one killed on the fter-parent, as it is the fame whether it be reared by-
third of July was very different. In this I could di- the hedge-fparrow or any other bird. It never acquires
ftimftly trace a great number of the membranes which the adult note during its ftay in this country.
had difeharged yolks into the ovidutt; and one of
them appeared as if it had parted with a yolk the pre-
. ceding day. The ovarium ftill exhibited a clufter of
enlarged eggs, but the moft forward of them was fcarce-
ly larger than a muftard-feed.
The ftomachs of young cuckows contain a great va¬
riety of food. On diffeding one that was brought
up by wagtails, and fed by them at the time it
was Ihot (though it was nearly of the fize and ful-
nefs of plumage of the parent-bird), Mr Jenner found
‘ I would not be underftood to advance, that every in its ftomach the following fubftances: Flies and
egg which fwells in the ovarium at the approach or beetles of various kinds; fmall fnails with their fhdls
commencement of the propagating feafon is brought unbroken ; gralhoppers 5 caterpillars ; part of a horfe-
to perfection ; but it appears clearly, that a bird, in bean ; a vegetable fubftance, refembling bits of tough
obedience to the di&ates of her own will, or to fome grafs, rolled into a ball; and the feeds of a vegetable
hidden caufe in the animal economy, can either retard that refembled thofe of the goofe-grafs. In the flo¬
or bring forward her eggs. Belides the example of mach of one fed by hedge-fparrows, the contents were
the common fowl above alluded to, many others oc- ahnoft entirely vegetable; fuch as wheat, fmall vetches.
cur. If we deftroy the neft. of a blackbird, a robin,
or almoft any fmall bird, in the fpring, when fhe has
laid her ufual number of eggs, it is well known to
&c. “ But this (fays our author) was the only in¬
ftance of the kind I had ever feen, as thefe birds in
general feed the young cuckow with fcarcely any thing
every one who has paid any attention to inquiries of but animal food However, it ferved to clear up a
this kind, in how fhort a fpace of time fine will produce point which before had fomewhat puzzled me; for
a frefh fet. Now, had the bird been fuffered to have having found the cuckow’s egg in the neft of a green
proceeded without interruption in her natural courfe, linnet, which begins very early to feed its young with
the eggs would have been hatched, and the young vegetable food, 1 was apprehenfive, till I faw this faft,.
ones brought to a ftate capable of providing for them- that this bird would have been an unfit fofter-parent
felves, before ftie would have been induced to make for the young cuckow.
another neft, and excited to produce another fet of “• The titlark, I observe, feeds, it principally with'
eggs from the ovarium. If the bird had been deftroy- graihoppers.
ed at the time (he was fitting on her firft laying of “ But the moft Angular fubftance, fo often met-
eggs, diffeftion would have ftiown the ovarium con- with in the ftomachs of young cuckows, is a ball of
taining a great number in an enlarged ftate, and ad- hair curioufly wound up. I have found it of various:
vancing in the ufoal progreffive order. Hence it fizes, from that of a pea to that of a fmall nutmeg. It
plainly appears, that birds can keep back or bring feems to be compofed chiefly of horfe hairs; and from
forward (under certain limitations) their eggs at any the refemblance it bears to the infide covering of the
5 neft,
cue
Beft, I conceive the bird fwallows it while a neftling.
In the ftomachs of old cuckows are often feen mafi'es
of hair; but thefe had evidently once formed a part
of the hairy caterpillar, which the cuckow often takes
for its food.”
There feems to be no precife time fixed for the de¬
parture of young cuckows. Mr Jenner believes they
go off in fucceffion, probably as foon as they are ca¬
pable of taking care of themfelves ; for although they
iiay here till they become nearly eqhal in fize and
growth of plumage to the old cuckow, yet in this very
ftate the foftering care of the hedge-fparrow is not
withdrawn from them. “ I have frequently (fays he)
feen the young cuckow of fuch a fize that the hedge-
fparrow has perched on its back, or half-expanded
wing, in order to gain fufficient elevation to put the
food into its mouth. At this advanced ftage, I be¬
lieve that young cuckows procure fome food for them¬
felves ; like the young rook, for inftance, which in
part feeds itfelf, and is partly fed by the old ones, till
the approach of the pairing feafon. If they did not
go off in fucceffion, it is probable we ffiould fee them
in large numbers by the middle of Auguft ; for as
they are to be found in great plenty when in a neftling
ftate, they muft now appear very numerous, fince all
of them muft have quitted the neft before this time.
But this is not the cafe} for they are not more nume¬
rous at any feafon than the parent-birds are in the
months of May and June.
“ The fame inftinfctive impulfe which direcls the
cuckow to depofite her eggs in the nefts of other birds,
dire&s her young, one to throw out the eggs and young
of the owner of the neft. The fcheme of nature would
be incomplete without it; for it would be extremely
difficult, if not impoffible, for the little birds deftined
to find fuccour for the cuckow, to find it alfo for their
own young ones after a certain period; nor would
there be room for the whole to inhabit the neft.”
It is fuppofed, that there are more male cnckows
than females; fince two are often feen in difpute where
a third has been in fight; which, no doubt, was of the
oppofite fex. Mr Pennant obferved, that five male
birds w'ere caught ia a trap in one feafon; and Mr La¬
tham fays, that “ out of at leail half a dozen that I
have attended to, my chance has never directed me to
a female; and it is to be vvilhed, that future obfer-
vers may determine whether our obfervations have rife
only in chance, or are founded on the general circum-
ftance.” He believes that the male birds are more
liable to be ftiot, their note dire&ing the gunner where
to take aim, while the female is fecured by her filence.
Cuckows may be, and often are, brought up tame,
fo as to become familiar. They will eat in this ftate
bread and milk, fruits, infects, eggs, and fldh either
cooked or raw; but in a ftate of nature, I believe,
chiefly live on caterpillars; which, in the few I have
obferved, were all of the fmooth kind; others have
found vegetable matter, beetles, and fmall ftones.
. When fat, they are faid to be as good eating as a
land rail. The French and Italians eat them to this
day. The ancient Romans admired them greatly as
food : Pliny fays that there is no bird which can be
compared to them for delicacy.
In migrating, the major part of thefe birds are fup¬
pofed to go into Africa, fince they are obferved to vilit
cue
the ifland of Malta twice in a year, in their paflage Cocoliis.
backwards and forwards, as is fuppofed, to that part
of the world. They are well known alfo at Aleppo.
To the north, it is faid to be common in Sweden ;
but not to appear fo early by a month as with us.
Ruffia is not deftitute of this bird ; and Mr Latham
has feen a fpecimen brought from Kamtfchatka, now
in the poffeffion of Sir Jofeph Banks.
2. The Americanus, or cuckow of Carolina. It i«
about the fize of a blackbird, the upper mandible of
the bill black, the lower yellow ; the large wing-fea¬
thers are reddilh; the reft of the wing, and all the up¬
per part of the body, head and neck, is of an a(h-co-
lour ; all the under part of the body, from the bill to
the tail, white ; the tail long and narrow, compofed
of fix long and four fhorter feathers ; their legs Ihort
and ftrong. Their note is very different from the cuc¬
kow of this country, and not fo remarkable to be taken
notice of. It is a folitary bird, frequenting the dark-
eft receffes of woods and fhady thickets. They re¬
tire on the approach of winter.
3. The indicator, or honey-guide, is a native of A- Plate
frica. The following defeription is given of it by Dr CLIV.
Sparrman in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for 1777.
“ This curious fpecies of cuckow is found at a confider-
able diftance from the Cape of Good Hope, in the in¬
terior parts of Africa, being entirely unknown at that
fettlement. The firft place I heard of it was in a wood
called the Groot-vaader's Bofch, “ the Grand-father’*
Wood,” fituated in a defert near the river wLich the
Hottentots call T’kaut’&ai. The Dutch fettlers there¬
abouts have given this bird the name of honiguyter,
or “ honey-guide,” from its quality of difeovering
wild honey to travellers. Its colour has nothing lin¬
king or beautiful. Its fize is confiderably fmaller than
that of our cuckow in Europe : but in return, the in-
ftin6l w'hich prompts it to feck its food in a Angular
manner is truly admirable. Not only the Dutch and
Hottentots, but likewufe a fpecies of quadruped named
ratel (probably a new fpecies of badger), are fre¬
quently conducted to wild bee-hives by this bird,
which, as it w'eie, pilots them to the very' fpot. The
honey being its favourite food, its own intereft prompts
it to be inftrumental in robbing the hive, as fome
Lraps are commonly left for its fupport. The morn¬
ing and evening are its time# of feeding, and it is
then heard calling in a fhrill tone, cherr, cberr; wdiich
the honey-hunters carefully attend to as the fummons
to the chace. From time to time they anfwer with a
foft whiftle ; which the bird hearing, always conti¬
nues its note. As foon as they are in fight of each
other, the bird gradually flutters toward the place
where the hive is fituated, continually repeating its
former call of cherr, cherr: nay, if it fhould happen
to have gained a confiderable way before the men (who
may eaiily be hindered in the purfuit by bulhes, rivers,
or the like), it returns to them again, and redoubles
its note, as it were to reproach them with their inac¬
tivity. At laft the bird is obferved to hover for a few
moments over a certain fpot, and then filently retiring
to a neighbouring buffi or refting-place, the hunters
are fure of finding the bees neft in that identical fpat;
whether it be in a tree or in the crevice of a rock, or
(as is moft commonly the cafe) in the earth. Whilil
the hunters are bufy in taking the honey, the bird is
4 F z feen
f 595 1
cue [ 596 ] cue
Cuculu*. feen looking on attentively to what is going forward,
v" ' ^ and waiting for its fhare of the fpoil. The bee-hun¬
ters never fail to leave a fmall portion for their cen-
dudtor 5 but commonly take care not to leave fo much
as would fatisfy its hunger. The bird’s appetite be¬
ing whetted by this parfimony, it is obliged to commit
a fecond treafon, by difeovering another bee’s neft, in
hopes of a better falary. It is further obferved, that
the nearer the bird approaches the hidden hive, the
more frequently it repeats its call, and teems the more
impatient. I have had frequent opportunities of fee¬
ing this bird, and have been witneis to the deftru£tion
of feveral republics of bees by means of its treachery.
I had, however, but two opportunities of flioqting it,
which I did to the great indignation of my Hotten¬
tots. It is abput feven inches in length, and is of a
rufty brown colour on the back, with a white breaft
and belly.” A nell which was fliown to Dr Sparrman
for that of this bird, was compofed of flender filaments
of bark, tvoven together in the form of a bottle ; the
neck and opening hung downwards, and a ftring, in
an arched fhape, was fufpended acrofs the opening faf-
tened by the two ends, perhaps for the bird to perch on.
4. The Cape cuckow {Buff.), is a trifle fmallerthan
ours: the bill a deep brown ; the upper part of the
body greenifh brown : throat, cheeks, fore part of the
neck, and upper wing coverts, of a deep rufous co¬
lour : tail feathers rufous, but paler, tipped with
white: the breaft, and all the under parts of the body,
white, croffed with lines of black: the legs reddifh
brown. It inhabits the Cape of Good Hope ; and is
moft likely the fame bird which is called Edolio, from
its pronouncing that word frequently in a low melan¬
choly tone.—Voyagers alfo mention another cuckow,
which is common to Loango in Africa. It is bigger
than ours, but of the fame colour ; and repeats the
word cuckow like that bird, but in different inflexion
of voice. It is faid that the male and female toge¬
ther go through the whole eight notes of the gamut;
the male, beginning by itfelf, founds the three firlt,
after which he is accompanied by the female through
the reft of the oftave.
5. The honoratus, or facred cuckow, is fomewhat
lefs than our cuckow : the general colour is blackifh
afh on the upper parts, marked with two fpots of
white on each feather; beneath white, tranfverfely
fpotted with alh-colour: the quills are cinereous, tranf¬
verfely fpotted with white : the tail is much cuneated,
five inches and a half long, and of the fame colour as
the quills ; the outer feather only three inches long:
the legs and claws are of a pale afh-colour. This fpe-
cies inhabits Malabar, where the natives hold it fa¬
cred. It feeds on reptiles, which, perhaps, may be
fuch as are the moft noxious ; if fo, this feeming fu-
perftition may have rife from a more reafonable foun¬
dation than many others of the like. fort.
6. The fhining cuckow is the fize of a fmall thrufli:
the bill is bluifli: the upper part of the body green,
with a rich gilded glofs; the under parts are white,
tranfverfely waved with green gold: the under tail
coverts almoft white; the quills and tail dulky-brown;
the legs are bluilh. Thifr inhabits New Zealand,, where
it is called Poopo-aro<wro. See Plate CLI.
7. The vetula is a trifle bigger than a blackbird:
the bill above an inch and a half long: the upper
2.
mandible black ; the lower whitilh: crown of the head Cueulus.'
brown, the feathers of it foft and filky : the upper 1 v—J
parts of the body and the quills cinereous olive :
throat and fore part of the neck whitifh; the reft of
the under parts rufous: the tail is much cuneated;
the two middle feathers cinereous olive, the others
dufky black tipped with white; the outer feather very
fliort: legs blue-black. This fpecies inhabits Ja¬
maica,- where it is frequent in the woods and hedges
all the year round. It feeds on feeds, fmall worms,
and caterpillars, and is very tame. This bird has the
name tacco from its cry, which is like that word ; the
firft fyllable of this is pronounced hardly, the other
followingdn a full o<ftave lower than the firft. It has
alfo another cry like qua, qua, qua; but that only when
alarmed by an enemy. B.efides infers, it will alfb eat
lizards, fmall fnakes, frogs, young rats, and fometimes
even fmall birds. The fnakes they fwallow head for-
moft, letting the tail hang out of the mouth till the
fore-parts are digefted. This bird, it is mott likely,
might be eafily tamed, as it is fo gentle as to fuller
the negro children to catch it with their hands. Its
gait is that of leaping, like a magpie ; being frequent¬
ly feen on the ground ; and its flight but Ihort, chiefly
from bulh to bufh. At the time when other birds
breed, they likewife retire into the woods, but their
nefts have never yet been found ; from which one
ftiould be inclined to. think, that they were indebted
to other birds for the rearing their young in the man¬
ner of the common cuckow. It has the name of rain-
bird^ as it is faid to make the greateft noife before
rain. Common all the year at Jamaica. In another
fpecies or variety, common in Jamaica, the feathers
on the throat appear like a downy beard, whence pro¬
bably the name of old-man rain-bird, given it there
and by Ray, Sloane, &c.
8. The nsevius, fpotted cuckow, or rail-bird, is a-
bout the fize of a fieldfare : the bill three quarters of
an inch; the upper mandible black on the top, and
rufous on the lides; the under wholly rufous: the ge¬
neral colour of the plumage is rufous in two fhades $
the under parts rufous white: the feathers on the crowa
are of a deep brown, and pretty long, with rufous
tips, and fome of them margined with rufous: the
hind part of the neck is a rufous grey ; down the
fliafts deep brown: back and rump the fame; each,
feather tipped with a rufous fpot: on each feather of
the throat and neck is a tranfverfe brownilh line near
the end : the under tail coverts are rufous : the quills
are grey brown, edged with rufous, and a fpot of the
fame at the tips : the tail is near fix inches long, much
cuneated; the outer feathers only half the length of the
middle ones; colour of it the fame as the quills; fome
of the upper coverts reach to near two-thirds of the
length of the tail: the legs are alh-colour ; the claws
greyifti brown. It inhabits Cayenne.—Buffon men¬
tions a variety of this by the name of rail-bird. It is
much the fame in fize, but has lefs rufous, being grey
in the place of that colour : the fide tail-feathers have
white tips : the throat is pale grey; under the body
white; the tail a trifle longer than in the other.
Whether a variety or different fex, is not known. This
is common at Cayenne and Guiana ; and is feen often
perched upon gates and rails, whence its name; and*
when in this fituation continually moves its tail. There
are
CUC [ 597 1 cue
Cucumber, are not very wild birds, yet do not form themfelves
Cucumis. jnt0 tr00pgj although numbers are often found in the
S v fame diftrift : nor do they, frequent the thick woods
like many of the genus^
9. The cayanus, or Cayenne cuckow, is the fize of
a blackbird : the bill is grey brown, above an inch
long, and a little bent at the tip : the plumage on the
upper parts of the body is purplifh chefnut; beneath,
the fame, but paler : the quills are the fame as the
upper parts, tipped with brown : the tail is the fame ;
near the end black, and tipped with white; it is much
cuneated, and above ten inches long: the legs and
claws are grey brown. This inhabits Cayenne, where
it goes by the name of piaye, or devil. The natives
give it that name as a bird of ill omen. The flefh
they will not touch; and indeed not without reafon,
as it is very bad and lean. It is a very tame fpecies,
fuffering itfelf to be almoft touched by the hand be¬
fore it offers to efcape. Its flight is almoft like that
of a king’sfifher; frequents the borders of rivers, on
the low branches*; feeds on infedfts ; often wags its tail
on changing place.
There-are 37 other fpecies, which inhabit different
parts of the globe, and are principally diftinguifhed
by the ftrape of the tail and variations in colour.
CUCUMBER, in botany. See Cucumis.
CUCUMIS, the Cucumber : A genus of the fyn-
genefia order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
34th order, Cucurbitacea. The male calyx is quinque-
dentated, the corolla quxnquepartite ; the filaments
three. The female calyx is quinquedentated, the corolla
quinquepartite, the piftil trifid; the fides of the apple
iharp-pointed. In this genus Linnaeus includes alfo
the Melon; (fee that article). There are xi fpecies,
of which the following are the moft remarkable.
1. The fativa, or common cucumber, hath roots
compofed of numerous, long, flender, white fibres ;
long flender ftalks, very branchy at their joints, trail¬
ing on the ground, or climbing by their clafpers, a-
dorned at every joint by large angular leaves on long
eredl footftalks, with numerous and monopetalous bell-
fhaped flowers of a yellow colour, fucceeded by oblong
rough fruit. The varieties of this kind are, (1.) The
common rough green prickly cucumber; a middle-
fized fruit, about fix or feven inches long,, having a
dark-green rough rind, clofely fet with very fmall
prickles; the plant is of the hardieft fort, but does
not fhow its fruit early. (2.) The fhort green prick¬
ly cucumber is about three or four inches long ; the
rind rather fmooth, and fet with fmall black prickles.
It is valuable chiefly for being one of the earlieft and
hardieft forts. (3.)' The long green prickly cucumber,
grows from fix to nine inches in length, and is rather
thinly fet with prickles. And as there is an early and
late cucumber, it is confiderably the belt variety for
the main crops, both in the frames and hand-glafs,
as well as in the open ground for pricklers. Of this
there is another variety with white fruit. (4.) The early
green clufter cucumber is a fliortifh fruit, remarkable for
growing in clufters, and appearing early. (5.) The
long fmooth green Turky cucumber, is a fmooth
green-rinded fruit, growing from 10 to 15 inches in
length, without prickles. The plants are ftrong
growers, with very large leaves. (6.) The long fmooth
white Turky cucumber, is a fmooth-rinded fruit, from Cueumif,
10 to 15 inches long, without prickles. (7.) The v J
large fmooth green Roman cucumber is a very large
and long fmooth green fruit produced from a ftrong
growing plant. (8.) The long white prickly Dutch
cucumber, is a white fruit 8 or 10 inches long, fet
with fmall black prickles; the plants are but bad bear¬
ers in this country.
2. The chata, or round-leaved Egyptian, cucumber.
According to Mr Haffelquift, this grows in the fertile
earth near Cairo after the inundation of the Nile, and
not in any other place in Egypt, nor does it grow in
any other foil. It ripens with the water-melons.
The fruit is a little watery; the fleih almoft of the
fame fubftance with the melons ; it taftes fomewhat
fweet and cool; but is far from being as cold as the
water-melons. This the grandees and Europeans
in Egypt eat as the moft pleafant fruit they find, and
that from which they have the leaft to apprehend. It is-
the moft excellent fruit of this tribe of any yet known.
The four firft varieties of the cucumis fativa are thofe
chiefly cultivated in this country. They are raifed at
three different feafons of the year: 1. on hot-beds,
for early fruit; 2. under bell, or hand-glaffes, for the
middle crop ; 3. on the common ground, which is for
a late crop, or to pickle. The cucumbers which are
ripe before April are unwholefome; being raifed wholly
by the heat of the dung without the aififtance of the
fun. Thofe raifed in April are good, and are raifed
in the following manner.
Towards the latter end of January, a quantity of
frefh horfe-dung muft. be procured with the litter a-
mong it; and a fmall proportion of fea-coal allies
ftiould be added to it. In four or five days the dung
will begin to heat; at which time a little of it may
be drawn flat on the outfide, and covered with two
inches thicknefs of good earth : this muft be covered
with a bell-glafs ; and after two days, when the earth
is warm, the feeds muft be fown on it, covered with
a quarter of an inch of frefli earth, and the glafs then
fet on again. The glafs muft be covered with a mat
at night, and in four days the young plants will ap¬
pear. When thefe are feen, the reft of the dung muft.
be made up into a bed for one or more lights. This
muft be three feet thick, beat clofe together, and co¬
vered three inches deep with fine frefli earth ; the
frame muft then be put on, and covered at night, or
in bad weather,, with mats. When the earth is hot
enough, the young plants from under the bell muft be
removed into it, and fet two.inches diftance. Tire-
glaffes muft be now and- then a little raifed, to give:
air to the plants, and turned often, to prevent the
wet from-the fteam of the dung from dropping down
upon them; The plants muft be watered at proper
times ; and the water ufed- for this purpofe muft be
fet on the dung till it becomes as warm as the air in
the frame : and as the young plants increafe • in bulk,,
they muft be earthed up, which will give them great,
additional ftrength. If the bed is not hot enough,,
fame frefli litter fliould be laid round its fides: and if
too hot, fome holes fliould be bored into feveral parts
of it with a ftake, which will let out the heat; and
when the bed is thus brought to a proper coolnefs, the
holes are to be flopped up again with frefli dung..
When thefe plants begin to flioot their third or rough!
leaf,.
CUC [ 593 1 cue
Ciicumis. leaf, another hed muft be prepared for them like the
: firfl; and when it is properly warm through the earth,
the plants of the other bed muft be taken up, and
planted in this, in which there muft be a hole in the
middle of each light, about a foot deep, and nine
inches over, filled with light and fine frelh earth laid
hollow in form of a bafon: in each of thefe holes there
muft be fet four plants: thefe muft be, for two or
three days, (haded from the fun, that they may take
firm root; after which they muft have all the fun
they can, and now and then a little frefh air, as the
weather will permit. When the plants are four or
five inches high, they muft be gently pegged down
towards the earth, in diredtions as different from one
another as may be ; and the branches afterwards pro¬
duced Ihould be treated in the fame manner. In a
month after this the flowers will appear, and foon af¬
ter the rudiments of the fruit. The glaffes (hould
mow be carefully covered at night; and in the day¬
time the whole plants (hould be gently fprinkled with
water. Thefe will produce fruit till about midfum-
mer; at which time the fecond crop will come in to
fupply their place : thefe are to be raifed in the fame
manner as the early crop, only they do not require fo
much care and trouble. This fecond crop ftrould be
fown in the end of March or beginning of April.
The feafon for fowing the cucumbers of the laft crop,
and for pickling, Is towards the latter end of May,
when the weather is fettled: thefe are fown in holes
dug to a little depth, and filled up with fine earth, fo
as to be left in the form of a bafon ; eight or nine
feeds being put into one hole. Thefe will come up
in five or fix days; and till they are a week old, are
in great danger from the fparrows. After this they
require only to be kept clear of weeds, and watered
•now and then. There (hould be only five plants left
at firft in each hole; and when they are grown a little
farther up, the worft of thefe is to be pulled up, that
there may finally remain only four. The plants of
:this crop will begin to produce fruit in July.
The cucumber is taken in great cities by the lower
people as noariftrment; but by the better fort is chiefly
■ufed as a refrigerant, or condiment, to accompany
.animal food. They have a bland infipid juice, with-
•out acidity or fweecnefs, approaching, as appears by
their ripening, to a farinaceous matter. When ufed
•green they have no nourifhment, fo they are only to
•be ufed in the fummer feafon and by the fedentary.
Although cucumbers are neither fweet nor acid, yet
they are confiderably, acefcent, and fo produce flatu¬
lency, cholera, diarrhoea, &c. Their coldnefs and fla¬
tulency may be likewife in part attributed to the firm-
.nefs of their texture. They have been difeharged
with little change from the ftomach, after being de¬
tained there for 48 hours. By this means, therefore,
their acidity is greatly increafed. Hence oil and pep¬
per, the condiments commonly employed, are very
ufeful to check their fermentation. We have lately
,ufed another condiment, mz. the (kin, which is bitter,
and may therefore fupply the place of aromatics ; but
fhould only be ufed when young.
Befides the above mentioned fpecies which are pro¬
per for the table, this genus affords alfo two articles
for the materia medica.
1. The elaterium of the (hops, is the infpiffated Cucumis
faecula of the juice of a kind of wild cucumber, call- II
ed alfo the afs’s cucumber. It comes to this country Cucurbits.
from Spain and the fouthern parts of France, where ' v '
the plant is very common. It is brought to us in
fmall flat whitiih lumps or cakes that are dry, and
break eafily between the fingers. It is of an acrid,
bitter, and naufeous tafte, and has a ftrong offenfive
fmell when newly made : but thefe, as well as its .
other qualities, it lofes after being kept fome time.
Elaterium is a very violent purge and vomit, and is
now very feldom ufed. The plant is commonly called
fpirting cucumber, from its cafting out its feeds with
great violence, together with the vifeid juice in which
they are lodged, if touched when ripe; from this cir-
cumftanc^ it has obtained the appellation of noli me
tangere, or “ touch me not.”
2. The colocynthis, the colocynth, coloquintida, or
bitter apple of the (hops, is brought to us from Aleppo
and the illand of Crete. The leaves of the plant are
large, placed alternate, almoft round, and (land upon
footftalks four inches long. The flowers are white ;
and are fucceeded by a fruit of the gourd kind, of the
fize of a large apple, and which is yellow when ripe.
The flielly or bulky outfide inclofes a bitter pulp inter-
fperfed with flattifti feeds. If a hole is made in one
of thefe ripe gourds, and a glafs of rum poured in,
and fuffered to remain 24 hours, it proves a power¬
ful purgative. The pulp itfelf dried and powdered is
commonly ufed as a purgative jn this country, but is
one of the moft draftic and difagreeable we know. If
taken in a large dofe, it not only often brings away
blood, but produces colics, convulfions, ulcers in the
bowels, and fatal fuper-purgations. The moft: effec¬
tual correftor of thefe virulent qualities is to triturate
it finely with fugar or fweet almonds.
CUCURBIT, the name of a chemical veffel em¬
ployed in diftillation, when covered with its head. Its
name comes from its lengthened fhape, by which it
refembles a gourd: fome cucurbits, however, are (hal¬
low, and wide-mouthed. They are made of copper,
tin, glafs, and ftone-ware, according to the nature of
the fubftances to be diililled. A cucurbit, provided
with its capital, conftitutes the veffel for diftillation
called an alembic.
CUCURBITA, the Gourd, andPoMPiON: A ge¬
nus of the fyngenefia order, belonging to the moncecia
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the 34th order, Cucurlitace/s. The calyx of the
male is quinquedentated ; the corolla quinquefid ; the
filaments three. The calyx of the female is quinque¬
dentated ; the corolla quinquefid; the pillil quinquefid ;
the feeds of the apple with a tumid margin. There
are five fpecies.
1. The lagenaria, or bottle gourd, rifes with thick
trailing downy (talks, branching into many fpreading
runners. Thefe extend along the ground fometimes
15 or 20 feet in length. The leaves are large, round-
ifli, heart-(haped, indented, and woolly. The flowers
are large and white, fucceeded by long incurvated
whitifh yellow fruit, obtaining.from about two to five
or fix feet in length, and from about nine to 24 inches
in circumference, having a ligneous and durable (hell.
2. The papo or pompion, commonly called pump¬
kin.
CUC L 599 1 CUD
Cucurbits, kin, hath ftrong, trailing, rough ftalks, branching
*——Y'—- into numerous runners. Thefe are much larger than
the former, extending from ro to 40 or 50 feet
each way. Thefe are ganii filed with large, round-
ifh, lobated, rough leaves, and yellow flowers. The
flowers are fncceeded by large, round, fmooth fruit,
of different forms and fixes ; fome as big as a
peck, others as big as half a bufhel meafure ; fome
confiderably lefs, and others not exceeding the bulk
of an orange ; ripening to a yellowy and fometimes
to a whitifh colour. This fpecies is the moft hardy
of any, as well as the moft ex ten five in their growth.
A fingle plant, if properly encouraged, will overfpread
ro or 15 roods of ground, and produce a great number
of fruit, which, when young, are generally a mixture
between a deep blue and pale white, but change as
they increafe in bulk.
3. The verrucofa, or warted' gourd, hath trailing
ftalks very branchy, and running upon the ground 10
or 15 feet each way ; large lobated leaves, and yellow
flowers, fucceeded by roundifli, knobby, warted white
fruit, of moderate fize.
4. The melopepo, ereft gourd, or fquafli. This
rifes with an eredt ftrong ftalk feveral feet high, rare¬
ly fending forth fide-runners, but becoming bufliy up¬
ward. It is adorned with large lobated leaves ; and
the flowers are fucceeded by depreffed knotty fruit,
both white and yellow, commonly of a moderate fize.
5. The lignofa, ligneous fhelled gourd, often called
calabafh. This hath trailing ftalks, branching into
runners, which extend far every way ; the leaves are
large, lobated, and rough ; the flowers yellow, and are
fucceeded by roundifh fmooth fruit of a moderate fize,
with hard woody fhelis. Of all thefe fpecies there are
a great many varieties, and the fruit of every fpecies
is obferved to be furprifingly apt to change its form.
Culture. All the fpecies of gourds and pompions,
with their refpeftive varieties, are raifed from feed
fown annually in April or the beginning of May, either
with or without the help of artificial heat. But the
plants forwarded in a hot-bed till about a month old,
produce fruit a month or fix weeks earlier on that ac¬
count, and ripen proportionably fooner. The firft
fpecies particularly will fcarree ever produce tolerably
fized fruit in this country withont the treatment a-
bove mentioned.
Ufes. In this country thefe plants are cultivated
only for curiofity; but in the places where they are
natives, they anfwer many important purpofes. In
both the Indies, bottle-gourds are very commonly cul¬
tivated and fold in die markets. They make the prin¬
cipal food of the common people, particularly in the
warm months of June, July, and Auguft. The Ara¬
bians call this kind of gourd charrah. It grows com¬
monly on the mountains in tbefe defarts. The na¬
tives boil amhfeafon it with vinegar; and fometimes.
Ailing the fhell with rice and meat, make a kind of
pudding of hr. The liard (hell is ufed for holding wa¬
ter, and fome of them are capacious enough, to con¬
tain 22 gallons; thefe, however, are very uncom¬
mon. The fruit of the pompion likewife conftitutes
a great part of the food of the common people during
the hot months, in thofe places where they grow, if
gathered when not much bigger than a hen or goofe
tgg, and properly feafoned with butter, vinegar, &c.
they make a tolerable good fauce for butcher’s meat, Cncurbiu-
and are alfo ufed in foups. In England they are feldom ceaE
ufed till grown to maturity. A hole is then made in
one fide, through which the pulp is fcooped out; after aore;
being divefted of the feeds, it is mixed with diced ap- J
pies, milk, fugar, and grated nutmeg, and thus a kind
of pudding is made. The whole is then baked in the
oven, and goes by the name of a pumlein pye. For this
purpofe the plants are cultivated in many places of
England by the country people, who raife them upon
old dung hills. The third fpecies is alfo ufed in North
America for culinary purpoies. The fruit is gathered
when about half grown, boiled, and eaten as fauce to
butcher’s meat. The fqualhes are alfo treated in the
fame manner, and by fome people efteemed delicate
eating.
CUCURBITACEiE, the name of the 34th order
in Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method, confifting
of plants which referable the gourd in external figure,
habit, virtues, and fenfible qualities. This order con¬
tains the following genera, viz. gronovia, melothria,
pafliflora, anguria, bryonia, cucumis, cucurbita, fevil-
lea, momordica, ficyos, trichofanthes.
CUCURUCU, in zoology, the name of a ferpent
found in America, growing 10 or 12 feet long. It is
alfo very thick in proportion to its length, and is of a
yellowifir colour, ftrongly variegated with black fpots,
which are irregularly mixed among the yellow, and
often have fpots of yellow within them. It is a very
poifonous fpecies, and greatly dreaded by the natives ;
but its flefii is a very rich food, and much elteemed
among them, when properly prepared.
CUD, fometimes means the infide of the throat in
beafts ; but generally the food that they keep there,
and chew over again. See Comparative Slnatamy,
n° 92—94-
CUDDALORE, a town on the coaft of Coro¬
mandel in India, belonging to the Englifli, very near
the place where Fort St David once fteod. N. Lat. 11.
30. E. Long. 79. 53. 30. This place was reduced by
the French in the year 1781 ; and in 1783 underwent
a fevere fiege by the Britifh forces commanded by Ge¬
neral Stuart. At this time it was become the princi¬
pal place of arms held by the enefmy on that coaft:
they had exerted themfelves to the utmoft in fortify¬
ing it; and it was garrifoned by a numerous body o£
the beft forces of France, well provided with artil¬
lery, and every thing neceffary for making a vigorous
defence-
Previous to the commencement of the fiege, they
had conftrufted ftrong lines of defence all along the
fort, excepting one place where the town was covered
by a wood, fuppofed to be inacceffible. Through this
wood, however, General Stuart began to cut his way ;
on which the befieged began to draw a line of fortifi¬
cation within that alfo. The Britifh commander then
determined to attack thefe fortifications before they
were quite completed ; and for this purpofe a vigorous
attack was made by the troops under General Bruce,
The grenadiers affailed a redoubt which greatly an*
noyed them, but were obliged to retire ; on which the
whole army advanced to' the attack of the lines. The'
French defended themfelves with refolution; and a*
both parties charged each other with fixed bayonets,
a dreadful daughter enfued. At lalt the Britifh were
obliged
CUD [ 6oo ] * CUD
Cuddalore obliged to retreat; but the French having imprudent*
Cudworth ^ come out t^ie‘r ^nes t0 Pur^u^ t^em> were in
t their turn defeated, and obliged to give up the lines
they had conftrudted with fo much pains and fo
gallantly defended. The lofs on the part of the
iiritifh amounted to near 1000 killed and wounded,
one half of whom were Europeans; and that of the
French was not lefs than 600.
Though the Britifli proved viftorious 'in this con-
teft, yet the vidtory coft fo dear that there was not now
a fufficient number to carry on the fiege with any ef-
feft. The troops alfo became fickly; and their ftrength
diminirtied fo much, that the befieged formed a defign
of not only obliging them to raife the fiege, but of
totally deftroying them. For this purpofe 4000 men
was landed from the fquadron commanded by M-
Suffrein ; and the conduft of the enterprife committed
to the Chevalier de Damas, an experienced and valiant
officer. On the 25th of June 1783, he fallied out at
the head of the regiment of Aquitaine, fuppofed to be
one of the bell in the French fervice, and of whi<5h
he was colonel; with othej. troops fele&ed from the
braved of the garrifon. The attack was made by
day-break; but though the Britilh were at fird put
into fome diforder, they quickly recovered themfelves,
and not only repulfed the enemy, but purfued them fo
warmly, that the Chevalier de Damas himfelf was killed
with about 200 of his countrymen, and as many taken
prifoners.
This engagement was attended with one of the
mod remarkable circumdances that happened during
the whole war, viz. A corps of Sepoy grenadiers en¬
countering the French troops oppofed to them with
fixed bayonets, and overcoming them. This extraor¬
dinary bravery was not only noticed with due applaufe,
but procured for that corps a provifion for themfelves
and families from the prelidencies to which they be¬
longed. No other operation of any confequence took
place during the fiege, which was now foon ended by
the news of peace having taken place between the bel¬
ligerent powers of Europe.
CUDDY, in a fird-rate man of war, is a place ly¬
ing between the captain lieutenant’s cabin and the
quarter-deck} and divided into partitions for the ma¬
tter and other officers. It denotes alfo a kind of ca¬
bin near the ftern of a lighter or barge of burden.
•CUDWEED, in botany. See Gnaphalium.
CUDWORTH (Ralph), a very learned divine of
the church of England in the 17th century. In Janu¬
ary 1657 he was one of the perfons nominated by a
committee of the parliament to be confulted about the
Englifh tranflation of the Bible. In 1678 he publiflied
his True Intellectual Syjlem of the Univerfe; a work
which met with great oppofition. He likewife publilh-
ed a treatife, intitled, Deus jujlificatus: or, “ The di¬
vine goodnefs of God vindicated, againft the affertions
of abfolute and unconditionate reprobation.” He em¬
braced the mechanical or corpufcular philofophy : but
with regard to the Deity, fpnits, genii, and ideas, he
followed the Platonifts. He died at Cambridge in
1688. The editor of the new edition of the Biogra-
phia Britannica obferves^that it is not eafy to meet
with a greater ftore-houfe of ancient literature than the
“ Intellectual Syftemand various writers, we be¬
lieve, have been indebted to it for an appearance of
N° 95-
learning which they might not otherwife have been Cudworth
able to maintain. That Dr Cudworth was fanciful in ^ II
fome of his opinions, and that he was too devoted a c"erei1'
follower of Plato and the Platonills, .will fcarcely be ^rt' ^
denied even by thofe who are moft fenlible of his gene¬
ral meijt. The refle&ions that have been call upon fuch
a man as the author, by bigotted writers, are altogether
contemptible. It is the lot of diftinguilhed merit to
be thus treated. Lord Shaftefbury, fpeaking on this
fubjettt, has given an honourable teftimony to the me¬
mory of Dr Cudworth. You know (fays his lord-
ffiip) the common fate of thofe who dare to appear
fair authors. What w^as that pious and learned man’s
cafe, who wrote the Intelledlual Syftem of the Uni-
verfe ? I confefs it was pleafant enough to coniider,
that though the whole world were no lei's fatisfied with
his capacity and learning, than with his fincerity in
the caufe of Deity; yet he was accufed of giving the
upper hand to the Atheift, for having only ftated their
reafons, and thofe of their adverfaries, fairly together.”
It is obferved by Dr Birch, that Dr Cudworth’s
Intelledlual Syftem of the Univerfe has railed him a
reputation, to which nothing can add but the publi¬
cation of his other writings ftill extant in manulcript.
That thefe writings are very valuable cannot be doubt¬
ed. We may be aflured that they difplay a great
compafs of fentiment and a great extent of learning. \
Neverthelefs, from their voluminous quantity, from the
abftrufenefs of the fubjefts they treat upon, and from
the revolutions of literary tafte and opinion, it is mo¬
rally certain that the publication of them would not
be fuccefsful in the prefent age. Mr Cudworth’s
daughter Damaris, who married Sir Francis Malham
of Oates in Eflex, was a lady of genius and learning :
fhe had a great friendlhip for Mr Locke, who refided
feveral years at her houfe at Oates, where he died in
I7°4-
CUE, an item or innuendo, given to the aftors on
the ftage what or when to fpeak. See Prompter.
CUENZA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, and
in the territory of the Sierra, with a biftiop’s fee. It
was taken by Lord Peterborough in 1706, but retaken
by the Duke of Berwick. It is feated on the river
Xucar, in W. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 40. 10.
CUERENHERT (Theodore Van), a very extra¬
ordinary perfon, was a native of Amfterdam, where
he was born in 1522. It appears, that early in life he
travelled into Spain and Portugal; but the motives of
his journey are not afeertained. He was a man of
fcience, and, according to report, a good poet. The
lifter arts at firft he confidered as an amufement only ;
but in the end he was, it feems, obliged to have re-
courfe to engraving alone for his fupport. And though
the different ftudies in which he employed his time
prevented his attachment to this profeffion being fo
dole as it ought to have been, yet at laft the marks
of genius are difcoverable in his works. They are
flight, and haftily executed with the graver alone ; but
in an open carelefs ftyle, fo as greatly to refemble de-
ligns made with a pen. He was eftablilhed at Haer-
lem ; and there purfuing his favourite ftudies in litera¬
ture, he learned Latin, and was made fecretary to that
town, from whence he was fent feveral times as am-
baffador to the Prince of Orange, to whom he addref-
fed a famous manifefto, which that prince publiihed
in
C U F [ 601 ] C U L
Cuci'foj in 1566. Had he flopped here, it had been well;
Cuff but direfling his thoughts into a different channel, he
v " undertook an argument as dangerous as it was abfurd.
He maintained, that all religious communications were
corrupted; and that, without a fupernatural miffion,
accompanied with miracles, no perfon had a right to
adminifter in any religious office i he therefore pro¬
nounced that man to be unworthy the name of a Chri-
llian who would enter any place of public worfhip.
This he not only advanced in words, but flrove to (how
the fincerity of his belief by practice; and for that
reafon would not communicate with either Proteflant
or Papift. His works were publifhed in three volumes
folio in 1630; and though he was feveral times im-
prifoned, and at lall fentenced to banifhment, yet he
does not appear to have altered his fentiments. He
died at Dergoude in 1590, aged 68 years. It is no
fmall addition to the honour of this Angular man, that
he was the inftru&or of that juftly celebrated artift
Henry Goltzius. Cuerenhert worked conjointly with
the Galles and other artifls, from the defigns of Mar¬
tin Hemfkerck. The fubjefts are from the Old and
New Teftament, and confift chiefly of middling-fized
plates lengthwife. He alfo engraved feveral fubjefts
from Franc. Floris.
CUERPO. To walk in cuerpo, is a Spanifh phrafe
for going without a cloak ; or without all the formali¬
ties of a full drefs.
CUFF (Henry), the unfortunate fecretary of the
unfortunate earl of Effex, was born at Hinton St
George in Somerfetfliire, about the year 1560, of a
genteel family, who were pofftffed of confiderable e-
ftates in that county. In 1576, he was entered of Tri¬
nity college Oxford; where he foon acquired confi¬
derable reputation as a Grecian and difputant. He
obtained a fcllowfliip in the above-mentioned college ;
but was afterwards expelled for fpeaking difrefpeftful-
ly of the founder (a). He was, however, foon after
admitted of Merton college; of which, in 1586, he
was defied probationer, and in 1588 fellow. In this
vear he took the degree of mailer of arts. Some time
after he was defied Greek profeffor, and in 1594 proc¬
tor of the univerfity. When he left Oxford is uncer¬
tain ; nor are we better informed as to the means of
his introduflion to the earl of Effex. When that no¬
bleman was made lord lieutenant of Ireland, Mr Cuff
was appointed his fecretary, and continued intimately
connefled with his lotdihip until his confinement in
the tower; and he is generally fuppofed to have ad-
vifed thofe violent meafurcs which ended in their mu¬
tual deftruflion. The earl indeed confeffed as much
before his execution, and charged him to his face with
being the author of all his misfortunes. Mr Cuff was
tried for high-treafon, convifled, and executed at Ty¬
burn on the 30th of March 1601. Lord Bacon, Sir
Henry Wotton, and Camden, fpeak o£ him in very
harfh terms. He was certainly a man of learning and
Vol. V. Part II.
abilities. He wrote two books ; the one intitled, The Cuja*
Differences of the Ages of Man’s Life ; the other, ll
De Rebus Gejlis in SanSo Concilia Nicano. The firftCulembach-
was publiflied after his death ; the fecond is flill in ma- 4~~~>
nufcript.
CUJAS (James), in Latin Cujaciusy the beft civi¬
lian of his time, was born at Touloufe, of obfcure pa¬
rents, in 1520. He learned polite literature and hi-
ftory; and acquired great knowledge in the ancient
laws, which he taught with extraordinary reputation
at Touloufe, Cahors, Bourges, and Valence, in Dau-
phine. Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, invited
him to Turin, and gave him Angular marks of his e-
ileem. Cujas afterwards refufed very advantageous
offers from Pope Gregory XIII. who was defirous of
having him teach at Bologna : but he chofe rather to
fix at Bourges, where he had a prodigious number of
fcholars ; whom he not only took great pleafure in
inltru6ling, but afiiiled with his fubftance, which occa-
fioned his being called the Father of his Scholars. He
died at Bourges in 1590, aged 70. His works are in
high efteem among civilians.
CUJAVA, a territory of Great Poland, having on
the north the duchy of Pruffia, on the weft the pala¬
tinate of Kaliik, on the fouth thofe of Licici and Ra-
va, and on the weft that of Ploczko. It contains
two palatinates, the chief towns of which are Inow-
loez and Breft ; as alfo Uladiflaw, the capital of the
diftrift.
CUIRASSE, a piece of defenfive armour, made of
iron plate, well hammered, ferving to cover the body,
from the neck to the girdle, both before and behind.
Some derive the word, by corruption, from the Ita¬
lian cuore, “ heart;” becaufe it covers that part:
others from the French cuir, or the Latin corium,
“ leather;” whence coriaceous : becaufe defenfive arms
were originally made of leather. The cuiraffe was not
brought into ufe till about the year 1300, though they
were known both to the ancient Greeks and Romans
in different forms.
CUIRASSIERS, cavalry armed with cuiraffes, as
moft of the Germans are : The French have a regi¬
ment of cuiraffiers; but we have had none in the Bri-
ti(h army fince the revolution.
CULDEES, in church-hiftory, a fort of monkifti
priefts, formerly inhabiting Scotland and Ireland. Be¬
ing remarkable for the religious exercifes of preaching
and praying, they were called, by way of eminence,
cultores Dei; from whence is derived the word culdees.
They made choice of one of their own fraternity to
be their fpiritual head, who was afterwards called the
Scots lifhop.
CULEMBACH,a diftrift or marquifate of the circle
of Franconia, in Germany. It is bounded on the weft
by the biihopric of Bamberg ; on the fouth by the ter¬
ritory of Nuremberg ; on the eaft by the palatinate
of Bavaria and Bohemia; and on the north by Voight-
4 G land
(a) The founder of Trinity college was Sir Thomas Pope, who, it Teems, would often take a piece of plate
from a friend’.', houle, and carry it home concealed under his gown ; out of fun, no doubt. Cuff, being mer¬
ry with fome of his acquaintance at another college, happened to fay, alluding to Sir Thomas Pope’s ufual
joke above mentioned. “ A pox on this beggarly houfc ! why, our founder ilole as much plate as would build
inch another.” This piece of wit was the caufe of his expulfion. The heads of colleges in thofe days did
not uaderftand humour. Anthony Wood was told this ftory by Dr Bathurft,
C U I, [ 60
Culembith, land and part of the circle of Upper Saxony. It is
„ Criie*- t about 50 miles in length from north to fouth, and 30
' in breadth from ea(l to weft. It is full of forefts and
high mountains; the moft confiderable of the latter are
thofe of Frichtelberg, all of them covered with pine-
trees. Here are the fources of four large rivers, the
Maine, the Sala, the Eger, and the Nab. This mar-
quifate is the upper part of the burgraviate of Nu¬
remberg.
Culembach, a town of Germany, in Franconia,
the capital of the marquifate of the fame name. It
has good fortifications, and is feated at the confluence
of two branches of the river Maine. It was pillaged
and burnt by the Huflites in 1430, and by the inhabi¬
tants of Nuremberg in 1573. E. Long. 11. 28. N. Lat.
50. 12.
CULEUS, in Roman antiquity, the largeft meafure
of capacity for things liquid, containing 20 amphorce,'
or40urnce. It contained 143 gallons 3 pints, Englifh
wine-meafure ; and was 11.095 folid inches.
CULEX, the gnat ; a genus of infedfs belonging
to the order of diptera. The mouth is formed by a
flexible (heath, inclofing briftles pointed like ftings.
Kate CLI. The antennae of the males are filiform ; thofe of the
females feathered. There are feven fpecies. Thefe
infedfs, too well known by the fevere punftures they
infli&, and the itchings thence arifing, afford a moft
interefting hiftory. Before they turn to flying infe&s,
they have been in fome manner fiflies, under two dif-
efferent forms. You may obferve in ftagnating waters,
mraofln- from the beginning of May till winter, fmall grubs
filis. with their heads downwards, their hinder-parts on the
furface of the water ; from which part arifes fide ways
a kind of vent-hole, or fmall hollow tube like a funnel,
and this is the organ of refpiration. The head is
armed with hooks, that ferve to feize on infefts and
bits of grafs on which it feeds. On the fides are placed
four fmall fins, by the help of which the infeft fwims
about, and dives to the bottom. Thefe larvae, retain
their form during a fortnight or three weeks, after
which period they turn to chryfalids. All the parts
of the winged infedt are diftinguifliable through the
outward robe that (hrouds them. The chryfalids are
rolled up into fpirals. The fituation and (hape of the
windpipe is then altered ; it confifts of two tubes near
the head, which occupy the place of the ftigmata,
through which the winged infe<ft is one day to breathe.
Thefe chryfalids, conftantly on the furface of the wa¬
ter in order to draw breath, abftain now from eating ;
but upon the lead motion are feen to unroll themfelves,
and plunge to the bottom, by means of little paddles
fituated at their hinder-part. After three or four days
drift fading, they pafs to the ftate of gnats. A mo¬
ment before, water was its element; but now, become
an aerial infeft, he can no longer exift in it. He fwells
his head, and burfts his inclofure. The robe he lately
wore turns to a (hip, of which the infeft is the mad
and fail. If at the inftant the gnat difplays his wings
. there arifes a breeze, it proves to him a dreadful hur¬
ricane ; the water gets into the (hip, and the infeft,
who is not yet loofened from it, finks and is loft. But
in calm weather, the gnat forfakes his (lough, dries
himfelf, flies into the air, feeks to pump the alimen¬
tary juice of leaves, or the blood of man and beads.
The ding which our naked eye difeovers, is but a tube,
2 ]_ C U L
containing five or fix fpicula of exquifite minutenefs 5 CuTex
fome dentated at their extremity like the head of an II
arrow, others (harp-edged like razors. Thefe fpicula
introduced into the veins, aft as pump-fuckers, into
which the blood afeends by reafon of the fmallnefs of
the capillary tubes. The infeft injefts a fmall quan¬
tity of liquor into the wound, by which the blood be¬
comes more fluid, and is feen through the microfcope
pafling through thofe fpicula. The animal fwells, .
grows red, and does not quit its hold till it has gorged
itfelf. The liquor it has injefted caufes by its ferment¬
ing that difagreeable itching which we experience;
and which may be removed by volatile alkali, or by
fcratching the part newly ftung, and wafhing it with
cold water; for later, the venom ferments, and you
would only increafe the tumor and the itching. Rub¬
bing one’s felf at night with fuller’s-earth and water,
leffens the pain and inflammation. Gnats perform
their copulation in the air. The female depofites her
eggs on the water; by the help of her moveable hin¬
der part and her legs, placing them one by the fide of
another in the form of a little boat. This-veffel, com-
pofed of two or three hundred eggs, fwims on the
water for two or three days, after which they are
hatched. If a ftorm arifes, the boats are funk. Every
month there is a frefli progeny of thefe infefts. Were
they not devoured by fwallows, other birds, and by
feveral carnivorous infefts, the air would be darkened
by them.
Gnats in this country, however troublefome they
may be, do not make us feel them fo feverely as the
mufleeto-flies (e«f«c pipiens) do in foreign parts. In
the day-time or at night thefe come into the houfes ;
and when the people are gone to bed they begin their
difagreeable humming, approach always nearer to the
bed, and at laft fuck up fo much blood that they can
hardly fly away. Their bite caufes blifters in people
of a delicate compleftion. When the weather has
been cool for fome days, the mufquetoes difappear;
but when it changes again, and efpecially after a rain,
they gather frequently in fuch quantities about the
houfes, that their numbers are aftonifhing. In fultry
evenings they accompany the cattle in great fwarms,
from the woods to the houfes or to town ; and when
they are driven before the houfes, the gnats fly in where-
ever they can. In the greateft heat of fummer, they
are fo numerous in fome places, that the air feems to
be quite full of them, efpecially near fwamps and ftag-
nate waters, fuch as the river Morris in New Jerfey.
The inhabitants therefore make a fire before their
houfes to expel thefe difagreeable guefts by the fmoke.
CULIACAN, a province of North America, in the
audience of Guadalajara. It is bounded on the north
by New Mexico, on the call by New Bifcay and the
Zacatecas, on the fouth by Chiametlan, and on the
weft by the fea. It is a fruitful country, and has rich
mines.
CULLIAGE, a barbarous and immoral praftice,,
whereby the lords of manors anciently aflumed a right
to the firft night of their vaffals brides.
CULLEN, a parliament-town in Scotland, fituated
on the fea-coaft of Banff-ftiire. W. Long. 2. 12. and
N. Lat. 57. 38.
CULLODEN, a place in Scotland within two
miles of Invernefs, chiefly remarkable for a complete
viftory
C U L [ 603 ] C U L
Culloden. vlftory gained over the rebels on the 16th of April
  1746. That day the royal army, commanded by the
late Duke of Cumberland, began their march from
Nairn, formed into five lines of three battalions each ;
headed by Major general Huike on the left. Lord Sem-
pill on the right, and Brigadier Mordaunt in the cen¬
tre ; flanked by the horfe under the Generals Hawley
and Bland, who at the fame time covered the cannon
on the right and left. In this order they marched
about eight miles, when a detachment of Kingfton’s
horfe, and of the Highlanders, having advanced before
the reft of the army, difeovered the van of the rebels
commanded by the young pretender. Both armies
immediately formed in the order and numbers ftiown
in the annexed fcheme.
About two in the afternoon the rebels began to
cannonade the king’s army : but their artillery being
ill ferved, did little execution ; while the fire from
their enemies was feverely felt, and occafioned great
diforder. The rebels then made a pulh at the right
of the royal army, in order to draw the troops for¬
ward ; but finding themfelves difappointed, they turned
their whole force on the left; falling chiefly on Bar-
rell’s and Monro’s regiments, where they attempted to
flank the king’s front-line; But this defign alfo was
defeated by the advancing of Wolfe’s regiment, while
in the mean time the cannon kept playing upon them Culloden.
with cartridge-fhot. General Hawley, with fome High-  v——'
landers, had opened a paflage through fome ftone*
walls to the right for the horfe which advanced on
that fide ; while the horfe on the king’s right wheeled
off upon their left, difperfed their body of referve, and
met in the centre of their front-line in their rear;
when being repulfed in the front, and great numbers
of them cut oft, the rebels fell into very great confu-
fion. A dreadful carnage was made by the cavalry
on their backs; however, fome part of the foot ftili
preferred their order : but the Kingfton’s horfe, from
the referve, galloped up brilkly, and falling on the
fugitfves, did terrible execution. A total defeat in-
ftanily took place, with the lofs of 2500 killed, wound¬
ed, and prifoners, on the part of the rebels ; while the
royalifts loft not above 200. The young pretender had
his horfe Ihot under him during the engagement; and
after the battle retired to the houfe of a fadlor of Lord
Lovat, about ten miles from Invcrnefs, where he ftaid
that night. Next day he fet out for Fort-Auguftus,
from whence he purfued his journey through wild de¬
farts with great difficulty and diftrefs, till at laft he
fafely reached France, as related under the article Bri¬
tain, n° 423.
•nggllBuj—3j.ioii s(uo^Suiy[ paBAvopj Xaurpj nnaaatiBg Lma^pejg- ojjoij stuo}jSujy];
Suiuiajg
•AN/iva-aopj ‘Sjag
00 q§j[g ifidmag jUoSrj ‘
•axsnjj ’U3Q -fEpj
sSe.ip s<uivqqo3 p^og ,° ?, /uqoqQ ° aoug fjfj ‘lyng -og oauoyj PIP-urg -suooSBjp s.xiayf
•ON-mg maf) Tbiaj
•aixvwaHTy jo pig; maQ-yj
‘A M H V srD N I 3
•wnuDNy P-tog puop^
Duke of Perth.
The REBEL ARMY.
Lord John Drummond.
n o -8 01 £ 0“ OS’ 0“
I °i °!'o?ro!
q £ 3, a ^1,
!*| § 2. 8 S I
Lord Geo. Murray.
 ^ I! IIIIII
9 g,*- gT
= o 'H. o S-
Left flank 400.
Ld John Drummond.
Guards, huffars,       Fitzjames’s
and Perthfliire, The young pretender. horfe.
fquadron.
Right flank 400.
Piquets, by Stapleton.
Firft column 800.
Thofe of the above, who
have only guns, and
Kilmarnock’s guards.
Second column 800.
Ld. Lewis Gordon’s and Glenbucket’s,
to be ready to fuccour, when needful.
Third column 800.
Colonel Roy Stuart’s, and
thofe of the above who
have only guns.
The D. of Perth’s reg. and Ld. Ogilvie’s,
not to fire without pofitive order ;.and to
keepclofe, as afrclh corps de referve 800. In all 835©.
4 G 2
CULM,
C U L [ 604 1 CUM
Culm CULM, or Culmus, among botanlfts, a ftraw or
II haulm ; defined by Linnaeus to be the proper trunk of
Culverin. the graffes, which elevates the leaves, flower, and
'* v fruit.
This fort of trunk is tubular or hollow, and has
frequently knots or joints diftributed at proper diftan-
ces through its whole length. The leaves are long,
fleek, and placed either near the roots in great num¬
bers, or proceed fingly from the different joints of the
ftalk, which they embrace at the bafe, like a iheath or
glove.
The haulm is commonly garniflied with leaves:
fometimes, however, it is naked ; that is, devoid of
leaves, as in a few fpecies of cyprefs-gi afs. Moft
grafles have-a round cylindrical ftalk; in fome fpecies
of fchosnus, fcirpus, cyprefs-grafs, and others, it is tri¬
angular.
The ftalk is fometimes entire, that is, has no bran¬
ches ; fometimes branching, as in fchtenus aculeatus &
capenjis; and not feldom confifts of a number of fcales,
which lie over each other like tiles.
Laftly, in a few grafles, the ftalk is not interrupted
with joints, as in the greater part. The fpace con¬
tained betwixt every two knots or joints, is termed by
botanifts internodium, and articulus culmi.
This fpecies of trunk often affords certain marks of
diftinftion, in difcriminating the fpecies. Thus in the
genus eriocaulon, the fpecies are fcarce to be diftin-
guifhed but by the angles of the culmus or ftalks. Thefe
in fome fpecies are in number 5, in others 6, and in
others 10.
CULMIFEROUS plants, (from cidmus, a ftraw
or haulm): plants fo calledj which have a fmooth
jointed ftalk, ufually hollow, and wrapped about at
each joint with Angle, narrow, fharp-pointed leaves,
and the feeds contained in chaffy hufks; fuch are oats,
•wheat, barley, rye, and the other plants of the natu¬
ral family of the GRASSES.
CULMINATION, in aftronomy, the pafiage of
any heavenly body over the meridian, or its greateft
altitude for that day.
CULPRIT, aterm ufed by the clerk of the arraign¬
ments, when a perfon is indifted for a criminal mat¬
ter. See Plea to IndiBment, par. 1 1.
CULROSS, a parliament town in Scotland, fituated
on the river Forth, about 23 miles north-weft of Edin¬
burgh. Here is a magnificent houfe with 13 windows
in front, built about the year 1,590 by Edward Lord
Kinlofs, better known in England by the name of
Lord Bruce, flain in the noted duel between him and
Sir Edward Sackvilfe. Some poor remains of the Cif-
tercian abbey are ftill to be feen here, founded by
Malcolm earl of Fife in 121 The church was
jointly dedicated to the Virgin and St Serf confefior.
The revenue at the diflhlution was 768 pounds Scots,
befides the rents paid-in kind. The number of monks,
exclufive of the abbot, were nine. W. Long. 3. 34.
N. Lat.,56. 8.
CULVERIN, a long flender piece of ordnance or,
artillery, ferving to carry a ball to a great diftance.
Manege derives the word from the Latin colubrina;
others from coluber, “ fhakeeither on account of
the length and flendernefs of the piece or of the rava¬
ges it makes.
There are three kinds of culvexins, wz. the extra¬
ordinary, the ordinary, and the leaft fized. x. The Culvertail-
culverin extraordinary has 54 inches bore ; its length e,d
32 calibers, or 13 feet; weighs 4800 pounds : its load Cumber-
above 12 pounds; carries a fhot 54 inches diameter, land,
weighing 20 pounds weight. 2. The ordinary cul- —v—^
verin , is 12 feet long; carries a ball of 17 pounds
5 ounces ; caliber 54 inches; its weight 4500 pounds.
3. The culverin of the leaft fize, has its diameter 5
inches; is 12 feet long; weighing about 4000 pounds;
carries a ftiot 34 inches diameter, weighing 14 pounds
9 ounces.
CULVERTAILED, among ftiipwrights, fignifies
the fattening or letting of one timber into another, fo
that they cannot flip out, as the corlings into the beams
of a (hip.
CUM.V, or Cum;e (anc. geog.), a town of iEolia
in Afia Minor. The inhabitants have been accufed of
ftupidity for not laying a tax upon all the goods which
entered their harbour during 300 years. They were
called Cumani.
CUMiE, or Cum A (anc. geog.), a city of Campa¬
nia near Puteoli founded by a colony from Chalcis and
Cumae of ^Eolia before the Trojan war. The inhabi¬
tants were called Cumal. One of the Sibyls fixed her
refidence in a cave in the neighbourhood, and was call¬
ed the Cutnean Sibyl.
CUMBERLAND, Cumbria, fo denominated from,
the Cumbri or Britons who inhabited it; one of the
moft northerly counties in England. It was formerly
a kingdom extending from the vallum of Adrian to
the city of Dumbritton,, now Dumbarton, on the frith
of Clyde in Scotland. At prefent it is a county of
England, which gives the title of duke to one of the
royal family, and fends two members to parliament.
It is bounded on the norths and north-well by Scot¬
land ; on the fouth and fouth-eaft by part of Lanca-
fhire and Weftmoreland; it borders on the call with
Northumberland and Durham; and on the weft is
waffled by the Irilh fea. The length from north to
fouth may amount to 55 miles, but the breadth docs
net exceed 40. It is well watered with rivers, lakes,
and fountains ; but none of its ftreams are navigable.
In fome places there are very high mountains. The
air is keen and piercing on thefe mountains towards
the north ; and the climate is moift, as in all hilly
countries. The foil varies with the face of the coun¬
try ; being barren on the moors and mountains, but.
fertile in the valleys and level ground bordering on
the fea. In general the eaftern parts of the fliire are
barren and defolate; yet even the leaft; fertile parts
are rich in metals and minerals. The mountains of
Copland abound with copper: veins of the fame metal,
with a mixture of gold and filver, were found in the
reign of queen Elizabeth among, the fells of Dement;
and royal mines were formerly wrought at Kef-
wiek. The county produces great quantities of coal,,
fome lead, abundance of the mineral earth called;
black-lead, feveral mines of lapis-calaminaris; and an,
inconfiderable pearl-filhery on the coaft near Raven-
glafs.
Cumberland (Richard), a very learned Engliflv
divine in the latter end of the 17th century, was fon ,
of a citizen of London, and educated at Cambridge.
In 1672, he publiflred his excellent Treatife of the
Laws of Nature; and in 1686, An Eflay toward the.
Jewifb
G U N
Cuminum Jewifli Weights and Meafures.
II 1 he was nominated by king William to the bifhopric
Cumculus. q£ p,,terborough, without the leaft folicitation on his
' v part. He purfued his ftudies to the lafl.; and the
world is obliged to him for clearing up feveral difficul¬
ties in hiftory, chronology, and philofophy. After
the age of 83, he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the
Coptic language, of which he made himfelf mafter.
He was as remarkable for humility of mind, benevo¬
lence of temper, and innocence of life, as for his exten-
five learning. He died in 1718.
CUMINUM, cumin : A genus of the digynia or¬
der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 45th order,
Umbellate. The fruit is ovate and ftriated ; there are
four partial umbels, and the involucra are quadrifid.
There is but one fpecies, viz the cyminum. It is an
annual plant, periffiing foon after the feed is ripe. It
rifes 9 or IQ inches high in the warm countries where
it is cultivated; but feldom rifes above four in this
country. It has fometimes flowered very well here,
but never brings its feeds to perfe&ion. The leaves
[ 605 ] CUN
After the revolution exprcffing the horizontal, and the fecond the perpen- Cunli*
dicular cuts. it.
CUNILA, in botany: A genus of the monogynia ^
order, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants; and ■
in the natural method ranking under the the 4zd or¬
der, Verticillatte The corolla is ringent, with its
upper lip eredt and plane; there are two filaments,
caftrated, or wanting antherae; the feeds are four.
There are three fpecies, none of which has any remark¬
able property.
CUNINA, in mythology, a goddefs who had the
care of little children.
CUNITZ (Mary), one of the greatell geniufes in
the 16th century, was born in Silefia. She learned
languages with amazing facility ; and underftood Po-
lilh, GeTman, French, Italian, Latin, Greek, and He¬
brew. She attained a knowledge of the fciences with
equal eafe : Ihe was Ikilled in hiftory, phyfic, poetry,
painting, mufic, and playing upon inftruments; and
yet thefe were only an amufement. She more parti¬
cularly applied herfelf to the mathematics, and efpe-
ially to aftronomy, which ftie made her principal ftudy.
divided into long narrow fegments, like thofe of and was ranked in the number of the moft able aftro-
fennel, but much fmaller: they are of a deep green,
and generally turned backward at their extremity: the
flowers grow in fmall umbels at the top of the ftalks:
they are compofed of five unequal petals, of a pale
bluifh colour, which are fucceeded by long, channel¬
led, aromatic feeds. The plant is propagated for iale
in the ifland of Malta. In this country the feeds muft
be'fown in fmall pots, and plunged in a very mode¬
rate hot-bed to bring up the plants. Thefe, after
having been gradually inured to the open air, turned
out of the pots, and planted in a warm border of good
earth, preferring the balls of earth to their roots, will
flower pretty well, and may perhaps even perfect a few
feeds in warm feafons. Thefe feeds have a bitteriffi
warm tafte, accompanied with an aromatic flavour, not
■ of the moft agreeable kind. They are accounted
good carminatives ; but not very often made ufe of.
An effential oil of them is kept in the (hops.
CUNAlUS (Peter), born in Zealand, in 1586, was
diftinguiftied by his knowledge in the learned langua¬
ges, and his flcill in the Jewifh antiquities. He alfo
ftudied law, which he taught at Leyden, in 1615 ;
and read politics there till his death, in 1638. His
principal work is. a treatife, in Latin, on the republic
of the Hebrews.
CUNEIFORM, in geaeral, an appellation given to
whatever refembles a wedge
nomers of her time. Her Aftronomical Tables ;
quired her a prodigious reputation : Ihe printed them
in Latin and German, and dedicated them to the em¬
peror Ferdinand III. She married Elias de Lewin,
M. D.; and died at Piftehen, in 1664.
CUNNINGHAM, one of the four bailiwicks in
Scotland; and one of the three into which the (hire of
Air is fubdivided. It lies north-eaft of Kyle. Its
chief town is Irvin.
Cunningham (Alexander), author of a Hif¬
tory of Great Britain from the revolution to the ac-
ceffion of George I. was born in the fouth of Scot¬
land about the year 1654, the regency of Oliver
Cromwell. His father was minifter at Ettrick*
in the prelbytery and (hire of Selkirk. He was
educated, as was the cuftom among the Scot^
tifh prelbyterian gentlemen of thofe times, in Hol¬
land ; where he imbibed his principles of govern¬
ment, and lived much with the Englifh and Scots
refugees at. the Hague before the revolution, par¬
ticularly with the earls of Argyle and Sunderland.
He came over to England with the prince of Orange,,
and enjoyed the confidence and intimacy of many
leading men among the whig party, that is, the
friends and abettors of king William and the re¬
volution. He was employed, at different times, in the
character,of a travelling companion or tutor; firft, to
CuNEif ORM-Bune, in anatomy, the feventh bone of the earl of Hyndford, and his brother Mr William Car-
the cranium, called alfo
See Anatomy, n° i-6.
CUNEUS, in. antiquity, a company of infantry
drawn up in form of a wedge, the better to break
through the enemy’s ranks.
CUNICULUS, in zoology. See Lefus.
Cuniculus, in. mining, a term ufed by authors ii
bajiiare, and os fpheno'ides. michael, folicitor general, in the reign of queen Anne,
for Scotland ; fecondly, with the lord Lome, after¬
wards fo well known under the name of 'John duke of
Argyle ; and thirdly, with the lord vifeount Lpnfdale..
In his travels, we find, him, at the German courts,,
in company with the Celebrated Mr Jofeph Addifon,,
hofe virtues he celebrates, and whofe fortune,; like:
diftinclion from puieus, to exprefs the feveral forts of that of our author, compelled him to
paffages and cuts in thefe fubterranean works. The
euniculi. are.thofe direct paffages in mines where they
walk on horizontally ; but the putei are the perpen¬
dicular cuts or defeents. The miners in Germany call
■ become for hire,
“ A trav’iing tutor to a fquire.”
Lord Lome, at the time he was under the tuition of
Mr Cunningham, though not feventeen years of age,.
thefe by the name fallen, and fchachts ; the firft word was colonel of a regiment, which his father^, the earl
of
4
CUN [ 606 ] CUN
g- of Argyle, had raifed for his majedf’s fervice in Flan- berry obferves, that Dr Thomfon “ has expreffed the Cunning,
ders. Mr-Cunningham’s connexion with the duke fenfe of the author wdth fidelity.” The work was un- ham
of Argyle, with whom he had the honour of maintain- doubtedly well deferring of publication. It contains U
ing an intimacy as long as he lived, together with the the hiftory of a very interelling period, written by a ClJ'’°cc*
opportunities he enjoyed of learning, in his travels, man who had a conliderable degree of authentic in- ^ ‘ y
what may be called military geography, naturally tend- formation, and his book contains many curious parti¬
ed to qualify him for writing intelligibly on military culars not to be found in other hiltories. His cha-
affairs. rafters are often drawn with judgment and impartiali-
Mr Cunningham, both when he travelled with the ty : at other times they are fomewhat tinftured with
nobleman above mentioned, and on other occafions, prejudice. This is particularly the cafe with refpeft
was employed by the Englifh minillry in tranfmitting to bifhop Burnet, againil whom he appears to have
fecret intelligence to them on the moft important fub- conceived a itrong perfonal diflike. But he was ma-
jefts. He was alfo, on fundry occafions, employed nifellly a very attentive obferver of the tranfaftions
by the generals of the confederate armies, to carry in- of hi&own time; his work contains many juft poli-
telligence, and to make reprefentations to the court of tical remarks; and the fafts which he relates are ex-
Britain. In Carftares’s State-papers, publifhed by Dr hibited with great peifpicuity, and often with much
Macormick principal of the united college of St An- animation. Throughout his book he frequently inter-
drew’s in 1774, there are two letters from our author, fperfes fome account of the literature, and of the moft;
dated Paris the 2id and 26th of Auguft 1701, giving eminent perfons of the age concerning which he writes;
an account of his conferences with the marquis de and he has alfo adorned his wrork with many allufions
Torcy, the French minifter, relative to the Scots to the claffics and to ancient hiftory.
trade with France. This commercial negociation, Alexander Cunningham, the author of the hiftory
from the tenor of Cunningham’s letters compared of Great Britain, has been fuppofed to be the fame
with his hiftory, appears to have been the only often- perfon with Alexander Cunningham who publilhed an
fible objeft of his attention ; for he fent an exaft ac- edition of Horace at the Hague, in two volumes 8vo,
count to king William, with whom he was perfonally in 1721, which is highly efteemed. But from the
acquainted, of the military preparations thrdughout beft information we have been able to colleft, they were
all France. certainly different perfons ; though they were both of
Mr Cunningham’s political friends, Argyle, Sun- the fame name, lived at the fame time, had both been
derland, Sir Robert Walpole, &c. on the acceffion of travelling tutors, were both faid to have been eminent
George I. fent him as Britifh envoy to the republic of for their fit ill at the game of chefs, and both lived to
Venice. He arrived in that city in 1715 ; and con- a very advanced age. The editor of Horace is gene-
tinued there, in the charafter of refident, till the year rally faid to have died in Holland, where he taught both
1720, when he returned again to London. He lived the civil and canon laws, and where he had collefted
many years after, which he feems chiefly to have paf- a very large library, which was fold in that country,
fed in a ftudious retirement. In 1735, he was vifited CUNNUS, in anatomy, the pudendum midiebre, or
in London by lordJHyndford, by the direftion of his the anterior parts of the genitals of a woman, including
lordfiiip’s father, to whom he had been tutor, when the labia pudendi and mans "veneris.
<E>he appeared to be very old. He feems to have lived CUNOCEPHALI, inmythology, (from*^'',“dog,”
about two years after ; for the body of an Alexander and “ head,”), a kind of baboons, or animals
Cunningham lies interred in the vicar chancel of St with heads like thofe of dogs, which were wonder-
Martin’s church, who died in the 83d year of his age, fully endowed, and were preferved with great veneration
on the 15th day of May 1737; and who was pro- by the Egyptians in many of their temples. It is
bably the fame perfon. related, that by their afliftance the Egyptians found
His “ Hiftory of Great Britain, from the revolu- out the particular periods of the fun and moon ; and
tion in 1688 to the acceffion of George I.” was pub* that one half of the animal was often buried, while
liftied in two volumes 4to, in 1787. It was written the other half furvived; and that they could read and
by Mr Cunningham in Latin, but was tranflated into write. This ftrange hiftory, Dr Bryant imagines, re-
Englifh by the reverend William Thomfon, L. L. D. lates to the priefts of Egypt, ftyled cahen, to the no-
The original manufeript came into the poffeffion of the vices in their temples, and to the examinations they
reverend Dr Hollingberry, archdeacon of Chichefter, were obliged to undergo, before they could be ad-
fome of whofe relations had been connefted with the mitted to the priefthood. The Egyptian colleges
author. He communicated it to the earl of i ardvvicke, were fituated upon rocks or hills, called caph, and from
and to the reverend Dr Douglas now biffiop of Car- their confecration to the fun, caph-el; whence the
lifle, both of whom recommended the publication. Greeks deduced y-i<pa.\y, and from cahen-caph-elthey form-
In a fliort preface to the work, the archdeacon fays, ed xuvoaspaxof. So that cahen-caph-el was fome royal fe-
“ My firft defign was to have produced it in the ori- minary in Upper Egypt, whence they drafted novi-
ginal; but knowing how few are fufficiently learned ees to fupply their colleges and temples. By this e-
to underftand, and how many are indifpofed to read tymology he explains the above hiftory. The death
two quarto volumes in Latin, however interefting and of one part, while the other furvived, denoted the re¬
entertaining the fubjeft may be, I altered my purpofe, gular fucceffion of the Egyptian priefthood. The cu-
and intended to have fent it into the world in a tranf- nocephali are alfo found in India and other parts of
lation. A nervous fever depriving me of the power, the world. Thefe and the acephali were thus denomi-
defeated the feherne.” But he afterwards transferred nated from their place of refidence and from their
the undertaking to Dr Thomfon ; and Dr Holling- worftu'p.
CUNO-
CUP [ 607 ] CUP
CunodontcB CUNODONTES, a people mentioned by Solinus
i| and Ifidorus, and by them fuppofed to have the teeth
Cupel. 0f dogs. They were probably denominated, fays Dr
V—Bryant, from the object of their worfhip, the deity
Chan-Adon, which the Greeks exprefled K-woSuv, and
thence called his votaries Cunodontes.
CUNONIA, in botany : A genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking with thofe of which the
order is doubtful. The corolla is pentapetalous; the
calyx pentaphyllous ; the capfule bilocular, accumi-
nated, polyfpermous'; the ftyles longer than the flower.
CUOGOLO, in natural hiftory, the name of a ftone
much ufed by the Venetians in glafs-making, and found
in the river Fefino. It is a fmall ftone of an impure
white, of a (battery texture, and is of the (hape of a
pebble.
CUP, a veflel of capacity of various forms and ma¬
terials, chiefly to drink out of. In the Ephem. Ger¬
man. we have a defcription of a cup made of a com¬
mon pepper-corn by Ofwald Nerlinger, which holds
1200 other ivory cups, having each its feveral handle,
all gilt on the edges ; with room for 400 more.
Cup, in botany. See Cacrx.
Cup-Galls, in natural hiftory, a name given by au¬
thors to a very Angular kind of galls found on the
leaves of the oak and fome other trees. They are
of the figure of a cup, or drinking-glafs without its
foot, being regular cones adhering by their point or
apex to the leaf; and the top or broad part is hollow¬
ed a little way, fo that it appears^ike a drinking-glafs
with a cover, which was made fo fmall as not to clofe
it at the mouth, but fall a little way into it. This co¬
ver is flat, and has in the centre a very fmall protu¬
berance, refembling the nipple of a woman’s bread.
This is of a pale green, as is alfo the whole of the gall,
excepting only its rim that runs round the top: this is
of a fcarlet colour, and that very beautiful. Belides
this fpecies of gall, the oak leaves furnifti us with fe¬
veral others, fome of which are oblong, fome round,
and others flatted ; thefe are of various fizes, and ap¬
pear on the leaves at various feafons of the year.
They all contain the worm of fome fmall fly ; and this
creature pafles all its changes in this its habitation, be¬
ing fometimes found in the worm, fometimes in the
nymph, and fometimes in the fly-ftate, in the cavity
of it.
CUPANIA, in botany : A genus of tjte adelphia
order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 38th
order, Tricocca. The calyx of the male is triphyllous ;
the corolla pentapetalous; the (lamina five. The calyx
of the female triphyllous ; the corolla tripetalous ; the
ftyle trifid; and a pair of feeds. There is but one
fpecies, a native of America, and which poffeffes no
remarkable property.
CUPEL, in metallurgy, a fmall veffel which abforbs
metallic bodies when changed by fire into a fluid fco-
ria; but retains them as long as they continue in their
metallic date. One of the mod proper materials for
making a velfel of this kind is the allies of animal
bones; there is fcarcely any other fubltance which fo
ftrongly refifts vehement fire, which fo readily im*
bibes metallic fcoriae, and which is fo little difpofed to
be vitrified by them. In want of thefe, fome make Cupel,
ufe of vegetable allies, freed by boiling in water from Cupeila-
their faline matter, which would caufe them melt in tl0n'
the fire. """v
The bones, burnt to perfeft whitenefs, fo as that no
particle of coaly or inflammable matter may remain
in them, and well walhed from filth, are ground into
moderately fine powder ; which, in order to its being
formed into cupels, is moiftened with juft as much wa¬
ter as is fuflicient to make it hold together when
ftrongly prefled between the fingers; fome direft glu-,
tinous liquids, as whites of eggs or gum-water, in or¬
der to give the powder a greater tenacity: but the in- f
flammable matter, however fmall in quantity, which
accompanies thefe fluids, and cannot be eaiily burnt
out from the internal part of the mafs, is apt to revive
a part of the metallic fcoria that has been abforbed,
and to occafion the veflel to burft or crack. The cu¬
pel is formed in a brafs ring, from three quarters of an
inch to two inches diameter, and not quite fo deep,
placed upon fome fmooth fupport: the ring being fill¬
ed with moiftened powder, which is prefled clofe with
the fingers ; a round-faced peftle, called a monk, i*
(truck down into it with a few blows of a mallet, by
which the mafs is made to cohere, and rendered fuf-
ficiently compact, and a (hallow cavity formed in the
middle : the figure of the cavity is nearly that of a
fphere, that a fmall quantity of metal melted in it
may run together into one bead. To make the ca¬
vity the fmoother, a little of the fame kind of allies
levigated into an impalpable powder, and not moiften¬
ed, is commonly fprinkled on the furface, through a
fmall fine fieve made for this purpofe, and the monk
again (truck 'down upon it. The ring or ^mould is-
a little narrower at bottom than at top; fo that by
preffing it down on fome of the dry powder fpread up¬
on a table, the cupel is loofened, and forced upwards
a little ; after which it is eafily puftied out with the
finger, and is then fet to dry in a warm place free from
duit.
CUPELLATION, the aft of refining gold or fil
ver by means of a cupel. For this purpofe another
veflel, called a muffle, is made ufe of, within which one
or more cupels are placed. The muffle is placed upon
a grate in a proper furnace, with its mouth facing the
door, and as clofe to it as may be. The furnace be¬
ing filled up with fuel, fome lighted charcoal is thrown
on the top, and what fuel is afterwards neceflary is
fupplied through a door above. The cupels are fet in
the muffle ; and being gradually heated by the fuccefi-
five kindling of the fuel, they are kept red-hot for
fome time, that the moifture which they ftrongly re¬
tain may be completely diflipated : for if any vapours
(hould iflue from them after the metal is put in, they
would occafion it to fputter, and a part of it to be
thrown off in little drops. In the fides of the muffle
are fome perpendicular flits, with- a knob over the top
of each, to prevent any fmall pieces of coals or allies
from falling in. The door, or fome apertures made in
it being kept open, for the infpeftion of the cupels,
frefli air enters into the muffle, and paffes off through
thefe flits: by laying fome burning charcoal on an iron
plate before the door, the air is heated before its
admiflion ; and by removing the charcoal or fupply-
3. ing.
GUP [ 608 ] CUP
Cupeila- Ing more, the heat in the cavity of the muffle may be
tion' fomewhat diminilhed or increafed more fpeedily than
“ v can be effected by fuppreffing or exciting the fire in
the furnace on the outfide of the muffle. The renew¬
al of the air alfo is neceffary for promoting the fcori-
fication of the lead.
The cupel being of a full red heat, the lead call in¬
to a fmooth bullet, that it may not fcratch or injure
the furface, is laid lightly in the cavity: it immediate¬
ly melts; and then the gold or filver to be cupelled
are cautioufly introduced either by means of a fmall
iron ladle or by wrapping them in paper, and drop¬
ping them on the lead with a pair of tongs. The
quantity of lead (hould be at leaff three or four times
that of the fine metal: but when gold is very impure,
it requires 10 or 12 times its quantity of lead for cu-
pellation. It is reckoned that copper requires for its
fcorification about to times its weight of lead ; that
when copper and gold are mixed in equal quantities,
the copper is fo much defended by the gold as not to
be feparable with lefs than 20 times its weight of lead ;
and that when copper is in very fmall proportion, as
a 20th or 30th part of the gold or filver, upwards of
60 parts of lead are neceffary for one of the copper.
The cupel muff always weigh at leaft half as much as
the lead and copper ; for otherwife it will not be fuf-
ficient for receiving half the fcoria: there is little dan¬
ger, however, of cupels being made too fmall for the
quantity of a gold affay.
The mixture being brought into thin fufion, the
heat is to be regulated according to the appearances ;
and in this confifts the principal nicety in the opera¬
tion. If a various coloured Ikin rifes to the top, which,
liquefying, runs off to the fides, and is there abforbed
by the cupel, vifibly ftaining the parts it enters; if a
■freih fcoria continually fucceeds, and is abforbed near¬
ly as faff as it is formed, only a fine circle of it re¬
maining round the edge of the met al; if the lead ap¬
pears in gentle motion, and throws up a fume a little
way from its furface ; the fire is of the proper degree,
and the procefs goes on fuccefsfully.
Such a fiery brightnefs of the cupel as prevents its
colour from being diftinguiffled, and the fumes of
the lead rifing up almoft to the arch of the muffle, are
marks of too ftrong a heat : though it muff be obfer-
ved, that the elevation of the fumes is not always in
proportion to the degree of heat ; for if the heat
greatly exceeds the due limits, both the fumes and
ebullition will entirely ceafe. In tbefe circumllances
the fire muff neceffarily be diminifhed : for while the
lead boils and fmokes vehemently, its fumes are apt to
carry off fome part of the gold; the cupel is liable to
crack from the hafty abforption of the fcoria, and part
of the gold and filver is divided into globules, which
lying difcontinued on the cupel after the procefs is fi-
nilhed, cannot eafily be collected: if there is no ebul¬
lition or fumes, the fcorification does not appear to go
on. Too weak a heat is known by the dull rednefs
of the cupel; ,by the fume not rifing from the furface
of the lead; and the fcoria like bright drops inlaaguid
motion, or accumulated, or growing confiftent all over
the metal. The form of the furface affords alfo an
ufeful mark of the degree of heat; the ftronger the
fire, the more convex is the furface; and the weaker,
the more flat: in this point,, however, regard muft be
' N° 96.
had to the quantity of metal; a large quantity being Cupelling
always flatter than a fmall one in an equal fire. II
Towards the end of the procefs, the fire muft be in- CllPrefl~,li!-
creafed; for greateft part of the fufible metal lead , "
being now worked off, the gold and filver will not
continue melted in the heat that was fufficient before.
As the laft remains of the lead are feparating, the
rainbow colours on the furface become more vivid,
and varioufly interfeCt one another with quick mo¬
tions. Soon after, difappearing all at once, a fudden
luminous brightnefs of the button of gold and filver
fhows the procefs to be finiihed The cupel is then
drawn forwards towards the mouth of the muffle ;
and the button, as foon as grown fully folid, taken
out.
CUPELLING furnace. See Cupelling Furnace.
CUPID, in pagan mythology, the god of love.
There feem to have been two Cupids; one the
fon of Jupiter and Venus, whofe delight it was to
raife fentiments of love and virtue; and the other
the fon of Mars and the fame goddefs, who in-
fpired bafe and impure defires. The firft of thefe,
called Eros, or true love, bore golden arrows, which
caufed real joy, and a virtuous affe&ion ; the other,
called Anteros, had leaden arrows that railed a paffion
founded only on defife, which ended in fatiety and
difguft. Cupid was always drawn with wings, to re-
prefent his inconftancy ; and naked, to Ihow that he
has nothing of his own. He was painted blind, to de- •
note that love fees no fault in the objedt beloved; and
with a bow and quiv¥r of arrows, to Ihow his power
over the mind. Sometimes he is placed between
Hercules and Mercury, to Ihow the prevalence of elo¬
quence and valour in love; and at others is placed
near Fortune, to fignify that the fuccefs of lovers de¬
pends on that inconftant goddefs. Sometimes he isre-
prefented with an helmet on his head and a fpear on
his Ihoulder, to fignify that love difarms the fierceft
men ; he rides upon the backs of panthers and lions,
and ufes their manes for a bridle, to denote that love
tames the moft favage beafts. He is likewife pictured
riding upon a dolphin, to fignify that his empire ex¬
tends over the fea no lefs than the land.
CUPOLA, in archite&ure, a fpherical Vault, or the
round top of the' dome of a church, in the form of a
cup inverted.
CUPPING, in forgery, the operation of applying
cupping-glaffes for the difcharge of blood and other
humours by the Ikin. See Surgery.
CUPRESSUS, the cypress-tree : A genus of the
monadelphia order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
5 1 ft order, Confers. The male calyx is a fcale of the
catkin ; there is no corolla ; the antheras are four, feflile,
and without filaments. The calyx of the female is a fcale
of the ftrobilus, and uniflorus; inftead of ftyles there
are hollow dots ; the fruit is an angulated nut. There
are fix fpecies ; the moft remarkable are the following:
1. The fempervirens, with an upright ftraight ftem,
clofely branching all around, almoft from the bottom
upwards, into numerous quadrangular branches : lifing
in the different varieties from 15 to 40 or 50 feet in
height, and very clofely garnifhed with fmall, narrow,
ereift evergreen leaves, placed imbricatim ; and flowers
and fruit from the fides of the branches. 2. The
thyoides,
CUP r 609 ] CUR
Cupreffus, thyoides, or evergreen American cyprefs, commonly
Cuprum. ca(leci white cedar, hath an upright ftem, branching
out jnto numerous two-edged branches, rifmg 20 or 30
feet high, ornamented with flat ever-green leaves im¬
bricated like arbor vitje, and fmall blue.cones the fize
of juniper-berries. 3. The difticha, or deciduous
American cyprefs, hath an ere& trunk, retaining a
large bulk, branching wide and regular; grows 50 or
60 feet high, fully garnilhed with fmall, fpreading
deciduous leaves, arranged diftichous, or along two
fides of the branches. All thefe fpecies are raifed
from feeds, and will fometimes alfo grow from cut¬
tings ; but thofe raifed from feeds prove the hand-
fomeft plants. The feeds are procured in their cones
from the feed.fmen, and by expofing them to a mo¬
derate heat, they readily open, and difcharge the
feeds freely. The feafon for flowing them is any time
in March ; and they grow freely on a bed or border of
common light earth: efpacially the firft and third
fpecies. The ground mult then be dug, well broken,
and raked fmooth, then drawing an inch of earth
evenly from off the furface into the alley, flow the feeds
moderately thick, and directly fift the earth over them,
half an inch deep. If in April and May the weather
proves warm and dry, a very moderate watering will
now and then be neceflary, and the plants will rife in
fix or eight weeks. During the fummer they muft be
kept clear from weeds, and in dry weather they muft
be gently watered twice a-week. In winter they muft
be occafionally fheltered with mats in the time of hard
froft. In two years they will be fit for tranfplanting
from th'e feed-bed, when they may be fet in nurfery-
rows two feet afunder ; and in three or four years they
will be fit for the fhrubbery.
The wood of the firft fpecies is faid to refift worms,
moths, and putrefaction, and to laft many centuries.
The coffins in which the Athenians were wont to bury
their heroes wrere made, fays Thucydides, of this
wood ; as were likewife the chefts containing the E-
gyptian mummies. The doors of St Peter’s church
at Rome were originally of the fame materials. Thefe,
after lafting upwards of 600 years, at the end of which
they did not difcover the fmalleft tendency to corrup¬
tion, were removed by order of pope Eugenius IV.
and gates of brafs fubftituted in their place. The
fame tree is by many eminent authors recommended
as improving and meliorating the air by its balfamic
and aromatic exhalations; upon which account many
ancient phyficians of the eaftern countries ufed to fend
their patients who were troubled with weak lungs to
the ifland of Candia, where thefe trees grew in great
abundance ; and where, from the falubrious air alone,
very few failed of a perfe& cure. In the fame ifland,
fays Miller, the cypfefs trees were fo lucrative a com¬
modity, that the plantations were called Jos filia; the
felling of one of them being reckoned a daughter’s
portion. Cyprefs, fays Mr Pococke, is the only tree
that grows towards the top of mount Lebanon, and
being nipped by the cold, grows like a fmall oak.
Noah’s ark is commonly fuppofed to have been made
of this kind of wood.
CUPRUM Ammoniacale. See Chemistry,
N° 1034. This preparation is recommended in fome
kinds of fpafmodic difeafes, .given in the dofe of one
or two grains.
Vol. V. Part II.
CUPRUM, or Copper. See Copper. Cnprum
CURACOA, or Curassow, one of the larger An- U
tilles iflands, fubjett to the Dutch ; fituated in W. urate'^
Long. 68. 30. N. Lat. 12. 30. This ifland is little
elfe than a bare rock, about ten leagues long and five
broad ; lying three leagues off the coaft of Venezuela.
It has an excellent harbour, but the entrance is diffi¬
cult. The bafon is extremely large, and convenient
in every refpect; and is defended by a fort Ikilfully
conftrnfted, and always kept in repair. The reafon
of forming a fettlement upon this barren fpot was to
carry on a contraband trade with the Spanifli colonies
on the continent; but after fome time the method of
managing, this trade was changed. Curaffow itfelf
became an immenfe magazine, to which the Spaniards
reforted in their boats to exchange gold, filver, va¬
nilla, cocoa, cochineal, bark, fkins, and mules, for ne¬
groes, linen, filks, India fluffs, fpices, laces, ribbands,
quick-filver, fteel, and iron-ware. Thefe voyages,
though continual, did not prevent a number of Dutch
floops from paffing from Curaffow to the continent.
But the modern fubftitution of regifter-fhips inftead
of galleons, has made this communication lefs frequent;
but it will be revived whenever, by the intervention
of war, the communication with the Spanifti main (hall
be cut off. The difputes between the courts of Lon¬
don and Verfailles alfo prove favourable to the trade
of Curaffow. At thefe times it furnifties provifions
to the fouthern parts of St Domingo, and takes off all
its produce. Even the French privateers, from the
windward iflands, repair in great numbers to Curaf¬
fow, notwichftanding the diftance. The reafon is,
that they find there all kinds of neceffary ftores for
their veffels ; and frequently Spanifli, but always Eu¬
ropean goods, which are univerfally ufed. Englifli
privateers feldom cruize in thefe parts. Every com¬
modity without exception, that is landed at Curaffow,
pays one per cent, port-duty. Dutch goods are never
taxed higher: but thofe that are (hipped from other
European ports pay nine per cent. more. Foreign
coffee is fubjedl to the fame tax, in order to promote
the fale of that of Surinam. Every other produdfion of
America is fubjedt only to a payment of three percent.;
but with an exprefs ftipulation that they are to be con¬
veyed diredlly to fome port belonging to the republic.
CURATE, the lowed degree in the church of Eng¬
land ; he who reprefents the incumbent of a church,
parfon or vicar, and officiates divine fervice in his
ftead : and in cafe of pluralities of livings, or where a
clergyman is old and infirm, it is requifite there (hould
be a curate to perform the cure of the church. He is
to be licenfed and admitted by the bifliop of the diocefe,
or by an ordinary having epifcopal Junfdidtion: and
when a curate hath the approbation of the bifliop, he
ufually appoints the falary too ; and in fuch cafe, if he
be not paid, the curate hath a proper remedy in the
ecclefiaftical court, by a fequeftration of the profits of
the benefice ; but if the curate is not licenfed by the
bifliop, he is put to his remedy at common law, where
he muft prove the agreement, &c. A curate having
no fixed eftate in his curacy, not being inftituted and
indudted, may be removed at pleafure by the bifliop or
incumbent. But there are perpetual curates as well
as temporary, who are appointed where tithes are im¬
propriate, and no viearage endowed : thefe are not
4 H removeable,
CUR [6
Ctaratella removeable, and the improprietors are obliged to find
^ . them; fome whereof have certain portions of the tithes
^ Ctirculio. fettie^ on them. Every clergyman that officiates in
-y-ini. ^ (-hurch (whether incumbent or fubftitute) in the li¬
turgy is called a curate. Curates muft fubfcribe the
declaration according to the a& of uniformity, or are
liable to imprifonment, &c.
CUR ATELLA, in botany : A genus of the digy-
nia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of
which the order is doubtful. The calyx is pentaphyl-
lous ; the petals four ; the flyles two ; the capfule bi¬
partite, with the cells difpermous.
CURATOR, among the Romans, an officer under
the emperors, who regulated the price of all kinds of
merchandize and vendible commodities in the cities of
the empire. They had likewife the fuperintendence of
the cuiloms and tributes; whence alfo they were call¬
ed logijia.
Curator, among civilians, a truftee or perfon no¬
minated to take care of the affairs and interefts of a
perfon emancipated or interdifted. In countries where
the Roman law prevails, between the age of 14 and
24 years, minors have curators affigned them ; till 14,
they have tutors.
Curator of an Univerflty, in the United Provinces,
is an ele&ive office, to which belongs the dire&ion of
the affairs of the univerflty ; as, the adminiftration of
the revenues, the infpection of the profeffors, &c. The
curators are chofen by the flates of each province : the
univerflty of Leyden has three ; the burghermafters of
the city have a fourth.
CURB, in the manege, a chain of iron made fad
to the upper part of the branches of the bridle in a hole
called the eye, and running over the horfe’s beard.
It confifts of thefe three parts; the hook, fixed to the
eye of the branch ; the chain of SS’s or links; and
the two rings, or mailes. Large curbs, provided
they be round, are always mod. gentle : but care is to
be takenj that it red in its proper place, a little above
the beard, otherwife the bit-mouth will not have the
effeft that may be expected from it.
Englifh watering bits have no curbs ; the Turkifh
bits, called genettes, have a ring that ferves indead of a
curb. See Genettes.
Curb, in farriery, is a hard and callous fwelling on
the hind part of the hock, attended with diffnefs, and
fometimes with pain and lamenefs. See Spavin.
CURCAS, a name given in Egypt to an efculent
root, approaching to the tade and virtues of the colo-
cafia. It is alfo a name ufed in Malabar for a fmall
fruit of the fhape and fize of an hazel nut. Both
thefe things have the credit of being drong provoca¬
tives ; and it is very propable that the curcas of the
Ead Indies may be the fruit called bel by Avicenna,
and faid to poffefs the fame virtues. Garcias has been
led into a very great error by this fimilarity of names
and virtues; and fuppofes the curcas of Egypt the
fame with that of the Ead Indies.
Plate CLI CURCULIO, in zoology, a genus of infe&s be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera. The feelers are
fubclavated, and red upon the fnout, which is promi¬
nent and horny. Thefe infects are divided into the
following families. I. Thofe which have the rodrum
longer than the thorax, and whofe thighs are limple.
o 1 CUR
2 Thofe which have the rodrum longer than the tho- Curcnl o.
rax, and the thighs thicker and made for leaping. v-“iJ
3. Thofe which have the rodrum longer than the tho¬
rax, and the thighs dentated. 4. Thofe which have
dentated thighs, and a rodrum fhorter than the thorax.
5. Thofe whofe thighs are without teeth or fpines, and
the rodrum fhorter than the thorax. There are no
lefs than 95 fpecies, principally didinguifhed by their
colour.
The larvas of the curculiones differ not from thofe of
mod coleopterous infefts. They bear a refemblance
to obit ng foft worms. They are provided anteriorly
with fix fcaly legs, and their head is likewife fealy.
But the places where thofe larvas dwell, and their tranf-
formations, afford fome Angularities. Some fpecies of
them, that are dreaded for the mifehief they do in gra¬
naries, find meaTis to introduce themfelves, while yet
fmall, into grains of corn, and there make their abode.
It is very difficult to difc«ver them, as they lie con¬
cealed within the grain. There they grow at leifure,
enlarging their dwelling-place as they grow, at the
expence of the interior meal of the grain on which
they feed. Corn-lofts are often laid wade by thefe
infe&s, whofe numbers are fometimes fo great as to
devour and dedroy all the corn. When the infeed,
after having eat up the meal, is come to its full fize, on
it remains within the grain, hidden under the empty ^ *'
hulk, which fubfifts alone ; and there transformed, it
becomes a chryfalis, nor does it leave it till a perfedt
infeed, making its way through the hulk of the grain.
It is no eafy matter to difeover by the eye the grains
of corn thus attacked and hollowed out by thei'e in¬
feeds, as they outwardly appear large and full: but
the condition the curculio has reduced them to, renders
them much lighter ; and if you throw corn infeded by
thefe infeeds into water, all the tainted grains will
fwim, and the red fink to the bottom. Other larvas
of curculiones are not fo fond of corn, but fix in the
fame manner on feveral other feeds. Beans, peafe,
and lentils, that are preferved dry, are liable to be
fpoiled by thefe little animals, which prey upon the
inward part of the grain, where they have taken up
their habitation, and do not come forth till they have
completed their transformation, by breaking through
the outward hulk of the grain : this is difcoverable
by cading thofe grains into water; thofe that fwim
are generally perforated by the curculiones. Other
fpecies are lodged in the infide of plants. The heads
of artichokes and thidles are often bored through and
eaten away by the larvae of large curculiones. Ano¬
ther fpecies fmaller, but lingular, pierces and inwardly
confumes the leaves of elms. It frequently happens
that almod all the leaves of an elm appear yellow, and
as it were dead towards one of their edges, while the
whole remainder of the leaf is green. Upon infpedt-
ing thofe leaves, the dead part appears to form a kind
of bag or fmall bladder. The two laminae or outward
pellicles of the leaf, as well above as below, are en¬
tire, but didaat and feparated from each other, whild
the parenchyma that lies between them has been con-
fumed by feveral fmall larvae of the curculio, that have
made themfelves that dwelling, in which they may be
met with. After their transformatibn they come forth,
by piercing the kind of bladder, and give being to a
curcnlio that is brown, fmall, and hard to catch, by
peafon;
1
CUR [ 6n 1 CUR
Curcuma reafon of the nimblenefs with which it leaps. The pro- Lucian and Diodorus Siculus reprefcnt them as very Curete!
II ^ perty of leaping, allotted to this Angle fpecies, depends expert in calling of darts ; though other authors give H.
on the lhape and length of its hinder legs. them no weapons but bucklers and pikes: but all agree
CURCUMA, turmeric : A genus of the mono- in furnilhing them with tabors and callanettas; and re- v~~
gynia order, belonging to the monandria clafs of late, that they ufed to dance much to the noife and
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the clalhing thereof. By this noife, it is faid, they pre¬
eighth order, Sdtaminee. It has four barren fta- vented Saturn from hearing the cries of young Jupiter,
mina, with a fifth fertile. The fpecies are, whereby he was faved from being ddlroyed.
i. The rotunda, with a round root, hath a flelhy- Some authors, however, give a different account of
jointed root like that of ginger, but round; which the Curetes. According to Pezron and others, the
fends up feveral fpear-fhaped oval leaves, which rife Curetes were, in the times of Saturn, &c. and in the
upwards of a foot high, and of a fea-green colour, countries of Crete and Phrygia, what the druids were
From between thefe arifes the flower-ftalk, fupporting afterwards among the Gauls, &c. i. e. they were prielts
a loofe fpike of flowers of a pale-yellowilh colour, in- who had the care of what related to religion and the
clofed in feveral different fpathae, or fheaths, which worfhip of the gods. Hence, as in thofe days it was
drop off. The flowers are never fucceeded by feeds fuppofed there was no communication with the gods
in this country. 2. The longa, hath long flefhy roots but by divinations, auguries, and the operations of
of a deep yellow colour, which fpfead under the fur- magic ; the Curetes paffed for magicians and enchan-
face of the ground like thofe of ginger; they are about ters: to thefe they added the lludy of the liars, of
the thicknefs of a man’s finger, having many round nature, and poefy ; and fo were philofophers, allrono-
knotty circles, from which arife four or five large fpear- mers, &c.
fhaped leaves, Handing upon long foot-llalks. The Vofiius, de Idolat. dillinguifhes three kinds of Cu*
flowers grow in loofe fcaly fpikes on the top of the retes; thofe of iEtolia, thofe of Phrygia, and thofe of
foot-llalks, which arife from the larger knobs of the Crete who were originally derived •from the Phry-
roots, and grow about a foot high ; they are of a yel- gians. The firlt, he fays, took their name from *■*?*,
lowifh red colour, and lhaped fomewhat like thofe of tor Jure; in regard, from the time of a combat where-
the Indian reed. in the enemy feized their long hair, they always kept
Thefe plants grow naturally in India, from whence it cut. Thofe of Phrygia and Crete, he fuppofes, were
the roots are brought to Europe for ufe. They are fo called from xup©-, young man; in regard they weie
very tender ; fo will not live in this country unlefs kept young, or bccaufe they nurfed Jupiter when he was
conllantly in a Hove. They are propagated by part- young.
ing the roots. The root communicates a beautiful CURFEW, or Courfew, a fignal given in cities
but perilhable yellow dye, with alum, to woollen, cot- taken in war, &c. to the inhabitants to go te bed.
ton, or linen. In medicine it is efteemed aperient, Pafquin fays, it was fo called, as being intended to ad-
and emmenagogic; and of Angular efficacy in the vertife the people to fecure themfeives from the rob-
jaundice. beries and debaucheries of the night.
CURDISTAN, a country of Alia, feated between The moll eminent curfew in England was that elta-
the Turkifh empire and Perfia, lying along the call- blilhed by William the Conqueror, who appointed,
ern coafl of the river Tigris, and comprehends great under fevere penalties, that, at the ringing of a bell
part of the ancient Affyria. Some of the inhabitants at tight o’clock in the evening, every one ihould put
live in towns and villages, and others rove from place out their lights and fires and go to bed: whence, to
to place, having tents like the wild Arabs, and are this day, a bell rung about that time is called zcurfew
alfo robbers like them. Their religion is partly Chrif- bell.
tian, and partly Mahometanifm; but they are very CURIA, in Roman antiquity, was ufed for the fe-
loofe in regard to cither. nate-houfe. There were feveral curias in Rome ; as
CURDLING, the coagulating or fixing of any t\iz curia calabra, faid to be built by Romulus; the
fluid body; particularly milk. See the article Cheese. curia hojlilia, by Tullus Hollilius; and die curiapompeia,
Paufanias fays, that Ariilaeus fon of Apollo, and Cy- by Pompey the Great,
rene daughter of the river Peneus, were the firfl who Curia alfo denoted the places where the curiae ufed
found the fecret of curdling milk. to affemble. Each of the 30 curiae of old Rome had
At Florence they curdle their milk for the making a temple or chapel affigned to them for the common
of cheefe with artichoke flowers ; in lieu of the rennet performance of their Tacrifices, and other offices of
ufed for the fame purpofe among us. their religion ; fo that they were not unlike our pa-
The Bifaltoe, a people of Macedonia, Rochfort rifhes. Some remains of thefe little temples feem to
obferves, live wholly upon curdled milk, i. e. on have fubfilled many ages after on the Palatine-hill,
curds. He adds, that curds are the whole food of the where Romulus firlt built the city, and always relided.
people of Upper Auvergne in France, and whey their Curia, among the Romans, alfo denoted a portion
only drink. or divilion of a tribe. In the time of Romulus, a tribe
CURETES, in antiquity, a fort of priefts or conlifled of ten curise, or a thoufand men; each curia
people of the ille of Crete, called alfo Corybantes. See being one hundred. That legiflator made the firft di-
Corybantes and Crete. The Curetes are faid to vifion of his people into thirty curiae. Afterwards
have been originally of mount Ida in Phrygia; for curia, or domus curialis, became ufed for the pla*ce
which reafon they were alfo called Idei Dadyli. See where each curia held its affemblies. Hence alio
Dactyli. curia palfed to the fenate-houfe ; and it is fiom hence
4 H 2 the
CUR [
Curia the ’moderns come to ufe the word curia, “ court,1
It a place of iuttice, and for the judges, &c. there af-
.Cur‘ofus- fembled.
v Varro derives the word from cura, “ care;” q. d. an
affembly of people charged with the care of public af¬
fairs. Others deduce it from the Greeks; maintain¬
ing, that at Athens they called the place where
the magiftrate held his affizes, and the people ufed to
affemble: again, may come from f, authori¬
ty, power; becaufe it was here the laws were made.
Curia, in our ancient cuftoms.—It was ufual for
the kings of England to fummon the bifhops, peers,
and great men of the kingdom, to fome particular
place, at the chief feftivals in the year: and this affem¬
bly is called by our hiftorians curta; becaufe there they
confulted about the weighty affairs of the nation :
whence it was fometimes alfo called folemnis curia, gene-
ral'n curia, augujlalis curia, and curia pullka, Ike. See
IVlTENA-Mot.
Curia Baronum. See CovRr-Baron.-
Curia Claudenda, is a writ that lies againft him who
fhould fence and inclofe the ground, but refufes or
defers to do it.
CURIATII, three brothers of Alba, maintained the
intereft of their country againft the Romans who had
declared war againft thofe of Alba. The two armies
being equal, three brothers on each fide were chofen
to decide the conteft : the Curiatii by thofe of Alba,
and the Horatii by the Romans. The three firft were
wounded, and two of the latter killed : but the third,
joining policy to valour, ran away; and having thus
tired the Curiatii; he took them one after another and
killed them all three.
CURING, a term ufed for the preferving fifh, flefh,
and other animal fubftances, by means of certain ad-
612 ] CUR
for trailers. They had their name from cura, “ care Curlew
quod curls agendis & eveSionihus curfus puhlici injpiciendis II
operam darent. Current. ^
CURLEW, in ornithology. See Scolopax. *
CURMI, a name given by the ancients to a fort of
malt liquor or ale. It was made of barley, and was
drunk by the people of many nations inftead of wine,
according to Diofcordes’s account. He accufes it of
caufing pains in the head, generating bad juices, and
difordering the nervous fyftem. He alfo fays, that
in the weftern part of Iberia, and in Britain, fuch a
fort of liquor was in his time prepared from wheat in¬
ftead of barley. See Ale.
CURNOCK, a meafure of corn containing four bu-
ftiels, or half a quarter.
CURRANS, or Currants, the fruit of a fpecies of
groffularia. See Grossularia.
The white and red fort are moftly ufed; for the
black, and chiefly the leaves, upon firft coming out,
are in ufe to flavour. Englilh fpirits, and counterfeit
French brandy. Currants greatly affuage drought,
cool and fortify the ftomach, and help digeftion ; and
the jelly of black currants is faid to be very efficacious
in curing inflammations of the throat.
Currants alfo fignify a fmaller kind of grapes,
brought principally from Zant and Cephalonia. They
are gathered off the bufhes, and laid to dry in the fun,
and fo put up in large butts. They are opening and
peftoral; but are more ufed in the kitchen than in
medicine.
CURRENT, or Courant, a term ufed to exprefs
the prefent time. Thus the year 1790 is the current
year, the 20th current is the 20th day of the month
now running.—With regard to commerce, the price
current of any merchandife is the known and ordinary
ditions of things, to prevent putrefaftion. One great price accuftomed to be given for it. The term is alfo
method of doing this, is by fmoking the bodies with
the fmoke of wood, or rubbing them with fait, nitre,
&c.
CURIO, the chief and prieft of a curia.—Romulus,
upon dividing the people into curiae, gave each divifion
ufed for any thing that has courfe or is received in
commerce ; in which fenfe we fay, current coin, &c.
Current, in navigation, a Certain progreffive move¬
ment of the water of the fea, by which all bodies
floating therein are compelled to alter their courfe or
chief, who was to be prieft of that curia, under the velocity, or both, and fubmit to the laws impofed on
title of curio and jlamen curialis. His bufinefs
provide and officiate at the facrifices of the curia,
which were called curionia; the curia furnifhing him
with a fum of money on that confideration, which pen-
fion or appointment was called curionium. Each divi¬
fion had the eleftion of its curia ; but all thefe parti-
them by the current.
In the iea, currents are either natural and general,
as arifing from the diurnal rotation of the earth about
its axis ; or accidental and particular, caufed by the
waters being driven againft promontories, or into
gulphs and ftraits, where, wanting room to fpread,
cular curios were under the direction of a fuperior or they are driven back, and thus difturb the ordinary
general, called curio maximus; who was the head of the flux of the fea. Currents are various, and dire&ed
body, and ele&ed by all the curios affembled in the towards different parts of the ocean, of which fome
comitia curialis.
All thefe inftitutions were introduced by Romulus,
and confirmed by Numa, as Halicarnaffeus relates it.
are conftant, others periodical. The moft extraordi¬
nary current of the fea, is that by which part of the
Atlantic or African Ocean moves about Guinea from
CURIOSUS, an officer of the Roman empire du- Cape Verd towards the curvature or bay of Africa*
ring the middle age, appointed to take care that no
frauds and irregularities were committed ; particularly
no abufes in what related to the pofts, the roads, &c.
and to give intelligence to the court of what paffed in
the provinces. This made the curiofi people of im¬
portance, and put them in a condition of doing more
harm than they prevented ; on which account, Hono-
rius eafhiered them, at leaft in fome parts of the em¬
pire, anno 4.15,
which they call Fernando Poo; viz. from weft to eaft,
contrary to the general motion. And fuch is the force
of the current, that wheikfhips approach too near the
ftiore, it carries them violently towards that bay, and
deceives the mariners in their reckoning. There is a
great variety of Ihifting currents which do not laft,
but return at certain periods; and thefe do, moft of
them, depend upon and follow the anniverfary winds
monfoons, which by blowing in one place may c
The curiofi came pretty near to what we call con- a current in another. Varenius informs us, that at
Java,
CUR [ 613 ] CUR
Java, in the ftraits of Sunda, when the monfoons
blow from the weft, via. in the month of May, the
currents fet to the eaftward, contrary to the general
motion. Between the ifland of Celebes and Madura,
when the weftern monfoons fet in, vi%. in December,
January,- and February, or when the winds blow from
the north-weft, or between the north and weft, the
currents fet to the fouth-eaft, or between the fouth
and eaft. At Ceylon, from the middle of March to
Oftober, the currents fet to the foutfrward, and in
the other parts of the year to the northward ; becaufe
at this time the fouthern monfoons blow, and at
the other the northern. Between Cochin-China-and
Malacca, when the weftern monfoons blow, viz., from
April to Auguft, the currents fet eaftward againft
the general motion; but the reft of the year they
fet weftward, the monfoon confpiring with the general
motion. They run fo ftrongly in thefe feas, that un¬
experienced failors miftake them for waves that beat
upon the rocks, known ufually by the name of breakers,
bo for fome months after the 15th of February, the
currents fet from the Maldives towards India on the eaft,
againft the general motion of the fea. On the fttore
of China and Cambodia, in the months of Oftober,
November, and December, the currents fet to the
north-weft, and from January to the fouth-weft, when
they run with fuch rapidity about the fttoals of Parcel,
that they feem fwifter than an arrow. At Pulo Con-
dore, upon the coaft of Cambodia, though the mon¬
foons are ftrifting, yet the currents fet ftrongly to¬
wards the eaft, even when they blow to a. contrary
point. Along the coafts of the Bay of Bengal, as
far as the Cape Romania, at the extreme point of
Malacca, the current runs fouthward in November
and December. When the monfoons blow from China
to Malacca, the fea runs fwiftly from Pulo Cambi to
Pulo Condore on the coaft of Cambodia. In the Bay
of Sans Bras, not far from the Cape of Good Hope,
there is a current particularly remarkable, where the
fea runs from eaft to weft to the landward; and this
more vehemently as it is oppofed by winds from a
contrary diredtion. The caufe is undpubtedly owing
to fome adjacent ftiore which is higher than this. In
the ftraits of Gibraltar, the currents almoft conftantly
drive to the eaftward, and carry fhips into the Medi¬
terranean : they are alfo found to drive the fame way
into St George’s channel.
The fetting or progreflive motion of the current
may be either quite down to the bottom, or to a cer¬
tain determinate depth. As the knowledge of the di-
redtion and velocity of currents is a very material ar¬
ticle in navigation, it is highly neceffary to difcover
both, in order to afcertain the ftiip’s fituation and
courfe with as much accuracy as pollible. The moft
fuccefsful method which has been hitherto pradlifed
by mariners for this purpofe is as follows. A com¬
mon iron pot, which may contain four or five gallons,
is fufpended by a fmall rope faftened to its ears or
handles, fo as to hang diredlly upright, as when pla¬
ced upon the fire. This rope, which may be from
70 to iqo fathoms in length, being prepared for the
experiment, is coiled in the boat, which is hoifted out
of the fliip at a proper opportunity, when there is
little or no wind to ruffle the furface of the fea. The
pot being then thrown overboard into the water, and
5
immediately finking, the line is flackened till about 70 Current
or 80 fathoms of the line run out; after which the ff
line is faftened to the boat’s ftern, by which fhe is ac- Currodre-
cordingly reftrained, and rides as at an anchor. The Pa”U8, t
velocity of the current is then eafily tried by the log.
and half-minute glafs, the ufual method of difcovering
the rate of a (hip’s failing at fea. The courfe of the
ftream is next obtained by the compafs provided for
this operation. Having thus found the fetting and
drift of the current, it next remains to apply this ex¬
periment to the purpofes of Navigation ; for which
fee that article.
Under-Currents are diftintt from the upper or ap¬
parent, and in different places fet or drive a con¬
trary way. Dr Smith makes it highly probable, that
in the Downs, in the ftraits of Gibraltar, &c.
there is an under-current, whereby as much water is
carried out as is brought in by the upper-currents.
This he argues from the offing between the north and
fouth Foreland, where it runs tide and half-tide, i. e.
it is either ebb or flood in that part of the Downs three
hours before it is fo off at fea: a certain fign, that
though the tide of flood runs aloft, yet the tide of
ebb runs under-foot, i. e. clofe by the ground ; and fo
at the tide of ebb it will flow under-foot. This he
confirms by an experiment in the Baltic Sound, com¬
municated to him by an able feaman prefent at the
making it. Being there then with one of the king’s
frigates, they went with their pinnace into the mid-
ftream, and were carried violently by the current.
Soon after that, they funk a balket with a large cannon
bullet to a certain depth of water, which gave check
to the boat’s motion; and finking it ftill lower and
lower, the boat was driven a-head to the windward
againft the upper current, the current aloft not being
above four or five fathom deep. He added, that the
lower the bafleet was let down,, the ftronger the under
current was found.
From this principle, it is eafy to account for that
continual in-draught of water out of the Atlantic into
the Mediterranean through the ftraits of Gibraltar,
a paffage about 20 miles broad; yet without any fen-
fible rifing of the water along the coafts of Barbary, See.
or any overflowing of the lands, which there lie very
low.—Dr Halley, however, folves the currents fetting
in at the ftraits without overflowing the banks by
the great evaporation, without fuppofing, any under¬
current.
CURRICULUS, in our anefent writers, denotes
the year or courfe of a year. Aitum ejl hoc annorum
Dominica incarnation'u quater quinquagenis (ff quinquiesr
quints lujlris, (ff trilus curriculus; i. e. In the year 10281
for four times fifty makes two hundred, and five times
two hundred makes one thoufand; five luftres are
twenty-five years, and three eurriculi are three years.
CURRIERS, thofe who drefs and colour leather
after it comes from the tan-yard. See Tanning.
CURRODREPANUS (formed of currus, “ cha¬
riot,” and “ feythe” or “ fickle”), in anti¬
quity, a kind of chariot armed with feythes.. The
driver of thefe chariots was obliged to ride on one of
the horfes, as there was no other feat for him; the
ufual place for him being all armed with knives, as
was likewife the hinder part of the chariot. There
were no feythes pointing down to the earth either
from
CUR [ 614 I CUR
Currying, fr0m the beam or axle-tree ; but thefe were fixed at
. Curting. tjje Qf tjie axie.tree in fuch a manner as to be
v moveable by means of a rope, and thereby could be
raifed or let down, and drawn forward or let fall back¬
ward, by relaxing the rope.
CURRYING, the method of preparing leather with
oil, tallow, &c.
The chief bufinefs is to foften and fupple cow and
calve-lkins, which make the upper-leathers and quar¬
ters of ihoes, covering of faddles, coaches, and other
things which muft keep out water. 1. Thefe flcins,
after coming from the tanner’s yard, having many
fleihy fibres on them, the currier foaks them fome
time in common water. 2. He takes them out and
ftretches them on a very even wooden horfe ; then
with a paring-knife he fcrapes off all the fuperfluous
fleih, and puts them in to foak again. 3. He puts
them wet on a hurdle, and tramples them with his
fieels t?.ll they begin to grow foft and pliant. 4. He
foaks thereon train-oil, which by its un&uous quality
is the belt liquor for this purpofe. 5. He fpreads them
on large tables, and faftens them at the ends. There,
with the help of an inltrument called a pummel, which
is a thick piece of wood, the under-fide of which is
•full of furrows crofiing each other, he folds, fquares,
and moves them forwards and backwards feveral times,
under the teeth of this inftrument, which breaks their
too great ftiffnefs. This is what is properly called
currying. The order and number of thefe operations
is varied by different curriers, but the material part is
always the fame. 6. After the fkins are curried, there
may be occafion to colour them. The colours are
black, white, red, yellow, green, &c. the other co¬
lours are given by the fkinners, who difi'er from cur¬
riers in this, that they apply their colours on the flefh
fide; the curriers on the hair fide. In order to whiten
fkins, they are rubbed with lumps of chalk or white-
lead, and afterwards with pumice-ftone. 7. When a
fkin is to be made black, after having oiled and dried it,
he pafies over it a puff dipt in water impregnated with
iron ; and after his firft wetting, he gives it another in
a water prepared with foot, vinegar, and gum-arabic.
Thefe different dyes gradually turn the fkin black, and
the operations are repeated till it be of a fhining black.
The grain and wrinkles, which contribute to the fup-
plenefs of calves and cows leather, are made by the
reiterated folds given to the fkin in every direction,
and by the care taken to fcrape off all hard parts on
the colour fide.
CURSING and Swearing, an offence againft
God and religion, and a fin of all others the moft extra¬
vagant and unaccountable, as having no benefit or ad¬
vantage attending it. By the laft ffatute againft this
crime, 19 Geo. II. which repeals all former ones, every
labourer, failor, or foldier, profanely curfing or fwear-
ing, {hall forfeit r s. ; every other perfon under the
rank of a gentleman, 2 s.; and every gentleman or
perfon of fuperior rank, 5 s. to the poor of the parifh;
and, on a feCond conviction, double; and, for every
fubfequent offence, treble the fum firft forfeited, with
all charges of conviction : and, in default of payment,
fliall be fent to the houfe of correction for 10 days.
Any juftice of the peace may conviCt upon his own
hearing, or the teftimony of one witnefs; and any
conftable or peace officer, upon his own hearing, may C .rutor
fecure any offender and carry him before a juftice, II
and there convict him. If the juftice omits his duty,, Curtlu3-
he forfeits 5I. and the conftable 40 s. And the a£t is ’
to be read in all pariih churches and public chapels the
Sunday after every quarter-day, on pain of 5I. to be
levied by warrant from any juftice. Befides this pu-
nifhment for taking God’s name in vain in common
difcourfe, it is enadted, by flat. 3. Jac. I. c. 21. that if
in any ftage-play, interlude, or how, the name of the
Holy Trinity, or any of the perfons therein, be jeft-
ingly or profanely ufed, the offender fhall forfeit tol.;
one moiety to the king, and the other to thednformer.
CURSITOR, a clerk belonging to the court of
chancery, whole bufinefs it is to make out original writs.
In the ftatute 18 Edw. III. they are called clerh of
courfe, and are 24 in number, making a corporation
of themfelves. To each of them is allowed a divifion
of certain counties, into which they iflue out the origi¬
nal writs required by the fubjecl.
CURTATE distance, in aftronomy, the diftance
of a planet from the fun to that point, where a per¬
pendicular let fall from the planet meets with the
ecliptic.
CURTATION, in aftronomy, is the interval be¬
tween a planet’s diftance from the fun and the cur¬
tate diftance.
CURTEYN, Curtana, was the name of Edward
the Confeffor’s fword, which is the firft fword carried
before the kings of England at their coronation;
and it is faid the point of it is broken as an emblem of
mercy.
CURTIN, Curtain, or Courtin, in fortification,
is that part of the rampart of a place which is betwixt
the flanks of two baftions, bordered with a parapet
five feet high, behind which the foldiers Hand to fire
upon the covered way and into the moat.
CURTIUS (Marcus), a Roman youth, who de¬
voted himfelf to the gods manes for the fafety of his
country, about 360 years before the Auguftan age. A
wide gap had fuddenly opened in the forum, and the
oracle had faid that it never would clofe before Rome
threw into it whatever it had moft precious. Curtius
immediately perceived that no lefs than an human fa-
crifice was required. He armed himfelf, mounted his
horfe, and folemnly threw himfelf into the gulf, which
inftantly clofed over his head.
Curtius (Quintus), a Latin hiftorian who wrote
the life of Alexander the Great in xo books, of which
the two firft are not indeed extant, but are fo well
fupplied by Freinihemius, that the lofs is fcarcely re¬
gretted. Where this writer was born, or even when
he lived, are points no one pretends to know. By his
ftyle he is fuppofed to have lived in or near the Au¬
guftan age ; while fome are not wanting, who ima¬
gine the wcrk to have been compofed in Italy about
300 years ago, and the name of Quintus Curtius to be
fi&itioufly added to it. Cardinal du P-rron was fo great
an admirer of this work, as to declare one page of it
to be worth 30 of Tacitus 4 yet M. le Clerc, at the
end of his Art of Criticifm, has charged the writer
with great ignorance and many contradi&ions. He
has ne verthelefs many qualities as a writer, which will
always make him admired and applauded.
CUR L 615 ] C U S
Curvature CURVATURE of a Line, is the peculiar man-
11 ner of its bending or flexure, by which it becomes a
. Cul-"- curve of :'uch and'fuch peculiar properties.
’■J ^ 1 CURVE, in geometry, a line which running on
continually in all dire&ions, may be cut by one right
line in more points than one. See Conic Sections
and Fluctions.
CURVE T, or Corvet, in the manege, an air in
which the hotfe’s legs are raifed higher than in the
demi volt; being a kind of leap up, and a little for¬
wards, wherein the horfe raifes both his fore legs at
once, equally advanced, (when he is going ftraight
forward, and not in a circle), and as his fort-legs are
falling, he immediately raifes his hind-legs, equally ad¬
vanced, and not one before the other: fo that all his
four legs are in the air at once; and as he fets them
down, he marks but twice with them.
CURVILINEAR, or Curvilineal, is faid of fi¬
gures bounded by curves or crooked lines.
CURVIROSTRA, in ornithology. See Loxia.
CURULE chair, in Roman antiquity, a chair a-
dorned with ivory, wherein the great magiftrates of
Rome had a right to fit and be carried.
The curule magiftrates were the sediles, the prae¬
tors, cenfors, and confuls. This chair was fitted in a
kind of chariot, whence it had its name. The fena-
tors who had borne the offices of aediles, praetors, &c.
were carried to the fenate-houfe in this chair, as were
alfo thofe who triamphed, and fuch as went to admi-
nifter juftice, &c. See ^Edile, &c.
CURZOLA, an ifland in the gulf of Vanice, lying
on the coaft: of Dalmatia. It is about 20 miles long,
and has a fmall town of the fame name, with a biffiop’s
fee. It belongs to the Venetians. E. Long. 1-. 15.
N. Lat. 43. 6.
CUSA (Nicholas de), a learned cardinal, born of
mean parentage, and named from Cufa, the place of
his birth. He was made a cardinal in 1448 ; and be¬
ing appointed governor of Rome by Pope Pius II. du¬
ring his abfence at Mantua, he was the chief concer-
ter and manager of the war againft the Turks. He
founded a church, and a noble library of Greek and
Latin authors, at Cufa; and left many excellent works
behind him, which were colle&ed and publifhed in three
volumes at Bafil in 1565. In thefe he has made no
fcruple to deleft the lying traditions and fophiftries of
the Roman church.
CUSCO, a large and handfome town of South A-
merica in Peru, formerly the refidence of the Incas.
It is feated at the foot of a mountain, and is built in a
fquare form, in the middle of which there is the heft
market in all America. Four large ftreets terminate in
this fquare, which are all as ftraight as a line, and re¬
gard the four quarters of the world. The Spaniards
tell us wonderful things of the richnefs of the Inca’s
palace, and of the temple of the fun ; but more fober
travellers, judging from wdiat remains,, think moft of
them to be fabulous. At prefent it contains eight large
pariihes, and five religious houfes, the heft of which
belongs to the Jefuits ; and the number of the inhabi¬
tants may be about 50,000, of wdiich three-fourths are
the original natives, Americans. From this town there
is a very long road, which runs along the Cordeleim;
and, at certain diftances, there are fmall houfes for
refting-places, fome parts of which are fo artificially
wrought, that it is furprifing how a people who had Cnfcuta,
no iron tools could perform fuch workmanihip. There
are ftreams of water run through the town, which are a
great convenience in fo hot a country where it never
rains. It is 375 miles eaft of Lima. W. Long. 74. 37.
S. Lat. 13. o.
CUSCUTA, dodder : a genus of the digynia or¬
der, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The calyx is quadrifid ; the co¬
rolla monopetalous; the capfule bilocular. There
are two fpecies ; one of which is a native of Britain,
viz. the Europaea, dodder, hell-weed, or devil’s guts.
This is a very fingular plant, almoft deftitute of leaves,
parafitical, creeping, fixing itfelf to whatever is next
to it. It decays at the root, and afterwards is nou-
riihed by the plant which fupports it. Hops, flax,
and nettles, are its common fupport ; but principally
the common nettle. Its bloffoms are white. As foon
as the Ihoots have twined about an adjacent plant, they
fend out from their inner furface a number of little
veficles or papillae, which attach themfelves to the
bark or rind of the plant. By degrees the longitudi¬
nal veflels of the ftalk, which appear to have accom¬
panied the veficles, ihoot from their extremities, and
make their way into the fofter plant, by dividing the
veffels and infmuating themfelves into the tendereft
part of the ftalk ; and fo intimately are they united
with it, that it is eafier to break than to difengage
them from it. The whole plant is bitter. It affords
a pale reddilh colour. Cows, iheep, and fwine, eat
it; horfes refufe it ; goats are not fond of it.
CUSH, the eldeft fon of Ham, and father of Nim¬
rod ; the other fons of Cuffi were Seba, Havilah, Sab-
tah, Raamah, and Sabtecha. Gen. x. 6—8. Though
we know of no other perfon of fcripture that is called
by this name, yet there are feveral countries that are
called by it; whether the fame man may have dwelt
ia them all at different times, or that there were fome
other men of this name, we are ignorant.
The Vulgate, Septuagint, and other interpreters,
both ancient and modern, generally tranflate Cufh,
Ethiopia: but there are many paffages wherein this
tranflation cannot take place.
Culh is the name of the country watered by the
Araxes. They who in tranfiating the fituation of
Eden, have made Cnjb Ethiopia, gave rife to that
unwarrantable opinion which Jofephus and feveral o-
thers have entertained of the river Gihon’s being the
Nile. In this place ( Gen. ii. 13.) theLXX tranfla¬
tion renders the word 6ufh by the name of Ethiopia ;
and in this miftake is not only here followed by our
Englifh verfion, but in the fame particular in fcveral
other places.
Cuth is the fame as Cufli. The Chaldees generally
put the tan where the Hebrews.ufc tht fchin: they fay
cuth, inftead of cujh. See Cuth.
But Ethiopia is frequently in the Hebrew called
Cujh ; and Jofephus fays, that they called themfelves
by this name, and that the. fame name was given them
by all Alia. St Jerom tells us, that the Hebrews call
the Ethiopians by the fame name, and the Septuagint
give them no other. Jeremiah (xiii. 23.) fays, “ Can
the Cuflisean, or Ethiopian, change his colour.” In
Ezekiel (xxix. 10.) the Lord threatens to reduce
“'Egypt
C U S [ 61
CulWon “ Egypt to a defart, from the tower of Syene even
unto the border of Cufh, or Ethiopia and in Ifaiah,
(xi. 11.) he fays, “ he will recover the remnant of his
j people, which lhall be left from AfTyria, and from
Egypt, and Pathros, and from Cufh.” All thefe marks
agree with Ethiopia properly fo called, which lies to
the fouth of Egypt.
Bochart has ihown very clearly that there was a
country called “ the land of Cii/b” in Arabia Petraea,
bordering upon Egypt ; that this country extended
itfelf principally upon the eaftern fhore of the Red-
Sea, and, at its extremity, to the point of this fea, in¬
clining towards Egypt and Palefline.
Thus there are three countries of the name of Cufh,
defcribed in fcripture, and all confounded by interpre¬
ters under the general name of Ethiopia.
tlJSHION, in engraving, is a bag of leather fdled
with fand, commonly about nine inches fquare, and
three or four thick, ufed for fupporting the platetobe
engraved.
Cushion, in gilding, is made of leather, faftened to
a fquare board, from 14 inches fquare to 10,. with a
handle. The vacuity between the leather and board
is fluffed with fine tow or wool, fo that the outer fur-
face may be flat and even. It is ufed for receiving the
leaves of gold from the paper, in order to its being
cut into proper fizes and figures.
CUSI, in natural hlftory, a name given by the
people of the Philippine iflands to a very fmall and
very beautiful fpecies of parrot.
CUSP, cufpis, properly denotes the point of a fpear
or fword; but is ufed in aftronomy to exprefs the
points or horns of the moon, or any other luminary.
Cusp, in aftrology, is ufed for the firft point of each
of the i 2 houfes, in a figure or fcheme of the hea¬
vens. See House.
CUSPIDATED, in botany, are fuch plants whofe
leaves are pointed like a fpear.
CUSPINIAN (John), a German, was bornat Swein-
furt in 1473 ; and died at Vienna in 1529. He was
firft phyfician to the emperor Maximilian I. and em¬
ployed by that prince in feveral delicate negotiations.
We have of his in Latin, 1. A hiftory of the Roman
emperors from Julius Casfar to the death of Maximi¬
lian I. Degory Wheare, in his Methodus Legend#
Htfioria, calls this “ luculentum fane opus, iff omnium tec-
tione digniffimum.” 2. An hiftory of Auftria ; being a
kind of continuation of the preceding. 3. An hiftory
of the origin of the Turks, and of their cruelties to¬
wards Chriftians. Gerard Voffius calls Cufpinian
magnum fuo avo hijlori/e lumen.
CUSTOM, a very comprehenfive term, denoting
the manners, ceremonies, and faihions, of a people,
which having turned into a habit, and pafled into ufe,
obtain the force of laws ; in which fenfe it implies
fuch ufages, as, though voluntary at firft, are yet by
practice become neceflary.
Cuftom is hence, both by lawyers and civilians, de¬
fined lex non fcripta, “ a law or right not written,”
eftabliftied by long ufage, and the confent of our an-
ceftors : in which fenfe it ftands oppofed to the lex
fcripta, or “ the written law.” See Law, Part II.
n° 38—41'.
Custom and Halit, in the human economy. The
former is often confounded with the latter. By cu~
NQ .96.
6 ] C U S
Jlom we mean a frequent reiteration of the fame aft ; Cuftom
and by habit, the effeft that cuftom has on the mind and Habit,
or body. This curious fubjeft falls to be confidered
firft in a moral, and fecondly in a phyfical, light.
I. Influence of Cuflom and Halit on the Mind, See.
Cuftom hath fuch influence upon many of our feel¬
ings, by warping and varying them, that its opera¬
tions demand the attention of all who would be ac¬
quainted with human nature. The fubjeft, however, Kalmes's
is intricate. Some pleafures are fortified by cuftom : Elements, of
and yet cuftom begets familiarity, and confequently Critid/m.
indifference :
If all the year were playing holiday?,
To fport would be as tedious as to work :
But when they feldom come, they wilh’d.for come,
And nothing pleateth but rare accidents. Shakefp.
In many inftances, fatiety and difguft are the confe-
quences of reiteration : again, though cuftom blunts
the edge of diftrefs and of pain ; yet the want of any
thing to which we have been long accuftomed is a fort
of torture. A clue to guide us through all the intri¬
cacies of this labyrinth, would be an acceptable pre-
fent.
Whatever be the caufe, it is certain that we are
much influenced by cuftom : it hath an effeft; upon
our pleafures, upon our aftions, and even upon our
thoughts and fentiments. Habit makes no figure du¬
ring the vivacity of youth : in middle age it gains
ground ; and in old age governs without control. In
that period of life, generally fpeaking, we eat at a
certain hour, take exercife at a certain hour, go to
reft at a certain hour, all by the direftion of habit:
nay, a particular feat, table, bed, comes to be effen-
tial; and a habit in any of thefe cannot be controlled
without uneafinefs.
Any flight or moderate pleafure, frequently' reite¬
rated for a long time, forms a peculiar conneftion be¬
tween us and the thing that caufes the pleafure. This
conneftion, termed habit, has the effeft; to awaken our
defire or appetite for that thing when it returns not
as ufual. During the courfe of enjoyment, the plea¬
fure rifes infenfibly higher and higher till a habit be
eftabliftied; at which time the pleafure is at its height.
It continues not, however, ftationary : the fame cu-
ftomary reiteration which carried it to its height,
brings it down again by inftnfible degrees, even low¬
er than it was at firft; but of that circumftance after¬
ward. What at prefent we have in view, is to prove
by experiments, that thofe things which at firft are
but moderately agreeable, are the apteft to become
habitual. Spirituous liquors, at firft fcarce agreeeable,
readily produce an habitual appetite : and cuftom pre¬
vails fo far, as even to make us fond of things origi¬
nally difagreeable, fuch as coffee, affafeetida, and to¬
bacco.
A walk upon the quarter-deck, though intolerably
confined, becomes however fo agreeable by cuftom,
that a failor in his walk on fliore confines himfelf com¬
monly within the fame bounds. The author knew a
man who had relinquiftied the fea for a country-life:
in the corner of his garden he reared an artificial
mount with a level fummit, refembling moft accurately
a quarter-deck, not only in ftiape but in fize; and
here he generally walked. In Minorca governor
J£ane made an excellent road the whole length of the
iflaad;
c U S [6
Cuflom {Hand ; and yet the inhabitants adhere to the old road,
and Habit, though not only longer, but extremely bad. Play or
Wu’-y—"", gafning, at firft barely amufing by the occupation it
affords, becomes in time extremely agreeable ; and is
frequently profecuted with avidity, as if it were the
chief bufinefs of life. The fame obfervation is appli¬
cable to the pleafures of the internal fenfes, thofe of
knowledge and virtue in particular: children have
fcarce any fenfe of thefe pleafures ; and men very
little who are in the Hate of nature without culture :
our tafte for virtue and knowledge improves flowly }
but is capable of growing ftronger than any other ap*
petite in human nature.
To introduce an aftive habit, frequency of afts is
not fufficient without length of time : the quickeft fuc-
ceffion of a&s in a fhort time is not fufficient; nor a
flow fucceffion in the longeft time. The effeft muff
be produced by a moderate foft adfion, and a long fe-
ries of eafy touches, removed from each other by ffiort
intervals. Nor are thefe fufficient without regularity
in the time, pla#:e, and other circumftances T$f the ac¬
tion : the more uniform any operation is, the fooner
it becomes habitual. And this holds equally in a paf-
five habit; variety in any remarkable 'degree, pre¬
vents the effeft : thus any particular food will fcarce
ever become habitual where the manner of dreffing
is varied. The circumftances then requifite to aug¬
ment a moderate pleafure, and at the long-run to
form a habit, are weak uniform afts, reiterated du¬
ring a long courfe of time, without any confiderable
interruption : every agreeable caufe that operates in
this manner will grow habitual.
yjjeflim and averfion, as diftinguiffied from paffion
on the one hand, and on the other from original dif-
pofition, are in reality habits refpedling particular ob¬
jects, acquired in the manner above fet forth. The
pleafure of focial intercourfe with any perfon, muff
originally be faint, and frequently reiterated, in order
to eftabliffi the habit of affection. Affe&ion thus ge¬
nerated, whether it be friendfliip or love, feldom fwElls
into any tumultuous or vigorous paffion ; but is how¬
ever the ftrongeft cement that can bind together two
individuals of the human fpecies. In like manner, a
flight degree of difguft often reiterated with regula-
Vol. V. Part II.
17 ] c u s
rity, grows into the habit of averfion, which com* Cuflom
monly fubfifts for life. land Habit..
Obje&s of tafte that are delicious, far from tending
to become habitual, are apt by indulgence to produce
fatiety and difguft : no man Contrafts a habit of fu-
gar, honey, or fweet-meats, as he doth of tobacco.
Thefe violent delighrs have violent ends,
A id in their triuqq hs die. The fweeteft honey
h loathfome in it-, own deficiouf .efs.
And in the tafte co founds the appetite ;
Therefore love mod'rattdy, long love doth f- •
Too-fwift arrives a. tardy as .too flow,
Romeo and ‘Juliet, ail 2 fe. 6.
The fame obfervation holds with refpeA to all objedls
that being extremely agreeable raife violent paffions:
fuch paffions are incompatible with a habit of any fort}
and in particular they never produce affe&ion nor a-
verfion : a man who at firft fight falls violently in
love, has a ftrong defire of enjoyment, but no affedtion
for the woman (a) : a man who.is furprifed with an
unexpedled favour, burns for an opportunity.to exert
his gratitude, without having any affedlion for his be-
nefadlor: neither does defire of vengeance for an atro¬
cious injury involve averfion.
It is perhaps not eafy to fay why moderate plea-
fnres gather ftrength by cuftom : but two caufes con¬
cur to prevent that effect in the more intenfe plea¬
fures. Thefe, by an original law in our nature, in-
creafe quickly to their full growth, and decay with no
lefs precipitation : and cuftom is too flow in its ope¬
ration to overcome that Jaw. The other caufe is not
lefs powerful: exquifite pleafure is extremely fatiguing;
occafioning, as a naturalift would fay, great expence
of animal fpirits; and of fuch the mind cannot bear fo
frequent gratification, as to fuperinduce a habit : if
the thing that raifes the pleafure return before the mind
have recovered its tone and relifh, difguftenfues inftead
of pleafure.
A habit never fails to admoniffi us of the wonted
time of gratification, by raifing a pain for want of the
objedl, and a defire to have it. The pain of wrant is
always fir-ft felt: the defire naturally follow^; and
upon prefenting the objeft, both vanifli inftantaneoufly.
Thus a man accuftomed to tobacco, feels, at the end
4 I of
(a) Violent love, without affection, is finely exemplified in the following ftory. When Conftantinople was
taken by the Tui'ks, Irene, a young Greek of an illuftrious family, fell into the hands of Mahomet If. who was
at that time in the prime of youth and glory. His favage heart being fubdued by her charms, he ffiut himfelf
-up with her, denying acctfs even to his minifters. Love obtained fuch afeendant as to make him frequently
abandon the army, and fly to his Irene. War relaxed, for victory was no longer the monarch’s favourite paf-
fien. The foldiers, accuftomed to booty, began to murmur, and the infection fpread even among the command¬
ers. The Baffia Muftapha, confulting the fidelity he owed his mafter, was the firft who durft acquaint him of
the difcoUrfes held publicly to the prejudice of his glory. The fultan, aftet a gloomy filence, formed his refo-
lution. He ordered Muftapha to affemble the troops next morning ; and then with precipitation retired to
Irene’s apartment. Never before did that princefs appear fo charming j never before did the'prince beftowfo
many warm careffes. To give a new luftre to her beauty, he exhorted her women next morning to beftow their
utmoil art and care on her drefs. He took her by the hand, led her into the middle of the army, and pulling
off her vail, demanded of the baffias with a fierce look, v/hether they had ever beheld fuch a beauty ? After an
awfyl paufe, Mahomet with one hand laying hold of the young Greek by her beautiful locks, and with the o-
ther pulling out his feimitar, fevered the head from the body at one ftroke. Then turning to his grandees,
with eyes wild'and furious, “ This fword (fays he), when it is my will, knows to cut the bands of love.’*
However ftrange it may appear, we It irn from experience, that defire of enjoyment may confift with the moft
brutal averfion, diredfed both to the fame woman. Of this we have a noted example in the firft book of Sully’t
Memoirs; to which we choofe to refer the reader, f*r it is too grofs to be tianferibed,
C U S [ 61
Cuftom of the ufual interval, a confufed pain of want ; which
and Habit. at p0ints at nothing in particular, though it foon
^ fettles upon its accudomed objedl: and the fame may
be obferved in perfons addicted to drinking, who are
often in an uneafy reftlefs ftate before they think of
the bottle. In pleafures indulged regularly, and at
equal intervals, the appetite, remarkably obfequious to
cuftom, returns regularly with the ufual time pf gra¬
tification ; not fooner, even though the objfeft be
prefented. This pain of want arifing from habit, feems
direftly oppofite to that of fatiety ; and it mult ap¬
pear Angular, that frequency of gratification fhould'
produce effe&s fo oppofite, as are the pains of excefs
and of want.
The appetites that refpedl the prefervation and pro¬
pagation of our fpecies, are attended with a pain of
want fimilar to that occafioned by habit: hunger and
third are uneafy fenfationsof want, which always pre¬
cede the defire of eating or drinking; and a pain for
want of carnal enjoyment, precedes the defire of an
objeft. The pain being thus felt independent of an
objedl, cannot be cured but by gratification. Very
different is an ordinary paffion, in whicji defire pre¬
cedes the pain of want; fuch a paffion cannot exift
but while the objeft is in view; and therefore, by re¬
moving the object out of thought, it vaniffieth with its
defire and pain of want.
The natural appetites above mentioned, differ from
habit in the following particular: they have an unde¬
termined direftion toward all objedts of gratification
in general; whereas an habitual appetite is dire&ed
to a particular objeft : the attachment we have by ha¬
bit to a particular woman, differs widely from the na¬
tural paffion which comprehends the whole fex ; and
the habitual relifli for a particular difh, is far from be¬
ing the fame with a vague appetite for food. That
difference notwithftanding, it is ftill remarkable, that
nature hath enforced the gratification of certain natu¬
ral appetites effential to the fpecies, by a pain of the
fame fort with that which habit produceth.
The pain of habit is lefs under our power than any
Other pain that arifes from want of gratification: hun¬
ger and thirff are more eafily endured, efpecially at
firft, than an unufual intermiffion of any habitual plea-
fure : perfons are often heard declaring, they would
forego fleep or food, rather than tobacco. We muff
not however conclude, that the gratification of an ha¬
bitual appetite affords the fame delight with the gra¬
tification of one that is natural: far from it ; the pain
of want only is greater.
The flow and reiterated adls that produce a habit,
ftrengthen the mind to enjoy the habitual pleafure in
greater quantity and more frequency than originally ;
and by that means a habit of intemperate gratification
is often formed: after unbounded adts of intemperance,
the habitual relifh is foon reftored, and the pain for
want of enjoyment returns with frelh vigour.
The caufes of the prefent emotions hitherto in view,
are either an individual, fuch as a companion, a cer¬
tain dwelling-place, a certain amufement; or a parti¬
cular fpecies, fuch as coffee, mutton, or any other
food. But habit is not confined to fuch. A conftant
train of trifling diverfions may form fuch a habit in
the mind, that it cannot be eafy a moment without
amufement: a variety in the objects prevents a habit
8 ] C U S
as to'any one in particular; butas the train is uniform Cuftotn
with refpedt to amufement, the habit is formed accpr- *nd
dingly; and that fort of habit may be denominated a '
generic habit, in oppofition to the former, which is a
fpecific habit. A habit of a town-life, of country-fports,
of folitude, of reading, or of bufmefs, where fufficient-
ly varied, are inftances of generic habits. Every fpe-
cific habit hath a mixture of the generic ; for the ha¬
bit pf any one fort of food makes the tafte agreeable,
and we are fond of that tafte wherever found. Thus
a man deprived of an habitual objeft, takes up with
what moft refembles it; deprived of tobacco, any
bitter herb will do rather than want: a habit of
punch makes wine a good refource : accuftomed to
the fweet fociety and comforts of matrimony, the man-
unhappily deprived of his beloved object, inclines the
fooner to a fecond. In general, when we are deprived
of a habitual objeft, we are fond of its qualities in any
other obje&.
The reafons are affigned above, why the caufes of
intenfe pleafure become mot readily habitual: but now
we difeover, that thefe reafons conclude only againft
fpecific habits. In the cafe of a weak pleafure, a ha¬
bit is formed by frequency and uniformity of reitera¬
tion, which, in the cafe of an intenfe pleafure, pro¬
duceth fatiety and difguft. But it is remarkable, that
fatiety and difguft have no effedt, except as to that
thing fingly which occafions them: a forfeit of honey
produceth not a loathing of fogar ; and intemperance
with one woman produceth no difrelilh of the fame
pleafore with others. Hence it is eafy to account for
a generic habit in any intenfe pleafure : the delight
we had in the gratification of the appetite, inflames
the imagination, and makes us, with avidity, fearch
for the fame gratification in whatever other objeft it
can be found. And thus uniform frequency in grati¬
fying the fame paffion upon different objefts, produ¬
ceth at length a generic habit. In this manner one
acquires an habitual delight in high and poignant fau¬
ces', rich drefs, fine equipages, crowds of company, and
in whatever is commonly termed pleafure. There con¬
curs at the fame time, to introduce this habit, a pe¬
culiarity obferved above, that reiteration of acts en¬
larges the capacity of the mind, to admit a more plen¬
tiful gratification than originally, with regard to fre¬
quency as well as quantity.
Hence it appears, that though a fpecific habit can¬
not be formed but upon a moderate pleafure, a gene¬
ric habit may be formed upon any fort of pit afore,,
moderate or immoderate, that hath variety of objedts.
The only difference is, that a weak pleafore runs na¬
turally into a fpecific habit; whereas an intenfe plea¬
fure is altogether averfe to fuch a habit. In a word,
it is only in Angular cafes that a moderate pleafure >
produces a generic habit; but an intenfe pleafore can¬
not produce any other habit.
The appetites that refpedft the prefervation and pro¬
pagation of the fpecies, are formed into habit in a pe¬
culiar manner ; the time as well as meafure of their
gratification are much under the power of cuftom;
which, introducing a change upon the body, occafions
a proportional change in the appetites. Thus, if the
body be gradually formed to a certain quantity of food
at ftated times, the appetite is regulated accordingly;
and the appetite is again changed, when a different
3, habit
C U S [ 619 ] c u s
Cuftom habit of body is introduced by a different pra&ice:
and Hab:t. Here it would feem, that the change is not made upon
S ' v ' the mind, which is commonly the cafe in pafiive habits,
but upon the body.
When rich food is brought down by ingredients of
a plainer tafte, the compofition is fufceptible of a fpe-
cific habit. Thus the fweet tafte of fugar, rendered
lefs poignant in a mixture, may, in courfe of time,
produce a fpeciftc habit for fuch mixture. As mode¬
rate pleafures, by becoming more intenfe, tend to ge¬
neric habits fo intenfe pleafures, by becoming more
moderate, tend to fpecific habits.
The beauty of the, human figure, by a fpecial re¬
commendation of nature, appears to us fupreme, amid
the great variety of beauteous forms beftowed upon
animals. The various degrees in which individuals
enjoy that property, render it an objedt fometimes
of a moderate, fometimes of an intenfe, paffion. The
moderate paflxpn, admitting frequent reiteration with¬
out diminution, and occupying the mind without ex-
haufting it, turns gradually ftronger till it becomes a
habit. Nay, inftances are not wanting, of a face at
firft difagreeable, afterward rendered indifferent by
familiarly, and at length agreeable by cuftom. On
the other hand, confummate beauty, at the very firft
glance, fills the mind fo as to admit no increafe. En¬
joyment leffens the pleafure; and if often repeated,
ends commonly in fatiety and difguft. The impref-
fions made by confummate beauty, in a gradual fuc-
ceffion from lively to faint, conftitute a feries oppofite
to that of faint impreffions waxing gradually more
lively, till they produce a fpecific habit. But the mind
when accuftomed to beauty contrafts a relifh for it in
general, though often repelled from particular objects
by the pain of fatiety ; and thus a generic habit is
formed, of which inconftancy in love is the neceffary
confequence; for a generic habit, comprehending e-
very beautiful object, is an invincible obftruftion to a
fpecific habit, which is confined to one.
But a matter which is of great importance to the
youth of both fexes, deferves more than a curfory
view. Though the pleafant emotion of beauty differs
widely from the corporeal appetite, yet when both
are direfted to the fame objeft, they produce a very
ftrong complex paffion : enjoyment in that cafe muft
be exquifite ; and therefore more apt to produce fa¬
tiety than in any other cafe whatever. This is a ne¬
ver-failing effedf, where confummate beauty in the
one party, meets with a warm imagination and great
fenfibility in the other. What we are here explain¬
ing, is true without exaggeration ; and they muft be
infenfible upon whom it makes no impreffion : it de¬
ferves well to be pondered by the young and the amo¬
rous, who, in forming the matrimonial fociety, are too
often blindly impelled by the animal pleafure merely,
inflamed by beauty. It may indeed happen after the
pleafure is gone, and go it muft with a fwift pace,
that a new connexion is formed upon more dignified
and more lafting principles : but this is a dangerous
experiment; for even fuppofing good fenfe, good
temper, and internal merit of every fort, yet a new
connexion upon fuch qualifications is rarely formed :
it commonly, or rather always happens, that fuch qua¬
lifications, the only folid foundation of an indiffoluble
connexion, are rendered altogether invifible by fatiety Cuftcm
of enjoyment creating difguft. aco Habit
One effeft of cuftom, different from any that have "
been explained, muft not be omitted, becaufe it makes
a great figure in human nature: though cuftom aug¬
ments moderate pleafures, and leffens thofe that are
intenfe, it has a different effedf with refpeff to pain ,*
for itjdunts the edge of every fort of pain and diftrefa,
faint or acute. Uninterrupted mifery, therefore, it
attended with one good effedt: if its torments be in-
ceffant, cuftom hardens us to bear them.
The changes made in forming habits are curious.
Moderate pleafures are augmented gradually by reite¬
ration, till they become habitual; and then are at
their height : but they are not long ftationary ; for
from that point they gradually decay, till they vanifh
altogether. The pain occafioned by want of gratifi¬
cation, runs a different courfe: it increafes uniformly;
and at laft becomes extreme, when the pleafure of
gratification is reduced to nothing.
 Ir fo falls out,
Th.it what we have we prize not to the worth,
While we enjoy it; but being lack’d and loft,
Why then we rack the value; then we find
The virtue that poffffion would not fhow us
Whilft it was ours. 1
Much ado about Nothing, aid fc. 2.
The effedt of cuftom with relation to a fpecific habit,
is difplayed through all its varieties in the ufe of to¬
bacco. The tafte of that plant is at firft extremely
unpkafant: our difguft leffens gradually, till it vanilh
altogether; at which period the tafte is neither agree¬
able nor difagreeable: continuing the ufe of the plant,
we begin to relifh it; and our relilh improves by ufej
till it arrive at perfedfion: from that period it gradu¬
ally decays, while the habit is in a ftate of increment,
and confequently the pain of want. The refult is, that
when the habit has acquired its greateft vigour, the
relifli is gone; and accordingly we often fmoke and
take fnuff habitually, without fo much as being con-
feious of the operation. We muft except gratification
after the pain of want; the pleafure of which gratifi¬
cation is the greateft when the habit is the moft vi¬
gorous : it is of the fame kind with the pleafure one
feels upon being delivered from the rack. This plea¬
fure however is but occafionally the effect of habit;
and however exquifite, is avoided as much as poffible
becaufe of the pain that precedes it.
With regard to the pain of want, we can difeover
no difference between a generic and a fpecific habit;
but thefe habits differ widely with refpedt to the poli-
tive pleafure. We have had occafion to obferve, that
the pleafure of a fpecific habit decays gradually till it
turn imperceptible : the pleafure of a generic habit, on
the contrary, being fupported by variety of gratifica¬
tion, fuffers little or no decay after it comes to its
height. However it may be with other generic ha¬
bits, the obfervation certainly holds with refpedt to the
pleafures of virtue and of knowledge : the pleafure of
doing good has an unbounded fcope, and may be fo
varioufly gratified that it can never decay; fcience is
equally unbounded; our appetite for knowledge ha¬
ving an ample range of gratification, where difeove-
ries are recomftiended by novelty, by variety, by uti¬
lity, or by all of them.
4 I * In
c u s r 620 i c u s
Coflom In this intricate inquiry, we have endeavoured, but
and Habit. w;thout fUCCt;fS} to difcover by what particular means
* it is that cuftom hath influence upon us: and now no¬
thing feems left, but to hold our nature to be fo fra¬
med as to be fufceptible of fuch influence. And fup-
pofing it purpofely fo framed, it will not be difficult to
find out feveral important final caufes. That the power
' of cuflom is a happy contrivance for our good, cannot
have efcaped any one who refle&s, that bufinefs is our
province, and pleafure our relaxation only. Now fa-
tiety is neceflary to check exquifite pleafures, which
otherwife would engrofs the mind and unqualify us
for bufinefs. On the other hand, as bufinefs is fome-
times painful, and is never pleafant beyond modera¬
tion, the habitual increafe of moderate pleafure, and
the converfion of pain into pleafure, are admirably
contrived for difappointing the malice of fortune, and
for reconciling us to whatever courfe of life may be
eur lot:
How ufe doth breed a habit in a man !
This fhadowy dcfert, Unfrequented woods,
I better brook than flourifliintj peopled towns.
Here l can fit alone, unfcen of any.
Ai d to the nightingale’s complaining notes
Tune my dill: effes, and record my woes.
Two Gentlemen of Verona, ail J.fc. 4.
As the foregoing diftinftion between intenfe and
moderate, hold in pleafure only, every degree of pain
being foftened by time, cuftom is a catholicon for pain
and diftrefs of every fort; and of that regulation the
final caufe requires no illuftration.
Another final caufe of cuftom will be highly relilhed
fcy every perfon of humanity, and yet has in a great
meafure been overlooked ; which is, that cuftom hath
■a greater influence than any other known caufe, to
put the rich and the poor upon a level: weak plea-
fures, the lhare of the latter, become fortunately
ftronger by cuftom ; while voluptuous- pleafures,. the
{hare of the former, are continually lofing ground by
fatiety. Men of fortune, who poflefs palaces, fump-
tuous gardens, rich fields, enjoy them lefs than pafien-
gers do. The goods of Fortune are not unequally
diftributed i the opulent poflefs what others, enjoy.
And indeed, if it be the effedl of habit, to produce
the pain of want in a high degree while there is little
pleafure in enjoyment, a voluptuous life is of all the
leaft to be envied. Thofe who are habituated to high
feeding, eafy vehicles, rich furniture, a crowd of va¬
lets, much deference and flattery, enjoy but a fmall
{hare of happinefs, while they are expofed to mani¬
fold diftrefles. To fuch a man, enflaved by eafe and
luxury, even the petty inconveniences in travelling, of
a rough road, bad weather, or homely fare, are feri-
ous evils: he lofes his tone of mind, turns peevifti, and
would wreak his refentment even upon the common
accidents of life. Better far to ufe the goods of For¬
tune with moderation: a man who by temperance
and activity hathracquired a hardy conftitution, is, on
the one hand, guarded againfl: external accidents ; and,
on the other, is provided with great variety of enjoy¬
ment ever at command.
We (hall clofe this branch of the fubjeft with an
article more delicate than abftrufe, viz. what authority
cuftom ought to have over our tafte in the fine arts.
One particular is certain, that we cheerfully abandon
to the authority of cuftom things that nature hath left Cuftom .
indifferent. It is cuftom, not nature, that hath efta- and Hab-t. "•
blifhed a difference between the right hand and the v J i
left, fo as to make it aukward and difagreeable to ufe
the left where the right is commonly ufed. The va¬
rious colours, though they affe& us differently, are all
of them agreeable in their purity : but cuftom has re¬
gulated that matter in another manner; a black (kin
upon a human being, is to us difagreeable; and a
white lkin probably not lefs fo to a negro. Thus
things, originally indifferent, become agreeable or dif¬
agreeable by the force of cuftom. Nor will this he
furprifing after the difeovery made above, that the
original agreeablenefs or difagreeablenefs of an object*
is, by the influence of cuftom, often converted into the
oppofite quality.
Proceeding to matters of tafte, where there is natu¬
rally a preference of one thing before another; it is
certain, in the firft place, that our faint and more de¬
licate feelings are readily fufceptible of a bias from,
cuftom ; and therefore that it is no- proof of a defec¬
tive tafte, to find thefe in fome meafure influenced
by cuftom: drefs and the modes of externaTbehavi-
our, are regulated by cuftom in every country : the
deep red or vermilion with which the ladies in France
cover their cheeks, appears to them beautiful in fpite
of nature ; and ftrangers cannot altogether be jufti-
fied in condemning that pradlice, confidering the law¬
ful authority of cuftom, or of the fajhion as it is call¬
ed : it is told of the people who inhabit the Hurts of
the Alps facing the north, that the fwelling they uni-
verfally have in the neck is to them agreeable. So far
has cuftom power to change the nature of things, and
to make an object originally difagreeable take on aa
oppofite appearance.
But as to every particular that can be denominated
jSroper or improper, right or wrong, cuftom has little
authority, and ought to have none. The principle of
duty takes naturally place of every other ; and it ar¬
gues a ftiameful weaknefs or degeneracy of mind, to
find it in any cafe fo far fubdued as ,to fubmit to cuf¬
tom.
II. EJfeBs of Cujlom and Habit in the Animal Economy*
Thefe may be reduced to five heads. I. On the Am¬
ple folids. 2. On the organs of fenfe. 3. On the
moving power. 4. On the whole nervous power.
5. On the fyftem of blood-veffels.
1. EJfeBs on the Simple Solids. Cuftom determines
the degree of flexibility of which they are capable.
By frequently repeated flexion, the feveral particles of
which thefe folids confift are rendered more fupple
and moveable on each other. A piece of catgut, e. g.
when on the ftretch, and having a weight appended Cullen't Lee-
to its middle, will be bended thereby perhaps half an on the
inch ; afterwards, by frequent repetitions of the fame
weight, or by increaiing the weight, the flexibility £‘ e lt*
will be rendered double. The degree of flexibility has
a great effe& in determining the degree of ofcillation,
provided that elafticity is not affedted; if it go beyond
this, it produces flaccidity. Again, cuftom determines
the degree of tenfion ; for the fame elaftic chord that
now ofcillates in a certain degree of tenfion, will, by
frequent repetition of thefe ofeillations, be fo far. re¬
laxed, that the extenfion muft be renewed in order to
produce the fame tenfion, and confequently the fame
vibrfc*
C U S [ 621 ] C U S
f!uf!om vibration?, as at fiut. This appears In many Inftances
and Habit. jn an|mal economy, as when different mufcles con-
v"" cur to give a fixed point or tenfion to each other:
and thus a weakly child totters as it walks; but by
giving it a weight to carry, and by thus increafing the
tenfion of the fyftem, it walks more fteadily. In like
manner the fulnefs of the fyftem gives ftrength, by
diftending the veffels every where, and fo giving ten¬
fion : hence a man, by good nourilhment, from being
weak, acquires a great increafe of ftrength in a few
days : and, on the other hand, evacuations weaken by
taking off the tenfion.
2. EjfeBs on the Organs of Senfe. .Repetition gives
a greater degree of fenfibility, in fo far only as it ren-
dess perception more accurate. Repetition alone' gives
lafting imprefiion, and thus lays the foundation of me¬
mory ; for fmgle impreflions are but retained for a
fhort time, and are fo n forgot. Thus a perfon, who
at prefent has little knowledge of cloths, will, by fre¬
quently handling them, acquire a Ikill of difcerning
them, which to others feems almoft impofiible. Many
are apt to miftake this for a nicer fenfibility, but they
are much miftaken; for it is an univerfal law, that the
repetition of imprefiion renders us lefs acute. This is
well illuftrated by the operation of medicines; for all
medicines which aft on the organs of fenfe muft, after
fome time, be increafed in their dofe to ptoduce the
fame effefts as at firft. This affords a rule in praftice
with regard to thefe medicines; it becoming neceffary,
after a certain time, to change one medicine even
for a weaker of the fame nature. Thus medicines,
which even have no great apparent force, are found,
by long ufe, to deftroy the fenfibility of the fyftem to
other impreflions. But to this general rule, that, by
repetition, the force of impreflions is more and more
diminiftied, there are fome exceptions. Thus perfons,
by a ftrong emetic, have had their ftomachs rendered
fo irritable, that i-20th of the firft dofe was fufficient
to produce the fame effeft. This, however, oftener
takes place when the vomit is repeated every day;
for if the fame vomit be given at pretty confiderable
intervals, the geneial rule is obferved to hold good.
Thus two contrary effefts of habit are to be noted ;
and it is proper to obferve, that the greater irritability
is more readily produced when the firft impreflion is
reat, as in the cafe firft given of the ftrong emetic,
'his may be farther illuftrated by the effeft of fear,
which is commonly obferved to be diminifhed on repe¬
tition; which can only be attributed to cuftom: while,
on the other hand, there are inftances of perfons, who,
having once got a great fright, have for ever after
continued flaves to fears excited by impreflions of the
like kind, however flight; which muft be imputed en¬
tirely to excefs of the firft imprefiion, as has been al¬
ready obferved. To this head alfo belongs the affo-
ciatiori of ideas, which is the foundation of memory
and all our intelleftual faculties, and is entirely the
effeft of cuftom ; with regard to the body alfo, thefe
affociations often take place. And fometimes, in pro¬
ducing effefts on the body, affociations feemingly op-
fite are formed, which, through cuftom, become abfo-
lutely neceffary ; e. g. a perfon long accuftomed to
fieep in the neighbourhood of a great noife, is fo far
from being incommoded on that account, that after¬
wards fuch noife. becomes neccffary to produce lleep.
It will be of ufe to attend to this in medical praftiqe ; Ctftom
for we ought to allow for, however oppofite it may and Hu. nt,
feem at the time, whatever ufually attended the pur-
pofe we defign to effeft. Thus, in the inftance -of
fleep, wre muft not exclude noife when we want to
procure reft, or any caufes which may feem oppofite
to fuch an effeft, provided cuftom has rendered them
neceffary.
3. EjfeBs on the Moving Fibres. A certain degree
of tenfion is neceffary to motion, which is to be deter
mined by cuftome. g. a fencer, accuftomed to one
foil, cannot have the fame fteadinefs or aftivity with
one heavier or lighter. It is neceffary alfo that every
motion fhould be performed in the fame fituation, or
pofture of the body, as the perfon has been accuftom¬
ed to employ iti that motion. Thus, in any chirur-
gjcal operation, a certain pofture is recommended y
but if the operator has been accuftomed to another,
fuch a one, however aukward, becomes neceffary after¬
wards to his riglit performance of that operation.
Cuftom alfo determines the degree of ofcillation of
which the moving fibres are capable. A perfon accu¬
ftomed to ftrong mufcular exertions is quite incapable
of the more delicate. Thus writing is performed by
fmall mufcular contraftions ; but if a perfon has been
accuftomed to ftronger motions with thefe mufcles, he
will write with much lefs fteadinefs.
' This fubjeft of tenfion, formerly attributed to the
fimplefires, is probably more ftriftly applicable to the
moving : for, befides a tenfion from flexion, there is
alfo a tenfion from irritation and fympathy ; e. g. the
tenfion of the ftomach from.food, gives tenfion to the
whole body. Wine and fpirituous liquors give tenfion;
e. g. a perfon that is fo affefted with tremor as fcarce-
ly to hold a glafs of apy of thefe liquors to his head,
has no fooner fwallowed it, than his whole body be- .
comes fteady; and after the fyftem ftias been accu¬
ftomed to fuch ftimuli, if they are not applied at the
ufual time, the whole body becomes flaccid, and of
confequence unfteady in its motions.
Again, cuftom gives facility of motion. This feems
to proceed from the diftenfion which the nervous
power gives to the moving fibres themfelves. But im
whatever manner it is occafioned, the effeift is obvi¬
ous ; for any new or unufual motion is performed with,
great difficulty.
It is fuppofed that fenfation depends on: a commu¬
nication with the fenforium commune, by means of or¬
gans fufficiently diftended with nervous influence. We.
have found, that fenfibility is diminifhed by repetition..
And we have now to obferve, that in fome cafes it
may be increafed by repetition, owing to. the nervous,
power itfelf flowing more ealily into the part on ac¬
count of cuftom. Attention to a particular objedt may
alfo determine a greater influx into any particular part,,
and thus the fenfibility and irritability of that particu¬
lar part may be increafed.
But with regard to facility of motion, the nervous
power, no. doubt, flows moft eafily into thofe parts ta
which it has been accuftomed : yet facility of motion,
does not entirely depend on this, but in part alfo on
the concurrence of the adtion of a great many muf¬
cles ; e. g. Winflow has obferved, that in performing,
any motion, a number of mufcles concur to give a fixed
point to thofe intended chiefly to a<ft,: as well as to
c u s r 622 i cvs
Cuflom others that are to vary and modify their action. This,
and Habit. however) js aiEfted by repetition and the freer influx ;
as by experience we know the proper attitude for giving
a fixed point in order to perform any adtion with fa¬
cility and fteadinefs.
Cuftom gives a fpontaneous motion alfo, which feems
to recur at Hated periods, even when the exciting
caufes are removed. Thus, if the ftomach has been
accuftomed to vomit from a particular medicine, it will
require a much fmaller dofe than at firft, nay, erven
the very fight or remembrance of it will jbe fufficient
to produce the effedt; and there are not wanting in¬
fiances of habitual vomiting, from the injudicious ad-
miniftration of emetics. It is on this account that all
fpafmodic affedtions fo eafily become habitual, and are
fo difficult of cure ; as we muft not only avoid all the
exciting caufes, even in the fmalleft degree, but alfo
their affociations.
Cuftom alfo gives ftrength of motion ; ftrength de
pends on ftrong ofcillations, a free and copious influx
of the nervous power, and on denfe folids. But in
what manner all thefe circumftances have been brought
about by repetition, has been already explained. The
effedb of cuftom, in producing ftrength, may be thus
illuftrated: a man that begins with lifting a calf, by
continuing the fame practice every day, will be able
to lift it when grown to the full fize of a bull.
All this is of confiderable importance in the pradlice
of phyfic, though but too little regarded ; for the reco¬
very of weak people, in great meafure, depends on
the ufer of exercife, fuited to their ftrength, or rather
within it, frequently repeated and gradually increafed.
Farther, it is neceffary to obferve, that cuftom regu¬
lates the particular celerity with which each motion is
to be performed : for a perfon accuftomed, for a con¬
fiderable time, to one degree of celerity, becomes in¬
capable of a greater •, e. g. a man accuftomed to flow
walking will be out of breath before he can run 20
paces. The train, or order, in which our motions are
to be performed, is alfo eftabliihed by cuftom ; for if
a man hath repeated motions, for a certain time, in any
particular order, he cannot afterwards perform them
in any other. Cuftom alfo very frequently affociates
motions and fenfations : thus, if a perfon has been in
ufe of aflbeiating certain ideas with the ordinary fti-
mulus which in health excites urine, without thefe
ideas the ufual inclination will fcarce excite that excre¬
tion ; and, when thefe occur, will require it even in
the abfence of the primary exciting caufe : e.g. it
is very ordinary for a perfon to make urine when go¬
ing to bed ; and if he has been, for any length of time,
accuftomed to do fo, he will ever afterwards make
urine at that time, though otherwife he would often
have no fueh inclination: by this means fome fecre-
tions become, in a manner, fubjeft to the will. The
fame may be faid of going to ftool: and this affords
us a good rule in the cafe of coftivenefs; for by en¬
deavouring to fix a ftated time for this evacuation, it
will afterwards, at fuch time, more readily return. It
is farther remarkable, that motions are infeparably af-
fociated with other motions: this, perhaps, very often
proceeds from the neceffary degree of tenfion ; but it
alfo often depends merely on cuftom, an iuftance of
which we have in the uniform motions of our eyes.
4. Ejfetls on the whole Nervous Power. We have
found, that, by cuftom, the nervous influence may be Cuflom
determined more eafily into one part than another; an'J
and therefore, as all the parts of the fyftem are ftrong- v J
ly conne&ed, the fenfibility, irritability, and ftrength
of any particular part, may be thus increafed. Cu¬
ftom alfo has the power of altering the natural tem¬
perament, and of inducing a new one. It is alfo in
the power of cuftom to render motions periodical, and
periodically fpontaneous. An inftance of this we have
in fleep, which is commonly faid to be owing to the
nervous power being exhaufted, the neceffary, confe-
quence of which is fleep, e. g. a reft of the voluntary
motions to favour the recruit of that power: but if
this were the cafe, the return of fleep fliould be at dif¬
ferent times, according as the caufes which diminiffi
the nervous influence operate more or lefs powerfully ;
whereas the cafe is quite otherwife, thefe returns of
fleep being quite regular. This is no lefs remarkable
in the appetites, that return at particular periods, in¬
dependent of every caufe but cuftom. Hunger, e. g.
is an extremely uneafy fenfation ; but goes off of it-
felf, if the perfon did not take food at the ufual time.
The excretions are farther proofs of this, e. g. going
to ftool, which, if it depended on any particular irri¬
tation, fliould be at longer or fliorter intervals accord¬
ing to the nature of the aliment. There-are many
other inftances of this difpoiition of the nervous influ¬
ence to periodical motions, as the ftory of the idiot of
Stafford, recorded by Dr Plot (Spectator, ^447.),
who, being accuftomed to tell the hours of the church-
clock as it ftruck, told them as exactly when it did not
ftrike by its being out of order. Montaigne tells us
of fome oxen that were employed in a machine for
drawing water, who, after making 300 turns, which
was the ufual number, could be ftimulated by no whip
or goad to proceed farther. Infants, alfo, cry for and
expedt the breaft at thofe times in which the nurfe
has been accuftomed to give it. -
Hence it would appear, that the human economy
is fubjedl to periodical revolutions, and that thefe hap ■
pen not oftener may be imputed to variety : and this
feems to be the reafon why they happen oftener in the
body than mind, becaufe that is fubjedt to greater va¬
riety. We fee frequent inftances of this in difeafes,
and in their crifes; intermitting fevers, epilepfies,
afthmas, See. are examples of periodical affedfions:
and that critical days are not fo ftrongly marked in
this country as in Greece, and fome others, may be
imputed to the variety and inftability of our climate;
but perhaps ftill more to the lefs fenfibility and irrita¬
bility of our fyftem ; for the exhibition of medicine
has little effedl in difturbing the crifes, though it be
commonly affigned as a caufe.
We are likewife fubjedt to many habits independent
of ourfelves, as from the revolutions of the celeftial
bodies, particularly the fun, which determines the bo¬
dy, perhaps, to other daily revolutions befides fleeping
and waking. There are alfo certain habits depending
on the feafons. Our connexions, likewife, with re-
fpedt to mankind, are means of inducing habits. Thus
regularity from aflbeiating in bufinefs, induces regular
habits both of mind and body.
There are many difeafes which, though they arofe
at firft from particular caufes, at laft continue merely
through cuftom or habit. Thefe are chiefly of the
nervous
C U S l 623 ] c u s
CuAom nervous fyftem. We (hould therefore Jludy to coun- ties of the kingdom, becaufe they were obliged to be Cuftom*.
and Habit, tera^ fuch habits. an(iaccordingly Hippocrates, among brought to thofe ports where the king’s ftaple was 'r~
.Cuftotris- other things for the cure of epilepfy, orders an entire eftablifhed, in order to be there firft rated, and then
» cj)ange 0p the manner of life. We likewife imitate exported. They were denominated in the barbarous
this in the chincough ; which often refills all remedies Latin of our ancient records, cufluma, (an appellation
till the air, diet, and ordinary train of life, are chan- which feems to be derived from the French word wa¬
ged. Jlum, or coutum, which fignifies toll or tribute, and
5. Effects on the Blood-weffeL. From what has been owes its own etymology to the word caujl, which fig-
faid on the nervous power, the diftribution of the fluids nifies price, charge, or, as wx have adopted it in
muft neceflarily be varioufly affe&ed by cuftom, and Englifli, cojl) ; not confuetudincs, which is the language
with that the diftribution of the different excretions; of our law whenever it means merely ufages. The du-
for though we make an eftimate of the proportion of ties on wool, ftieep-lkins or woolfells, and leather, ex-
the excretions to one another, according to the climate ported, were called cujluma antiqua Jive magna : and
and feafons, they muft certainly be very much varied were payable by every merchant, as well native as
by cuftom.
ftranger ; with this difference, that merchant-ftrangers
On this head we may obferve, that blood-letting paid an additional toll, viz. half as much again as was
has a manifeft tendency to increafe the quantity of the paid by natives. 'Tht cujiuma parva et nova were an
blood; and if this evacuation be repeated at ftated impoft of 3d. in the pound, due from merchant-ftran^-
times, fuch fymptoms of repletion, and fuch motions gers only, for all commodities as well imported as ex •
are excited at the returning periods, as render the ope- ported ; which was ufually called the alien's duty, and
ration neceffary. The fame has been obferved in fome was firft granted in 31 Edw. I. But thefe ancient
fpontaneous hemorrhagies. Thefe, indeed, at firft, hereditary cuftoms, efpecially thofe on wool and wool-
may have fome exciting caufes, but afterwards they fells, came to be of little account, when the nation
feem to depend chiefly on cuftom. The beft proof of became fenfible of the advantages of a home manufac-
this is with regard to the menftrual evacuation. There ture, and prohibited the exportation of wool by fta-
is certainly fomething originally in females, that de- tute ii Edw. III. c. 1.
termines that evacuation to the monthly periods. Con- Other cuftoms payable upon exports and imports
ftant repetition of this comes to fix it, independent of were diftinguilhed into fubfidies, tonnage, poundage,
ftrong caufes, either favouring or preventing repletion ; and other impofts. Subfidies were fueh as were im-
e. j. blood-letting will not impede it, nor filling the pofed by parliament upon, any of the ftaple cemmodi-
body induce it : and indeed, fo much is this evacua- ties before mentioned, over and above the cujluma
tion connected with periodical motions, that it is little antiqua et magna: tonnage was .a duty upon all wines
in our power to produce any effedl by medicines but imported, over and above the prifage and butlerage
at thofe particular times. Thus if we would relax aforefaid : poundage was a duty impofed ad valorem,
the uterine fyftem, and bring back this evacuation at the rate of izd. in the pound, on all dthermer-
when fuppreffed, our attempts would be vain and fruit- chandize whatfoever: and the other impofts were
lefs, unlefs given at that time when the menfes (hould fuch as were occafionally laid on by parliament, as
have naturally returned.
CUSTOMS, in political economy, or the duties,
toll, tribute, or tariff, payable to the king upon mer-
circumftances and times required. Thefe diftindtions
are now in a manner forgotten, except by the officers
immediately concerned in this department; their pro-
ehandize exported and imported, form a branch of the duce being in effedl all blended together, under the
perpetual taxes. See Tax.
The confiderations upon which this revenue (or the
denomination of the cu/lon
1 x By thefe we underftand, at prefent, a duty or Bladf..
more ancient part of it, which arofe only from exports) fubfidy paid by the merchant at the quay upon all Comment,.
was invefted in the king, were faid to he two : 1. Be- imported as well as exported commodities, by autho-
caufe he gave the fubjedt leave to depart the kingdom, rity of parliament; unlefs where, for particular na-
and to carry his goods along with him. 2. Becaufe the tional reafons, certain rewards, bounties, or drawbacks,
king was bound of common right to maintain and keep ar e allowed for particular exports or imports. The
up the ports and havens, and to protedt the merchant cuftoms thus impofed by parliament are chiefly con-
from pirates. Some have imagined they are called with tained in two books of rates, fet forth by parliamen-
cujlcms, becaufe they were the inheritance of the tary authority ; one figned by Sir Harbottle Grime-
king by immemorial ufage and the common law, and fton, fpeaker of the houfe of commons in Charles II.’s
not granted him by any ftatute : but Sir Edward Coke time; and the other an additional one figned by Sir
hath clearly fhown, that the king’s firft claim to them Spenfer Compton, fpeaker in the reign of George I.
was by grant of parliament 3 Edw. I. though the re- to which alfo fubfequent additions' have been made,
cord thereof is not now extant. And indeed this is Aliens pay a larger proportion than natural fubjedls,
in exprefs words confeffed by ftatute 25 Edw. I. c. 7. which is what is now generally underftood by the aliens
wherein the king promifes to take no cuftoms from duty ; to be exempted from which is one principal
merchants, without the common affent of the realm, caufe of the frequent applications to parliament for
“ faving to us and our heirs the cuftoms on wool, afts of naturalization.
fkins, and leather, formerly granted to us by the Thefe cuftoms are then, we fee, a tax immediate-
commonalty aforefaid.” Thefe were formerly called ly paid by the merchant, although ultimately by the-
hereditary cujioms of the crown ; and were due on the confumer. And yet thefe are the duties felt lead by-
exportation only of the faid three commodities, and the people; and, if prudently managed, the people-
o£ none other: which were ftyled the Jlaple commodi- hardly confider that they pay them at all. For the
C U S [ 624 ] CUT
Cut^cms rnercliant is eafy, being fenfible he does not pay them
II for himfelf; and the. confumer, who really pays
vium re t^em» confounds them with the price of the commo-
»-—t--  dity': in the fame manner as Tacitus obferves, that
the emperor Nero gained the reputation of abolifhing
the tax of the fale of flaves, though he only transfer¬
red it from the buyer to the feller ; fo that it was, as
he exprtfles it, rem'ijjum magis fpecle, quant vi: quia,
turn venditor pendere juberetur, in partem pretii empteribus
rticcrefcebat. But this inconvenience attends it on the
other hand, that thefe impofts, if too heavy, are a
check and cramp upon trade ; and efpecially when the
value of the commodity bears little or no proportion
to the quantity of the duty impofed. This in con-
fequence gives rife alfo to fmuggling, which then be¬
comes a very lucrative employment: and its natural
find mod reafonable puniihment, viz. confifcation of
the commodity, is in fuch cafes quite ineffe&ual; the
intrinfic value of the goods, which is all that the
fmuggler has paid, and therefore all that he can lofe,
being very inconfiderable when compared with his pro-
fpedt of advantage in evading the duty. Recourfe
mull therefore be had to extraordinary punifhments
to prevent it; perhaps even to capital ones: which de-
ftroys all proportion of punifhment, and puts murderers
upon an equal footing with fuch as are really guilty of
no natural, but merely a pofitive, offence.
There is alfo another ill confequence attending high
impofts on merchandize, not frequently confidered,
but indifputably certain ; that the earlier any tax is
laid on a commodity, the heavier it falls upon the
confumer in the end ; for every trader through whofe
bands it paffes muft have a profit, not only upon the
raw material and his own labour and time in prepa¬
ring it, but alfo upon the very tax itfelf, which he ad¬
vances to the government; oiherwife he lofes the ufe
and intereft of the money which he fo advances. To
inftance in the article of foreign paper. The merchant
pays a duty upon importation, which he does not re-
ceive again till he fells the commodity, perhaps at the
end of three months. He is therefore equally intitled
to a profit upon that duty which he pays at the cuftom-
houfe, as to a profit upon the original price which he
pays to the manufafturer abroad ; and confiders it
accordingly in the price he demands of the ftationer.
When the ftationer fells it again, he requires a profit
of the printer or bookfeller upon the whole fum ad¬
vanced by him to ■ the merchants: and the bookfeller
does not forget to charge the full proportion to the
ftudent or ultimate confumer ; who therefore .does not
only pay the original duty, but the profits of thefe
three intermediate traders, who have fucceffively advan¬
ced it for him. This might be carried much farther in
any mechanical, or more complicated, branch of trade.
CusTOM-Houfe, an office eftablifhed by the king’s au¬
thority in the maritime cities, or port-towns, for the
receipt and management of the enftoms and duties of
importation and exportation, impofed on merchancjifes,
and regulated by books of rates.
CUSTOS brevium, the principal clerk belonging
to the court of common pleas, whofe bufinefs it is to
receive and keep all the writs made returnable in that
court, filing every return by itfelf; and, at the end
of each term, to receive of the prothonotaries all the
records of the nifi prius, called the pofieas.
N° 96.
Gustos Rotulorum, an officer who has the cuftody Cuftos Ro¬
of the rolls and records of the feffions of peace, and al-. tu!orui»
fo of the commiffion of the peace itfelf. .
He ufually is fome perfon of quality, and always a ^ »
juftice of the peace, of the quorum, in the county
where he is appointed.
Gustos Splritudlium, he that exercifes the fpiritual
jurifdiftion of a diocefe, during the vacancy of any
fee, which, by the canon-law, belongs to the dean
and chapter; but at prefent, in England, to the arch*
biftlop of the province, by prefeription.
Gustos Temper ahum, was the perfon to whom a va¬
cant fee or abbey was given by the king, as fupreme
lord. His office was, as fteward of the goods and
proiits, to give an account to the efeheator, who did
the like to the exchequer.
CUT-a-feather, in the fea-language. If a {hip
has too broad a bow, it is common to fay, Jhe tuill not
cut a feather; that is, {he will not pafs through the
water fo fwift as to make it foam or froth,
Cur Purfe, in law ; if any perfon clam & fecrete, and
without the knowledge of another, cut his purfe or
pick his pocket, and fteal from thence above the
value of twelve pence, it is felony excluded clergy.
Cut-purfes or faccularii, were more feverely punifhed
than common thieves by the Roman and Athenian
laws.
Cut Water, the ffiarp part of the head of a fliip be¬
low the beak. It is fo called becaufe it cuts or divides
the water before it comes to the bow, that it may not
come too fuddenly to the breadth of the {hip, which
would retard her.
CUTANEOUS, in general, an appellation given
to whatever belongs to the cutis or {kin. Thus, we
fay cutaneous eruptions; the itch, is a cutaneous difeafe.
CUTH, or Cuthah (anc.geog.), a province of
Aflyria, which, as fome fay, lies upon the Araxes,
and is the fame with Cufti: but others take it to be the
fame with the country which the Greeks call Sujiana,
and which to this very day, fays Dr Wells, is by the
inhabitants called Chufejlan. F. Calmct is of opinion
that Cuthah and Scythia are the fame place, and that
the Cuthites who were removed into Samaria by Sal-
manefer (2 Kings xvii. 24.) came from Cuffi or Cuth,
mentioned in Gen. ii. 13. See the article Cush.—
The Cuthites wo Whipped the idol Nergal. id. ibid. 30,
Thefe people were tranfplanted into Samaria in the
room of the Ifraelites, who before inhabited it. Cal¬
mer is of opinion, that they came from the land of
Cufh, or Cuthah upon the Araxes; and that their
firft fettlement was in the cities of the Medes, fub*
dued by Salmanefer and the kings of Syria his pre-
deceflbrs. The feripture obferves, that the Cuth¬
ites, upon their arrival in this new' country, conti¬
nued to worffiip the gods formerly adored by them
beyond the Euphrates. Efarhaddon king of Afty-
ria, who fucceeded Sennacherib, appointed an Ifraeli*
tiffi prieft to go thither, and inftruft them in the re¬
ligion of the Hebrews. But thefe people thought
they might reconcile their old fuperftition with the
worfliip of the true God. They therefore framed
particular gods for themfelves, which they placed iu
the feveral cities vhere they dwelt. The Cuthites
then worlhipped both the Lord and their falfe gods
together, and chofe the loweft of the people fo make
2 piieftg
CUT
[ 625 1
CUT
Cuticle priefts of them in the high places ; and they conti- graving on copper: and for prints and (lamps for pa- Cutting,
Cutting nuecbthis practice for a long time. But afterwards per, callicoes, linens, &c. ' *
1 they forfook the worfliip of idols, and adhered only
to the law of Mofes, as the Samaritans who are de¬
scended from the Cuthites do at this day,
CUTICLE, the fcarf-fkin. See Anatomy, nc74.
CUTICULAR, the fame with Cutaneous. ,
CUTIS, the (kin. See Anatomy, n" 76.
CUTTER, a fmall veflel, commonly navigated in
. the channel of England. It is furnilhed with one
mail, and rigged as a (loop. Many of thefe veflels are
ufed in an illicit trade, and others are employed by
government to take them ; the latter of which are ei¬
ther under the dire&ion of the admiralty or cuftom-
houfe. See a reprefentation of a cutter of this fort in
the plate referred to from the article Vessel.
Cutter, is alfo a fmall boat ufed by (hips of war.
Cutter of the Tallies, an omcer of the exchequer,
whole bufinefs is to provide wood for t,he tallies, to cut
or notch the fum paid upon them; and then to caft
them into court, to be written upon. See Tally.
CUTTING, a term ufed in various fenfes and
The invention of cutting in wood, as well'as that
in copper, is aferibed to a goldfmith of Florence; but
it is to Albert Durer and Lucas they are both in¬
debted for their perfe&ion. See Engraving, and
Printing.
One Hugo de Carpi invented a manner of cutting
in wood, by means whereof the prints appeared as if
painted in clair-obfcure. In order to this, he made
three kinds of (lamps for the fame defign; which were
drawn, after one another, through the prefs for the
fame print: they were fo conduced, as that one ferved
for the grand lights, a fecond for the demi-teinU, and
a third for the outlines and the deep (hadows.
The art of cutting in wood was certainly carried
to a very great pitch above two hundred years ago;
and might even vie, for'beauty and juftnefs, with that
of engraving in copper. At prefent it is in a low con¬
dition, as having been long neglected, and the appli¬
cation of artifts wholly employed on copper, -as the
more eafy and promifing province: not but that wood-
; arts; in the general, it implies a divifion or en cuts have the advantage of thofe in copper on many
:'in ‘ accounts; chiefly for figures and device-s in books; as
being printed at the fame time and in the fame prefs#
as the letters: whereas for the other, there is required
a particular impreffion. In the reprefentation of plants
and flowers, and in defigns for paper-hangings, where
the outline only, is wanted to be printed, in a bold
feparation.
Cutting-is particularly ufed in heraldry, where
the fliield is divided into two equal parts, from right
to left, parallel to the horizon, or in the fefle-way.
The word alfo is applied to the honourable ordina¬
ries, and even to animals and moveables, when they are
divided.equally the fame way; fo, however, as that full manner, this method will be found cheaper and
one moiety is colour, the other metal. The ordinaries more effedlual than the ufe of copper-plates,
are faid to be cut, couped, when they do not come The cutters in wood begin with preparing a plank
full to the extremities of the (hield. or block of the fize and thicknefs required, and very
Cutting, in chirurgery, denotes the operation of even and fmooth-on the fide to be cut: for this, they
extradling the (tone out of the bladder by fe£lion. See ulually take beech, pear-tree, or box; though the lat-
Lithotomy. ter is the bed, as being the clofeft, and lead liable to
Cutting in coiuage. When the laminae fir plates be woim-eat. The wood being cut into a proper
of the metal, be it gold, filver, or copper, are brought form and fize, fhould be planed as even and truly as
to the thicknefs of the fpecies to be coined, pieces-are .poliihle : it is then fit to receive the drawing or chalk-
cut out, of thicknefs, and nearly of the weight, of
the intended coin; which are now calledplahchets, till
the king’s image hath been damped on them. The in-
ftrument wherewith they cut, confidsof two pieces of
deel, very (harp, and placed over one another; the
lower a little hollow, reprefenting a mortar, the other
a pedle. The metal put between the two, is cut out
in the manner deferibed utjder coinage.
Note. Medallions, where the relievo is to be great,
are not cut, but cad or moulded.
Cutting, in the manege, is when the horfe’s feet
Uig of the defign to be engraved. But the effed may
be made more apparent, and the ink, if any be ufed
in drawing, be prevemed from running, by fpreading
thinly on the furface of the wood white lead temper
cd with water, by grinding with a brufli pencil, and
afterwards rubbing it well with a fine linen rag whild
it is wet; and when it is dry, brufliing off any loofe
or powdery part with a foft pencil.
On this block they draw their defign with a pen or
pencil, jud as they would have it printed. Thofe
who cannot draw their own defign, as there are many
interfere ; or when with the (hoe of one foot he beats who cannot, make ufe of a defign furniflied them by
-'-ft—"  t-— another ; fadening it upon the block with pade made
of flour and water, with a little vinegar or gum
tragacanth ; the drokes or lines turned towards the
wood.
When the paper is dry, they wafh it gently over
with a fponge dipped in water; which done, they
off the (kin from the padern joint of another foot.
This is more frequent in the hind feet than the fore :
the caufes are either wearinefs, weaknefs in the reins,
not knowing how to go, or ill (hoeing.
Cutting, in painting, the laying one drong
lively colour over another, without ady (hade or foften- . „ .. , - ,
ing. The cutting of coloiirs has always a difagreeable take off the paper by little ahd little, dill nibbing it
effeA. _ a little fird with the tip of the finger; till at length
Cutting in wood, a particular kind of foulpture there be nothing left on the block but the drokeS of
or engraving; denominated from the matter wherein ink that form the defign, which mark out fo much of
it is employed. the block as is to be (pared or left danding. Fi-
It is ufed for various purpofes; as for figured let- gures are fometimes cut out of prints, by taking away
ters, head and tail-pieces of books; and even for all the white part or blank paper, and cemented with
ichernes and other figures, t® fave the expences of .cn- gum-water to the furface of the wood. The red they.
Vot.V. Part II. 4 J.v ' cut
CUT [ 626 ] CUT
Cm tings cut off, and take away very curioufly with the points b een for near a century and a half in the hands of the -Cutts-
J1 of very lharp knives, or little chiffels or gtavers, ac- Turks. Mr Addifon, in a Latin poem worthy of the If
^ <~utts' cording to the bignefs or delicacy of the work ; for Auguftan age, plainly hints at Mr Cutts’s diitinguifli- cya*are5-
they need no other inflruments. ed bravery at that fiege. Returning to England at
It differs from engraving in copper, becaufe in the the revolution, he had a regiment of foot; was crea-
former, the impreffion comes from the prominent parts ted baron of Gowran in Ireland, Dec. 6. 1690; ap-
r ftrokes left uncut; whereas in the latter, it comes pointed governor of the ifle of Wight, April 14. 1693;
from the channels cut in .the metal.
The manner of printing with wooden prints is much
more expeditious and eafy than that of copper-plate :
becaufe they, require only to be dipt in the printing-
ink, and impreffed cfn the objedt in the fame manner
and with the fame apparatus as the letter-printing
is managed ; and for purpofes that do not require
great corredtnefs, the imprefiion is made by the hand
only, a proper handle being fixed to the middle of the
print, by which it is firft dipped in the ink, fpread by
means of a brufh on a block' of proportionable fize
covered with leather; and then lifted up inftantly,
and dropped with fome little force on the paper which
is to receive the impreffion.
Cuttings, or flips, in gardening, the branches or
was made a major-general; and, when the affaffina-
tion project was difeovered, 1695-6, was captain of
the king’s guard. In 1698 he was complimented by
Mr John Hopkins, as one to whom “ a double crown
was due,” as a hero and a poet. He was colonel of
the Coldftream, orfecond regiment of guards, in 1701^.
when Mr Steele, who was indebted to his intereft for
a military commiffion, inferibed to him his firfl work.,
“ The Chriftian Hero.” On the accefiion of queea
Anne, he was made a lieutenant-general of the forces
in Holland ; commander in chief of the forces in Ire¬
land, under the duke of Ormond, March 23. 1704-5 ;
and afterwards one of the lords juftices of that king¬
dom, to keep him out of the way of adtion ; a circum-
ftance which broke his heart. He died at Dublin,
fprigs of trees or plants, cut or flipped off to fet a- Jan. 26. 1706-7, and is buried there in the cathedral-
gain ; which is done in any moift fine earth. of Chrift church. He wrote a poem on the death of
The belt feafon is from Auguft to April; but care queen Mary ; and publifhed, in 1687, “ Poetical ex-
is to be taken when it is done, the fap be not too much ercifes, written upon feveral occalions, and dedicated '
in the top, left the cut die before that part in the earth to her royal Highnefs Mary princefs of Orange.” It
have root enough to fupport it: nor yet muft it be too contains, befides the dedication figned J. Cutts, verfes
dry or fcanty ; the fap in the branches affifting it to to that princefs; a poem on Wifdpm ; another to Mr
take root. Waller on his commending it; feven. more eopies of
In providing the cuttings, fuch branches'as have verfes (one of them called Z-a Mufe which had
joints, knots, or burrs, are to be cut off two or three been aferibed to lord Peterborough, and as fuch men-
inches beneath them, and the leaves to be ftripped off tioned by Mr Walpole in the lift of that nobleman’-s
fo far as they are fet in the earth. Small top-branch- writings), and 11 fongs ; the whole compofing but a
es, of two or three years growth, are fitteft for this
operation.
CUTTLE-fish. See Sepia. The bone of the
cuttle-fifh is hard on one fide, but foft and yielding on
the other; fo as readily to receive pretty neat impref-
fions from medals, &c. and afterwards to ferve as a
mould for callingImetals, which thus take the figure
of the original: the bone is likewife frequently em¬
ployed for cleaning or poliihing filver. This fifh con¬
tains in a certain diftinft veffel a fluid as black as ink:
which it is faid to fhed when purfued, and thus to con¬
ceal itfelf by difcolouring the water. The particular
qualities of this liquor are not yet determined. Dr
Leigh fays, he faw a letter which had been written
with it ten years before, and which ftill continued.
Some report that the ancients made their ink from it;
and others, that it is the bafis of China, or Indian-ink:
but both thefe accounts appear to have little founda¬
tion. Pliny, fpeaking of the inks made ufe of in his
time, after obferving that the cuttle-fifh is in this re-
fpeft of a wonderful nature, adds exprefsly, that ink
was not made from it.
CUTTS (John lord), a foldier of moft hardy bravery
in king William’s wars, was fon of Richard Cutts,
Efq; of Matching in Effex ; where the family were
fettled about the time of Henry VI. and had a great
eftate. He entered early into the fervice of the
very thin volume; which is by no means fo fcarcc 1
Mr Walpole fuppofes it to be. A fpecimen of his
poetry (of which the five firft lines are quoted by
Steele in his fifth Taller) is here added :
Only tell her that I love.
Leave the reft to her and fate;
Some kind planet from above
May perhaps her pity move ;
Lovers on their ft.irs muft wait
Only tell her that l love.
Why, oh, why fhould 1 defpair ?
Mercy’s pictur’d in her eye ;
If Ihe once vouchfafg to hear,
Welcome hope, and welcome fear.
She’s too good to let me die ;
Why, oh, why Ihould 1 dtfpair ?
CYATHUS, xva9«f (from the verb AUE"> topour
out), was a common meafure among the Greeks and
Romans, both of the liquid and dry kind. It was e-
qual to an ounce, or the twelfth part of a pint. The
cyathus was pcade with an handle like our punch-ladle.
The Roman topers were ufed to drink as many cyathi
as there were mufes, i. e. nine ; alfo as’ many as there
were letters in the patron’s name. Thus, they had
modes of drinking fimilar to tire modern health-drink¬
ing or toafting. They fay, that the cyathus of the
Greeks weighed to drachms ; and Galen fays the fame;
though elfewhere he fays, that a cyathus contains 12
drachms of oil, 13 drachms and one fcruple of wine.
duke of Monmouth, was aid-de-camp to the duke of water, or vinegar, and 18 drachms of honey. Galen
Lorrain in Hungary, and fignalfzed himfelf in a^ fays, that among the Veterinarii the cyathus contain-
very extraordinary manner at the taking of Buda by ed two ounces.
the Imperialifts in 1686; which important place had CYAXARES, fon of Phraortes, was king of Me¬
dia
C Y B [ 627 ] CYC
Cyarares dia and Perfia. He bravely defend-ed his kingdom,
tl which the Scythians had invaded. He made war a-
Cy^ele , gaxnft Alyattes king of Lydia ; and fubjedted to his
power all Afia beyond the river Halys. He died af¬
ter a reign of 40 years, in the year of Rome 160.
Cyaxares II. is fuppofed by fome to be the fame
as Darius the Mede. He was fon of Aftyages king
of Media. He added feven provinces to his father’s
dominions, and made war againft the Aflyrians, whom
Cyrus favoured.
CYBEBE, a name of Cybele, from wMuv, becaufe
in the celebration of her feftivals men were driven to
madnefs. t
CYBELE, in Pagan mythology, the daughter of
Ccelus and Terra, and wife of Saturn. She is fup¬
pofed to be the fame as Ceres, Rhea, Ops, Vefta, Bo¬
na Mater, Magna Mater, Berecynthia, Dindymene,
&c. According to Diodorus, flie was the daughter
of a Lydian prince, and as foon as Ihe was born fhe
was expofed on a mountain. She was preferved by
fucking fome of the wild beafts of the foreft, and re¬
ceived the name of Cybele from the mountain where
her life had been preferved. When fhe returned to
her father’s court, fhe had an intrigue with Atys, a
beautiful youth whom her father mutilated, &c. All
the mythologifts are unanimous in mentioning the
amours of Atys and Cybele. In Phrygia the fellivals
of Cybele were obferved with the greateft folemnity.
Her priefts, called Corylantes, Galli, &c. were not ad¬
mitted in the fervice of the goddefs without a previous
1 mutilation. In the celebration of the feftivals, they
imitated the manners of madmen, and filled the air with
fhrieks and bowlings mixed with the confufed noife of
drums, tabrets, bucklers, and fpears. This was in com¬
memoration of the forrow of Cybele for the lofs of
her favourite Atys. Cybele was generally reprefented
as a robuft, woman far advanced in her pregnancy, to
intimate the fecundity of the earth. She held keys in
her hand, and her head was crowned with riling tur¬
rets, and fometimes with the leaves of an oak. She
fometimes appears riding in a chariot drawn by two
tame lions: Atys follows by her fide, carrying a ball
in bis hand, and fupporting himfelf upon a fir tree
which is facred to the goddefs. Sometimes fhe is re¬
prefented with a feeptre in her hand, with her head
covered with a tower. She is alfo feen with many
breafts, to fhow that the earth gives aliments to all li¬
ving creatures; and fhe generally carries two lions un¬
der her arms. From Phrygia the worfhip of Cybele
pafted into Greece, and was folemnly eftablifhed at
Eleufis under the name of the Eleufntan myjleries of Ce¬
rts. The Romans, by order of the Sibylline books,
brought the ftatue of the goddefs from Peffinus into
Italy ; and when the fhip which carried it had run on
a (hallow bank of the Tiber, the virtue and innocence
of Claudia was vindicated in removing it with her
girdle. It is fuppofed that the myfteries of Cybele
-were fir ft known about 257 years before the Trojan
war, or 1580 years before the Auguftan age. The
Romans were particularly fuperftittous in walhing eve¬
ry year, on the 6th of the kalends of April, the ferine
of this goddefs in the waters of the river Almon.
There prevailed many obfeenities in the obfervation
of the -feftivals; and the priefts themfelves were the*
moft eager tt> ufe indecent expreffions, and to feow
their unbounded licentioufnefs by the impurity of their
actions.
CYBELICUM marmor, a name given by the an¬
cients to a fpecies of marble dug in a mountain of that
name in Phrygia. It was of an extremely bright
white, with broad veins of bluife black.
CYCAS, in botany : A genus of plants belonging
to the firft natural order, Palma;. The fruit is a dry
plum with a bivalved kernel. There is but one fpe¬
cies deferibed by Linnaeus, viz. the circinalis, or fago*
tree, which grows fpontaneoufty in the Eaft Indies,
and particularly on the coaft of Malabar. It runs up
with a ftraight trunk to 40 feet or more, having many
circles the whole length, occafioned by the old leaves
falling off; for they (landing in a circular order round
the Item, and embracing it with their bafe, whenever
they drop, they leave the marks of their adhefion be¬
hind. The leaves are pinnated, and grow to the
length of feven or eight feet. The pinnae or lobes are
long, narrow, entire, of a feining green, all the way
of a breadth, lance-feaped at the point, are clofely
crouded together, and ftand at right angles on each
fide the midrib, like the teeth of a comb. The flowers
are produced in long bunches at the footftalks of the
leaves, and are fucceeded by oval fruit, about the fize
of large plums, of a red colour when ripe, and a fweet
flavour. Each contains a hard brown nut, enclofing
a white meat, which taftes like a chefnut.
This is a valuable tree to the inhabitants of India, as
it not only furnifees a confiderablepart of their conftant
bread, but alfo fupplies them with a large article of
trade. The body contains a farinaceous fubftance,
which they extraft from it and make into bread in
this manner: they faw the body into fmall pieces, and
after beating them in a mortar, pour water upon the
mafs; this is left for fome hours to fettle. When fit,
it is ftrained through a cloth, and the finer particles
of the mealy fubftance running through with the wa¬
ter, the grofs ones are left behind and thrown away.
After the farinaceous part is fufficiently fubfided, the
water is poured off, and the meal being properly dried,
is occafionally made into cake? and baked. Thefe
Cakes are faid to eat nearly as w’dl as wheaten bread,
and are the fnpport of the inhabitants for three or four
months in the year.
The fame meal more finely pulverized, and reduced
into granules, is what is called Sago, which is lent
into all parts of Europe, and fold in the (hops for a
great ftrengthener and reftorative.
There is a fort of fago made in the Weft Indies, and
is fent to Europe in the fame manner as that from the
Eaft ; "but the Weft India fago is far inferior in quality
to’the other. It is fuppofed to be made from the pith
of the areca olera'cea. See Areca.
The brood boom (or bread-tree) of the Hottentots,
a plant lately difeovered by profeffor Thunberg, is
deferibed as a new fpecies of this genus, by the name
of eye as Cajfra, in the Nova A8a Reg. Soc. Sclent.
Upf. vol. ii. p. 283. tab. V. The pith, or medulla,
which abounds in the trunk of this little palm, Mr
Sparman informs us, is colledled and tied up in dreffed
calf or fheep-fkins, and then buried in the earth for
the fpace of fcveral weeks, till it becomes fufficiently
4 K 2 mellow
■
CYC [ 628 1 CYC
'Oyccen mellow and tender to be kneaded up with wa'ter into
<’ riikitn a Pa^e’ they afterwards make fmall loaves or
-yi-.itntn. cajceS) an^ {,3^ them under the afhes. Other Hot¬
tentots, not quite fo nice, nor endued with patience
enough to wait this tedious method of preparing it,
are faid to dry and road the pith or marrow, and after¬
wards make a kind of brown frumenty of it.
CYCEON, from “ to mix;” a name given
by the ancient poets and phyficians t<5 a mixture of
meal and water, and fometimes of other ingredients.
Thefe conflituted the two kinds of cyceon; the coarfer
being of the water and meal alone; the richer and
more delicate compofed of wine, honey, flour, water,
and cheefe. Homer, in the nth Iliad, talks of cy¬
ceon made with cheefe and the meal of barley mixed
with wine, but without any mention either of honey
or water; and Ovid, defcribing the draught of cyceon
given by the old woman of Athens to Ceres, mentions
only flour and water. Diofcorides underftood the
word in both thefe fenfes; but extolled it moft in the
. coarfe and Ample kind : he fays, when prepared with
water alone, it refrigerates and nourifhes greatly.
CYClYiVlS, a Grecian dance, fo called from the
name of its inventor, one of the fatyrs belonging to
Bacchus. It conlifred of a combination of grave and
gay movements.
CYCLADES insulae; ifiands anciently fo called,
as Pliny informs us, from the Cyelus or orb in which
they lie ; beginning from the promontory Geracftum
of Euboea, and lying round the ifland Delos, (Pliny).
Where they are, and what their number, is not fo
generally agreed. Strabo fays,- they were at firft
i-okoned .12, but that many others were added : yet
molt of them lie to the fouth of Delos, and but few to
t!*e north, fo ttjafc the middle or centre, afevibed to
Delos, is to be taken in a loofe, not a geometrical
ienfe. Strabo recites them after Artemidorus, as fol¬
lows : Helena, Ceos, Cynthus, Seriphus, Meins, Si-
pluis, Csmolus, Prepefmthus, Olearus, Naxus, Pants,
Synis, My con us, Tenus,-Andrus, Gyarus; but he
excludes from the number, Prepefmthus, Olearus, and
Gyarus. * .
CYCLAMEN, Sowbread: A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafsof plants;
auu in the natural method ranking under the 21ft or¬
der, Precis. The corolla is verticillated, with the tube
very Ihort, and the throat prominent; the berry is
covered with the capfule. There are but two fpecies;
which, however, produce many beautiful varieties.
‘They are low, herbaceous, flowery perennials of the
tuberous rooted kind, with numerous, angular, heart-
fliaped, fpotted, marbled leaves; with many flelhy
foot-llalks fix inches high, carrying monopetalous,
five-parted reflexed flowers of various colours. All the
varieties are extremely ornamental, and fome of the
flowers very fragrant. They may be planted in any
of the common borders, but* require to be (heltered
from hard frofts by being covered with mats. They
fhould alfo have a light dry foil,- otherwife their roc ts
are apt to rot. The fpecies are propagated by feeds,
and the particular varieties by dividing their roots.
The root of the cyclamen lias, when frefh, an ex¬
tremely acrimonious burning take, which it lofes al-
moll entirely on being dried. It is reepmmeuded as
an errhine ; in cataplafms for fcorrhous and cancerous Cycle
tumors; and internally as a cathartic, detergent, and i| \j
aperient. It operates very flowly, but with great vi- Cyclop*.^ J|
rulence, inflaming the fauces and iriteftines. ’ »" 'niJ :H
CYCLE, in chronology, a certain period or feries
of numbers, which regularly proceed from the firft to
the laft, and then return again to the firft, and fo cir¬
culate perpetually. See Chronology, n°26.
CrciE of Inclidion, a period of 15 years, in ufe a-
mong the Romans. It has no connexion with the
celeftial motion, but was inftituted, according to Ba¬
ronins, by Conftantine; who Laving reduced tire time
which the Romans were obliged to ferve to 15 years,
he was confequently obliged every 15 years to im-
pofe, or indicere according to the Latin exprefiion,
an extraordinary tax for the payment of thofe who
were difeharged ; and hence arofe this cycle, which,
from the Latin word indicere, was ftyled indidion.
Cycle of the Moon, called alfo the golden number, and
the Metonic cycle from its inventor Melon the Athe¬
nian, is a period of 19 years, which when they are
completed, the new moons and full moons return on
the fame days of the month, fo that on whatever days
the new and full moons fall this year, 19 years hence
they will happen on the very fame days of the month,
though not at the fame hour, as Melon and the fa¬
thers of the primitive church thought; and therefore,
at the time of the council of Nice, when the method of
finding the time for obferving the feaft of Eafter was
eilablifhed, the numbers of the lunar cycle were in-
ferted in the kalendar, which, upon the account of
their excellent ufe, were fet in golden letters, and the
year of the cycle called the golden number of that
year.
Ctcle of the Sun, a revolution of 28 years, which
being elapfed, the dominical or S'unday-letters return
to their former place, and proceed in the fame order
as before, according to the Julian kalendar.
- CYCLISUS, in furgery, an inftrument in the form
of a half moon, ufed in feraping the Ikull, in cafe of
fra&ures of that part.
CYCLOID, a curve on which the doftrine of pen¬
dulums, and time-meafuring inftruments, in a great
meafure depend; Mr Huygens demonftrated, that from
whatever point or height a heavy body, ofciilating on
a fixed centre, begins to defeend, while it continues
to move in a cycloid, the time of its falls or ofcillation*.
will.be equal to each other. It is likewife demonftra-
ble, that it is the curvD of quickeft defeent, i. e. a
body falling in it, from any given point above,, to ano¬
ther, not exaftly under it, will come to this point in
a lefs time than in any other curve palling through
thofe two points.
CYCLOPAEDIA, or EttCYCLOPiEsiA, denotes the
circle or compafs of arts and fciences. A cyclopedia,
fay the authors of the French Encyclopedic, ought to
explain as much as poffible the order and connedtion
of human knowledge.
CYCLOPS, in fabulous hiftory, the fons of Neptune
and Amphitrite ; the principle of whom were Brontes,
Steropes, and Peracmon ; but their whole number a-
mounted to above an ’hundred. Jupiter threw them
into Tartarus as foon as they were borri ; but they
were delivered at the intercefilori of TelluS, and be¬
came
CYC L 629 ] C Y D
came the affiftants of Vulcan. They were of prodigi-
©us ftature, and had each only one eye, which was
placed in the middle of their foreheads.
Some mythologifts fay, that the Cyclops fignify the
vapours raifed in the air, which occafion thunder and
lightning; on which account they are reprefented as
"forging the thunderbolts of Jupiter. Others repre-
fent them as the firft inhabitants of Sicily, who were
cruel, of a gigantic form, and dwelt round mount
iEtna.
CYCLOPTERUS, the sucker, in ichthyology, a
genus belonging to the order of amphibia nantes. The
head is obtufe, and furniihed with faw-teeth: there are
four rays in the gills ; and the belly-fins are connected
together in an orbicular form. The fpecies are,
1. The lumpus, ordump-filh, grows to the length of
19 inches, and weighs feven pounds. The ihape of the
body is like that of the bream, deep and very thick,
and it fwims edge-ways. The back is (harp and ele¬
vated ; the belly flat, of a bright crimfon colour. A-
long the body there run feveral rows of (harp bony
tubercles, and the • whole fkin is covered with fmall
ones. The pedloral fins are large and broad, almoft
uniting at their bafe. Beneath thefe is the part by
which it adheres to the rocks, &c. It confifls of an
oval aperture, furrounded with a fleflry, mufcular, and
obtufe foft fubftance; edged with many fmall thread¬
ed appendages, which concur as fo many clafpers. The
tail and vent-fins are purple. By means of this part.it
adheres with vaft force to any thing it pleafes. As a
proof of its tenacity, it hath been known, that in fling¬
ing a filh of this fpecies jutt caught into a pail of wa¬
ter, it fixed itfelf fo firmly to the bottom, that on ta¬
king the fifh by the tail, the whole pail by that means
was lifted, though it held fome gallons, without once
making the fifii quit its hold. Thefe fifh refort in
multitudes during fpring to the coaft of Sutherland
near the Ord of Caithnefs,. The feals which fwarm
beneath, prey greatly upon them, leaving the fkins;
numbers of which,, thus emptied, float afhore at that
feafon. Jt is eafy to diflinguifh the place.where the
feals are devouring this or any other un&uous fifh, by
a fmoothnefs of the water immediately above the
fpot. This fa£i is now eftabliflred; it being a tried pro¬
perty of oil to ft ill the agitation of tire waves and
render them fmooth. Great numbers of lump-fifh are
found in the Greenland feas during the months of
April and May, when they refort near the fhore to
fpawn. Their roe is remarkably large, which the
Greenlanders boil to a pulp and eat. They are ex.
tremely fat, which recommends them the more to the
natives, who admire all oily food. They call them ni-
pijeis or cat-jijl, and take quantities of them during
the feafon. The fifh is fometimes eaten in Eng¬
land, being Hewed like carp; but is both flabby and
infiptd.
2. The liparis takes the name of fea-fnail from the
foft and un&ucus texture of its body, refembling that
of the land-fnail. It is almoft tranfparent, and foon
diflblves and melts away. It is found in the fea near
the mouths of great rivers, and hath been feen full of
(pawn in January. The length is five inches; the
colour a pale brown, fometimes finely [freaked with a
darker. Beneath the throat is a round depreflion of
a whitifh colour like the impreffion of a feal, furround¬
ed by twelve fmall pale yellow tubera, by which pro¬
bably it adheres to the ftones like the other fpecies.
3. The lefler fucking-fifh is found in different parts
of the Britifh feas. It is about four inches in length;
the fkin without feales, flippery, and of a dufley colour.
It hath alfo an apparatus for adhering to ftones ancf
rocks ftmilar to the others.
CYDER, or Cider, an excellent drink made of
the juice of apples, efpecially of the more curious table
kinds; the juice of thefe being efteemed more cordial
and pleafant than that of the wild or harfii kinds. In
making this drink it hath long been thought neceffary,
in every part of England, to lay the harder cyder-
fruits in heaps for fome time before breaking their
pulps ; but the Devonfhire people have much impro¬
ved this praftice. In other counties the method is to
make thefe heaps of apples in a houfe, or under fome
covering inclofed on every fide. This method hath
been founcl defedlive, becaufe, by excluding the free
air, the heat foon became too violent, and a great
perfpiration enfued, by which in a (hort time the
lofs of juices was fo great, as to reduce the fruit to
half their former weight, attended with a general rot-
tennefs; rancid fmell, and difagreeable tafte. In the
South-hams, a middle way has been purfued, to avoid
the inconveniences and lofs attending the above. They
make their heaps of apples in an open part of an or¬
chard, where, by the means of a free air and lefs per¬
fpiration, the defired maturity is brought about, with
an inconfiderable wafte of the juices and decay of the
fruit, entirely free of ranknefs; and though fome ap¬
ples rot even in this manner, they are very few, and
are ftill fit for ufe; all continue plump and full of
juices, and very much heighten the colour of cyders,
without ill tafte or fmell.
In purfuing the Devonfhire method, it is to be ob-
ferved, 1. That all the promifeuous kinds of apples
that have dropped from the trees, from time to time,
are to be gathered up and laid in a heap by them-
felves, and to be made into cyder after having fo lain
about ten days. 2. Such apples as are gathered from,
the trees, having already acquired fome degree of ma¬
turity, are likewifie to be kid in a heap by themfelves
for about a fortnight. 3. The later hard fruits, which
are to be left qa the trees till the approach of froft is
apprehended, are to be laid in a feparate heap, where
they are to remain a month or fix weeks, by which,
notwithftanding froft, rain, &c. their juices will re¬
ceive fuch a maturation, as will prepare them for a
kindly fermentation, and which they could not have
attained on the trees by means of the coldnefs of the
feafon.
It is obfervable, that the riper and mellower the
fruits are at the time -of eolle&ing them into heaps,
the fhorter fhould be their continuance there ; and on
the contrary, the hardier, immaturerrand harder they
are, the longer they fhould reft.
Thefe heaps fhould be made in an even and open
part of an orchard, without any regard to eovering
from rain, dews, or what eke may happen during the
apples Haying there ; and whether they be carried in
and broke in wet or dry weather, the thing is all the
fame. If it may be objected that during their having
Haiti
Cycler.
G Y D
Cyder Iain together in the heap, they may have imbibed great
( i! humidity, as well from the air as from the ground,
t C)dnuc. rajn> dewS} See- which are mixed with their juices/;
"v the anfwer is, this will have no other effedt than a
kindly diluting, natural to the fruit, by which means
a fpeedier fermentation enfues, and all heterogeneous
humid particles are thrown off.
The apples are then ground, and the pummice is
[ ] C Y D
the people of Tarfus a ftation or port for their fhips. Cy>
The water of the Cydnus is commended by Strabo, as —
of fervice in nervous diforders and the gout.
CYDONIA (anc. geog.), one of the three mofl il-
luftrious cities of Crete, fituated in the north-weft of
the ifland, with a locked port, or walled round. The
circumftances of the founding of Cydon are uncertain.
Stephen of Byzantium fays, that it was at firft named
■received in a large open-mouthed veffel, capable of Apollonia from Cydon the fon of Apollo. Paufanias
containing as much thereof as is fufficient for <
king, or one cheefe. Though it has been a cuftom to
let the pummice remain fome hours iri the veffel appro¬
priated to contain it,-yet that praftice is by no means
commendable ; for if the fruits did not come ripe from
the trees, or otherwife matured, the pummice, remain¬
ing in the vat too long, will acquire fuch harfhnefs and
coarfenefs from the fkins as is never to be got rid of;
and if the pummice is of well ripened fruit, the con¬
tinuing too long there will occafion it to contradt a
(harpnefs that very often is followed with want of fpi-
yit and pricking ; nay, fometimes it even becomes vi¬
negar, or always continues of a wheyifh colour; all
which proceeds from the heat of fermentation that it
almoft inftantly falls into on lying together; the pum-
aferibes the founding of it to Cydon the fon of Tege*
tus, who travelled into Crete. Herodotus affirms, that
it was founded by the Samians, and that its temples
were eredled by them. Alexander, in the firft book
of the Cretans, informs us, that it received its name
from Cydon the fon of Mercury. Cydon was the
largeft city in the ifland ; and was enabled to hold the
balance between her contending neighbours. She fuf-
tained fome famous fieges. Phaleucus, general of the
Phoceans, making an expedition into Crete with a fleet
and a numerous army, invefted Canea both by fea and
land ; but loft his army and his life before its walls.
In fucceeding times, when Metellus fubdued the ifland,
he affailed Cydon with all his forces ; and after com¬
bating an obftinate refiftance, fubjefted it to the power
mice therefore fhould remain no longer in the vat of Rome. Cydon occupied the prefent fituation of
than until there may be enough broke for one preffing,
or that all be made into a cheefe, and prefled the fame
day it is broken.
In Plate CLIV. is a perfpeftive view of the cyder-
prefs and apple-ihill.
A, B, the bottom or lower beam ; C, D, the upper
beam ; 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, the uprights ; 4, 4, e, c, fpurs;
Z, 2, 12, braces, or crofs-pieces; a, b, capitals; X,
blocks; jr, the ferew; E, the back or receiver ; F,
the cheefe or cake of pummice, placed on the ftage or
bafon ; G, the ftage or bafon ; 10, 10, beams that
fuppott the pieces of which the bafon is compofed;
, perpendicular pieces for fupporting thefe beams;
Canea ; only extending half a league farther towards
St Odero; where on the fea fhore the remains are ftill
to be feen of fome ancient walls which appear to have
been of a very foil'd conftru&ion. See Canea.
CYDOjSfiA, the quince; fo called from Cydon, a
town of Crete, famous for its abounding with this
fruit. Linnaeus has joined this genus to the apple and
pear ; but as there is fuch a remarkable difference be¬
tween the fruits, we follow Mr Miller, who treats the
quince as a genus by itfelf.
Species. 1. The oblonga, with an oblong fruit,
lengthened at the bafe. 2. The maliforma, with oval
leaves woolly on their under fide, and lengthened at
H, the buckler; R, S, Q, a circular trough of the their bafe. 3. The lufitanica, with obverfe oval leaves?
apple-mill; T, L, V, compartments or divifions, for
different forts of apples; M, the mill-ftone; L, M,
axis of the mill ftone ; N, the fpring-tree bar.
CrnRR-Spirit, a fpirituous liquor drawn from cyder
by diftillation, in the fame manner as brandy from
wine. The particular flavour of this fpirit is not the
moft agreeable, but it may with care be divefted
wholly of it, and rendered a perfectly pure and infipid
fpirit upon reftification. The traders in fpirituous li-
woolly on their under fide. There are fome other
varieties of this fruit propagated in fruit-gardens, and
in the nurferies for fale; one of which is a foft eatable
fruit, another very aftringent, and a third with a very
fmall fruit cottony all over, which is fcarce worth
keeping. Thefe Mr Miller fuppofed to be-feminal va¬
riations, but the three others to be diftindl fpecies.
The Portugal quince is the moft valuable: its pulp
turns to a fine purple when ftewed or baked, and be-
quors are well enough acquainted wrjh the value of comes much fofter and lefs auftere than the others ; fo
fuch a fpirit as this: they can give it the flavours of
fome other kinds, and fell it under their names, or
mix it in large proportion with the foreign brandy,
rum, and arrack, in the fale, without any danger of
a difeovery of the cheat.
CYDIAS, a painter who made a painting of the
Argonauts in the 1 ith Olympiad. This celebrated
piece was bought by the orator Hortenfius for 164
talents.
CYDNUS (anc. geog.), a river of Cilicia; rifing
in mount Taurus, to the north of Tarfus, through
whofe middle it ran, in a very clear and cold ftream,
which had almoft proved fatal to Alexander on bath¬
ing in it; falling into the fea at a place called Rheg-
ma, a breach, the fea breaking in there, and affording
is much fitter for making marmalade. The trees are all
eafily propagated, either by layers, fuekers, or cuttings?
which muft be planted in a moift foil. Thofe raifed
from fuckers are feldom fo well rooted as thofe which
are obtained from cuttings or layers, and are fubjedt
to produce fuckers again in greater plenty; which is
not fo proper for fruit-bearing trees. . Thefe trees
require very little pruning; the chief tiling to be
obferved is, to keep their items clear from fuckers,
and cut off fuch branches as crofs each other: iike-
wife all upright luxuriant flioots from the middle of
the tree ihould be taken off, that the head m ay not
be too much crowded with wood, which is of ill con-
fequence to all fruit-trees, Thefe forts may alfo b£
propagated by budding or grafting upon flocks raifed
bjr
C Y M [6.
Cyjrms by cuttings ; fo that the beft forts may be cultivated
fl this way in greater plenty than by any other method.
ty11'*13*' Thefe are alfo in great efteem to bud or graft pears
’ upon ; which for fummer or autumn fruits are a great
improvement to them, efpecially thofe defigned for
walls and efpaliers; for the trees upon thefe docks do
not (hoot fo vigoroufly as thofe upon free-ftocks, and
therefore may be kept in lefs compafs, and fooner
produce fruit : but hard winter-fruits do not Tucceed
fo well upon thefe docks, their fruit being fubjedt to
crack, and are commonly ftony, efpecially all the
breaking pears : therefore thefe docks are only fit for
melting pears and a moid foil.
CYGNUS, or Swan, in ornithology. See Anas.
Cygnus,, the Swan, in adronomy, a conddlation
©f the northern hemifphere, between Lyra and Ce-
pheus. The dars in the coudellation Cygnus, in
Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 19 j in Tycho’s 18; in He-
velius’s 47; in the Britapnic catalogue 81.
CYLINDER, in geometry, a folid body fuppofed
to be generated by the rotation of a parallelogram.
Rolling, or Loaded CriiNom, a cylinder which rolls
«p an inclined plane ; the phenomena of which are ex¬
plained under Mechanics.
CYLINDROID, in geometry, a folid body, ap
preaching to the figure of a cylinder, but differing
from it in fome refpe&s, as having the bafes elliptical,
but parallel and equal.
CYLINDRUS, in natural hidory, the name of a
genus of (hell-fifii, of which there are many elegant
and precious fpecies.
CYMA, in botany, the tender dalks which herbs
fend forth in the beginning of the fpring, particularly
thofe of the cabbage kind.
Cyma, or Cymatium, in archite&ure, a member
or moulding of the corniche, the profile of which is
waved, that is, concave at top, and convex at bottom.
CYMBAL, a mufical indrument in ufe
among fhe ancients. The cymbal was made of brafs,
like our kettle-drums, and, as fome think, in their
form, but {mailer, and of different ufe. Ovid gives
cymbals the epithet of genialia, becaufe they were
ufed at weddings and other diverfions.
Caffiodorus and Ifidore call this xn^.xnxntntacetabulum,
the name of a cup or cavity of a bone wherein another
is articulated ; and Xenophon compares it to a horfe’s
hoof; whence it mud have been hollow: which ap¬
pears, too, from the figure of feveral other things de¬
nominated from it: as a bafin, caldron, goblet, calk,
and even a {hoe,, fuch as thofe of Empedocles, which
were of brafs.
In reality, the ancient cymbals appear to have been
very different from our kettle drums, and their ufe of
another kind : to their exterior cavity was fadened a
handle ; whence Pliny compares them to the upper
part of the thigh, and Rabanus to phials.
They were druck againd one another, in cadence,
and made a very agute found. Their invention was
attributed to Cybele ; whence their ufe in feads and
facrifices: fetting afide this occafion, they werefeldom
ufed but by diffolute and effeminate people. M. Lampe,
who has written exprefsly on the fubjeft, attributes
the invention to the Curetes, or inhabitants of mount
Ida in Crete; it is certain thefe, as well as the Cory-
;i ] C Y N
bantes or guards of the kings of Crete, and thofe of Cyme
Rhodes and Samothracia, were reputed to excel in the li
mufic of the cymbal. Cynara.
The Jews had their cymbals, or at lead indruments '—-**-*
which tranflators render cymbals ; but as to their mat- «
ter and form, critics are dill in the dark. The mo¬
dern cymbal is a mean iniirument, chiefly in ufe among
vagrants, gypfies, &c. It confifls of deel wire, in a
triangular form, whereon are paffed five rings, which
are touched and fliifted along the triangle with an iron
rod held in the left hand, while it is fupported in the
right by a ring, to give it the freer motion. Duran-
dus fays, that the monks ufed the word cymbal for the
cloifter-bell, ufed to call them to the refe<dovy.
CYME (anc. geog.), a city built by Pelops on
his return from Greece. Cyme the Amazon gpve
it name, on expelling the inhabitants, according to
Mela. Latin authors, as Nepos, Livy,. Mela, Pliny,
Tacitus, retain the appellation Cyme, after the. Greek,
manner. It dood in Aeolia, between Myrina and
Phocasa (Ptolemy) ; and long after, in Pciitinger’s
map, is fet down nine miles didant from Myrina.—^
From this place was the Sybilla Curna-a, called Ery-
threea, from Erythrce, “ a neighbouring place ” It
was the country of Ephorus. Hefiod was a Cumean
originally (Stephanas) ; his father coming to fettle at
Afcra in Bceotia.
CYMENE, in botany, a name given by the ancient
Greeks to a plant with which they ufed to dye woollen
things yellow, and with which the women of thofe
times ufed alfo to tinge the hair yellow, that being the
favourite colour in thofe ages. ’ The cymene of the
Greeks is evidently the fame plant with the lutea herla
of the Latins; or what we call dyer's weed.. See Re¬
seda.
CYNA.GIRUS, an Athenian, celebrated for his
extraordinary courage. He was brother to the poet
vEfchylus. After the battle of Marathon, he pur-
fued the flying Perfians to their {hips, and feized one
of their veffels with his right hand, which was imme¬
diately fevered by the enemy. Upon this he feized
the veffel with his left hand, and when he had loft
that alfo, he dill kept his hold with his teeth.
CYNANCHE, a fpecies of quinzy, in which the
tongue is inflamed and fwelled, fo that it hangs out
beyond the teeth.
CYNANCHUM^ bastard dogsbane: A genus
of the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under '
the 30th order, Gontortee. The ne&arium is cylindrical:
and quinquedentated. There are fix fpecies; of which
the following are the mod remarkable. 1. The acu-
tum, commonly called Montpelier fcammony; and, 2.
The monfpeliacum, or round-leaved Montpelier fcam¬
mony. They abound with a milky juice like the
fpurge, which iffues out wherever they are broken;,
and this milky juice when concreted has fiequently
been fold for fcammony. Thefe plants propagate fo*
fad by their creeping roots, that few people care to
admit them into gardens.
CYNARA, the Artichoke : A genus of the po-
lygamia tequalis- order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants. The calyx is dilated, imbricated wn’th:
carnous fquamse, and emarginated with-a {harp point.
4 Of
Cynara.
C Y N [ 632 1 C Y N
OF this genus there are four fpecies, but only two are
cultivated for ufe.
x. The fcolynius, or garden artichoke, hath large,
thick, perennial roots, crowned by a conhderable du¬
ller of large pennatifid, ereft leaves, two or three feet
long. In the middle are upright ftalks rifing a yard
high, on the top of which is a large round fcaly head,
compofed of numerous, oval, calycinal fcales, inclofing
the florets, fitting on a broad fldhy receptacle, which,
with the flefhy bafe of the fcales, is the only eatable
part of the plant. The varieties of this fpecies are,
( 1.) The conical green-headed French artichoke, ha¬
ving the fmall leaves terminated by fpines, a tall ftaik,
the head fomewhat conical, and of a light green co¬
lour, with the fcalfes pointed at top, opening and turn¬
ing outward. (2.) The globular headed red Dutch
artichoke, having leaves without fpines, a flrong ftaik,
the head large, globular, a little compreffed. at top,
and of a reddifh-green colour ; broad obtafe fcales
emarginated at top, growing clofe, and turning in¬
ward. Of thefe varieties the laft is defervedly the
moft efteemed, both on account of its fuperiority in
iize and the agreeablenefs of its flavour. Both varieties
are perennial in their root; but the leaves and fruit-
flem die to the ground in winter; and their roots re¬
maining, fend up frefh leaves and items every fummer,
producing a fupply of artichokes for 20 years if requi¬
red. The flowers and feed of all the plants of this ge¬
nus are produced in the centre of the head ; the fcales
of which are the proper calyx of the flower, which con-
fifts of numerous fmall bluifh florets, fucceeded by
downy feeds fitting naked on the receptacle.
2. The cardunculus, or cardoon, greatly refembles
the artichoke, but is of larger and more regular growth;
the leaves being more upright, taller, broader, and more
regularly divided; and the ftalks of the leaves blanched
are the only eatable parts of the plant.
Culture. Both the varieties of the hrtichoke are
propagated by flips or fuckers, arifing annually from
the ftool or foot of the old plants in fpring, which are
to be taken from good plants of any prefent plantation
in March or the beginning of April, and planted in the
open quarter of the kitchen-garden, in rows five feet
afunder; and they will produce artichokes the lame
yeaf in autumn. It fhould, however, be remarked, that
though artichokes are of many years duration, the an¬
nual produce of their fruit will gradually lefltn in the
frze of the eatable parts after the third or fourth year,
fo that a frefh plantation fhould be made every three or
four years. The cardoon is a very hardy plant, and
profpers in the open quarters of the kitchen-garden.
It is propagated by feed fowed annually in the full
ground in March ; either in a bed for tranfplantation,
or in the place where they are defigned to remain.
The plants are very large, fo muft ftand at confiderable
diftances from one another. By this means you may
have fome fmall temporary crops between the rows, as
of lettuce, fpinach, endive, cabbage, favoy, or broc¬
coli plants. In the latter end of September, or in Oc¬
tober, the cardoons will be grown very large, and their
footftalks have acquired a thick fubftance ; you muft
then tie up the leaves of each plant, to admit of earthing
them clofely all round for blanching, which will take
pp fix or eight weeks; and thus the plants will come
N°96. • j
in for ufe in November and December, and continue all Cynens
winter. II
CYNfEUS of Theffaly,. the fcholar of Demofthenes,
flourifhed 275 years befofe Chrift, Pyrrhus fiad fo ’
high an efteem for him, that he fent him to Rome "to
folicit a peace; and fo vaft was his memory, that the
day after his arrival he fainted all the fenators and
knights by name. Pyrrhus and he wrote aTreatifeof
War, quoted by Tully.
CYNICS, a feft of ancient philofophers, who va¬
lued themfelves upon their contempt of riches and
ftate, arts and fciences, and every thing, in fhort, ex¬
cept virtue or morality.
The cynic philofophers owe their origin and infti-
tution to Antifthenes of Athens, a difciple of Socrates;
who being afked of what'ufe his philofophy had been
to him, replied, “ It enables-me to live with myfelf.”'
Diogenes was the moft famous of his difciples, in
whole life the fyftem of this philofophy appears in it*
greateft perfection. He led a moft wretched life, a tub
having ferved him for a lodging, which he rolled be¬
fore him wherever he went. Yet he was neverthe-
lefs not the more humble on account of his ragged
cloak, b^g, and tub ; for one day entering Pinto's
houfe, at a time when there was a fplendid entertain¬
ment there for feveral perfons of diltinClion, he jump¬
ed up upon a very rich couch in all his dirt, faying,
“ I trample on the pride of Plato.” “ Yes (replied
Plato), but with great pride, Diogenes.” He had the
utmoft contempt for all the human race; for he walked
the ftreets of Athens at noon day with a lighted lan-
thorn in his hand, telling the people, “ He was in
fearch of a man.” Amongft many excellent maxims
of morality, he held fome very pernicious opinions;
for he ufed to fay, that the uninterrupted good fortune
of Harpalus, who generally pafled for a thief and a
robber, was a teftimony againft the gods. He re¬
garded chaftity and modefty as weakndfes : hence
Laertius obferves of him, that he did every thing open¬
ly, whether it belonged to Ceres or Venus ; though he
adds, that Diogenes only ran to an excefs of impu¬
dence to put others out of conceit with it. But impu¬
dence was the charafteriftic of thefe philofophers; who
argued, that what was right to be done, might be done
at all times and in all places. The chief principle of
this fed, in common with the iloics, was, that we
fhould follow nature. But they differed from the ftoics
in their explanation of that maxim; the cynics being
of opinion, that a man followed nature that gratified
his natural motions and appetites; while the ftoics un-
cjtrftood right reafon by the word nature.
Cynic Spafm, a kind of convulfion, wherein the pa¬
tient imitates the bowlings of dogs.
CYNIPS, in zoology, a genus of infeds belonging
to the hymenoptera order. The mouth is armed with
jaws, but has no probofeis; the fling is fpiral, and
moftly concealed within the body. The quercus folii,
or oak-leaf cynips, is of a burnifhed flrining brown co¬
lour. The antenna; are black ; the legs and feet of a
chefnut-brown; and the wings white, but void of mar¬
ginal fpots. It is in the little fmooth, round, hard
galls, found under the oak-leaves, generally faftened to
the fibres, that this infett is produced, a fingle one in
each gall. Thefe latter are ligneous, of a hard compaft
c Y N [ 633 I GYP
Cynoce- fubftance, formed like the reft, by the extravafation of
phaius fap Qf tjje jeaf> occafioned by the pundture of the
Cynofar- gaU-fly when it depofits its eggs. Sometimes, inftead
ges. of the cynips, there is feen to proceed from the gall a
<—-y—— larger infeft of a brown colour, which is an ichneumon.
This ichneumon is not the real inmate of the gall, or,
he that formed it. He is a parafite, whofe mother
depofited her egg in the yet tender gall; which, when
hatched, brings forth a larva that deftroys the larva of
the cynips, and then comes out when it has undergone
its metamorphofis and acquired its wings.
The quercus gemmce, or oak-bud cynips, is of a
very dark green, flightly gilded : its antennas and
feet are of a dun colour, rather deep. It depofits its
eggs in the oak buds, which produces one of the fineft
galls, leafed like a rofe-bud beginning to blow. When
the gall is fmall, that great quantity of leaves is com-
prefl'ed, and they are fet one upon another like the
tiles of a roof. In the centre of the gall there is a
kind of ligneous kernel, in the middle of which is a ca¬
vity ; and in that is found the little larva, who feeds
there, takes its growth, undergoes its metamorphofis,
and breaks through the inclofure of that kind of cod
in order to get out. The whole gall is often near an
inch in diameter, fometimes more when dried and dif-
played ; and it holds to a branch by a pedicle.
There are a great number of other fpecies.
CYNOCEPHALUS, in zoology, the trivial name
of a fpecies of Si mi a.
CYNOGLOSSUM, hound’s tongue : A genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 41ft order, Afperifolite. The corolla is funnel-
ftiaped, with its throat clofed up by little arches formed
in it; the feeds deprefled, and affixed to the ftyle or
receptacle only on their inner fide. There are eight
fpecies, none of them remarkable for their beauty.
The root of one of them, vi%. the officinale, or com¬
mon greater hound’s tongue, was formerly ufed in
medicine, and fuppofed topoffefs narcotic virtues; but
it is difcarded from the prefent praftice. The fmell
of the whole plant is very difagreeable. Goats eat it:
(beep, horfes, and fwine refufe it.
CYNOMETRA, in botany : A genus of the mono¬
gynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. The calyx is tetra-
phyllous; the antheras bifid at top ; the legumen car-
nous, crefcent-lhaped, and monofpermous.
CYNOMORIUM, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nandiia older, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking undir the
50th order, slmentaceee. The male calyx is an imbri¬
cated catkin ; there is no corolla : the calyx of the fe¬
male is in the fame catkin ; no corolla; one ftyle; and
one roundifh feed.
CYNOPHONT1S, in antiquity, a feftival obferved
in the dog-days at Argos, and fo called «*■<> r»s- Y.viac
ipo')"'’, i. e. from killing dogs ; becaufe it was ufual on
. this day to kill all the dogs they met with.
CYNOREXY, an immoderate appetite, to the de¬
gree of a difeafe; called alto fames canma and bulimy.
CYNOSARGES, a place in the fuburbs of Athens,
named from a white or fwift dog, who fnatched away
part of the facrifice offering to Hercules. It had a
Vou.V. Part II.
gymnafmm, in which ftrarfgers or thofe of the half- Cynof-e-
blood performed their exercifcs; the cafe of Hercules, Phaia5>
to whom the place was confecrated. It had alfo a Cypww.
court of judicature, to try’ illegitimacy, and to examine —
whether perfons were Athenians of the whole or half
blood. Here Antifthenes fet up a new feft of philofo-
phers called Cynics, either from the place, or from the
fnarling or the impudent difpofition of that fedl.
CYNOSCEPHALuE (anc. geog.), a place in
Theffaly near Scotuffa; where the Romans, under
Flaminius, gained a great viftory over Philip, fon
of Demetrius king of Macedon. Thefe Cynofcephalas
are fmall tops of feveral equal eminences ; named from
their refemblance to dogs heads, according to Plu¬
tarch.
CYNOSSEMA, the tomb of Hecuba, on the pro¬
montory Maftufia, over againft Sigeum, in the fouth
of the Cherfonefus Thracia; named either from the
figure of a dog, to which (he was changed, dr from her
fad reverfe of fortune (Pliny, Mela).
CYNOSURA, in aftronomy, a denomination givert
by the Greeks to urfa minor, or “ the little bear,” by
which failors fleer their courfe. The word is formed
of xvxowfia, q. d. the dog's tail. This is the conftella-
tion next our pole, confifting of feven ftars ; four
whereof are difpofed like the four wheels of a cha¬
riot, and three lengthwife reprefenting the beam;
whence fome give it the name of the chariot, or
Charles's wain.
Cynosura, Cynofura, or Cynofuris, (anc. geog.), a
place in Laconica ; but whether maritime or inland,
uncertain. Here uEfculapius, being thunderftruck,
was buried (Cicero).
Cynosura was alfo the name of the promontory of
Marathon in Attica, obverted to Euboea.
Cynosura, in mythology, a nymph of Ida in Crete.
She nurfed Jupiter, who changed her into a ftar which
bears the fame name. It is the fame as the urfa mi¬
nor.
CYNOSURUS, in botany: A genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 4th order,
Gramina. The calyx is bivalved and multiflorous; the
receptacle proper, unilateral, and foliaceous. There
are ten fpecies, four of which are natives of Britain,
w’is. the criftatus, or crefted dog-tail grafs ; the echi-
natus, or rough dog-tail-grafs ; the casruleus, or blue
dog-tail grafs; and the paniceus, or bearded dog-tail
grafs.
CYNTHIUS and Cynthia, in mythology, fur-
names of Apollo and Diana, derived from Cynthia
the name of a mountain in the middle of the ifiand of
Delos.
CYNTHUS (anc. geog.), a mountain of the ifland
Delos, fo high as to overftiadow the whole ifland. On
this mountain Latona brought forth Apollo and Diana:
hence the epithet Cynthius (Virgil), and Cynthia (Lu¬
can, Statius).
CYNURIA, or Crmnias Ager, (anc. geog.), a
diftridl of Laconica, on -the confines of Argolis. A
territory that proved a perpetual bone of contention
between the Argives and Spartans (Thucydides). For
the manner of deciding the difpute, fee Thyrea.
CYPERUS, in botany : A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants;
4 L and
GYP [ 634 ] GYP
Cyphon and in the natural method ranking under the 3d order,
r '! Calamaria. The glumes are paleaceous, and imbricated
towards each fide ; the corolla is wanting, and there is
one naked feed. There are 20 fpecies; the only remark¬
able are the round and the long fweet cyperus. The
former is a native of the Eall Indies, and grows by
the fides of rivulets, ditches, and the like. The root
is knotty, wrapped round with fibrous firings not eafy
to break, of a brown colour without and grey within;
of a pleafant fcent, efpecially when frefh and well dried;
the leaves are green, and refemble thofe of the reed
and hek. The latter, commonly called Englijh or
Flemifh cyperus, grows in the water, and along banks
and river fides. Its root is as thick as an olive, full
of little knots or fpecks, of an oblong figure, grey
colour, fweet and fomewhat (harp tafte, and almofi
without fmell when it is newly taken out of the ground.
The roots of both plants are etteemed cordial, diure¬
tic, and cephalic, refifters of poifons, and expellers of
wind. Long cyperus is much ufed by perfumers and
glovers.
CYPHQN, in antiquity, a kind of punilhment ufed
by the Athenians. It was a collar made of wood ; fo
called becaufe it confirained the criminal who had this
punifiiment inflifted on him to bow down his head.
CYPHONISM, Cyphonismus, from which
has various fignifications; derived from xvfof, crooked: a
kind of torture or punilhment in ufe among the an¬
cients.
The learned are at a lofs to determine what it was.
Some will have it to be that mentioned by St Jerom in
his Life of Paul the Hermit, chap. z. which confifted
in fmearing the body over with honey, and thus ex-
pofiftg the perfon, with his hands tied, to the warm
fun, to invite fhe flies and other vermin to perfecutg
him.
CYPRjEA, or Gowrie, in zoology, a genus of
infects belonging to the order of vermes teftacea. It
is an animal of the Umax or fnail kind ; the (hell is one
involuted, fubovated, obtufe, fmooth valve. The aper¬
ture on each fide is linear, longitudinal, and teethed.
There are 44 fpecies, diftinguifhed by the form of
their {hells. The pediculus, or common gowrie, is re-
prefented on Plate CLIV.
This genus is called cypraa and venerea from its be¬
ing peculiarly dedicated to Venus; who is faid to have
endowed a (hell of this genus with the powers of a re¬
mora, fo as to impede the courfe of the (hip which was
fent by Periander tyrant of Corinth with orders to ca-
ftrate the young nobility of Corcyra.
CYPRESS. See Cupressus.
CYPRIANUS (Thafcius-Caecilius),.a principal fa¬
ther of the Chriftian church, was born at Carthage in
Africa, at the latter end of the fecond or beginning of
the third century. We know nothing more of his pa¬
rents than that they were heathens; and he himfelf
continued fuch till the laft 12 years of his life. He
applied himfelf early to the ftudy of oratory; and
feme of the ancients, particularly Laftantins, inform
us, that he taught rhetoric in Carthage with the high-
eft applaufe. Cyprian’s conveifion is fixed by Pear-
fon to the year 246 ; and was at Carthage, where, as
St Jerome obferves, he had often employed his rhe¬
toric in the defence of paganifm. It was brought
about by one Csecilius, a prieft of the church of Car-
X
thage, whofe name Cyprian afterwards took 5 and be- Cyprians*,
tween whom there ever after fubfated fo clofe a
friendlhip, that Caecilius at his death committed to Cy¬
prian the care of his family. Cyprian was alfo a.
married man himfelf; but as foon as he was convert¬
ed to the, faith, he refolved upon a Hate of continence,
which was thought a high degree of piety, as not be¬
ing yet become general. Being now a Chriftian, he
was to give the ufual proof of the fincerity of his con-
verfion ; and that was by wtiting againft paganifm
and in defence of Chriftianity. With this view he.
compofed his piece De Gratia Del, “ or concerning
the grace of God,” which he addrefted to Dpnatus-
It is a work of the fame nature with the Apologetic,
of Tertullian, and the Oftavius of Minutius Felix. He
next compofed a piece De Idolorum Vanitate, or “ up¬
on the vanity of idols.” Cyprian’s behaviour, both
before and after his baptifm, was fo highly pleafing
to the bilhop of Carthage, that he ordained him a
prieft a few months after. It was rather irregular to
ordain a man thus in his very noviciate; but Cyprian
was fo extraordinary a perfon, and thought capable
of doing fuch finglular feryice to the church, that it
feemed allowable in this cafe .to difpenfe a little with
the form and difeipline of it. For befides his known
talents as a fecular man, he had acquired a high re¬
putation of fanftity fmee his converlion ; having not
only feparated himfelf from his wife, as we have ob«
ferved before, which in thofe days was thought an ex¬
traordinary adt of piety, but alfo configned over all
his goods to the poor, and given himfeli up entirely
to the things of God. It was on this account no doubt,,
too, that when the bilhop of Carthage died the year
after, that is, in the yea-r 248, none was judged fo
proper to fucceed him as Cyprian. The quiet and re-
pofe which the Chriftiana had enjoyed during the laft
40 years,, had, it feems, greatly corrupted their man¬
ners ; and therefore Cyprian’s firft care, after his ad¬
vancement to the bilhopric, was to corredl diforder*.
and reform abufes. Luxury was prevalent among
them ; and many of their women were not fo ftrift
as they Ihould be, efpecially in the article of drefs..
This occafioned him to draw up his piece Z)<? habitu
virginum, or “ concerning the drefs of young wo¬
men ;” in which, befides what he fays on that parti¬
cular head, he inculcates many lefibns of modefty and
fobriety. In the year 249, the emperor Lecius be¬
gan to ifiue out very fevere edidfts againft the Chri-
ftians, w'hich particularly affe&ed thole upon the coalt.
of Africa ; and in the beginning of 250, the heathens,
in the circus and amphitheatre of Carthage, infilled,
loudly upon Cyprian’s being thrown to the lions: a
common method of deftroying the primitive Chrifti-
ans. Cyprian upon this withdrew from bis church at,
Carthage, and fled into retirement, to avoid the fury
of the perfecutions. He wrote in the place of his re¬
treat, pious and inftruflive letters to thofe who had
been his hearers; and alfo to the Ubellatici, a name
by which thofe pufillanimous Chrillians were called,
who procured certificates of the heathen inagiftrates,,
to fhow that they had complied with the emperor’s or¬
ders in facrificing to idols. At his return to Carthage
he held feveral councils on the repentance of thofe who
had fallen during this perfecution, and other points of
difciplinc; he oppofed the fehtmes of Navatus and.
Novatianus ;
C Y P f 635 ] GYP
Cyprinu*. Novatianus; and contended for the rebaptlfing of thofe
^ •r—J who had been baptifed by heretics. At lad he died a
n*artyr in the perfecution of Valerian and Gallienus, in
zyS. Cyprian wrote 81 letters, and feveral treatifes.
The belt edition of his works arc thofe of Pamelius in
1568 ; of Rigaltius in 1648; and of Oxford in 1682.
His words have alfo been tranflated into Englifh by
Dr Marfhall.
CYPRINUS, in ichthyology; a genus of fi/hes, be¬
longing to the order of abdominales. The mouth is
toothlefs; there are three rays in the gills; the body
is fmooth and white; and the belly-fins have frequently
nine rays. There are 31 fpecies, principally dillin-
guifhed by the number of rays in the vent-fin. The
moft remarkable are,
1. The carpio, or carp. This was introduced into
England about the year 1514, by Leonard Mafchal, to
whom we are alfo indebted for that excellent apple the
pep'm. Ruffia wants thefe fifh at this day. Sweden has
them only in the ponds of people of fafhion. They
chiefly abound in the rivers and lakes of Polifh Prufiia,
where they are fometimes taken of a vaft fi/.e. They
are there a great article of commerce, and fent in well-
boats to Sweden and Ruffia. The merchants purchafe
them out of the waters, of the noblefl'e of the country,
who draw a good revenue from this article. The an¬
cients do not feparate the carp from the fea-filh. They
are fometimes found in the harbour of Dantzic between
the town and a place called Hela.
Carp are very long-lived. Gefner brings an in-
flance of one that was near 100 years old. They
grow alfo to a very great fize; fome authors fpeak
of carp weighing 200 pounds weight, and five feet in
length. The carp is a prodigious breeder : its quan»
tity of roe has been fometimes found fo great, that
when taken out and weighed againft the filh itfelf, the
former has been found to preponderate. From the
fpawn of this fifh, caviare is made for the Jews, who
hold the llurgeon in abhorrence. The carp is ex¬
tremely cunning, and on that account is fometimes Ity-
led the river-fox. They will fometimes leap over the
nets and efcape that way ; at other times they will im-
merfe themfelves fo deep in the mud as to let the net
pafs ever them. They are alfo very fhy in taking a
bait; yet at the fpawning-time they are fo fimple as to
fuffer themfelves to be tickled, handled, and caught by
any body that will attempt it. This fifh is apt to mix
its milt with the roe of other fifh ; from which is pro¬
duced a fpurious breed, as has been obferved in the off-
fpring of the carp and tench, which bore the greateft
refemblance to the firlt. The fame has alfo been ob¬
served of the carp and bream.
in'Polifh Pruffia, and many other parts of Germany,
the fale of carp conftitutes a part of the revenue of the
nobility and gentry: fo that the proper management
of that fifh is reduced to a kind of fyftem, founded on
the experience of feveral generations. Of the me¬
thods there praftifed, we have an account in the Phi-
lofophical Tran factions for 1771, art. 37. communica¬
ted by Mr J. Reinhold-Forfler ; who fays, he has feen
carp treated and maintained according to thofe me¬
thods, “ above a yard long, and of 25 pounds weight
but had no opportunity of afeertaining their age. “ In
the pond, however, at Charlottenburg (he adds), a
palace belonging to. the king of Pruffia, I faw more
than two or three hundred carp, between two and Cyprjnri*.
three feet long; and I was told by the keeper they —"v—
were between 50 and 60 years ftanding. They were
tame, and came to the fhore in order to be fed ; they
fwallowed with eafe a piece of white bread of the
fize of half a halfpenny roll.”—Mr Forfter, in this pa¬
per, alfo vouches a moll extraordinary circumllance,
namely, the poffibility of the carp’s not only living for
a confiderable time out of water, but of its growing
fat in its new element. The author has feen the ex¬
periment fuccefsfully tried, and attended to the whole
procefs, in a nobleman’s houfe where he then refided,
in the principality of Anhalt-Deffau. The filh being
taken out of the water, is wrapped up in a large quan¬
tity of wet mofs, fpread on a piece of net, which is
then gathered into a purfe ; in fuch a manner, how¬
ever, as to allow him room to breathe. The net is
then plunged into water, and hung up to the deling
of a cellar. At firft the dipping mull be repeated e-
very three or four hours; but afterwards the carp
need only to be plunged into the water once in about
fix or feven hours. Bread foaked in milk is firll gi¬
ven him in fmall quantities. In a fliort time, the filh
will bear more, and grow fat under this feemingly un¬
natural treatment. Mr Daines Barrington, in a note,
confirms a part of the preceding account, by mention¬
ing the pra&ice of a certain filhmonger near Claremar-
ket, who, in the winter, frequently expofes a bulhel at
lead of carp and tench, for fale, in the fame dry veflel,
for fix or feven hours ; many of which are not fqld, and
yet continue in health, though breathing nothing but
air, during the time above mentioned, for feveral days
fucceffively.
2. The barbus, or barbel, is fo extremely coarfe as
to he overlooked by the ancients till the time of the
poet Aufonius, who gives it no great chara&er. They
frequent the Hill and deep parts of rivers, and live in
fociety, rooting like fwine with their nofes i n the foft
banks. It is fo tame as to fuffer itfelf to be taken by
the hand ; and people have been known to take num¬
bers by diving for them. In fummer they move a-
bout during night in fearch of food ; but towards au¬
tumn, and during winter, confine themfelves to the
deepell holes. The barbel is about the length of three
feet, and will weigh 18 pounds; the belly white; the
dorfal fin is armed with a remarkable llrong fpine,
lharply ferrated, with which it can inflidl a very fe-
vere and dangerous wound on the incautious handler,
and even do much damage to nets. They are the
word and coarfeft of frelh-water fifh, and feldom eaten
but by the poorer fort of people, who fometimes boil
them with a bit of bacon to give them a relilh. Their
roe is very noxious, affe£ling thofe who unwarily eat
of it with a naufea, vomiting, purging, and a flight
fwelling.
3. The tinea, or tench, was treated with the fame
difrefpedl by the ancients as the barbel; but is now
in much more repute. It has by fome been called the
phyfidan of the fifh ; and its flime has been faid to be
of to healing a nature, that the wounded fifhes apply
it as a flyptic. In this country it is reckoned a whole-
fome and delicious food ; but the Germans are of a dif¬
ferent opinion. By way of contempt they call it the
Jhocmaksr. Gefner even fays, that it is infipid and un-
wholefome. It does not commonly exceed four or five
4 L 2 ‘ pound*
GYP [ 636 ] GYP
pounds in weight, though fome have been known to
weigh ten or twenty. They love Hill waters, and are
rarely found in rivers: they are very foolifh and eafily
eaught. The tench is thick and Ihort in proportion
to its length. The colour of the back is dufky ; the
dorfal and ventral fins of the fame colour ; the head,
fides, and belly, of a greenilh call, moft beautifully
mixed with gold, which is in its greateft fplendor when
the fifii is in the higheft feafon.
4. The gudgeon is generally found in gentle ftreams,
and is of a fmall fize, the largeft not exceeding half a
pound weight. They bite eagerly ; and are affembled
by raking the bed of the river ; to this fpot they im¬
mediately crowd in {hoals, in expe&ation of food.
5. The brama, or bream, is an inhabitant of lakes,
or the deep parts of ftill rivers. It is a fifii that is
yery little efteemed, being extremely infipid.
6. The rutilus, or roach, is a common fifh, found in
many of the deep ftill rivers of this country. They
are gregarious, keeping in large {hoals. It has never
been known to exceed five pounds in weight.
7. The leucifcus, or dace, like the roach is gregari¬
ous, haunts the fame places, is a great breeder, very
lively, and during fummer is very fond of frolicking
near the furface of the water. It never exceeds the
weight of a pound and an half: the feales are I’maller
than thofe of the roach.
8. The cephalus, or chub, is a very coarfe fifti and
full of bones. It frequents the deep holes of rivers ;
and in fumrr.er commonly lies on the furface beneath
the fhade of fome tree or bufli. It is very timid, fink¬
ing to the bottom on the le^ft alarm, even at the paf-
iing of a ftiadow ; but they will foon refume their
former fituation. It feeds on worms, caterpillars,
grafshoppers, and other coleopterous infefts that hap¬
pen to fall into the water; and it will even feed
on cray-firti. It will rife to a fly. Some of this kind
have been known to weigh eight or nine pounds.
9. The albnrnus, or bleak. Thefe fifii are very
common in many of our rivers, and keep together in
huge {hoals At certain feafons they feem to be in
great agonies: they tumble about near the furface of
the water, and are incapable of fwimming far from the
place ; but in about two hours they recover and dif-
appear. Fifti thus affedted, the Thames fiihermen call
mad bleaks. They feem to be troubled with a fpecits
of gorehus, or hair-worm, which torments them fo,
tha1 they rife to the furface.and then die. The bleak
feldom exceeds five or fix inches in length. Aitificial
pearls are mad with the feales of this fifii, and pro¬
bably alfo with thofe of the dace. They are beat in¬
to a fine powdc r, 'hen diluted with water, and intro¬
duced into a thin glafs bubble, which is afterwards
filled with wax. The French were the inventors of this
art During the month of July there appear in the
Thames, near Blackwall and Greenwich, innumer¬
able multitudes q, fmali fi;h, known to the Londoners
by the name of •white lait. They are efteemed very
delicious when fried with fine flour, and occafion, du¬
ring the feafon, a vaft refort of the lower order of epi¬
cures to the taverns at the places where they are taken
at. There are various fuppofuions concerning thefe
tdhes, all of which termh ate in reckoning them the
fry of fome other fifti. Mr Pennant thinks they are
of the carp kind, though he cannot determine the Cyprimm, A
fpecies to which they belong. They have a greater '
fimilarity to the bleak than to any other, but he thinks
they cannot be the young fry of this fpecies } becaufe
the bleak is found in many of the Britifti ftreams, but
the white bait only in the Thames. The'ufual length
of this fifii is only two inches.
1 o. The auratus, or golden fifh, a fmall fifti dome- ■
fticated by the Chinefe, and generally kept for orna¬
ment by great people in their courts and gardens. They
breed them in fmall ponds made for the purpofe, in
bafons, and even in porcelain veftels. This fifti is no
larger than our pilchard. The male is of a bright
red colour from the top of the head to the middle of
the body : the reft is of a gold-colour ; but it is fo
bright and fplendid, that the fineft gilding, according
to F. le Comte, cannot approach it. The female is
white ; but its tail and half of its body refemble the
luftre of filver. F. du Halde, however, obferves, that
a red and white colour are not always the diftinguifli-
ing marks of the male and female ; but that the fe¬
males are known by feveral white fpots which are feen
round the orifices that ferve them as organs of hear¬
ing, and the males, by having thefe fpots much bright¬
er. Gold fifti are light and lively ; they love to fpwrt
on the furface of the water, foon become familiarifed,
and may even be accuftomed to come and receive their
food on founding a fmall rattle. Great care is necef- Crofter’s
fary to preferve them ; for they are extremely deli- Defription
cate, and fesfible of the leaft injuries of the air:
loud noife, fuch as that of thunder or cannons ; a
ftrong fmell, a violent {baking of the veffel, or a fingle
touch, will oft-times deftroy them. Thefe fifti live
with little nouriftiment: thofe fmall worms which are
engendered in the water, or the earthy particles that
are mixed with it, are fufficient for their food. The
Chinefc, however, take care, from time to time, to
throw into the bafons and refervoirs where they are
kept fmall balls of pafte, which they are very fond of
when difiblved ; they give them alfo lean pork dried
in the fun and reduced to a fine and delicate powder,
and fometimes fnails : the flime which thefe infefts
leave at the bottom of the veffel is a great delicacy for
them, and they eagerly haften to feed on it. In win¬
ter they are removed from the court to a warm cham¬
ber, where they are kept generally {hut up in a por¬
celain veffel. During that feafon they receive no nou¬
riftiment ; however, in fpring, when they are carried
back to their former bafcn, they fport and play witlr
the fame ftrength and livelinefs as they did the pre¬
ceding year.
In warm countries thefe fifti multiply fall, provided
care be taken to collect their fpawn, which floats on
the water, and which they almoft entirely devour.
This fpawn is put into a particular veffel expofed to
the fun, and preferved there until vivified by the heat:
gold-fifh, however, feldom multiply when they are kept
in clofe vafes, becaufe they are then too much con¬
fined. In order to render them fruitful, they muft be
put into refervoirs of confiderable depth in fomc places
at leaft, and which are conftantly fupplied with freflt
water. At a certain time of the year, a prodigious
number of barks may be feen in the great river Tang-
tfe-kiarg, which go thither to purchafe the fpawn of thefe
fifii.
C Y P [ 6,7 1 C Y P
Cyprinus fifli. Towards the month of May, the neighbouring in¬
i' habitants fhut up the river infeveral places with mataand
y' rUs' hurdles, which occupy an extent of ahnoft nine or ten
leagues ; and they leave only a fpace in the middle luf-
ficient for the paflage of barks. The fpawn of the fiih,
which the Chinefe can dlftinguiih at firft fight, al¬
though a ftranger could perceive no tiaces of it in the
water, is (lopped by thefe hurdles. The water mixed
with fpawn is then drawn up, and after it has been put
into large veffels, it is fold to merchants, who tranfport
it afteiwa ds to every part of the empire. This water
is fold by meafure, and purchafed by thofe who are
defirous of (locking their ponds and refervoirs with fifh.
Notwithdanding the tendernefs of thefe fifh even in
their native climates, they are now naturalized in Bri¬
tain, where they even breed. They were firft intro¬
duced into England about the year 1691 ; but were not
generally known till [728, when a great number
were brought over, and prefented firft to Sir Matthew
Dekker, and by him circulated round the neighbour¬
hood of London, from whence they have been diftri-
buted to mod parts of the country.
Nothing can be more amufing than 3 glafs bowl
containing fuch fifties: the double refra&ions of the
glafs and water reprefent them, when moving, in a
ihifting and changeable variety of dimenfions, (hades,
and colours; w’hile the two mediums, afiifted by the
concavo-convex fhape of the velfel, magnify and diflort
them vaftly; not to mention that the introdu&ion of
another element and its inhabitants into our parlours
engages the fancy in a very agreeable manner. Some
people exhibit this fort of fifti in a very fanciful way ;
for they caufe a glafs bowl to be blown with a
large hollow fpace within that does not communicate
with it. In this cavity they put a bird occafionally ;
fo that you may fee a goldfinch or a linnet hopping
as it were in the midft of the water, and the fifties
fwimming in a circle round it. The iimple exhibition
of the fifties is agreeable and pleafant; but in fo com¬
plicated a way becomes whimfical and unnatural, and
liable to the objection due to him,
£>ui variure cupit rem prodigialifer imam.
CYPRIPEDIUM, the lady’s slipper, in botany:
A genus of the diandria order, belonging to the gy-
nandria clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 7th order, Orchidea. The neitari-
um is ventricole, inflated, and hollow. There are
three fpecies; of which only one, viz. the calceolus,
is a native of Britain. It grows in rough ground in
different parts of the ifland. The other fpecies are na¬
tives of America. None of them are eafily propaga¬
ted in gardens, and therefore muft be tranfplanted from
thofe places where they are natives.
CYPRUS, an ifland fituatcd in the Levant, or mod
eatlerly part of the Mediterranean fea, between 33
and 36 degrees of eaft longitude, and 30 and 34
<>f north latitude. In ancient times this ifiand was
known by the names of Acamis, Ceraftis, Afpalia,
Amathus, Macaria, Cryptos* Colima, Sphecia, Paphia,
Saiammia JErofa, and Cyprus. The etymologies of
thefe names are neither very eafily found, nor are they
of much importance. The name by which it was moft
generally known is that of Cyprus, faid to be derived
from cypros, the name of a ftirub or tree with which
the ifland abounded fuppofed to be the cyprefs.
Cyprus, according" to Eratofthenes, was firft difco* Cyprus,
vered by the Phoenicians, two or three generations be-
fore the days of Aflerius and Minos kings of Crete ;
that is, according to Sir Ifaac Newton’s computation,
2006 years before the Chriilian era. It was at that
time fo full of wood that it could not be tilled, and
the Phoenicians firft cut down that wood for melting
copper, with which the ifland abounded; and after¬
wards, when they began to fail without fear on the
Mediterranean, that is, after the Trojan war, they
built great aavies of the wood produced on the ifland.
Jofephus, however, informs us, that the deicendants
of Cittvn, the fon of Javan, and grandfon of-Japhat,
were the original inhabitants of Cyprus. According
to his account, Cittim, feeing his brother Tarfliifh fet¬
tled in Cilicia where he built the city of Tarfus, fet¬
tled with his followers in this oppofite ifland; and ei¬
ther he or his defendants laid the foundations of the
city of Citium, which, according to Ptolemy, was the
moft ancient in the ifland. As Cyprus was too nar¬
row to contain the great numbers who attended him,
he left here as many as might, ferve to people the
country, and with the reft pafled over into Macedon.
The ifland of Cyprus was divided among feveral
petty kings till the time of Cyrus the Great. He fub-
dued them all; but left each in pofleflion of his king¬
dom, obliging them only to pay him an annual tribute,
and to fend fuppltes of men, money, and (kips, when
required. The Cyprian princes lived thus fubjedl to
the Perfians till the reign of Darius Hyftafpes, when
they attempted to (hake off the yoke, but with bad fuc-
cefs ; their forces being entirely defeated, and them-
feives again obliged to fubmit. They made another
more fuccefsful attempt about the year before Chrift
357 t but, however, could never totally free them-
(eives from their fubjedlion. It is very probable that
they fubmitted to Alexander the Great, though hifto-
rians are filent as to that event. On the death of the
Macedonian conqueror, the dominion of Cyprus was
difputed by Antigonus and Ptolemy the fon of Lagus.
At laft Ancigonus prevailed, and the whole ifland fub¬
mitted to him about 304 years before Chrift. He and
his fon Demetrius kept poffeffion of it for 11 years,
when it was recovered by Ptolemy, and quietly pof-
feffed by him and his defendants till 58 years before
Chrift, when it was mod unjullly feized by the Ro¬
mans. In the time of Auguilus, it began to be rank¬
ed among the proconfular provinces, and to be govern¬
ed by magiftrates fent thither by the fenate. In the
year 648 it was conquered by the Saracens ; but reco¬
vered by the R.omans in 957. They held it, however,
but for a very faort time, and the barbarians kept pof-
feffron of it till the time of the croifades. It was then
reduced by the croifaders ; and Richard I. of England
gave it to the princes of the Lufignan family, who
held it till the year 1570. They divided it into 12
provinces, in each of which was a capital city from
which the province was denominated. So confider-
able was the ifland at this time, that befides the cities
above mentioned, and others of lefs note, it contain¬
ed 800 villages. In 1570 it was taken by the Turks,
and though it hath ever lince continued under their
tyrannical yoke, is ft ill fo confiderable as to be govern¬
ed by a begfrbeg, and feven fangiacs under him.
The air in this ifland is for the moft part very un-
wholefome.
C Y R [6:
Cyrano, whokfome, on account of the many Fens and marfhes
Cyrei;a;ca. w;tj1 wj1;c}1 country abounds. The foil is an ex-
* cellent fertile clay ; and would produce all the necef-
faries of life in abundance, if properly cultivated.
There are but few fpring* or rivers in this ifland ; fo
that when the rains do not fall plentifully at the ufual
feafons, the inhabitants are much diftrefTed by the
fcarcity of water. By reafon of the uncultivated ftate of
the country, they are alfo greatly infefted with poifoh-
ous reptiles of various kinds. The people are extreme¬
ly ignorant and lafcivious, as indeed they are remark¬
ed to have been from the remoteft antiquity. Anci¬
ently the worihip of Venus was eftablifhed in this ifland,
whence her title among the poets of the Cyprian queen;
and fuch an inclination had the inhabitants to become
the votaries of this goddefs, both in theory and prac¬
tice, that the young women nfed to proftitute them-
felves in her temple in order to raife themfelves por¬
tions. Nor are their fucceifors faid to be much better
at this day. The exports of the ifland are filks, oil,
cotton, wine, fait, and turpentine : the imports are
French and Venetian broad cloths ; and fometimes a
few bales of Englifh manufaclure, cutlery wares, fu-
gar, tin, lead, &c.
Knights of Ctprus, an order inftituted by Guy de
Lufignan, titular kingof Jerufalem, to whom Richard I.
©f England, after conquering this ifland, made over
his right.
CYRANO (Bergerac), a French author, born in
Gafcony, about the year 1620. He firft entered intd
the army, where his natural courage engaged him fre¬
quently in duels in the quality of a fecond : which,
with other rafli aftions, procured him the title of the
Intrepid. But the little profpeft he faw of prefer¬
ment made him renounce the trade of war for the
exercife of wit. His comic hiftories of the flates and
empires in the fun and moon, Alow him well acquaint¬
ed with the Cartefian philofophy, and to have a lively
imagination. Our Lord Orrery clafies him with Swift
for his tutn of humour, which he fays the latter adopt¬
ed and purfued.
CYRENAICA, an ancient kingdom of Africa, cor-
refpondsng to the prefent kingdom and defert of Barca
and Tripoli. It was originally inhabited by a number
of barbarous nations, diffei ing little from great gangs of
robbers. Afterwards fome colonies from Greece fet¬
tled here, and Cyrenaica became fo powerful a ftate,
that it wflged war with Egypt and Carthage, often
with fuccefs In the time of Darius Hyftafpes, Arce-
fdaifs, the reigning prince in Cyrenaica, was driven
from the throne; on which his mother Pheretima ap¬
plied for afliftance to the king of Cyprus. Pier fon af¬
terwards returning^to Barca, the chief city of Cyrene,
was there aflaflinated, together with his father-in-law.
Pheretima finding herfelf difappointed by the king of
Cyprus, applied to Darius Hyftafpes, and by the affift-
ance of the Perfians reduced Barca. Here fire beha¬
ved with the utmoft cruelty, caufing all, thofe who
had been concerned in her fon’s death to be impaled,
and the breafts of their wives to be cut off and af¬
fixed near them. She is faid to have been afterwards
devoured by worms ; which was looked upon as a di¬
vine judgment for her exceffive cruelty. The pri-
foners in the mean time were fent to Darius, who fet¬
tled them in a diflridt of Badlria, from them called
58 3 C Y R
Barca. Cyrenaica, however, feems to have remained Cyreruic*
free till the time of Alexander the Great, who cpn- if.
quered it along with Egypt. Soon after his death the ty11'*1 <
inhabitants recovered tlieir liberty ; but were in a fhort ' ^
time reduced by Ptolemy king of Egypt. Under thefe
kings it remained till Ptolemy Phyfcon made it over to
his baftard fon Apian, who in the 658th year of Rome
left it by will to the Romans. The fenate permitted all
the cities to be governed by their own laws ; and this
immediately filled the country with tyrants, thofe who
were moft potent in every city or diftrift endeavour¬
ing to affume the fovereignty of it. Thus the kingdom
was thrown into great confufion ; but Lucullus in a
good meafure reftored the public tranquillity on his
coming thither during the firft Mithn'datic war. 11 was
found impofiible, however, totally to fupprefs thefe
difturbances till the country was reduced to the form
of a Roman province, which happened about 20 years
after the death of Apian, and 76 before Chrift. Uponi
a revolt, the city of Cyrene was ruined by the Romans ;
but they afterwards rebuilt it. In procefs of time it
fell to the Arabs ; and then to the Turks, who are the
prefent mafters of it.
CYRENAICS, a feft of ancient philofophers, fo
called from their founder Ariftippus of Cyrene, a dif-
ciple of Socrates.
The great principle of their do&rine was, that the
fupreme good of man in this life is pleafure ; whereby
they not only meant a privation of pain, and a tran¬
quillity of mind, but an aflemblage of all mental and
fenfual pleasures, particularly the laft.
Cicero makes frequent mention of Ariftippus’s fchool;
and fpeaks of it as yielding debauchees. Three difciples
of Ariftippus, after his death, divided the feft into
three branches; under which divifion it languifhed
and funk : the firft called the Hegeftac fchpol; the fe¬
cond the Annicerlan; and the third the Theodoran;
from the names of their authors.
CYRENE (anc. geog.), the capital of Cyrenaica,
and one of the cities called Pentapolis, diftant from
Apollonia, its fea-port, 10 miles, fituated on a plain,
of the form of a table, according to Strabo. A colony
of the Thereanfc. Though they were defeendants of
the Lacedemonians, yet they differed from them in
their turn of mind or difpofition, applying themfelves
to philofophy; and hence arofe the Cyrenaic feft, at
the head of which was Ariftippus, who placed all hap-
pinefs in pleafure. The Cyreneans were a people
much given to aurigation, or the ufe of the chariot,
from their excellent breed of herfes, (Pindar, Epho-
rus, Strabo.)
CYRIL (St) biflrop of Jerufalem, fucceeded Maxi¬
mus in 350. He was afterward depofed for the crime
of expofing to fale the treafuresof the church, and ap¬
plying the money to the fupport of the poor during a
great famine. Under Julian he was reftored to his
fee, and was firmly eftabliftied to all his old honours
and dignities under Theodofius ; in which he conti¬
nued unmolefted to his death in 386. The remains
of this father .confift only of 23 catcchefes, and one let¬
ter to the emperor Conftantius.
Cyrill (St) patriarch of Alexandria, fucceeded
Theophilus, his uncle, 111412. Scarce was he inftal-
led, when he began to exert his authority with great '
vigour 5 Be drove the Novatians and Jews from Alex¬
andria,
C Y R [ 639 I G Y R
andria, permitting their wealth and fynagogues to be
taken from them. This proceeding highly difpleafed
Oreftes, the governor of the city, who faw that if the bi-
fliop’s authority was not foon fupprefled it might grow
too ftrong for that of the magiftrate. Upon which a
kind of civil war broke out between Orettes and the
biihop ; many tumults were raifed, and fome battles
fought in the very ftreets of Alexandria. St Cyrill alfo
diftinguilhed himfelf by his zeal againft Neftorius bi-
fliop of Conilantinople, who, in fome of his homilies,
had alferted that the Virgin Mary ought not to be call¬
ed the mother’ of God. The difpute at firft proved
unfavourable to Cyrill, whofe opinion was not only
condemned, but himfelf deprived of his bifhopric and
thrown into prifoh. But he was foon after releafed,
and gained a complete victory over Neftorius, who in
431 was depofed from his fee of Conftantinople. Cyrill
returned to his fee at Conftantinople, where he died
in 444. St Cyrill alfo wrote againft Theodorus of
Mopfuefta, Diodorus of Tarfus, and Julian the apo-
ftate. He compofed commentaries on St John’s gofpel,
and wrote feveral other books. His works were pub-
lifhedin Greek and Latin in 1638, in fix volumes folio.
CYRUS, the foil of Cambyfesthe Perfian, by Man-
dane the daughter of Aftyages king of the Medes.
The two chief hiftorians, who have written the life of
Cyrus, are Herodotus and Xenophon ; but their ac¬
counts of him are different, in as much as the latter
makes his father a king of Perfia, and the former a
meaner man. The account of Herodotus, as Dr Pri-
deaux obferves, indeed contains narratives that are
much more ftrange and furprifing, and confquently
more diverting and agreeable to the reader: and for
this reafon more have chofc to follow him than Xeno¬
phon.
Herodotus informs us, that Aftyages king of the
Medes, dreamed, that a vine fprung from the womb
of his daughter Mandane, the branches whereof over-
ftiadowed all Afia; whereupon, having confulted the
foothfayers, he was told that this- dream portended the
future power and greatnefs. of a child who ftiould be
born of his daughter ; and further, that the fame child
fnotild deprive him of his kingdorm Aftyages, to pre¬
vent the accomplifhment of this predi&ion, inftead of
marrying his daughter to fome powerful prince,, gave
her to Cambyfes a Perfian of mean condition, and one
who had no great capacity for forming any important
defign, nor for fupporting the ambition of his fon, by
his own riches and authority. Nor did Aftyages flop
here ; the apprehenfions he was under, left Mandane’s-
fon might perhaps find that affiftance in his own cou¬
rage, or fome lucky circumftances which his family
was not able to fupply him ’with, induced him to take
a refolution of. difpatching the child, if there fhouldbe
any. As foon, therefore, as he underftood his daugh¬
ter was with child, he commanded one of his officers,
whofe name was Harpagus, to deftroy the infant as
foon as it came into the world. Harpagus, fearing-
the refentment of Mandane, put the child into the
hands of one who was the king’s fhepherd, in order to
expofe him. The ftiepherd’s wife was fo extremely
touched with the beauty of Cyrus, that (he defired her
hufband rather to expofe her own fon, who was born
fome time before, and prcferve the young prince. Af¬
ter this manner Cyrus was preferred, and brought up Gy
among the king’s ffiepherds.
One day, as the neighbouring children were at play
together, Cyrus was chofen king ; and having pnnilh-
ed one of his little play-fellows with fome feverity, for
difobeying his commands, the child’s parent complain¬
ed of Cyrus to Aftyages. This prince fent for young.
Cyrus, and obferving fomething great in his air, his
manner and behaviour, together with a great refem-
blance of his daughter Mandane, he made particular
inquiry into the matter, and difcovered that, in reatityr
Cyrus was no other than his giandfom Harpagus,.
who was the inftrumentof preferving him, was punifh-
ed with the death of his own fon : however, Aftyages
believing that the royalty which the foothfayers had
promifed totheypungprince, wasonly thatwhich he had
lately exercifed among the Ihepherds children, troubled
himfelf no more about it. Cyrus being grown up, Har¬
pagus difclofed the whole fecret of his birth to him, toge¬
ther with the manner wherein he had delivered him from
the cruel refolution of his grandfather. He encoura¬
ged him to come into Media, and promifed to furnifli
him with forces, in order to make him matter of the
country, and depofe Aftyages. Cyrus hearkened to
thefe propofitions, engaged the Perfians to take arms
againft the Medes, marched at the head of them to
meet Aftyages, defeated him, and poffeffed himfelf of
Media. He carried on many other wars; and at
length fat down, before Babylon, which after a long-
fiege he took.
The relation of Cyrus’s life from Xenophon is as
follows : Aftyages king of Media married his daugh¬
ter Mandane to Cambyfes king of Perfia, fon to Achas-
menes king of the fame nation. Cyrus was born at
his father’s court, and was educated with all the care
his birth required. When he was about the age of
12. years, his grandfather Aftyages fent for him ta
Media, together with his mother Mandane. Some
time after, the king of Affyria’s fon having invaded
Media, Aftyages, with his fon Cyaxares and his grand-
fon Cyrus, marched againft him. Cyrus diftinguifti-
ed himfelf in this war, and defeated the Aflyrians.
Cambyfes afterwards recalled him, that he might have
him near his own perfon ; and Aftyages dying,.his fon
Cyaxares,- uncle by the mother’s fide to Cyrus, fuc-
ceeded him in the kingdom, of Media.
Cyrus, at the age of 30 years,, was, by his father
Cambyfes, made general of the Perfian troops; and
fent at the head of 30,000 men to the affiftance of his
uncle Cyaxares, whom the king of Babylon with his
allies the Cappadocians, Carians, Phrygians, Cilicians,
and Paphlagonians, were preparing to attack. Cya¬
xares and Cyrus prevented them, by falling upon them
and difperfing them. Cyrus advanced as far as Baby¬
lon, and fpread terror throughout the country. From
this expedition he retired to his uncle, towards the
frontiers of Armenia and Affyria, and was received by
Cyaxafes in the tent of the Affyrian king whom he had
defeated.
After this-, Cyrus carried the war into the countries
beyond the river Halys, entered Cappadocia, and fub.
dued it entirely. From thence he marched- againft'
Crcefus king of Lydia, beat him in the firft battle 4
then befieged him in Sardis his capital; and after a>
C Y R [ 640 1 C Y R
Cyras, fiege of fourteen days obliged him to furrender. See
"“"v—^ Croesus. After this, Cyrus having almoft reduced
all Afia, repaffed the Euphrates, and made war upon
the Affyrians. He marched directly to Babylon, took
it, and there prepared a palace for his uncle Cyaxares,
whether he might retire, if at any time he had an in¬
clination to come to Babylon ; for he was not then in
the army. After all thefe expeditions, Cyrus return¬
ed to his father and mother into Perfia, where they
were ftiil living ; and going fome time after to his
uncle Cyaxares into Media, he married his coufm the
only daughter and heirefs of all Cyaxares’s dominions,
and went with her to Babylon, from whence he fent
men of the firft rank and quality to govern all the fe-
veral nations which he had conquered. He engaged
again in feveral wars, and fubdued all the nations
which lie between Syria and the Red Sea. He died
at the age of 70 years, after a reign of 30 : but au¬
thors differ very much concerning the manner of his
death. Herodotus, Juftin, and Valerius Maximus re¬
late, that he died in the war againft the Scythians;
and that falling into an ambufh which queen Tomyris
had laid for him, fhe ordered his head to be cut off,
and call; into aveffel full of blood, faying, “ Thou haft
always thirfted after human blood, now glut thyfelf
with it.” Diodorus the Silician fays, that he was ta¬
ken in an engagement and hanged. Ctefias affures us,
that he died of a wound which he received in his
thigh : but by Xenophon’s account he died peaceably
in his bed, amidft his friends and fervants ; and certain
it is, that in Alexander’s time his monument was
fhown at Pafagarda in Perfia.
From all this, it is eafy to conclude that we are but
imperfedtly acquainted with the hiftory of this great
prince, the founder of the Perfian, and deftroyer of the
Chaldasan empire. We learn fewer particulars of it
from fcripture, but then they are more certain than
any that we have produced. Daniel (viii. 3 — 20.)
in the famous vifion wherein G-od fhowed him the ruin
of feveral great emperors, which were to precede the
birth of the Meffiah, reprefents Cyrus to us under the
idea of “ a ram, which had two horns ; and the two
horns were high, but the one was higher than the
other, and the higher came up laft. This ram puihed
weftward, and northward, and fouthward, fo that no
beafts might ftand before him ; neither was their any
that could deliver out of his hand, but he did ac¬
cording to his will, and became great.” T. he ram’s
two horn’s fignify the two empires which Cyrus re¬
united in his perfon ; that of the Medes, and that of
the Perfians. The laft was greater and more power¬
ful than the empire of the Medes : or otherwiie, thefe
two horns fignify the two branches of Cyrus’s fuccef-
fors. His fon Cambyfes dying, the empire was tranf-
ferred to Darius the fon of Hyftafpes, and was conti¬
nued down to Darius Codomannus, who, as Calmet
thinks, is the great horn which the he-goat, that de¬
notes Alexander, run againft. In chap vii. 5. Daniel
compares Cyrus to a bear, with three ribs in the mouth
of it, to which it was faid, “ Arife, devour much
fiefh.” Cyrus fucceeded his father Cambyfes in the
kingdom of Perfia, and Darius the Mede, by Xeno¬
phon called Cyaxares, and Aftyages in the apocryphal
chapter (xiii/i.) of Daniel, in the kingdom of the
Medea and empire of Babylon. He was monarch of
N0 96.
all the Eaft ; or as he fpeaks ( 2 Chr. xxxvi. 22, 23,
and Ezr. i. 1. 2.) “ of all the earth,” when he per¬
mitted the Jews to return into their own country, in
the year of the world 34.66, before Jefus Chrift 538.
The enemies of the Hebrews, making ufe of this
prince’s affedtion to his own religion, prevailed with
him to put a flop by his orders to the building of
the temple at Jerufalem ; (Ezr. iv. 5.) The pro¬
phets frequently foretold the coming of Cyrus ; and
Ifaiah (xliv. 28.) has been fo particular as to declare
his name 200 years before he was born. Jofephus
(Antiq. 1. II. c. 2.) fays, that the Jews of Babylon
Ihowed this paflage of the prophet to Cyrus ; and that
this prince, in the edict which he granted them for
their return, acknowledged that he received the empire
of the world from the God of Ifrael; and that the
fame God had defcribed him by name in the writings
of the prophets, and foretold that he ftiould build a
temple to him at Jerufalem. Cyrus is pointed out in
fcripture under the name of the righteous man and
the ftiepherdof Ifrael, (Ifaiah xli. 2. to. xlvi. 11. and
xliv. 28.) Notwithftanding this, God fays of him,
(Ifa. xiv. 5.) “I girded thee, though thou haft not
known me.” And Jeremiah calls Cyrus and his people,
who overthrew the Babylonifti empire, thieves and rob¬
bers. The taking of Babylon by Cyrus is clearly fet
down by the prophets, and may be feen under the ar¬
ticles Babylon and Belshazzar. Archbilhop Ulher
fixes the birth of Cyrus to the year of the world
3405 ; his firft year at Babylon to 3466, and his
death to 3475. The eaftern people will have it, that
Cyrus by the mother’s fide was defcended from fome
of the Hebrew prophets ; as alfo that his wife was a
Jew, which is the reafon (fay they), that this prince
fo attached himfelf to the Jews, to whom he was fo
nearly allied.
Cyrus II. was the younger fon of Darius Nothus,
and the brother of Artaxerxes. He was fent by his
father at the age of 16 to alfift the .Lacedemonians
againft Athens. Artaxerxes fucceeded to the throne
at the death of Nothus; and Cyrus, who was of an
afpiring foul, attempted to aflaffinate him. He was
difcovered, and had been puniftied with death, had not
his mother Paryfatis faved him from the hands of the
executioner by her tears and intreaties. This circum-
ftance did not in the leaft check the ambition of Cy¬
rus ; he was appointed over Lydia and the fea-coafts,
where he fecretly fomented rebellion and levied troops
under various pretences. At laft he took the field
with an army of 100,000 barbarians, and 13,00a
Greeks under the command of Clearchus. Artaxer¬
xes met him with 900,000 men near Cunaxa. The
battle was long and bloody ; and Cyrus might have
perhaps obtained the victory, had not his uncommon
raftmefs proved his ruin. It is faid that the two royal
brothers met in perfon, and their engagement ended
in the death of Cyrus, 401 years before the Augnftan
age. Artaxerxes was fo anxious of its being univer-
fally reported that his brother had fallen by his hand,
that he put to death two of his fubjecls for boafting
that they had killed Cyrus. The Greeks who were
engaged in the expedition, obtained much glory in the'
battle ; and after the death of Cyrus, they remained
vi&orious in the field without a commander. They
were not difeouraged though at the diftance of above
600
C Y T [ 641 ] C Y 2;
600 leagues from their country, and furrounded on
every fide by a powerful enemy. They unanimoufly
united in the eledtion of commanders, and traverfed all
Afia, in fpite of the continual attacks of the Perfians;
and nothing is more truly celebrated in ancient hiftory
than the bold retreat of the ten thoufand. The jour¬
ney that they made from the place of their firft embar¬
kation'till their return has been calculated at 115^ ,
leagues performed in the fpace of 15 months, including
all the time which was devoted to take reft and refrefh-
ment. This retreat has been celebrated by Xenophon,
who was one of their leaders, and among the friends
and fupporters of Cyrus.
CYST, the bag or tunic including all incyfted tu-
-tnors, as the fcirrhus, atheroma, fteotoma, melice-
res, &c.
CYSTIC, in anatomy, a name given to two arte¬
ries and two veins.
Cystic duct. See Anatomy, n°gj.
CYTHERA, orum, (anc. geog.) an ifland oppofite
to Malle a a promontory, and to Boise a town of La-
conica; with a cognominal town, which has an ex¬
cellent port called ScanJea. The ifland was facred
to Venus, with a very ancient temple of that goddefs
exhibited in armour at Cythera, as in Cyprus, Now
Cerigo.
CYTHEREA, in mythology,, the furname of Ve¬
nus, fo called from Cytherae an ifland, where ftie had a
temple efteemed the moft ancient in Greece, and on
the (bores of which fhe was believed to be borne by the
Zephyrs, furrounded by the Loves, the Tritons, and
Nereides, reclining in a languishing pofture in a fea-
fhell. They give the name of Cytheriades to the
Graces which attended her on the ftiore without quit¬
ting her, except on thofe occafions when (he rather
chefe to be waited on by the Pleafures.
CYTINUS, in botany : A genus of the dodecan-
dria order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 1 ith or¬
der, Sarmevtacex. The calyx is quadrifid, fuperior ;
there is no corolla ; the anthers are 16, and feffile;
the fruit an o&olocular polyfpermous berry.
CYTISUS, tree trefoil : A genus of the decan-
dria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the jzd or¬
der, Papiltonacea. The calyx is bilabiated, with the
upper lip bifid ; inferior, tridentate ; the legumen at¬
tenuated at the bafe. There are 1 i/pecies; of which
the moft remarkable are, 1. The laburnum, or large
deciduous cytifus, hath a large upright tree-ftem,
branching into a full-fpreading head, 20 or 30 feet
high, having fmooth greeni(h branches, oblong oval
entire leaves, growing by threes on long flender foot-
ftalks ; and from the fides of all the branches nume¬
rous yellow flowers colle&ed into long fpikes, hanging
loofely downward, and appearing in May. 2. The
fefiilifolius, often called cytifus fecundus clufii, have a
low (hrubby ftem dividing into numerous ere& brown-
ifh branches, forming a bulhy head five or fix feet
high, garnifhed with fmall oval leaves growing by
threes; fome on very fhort foot-ftalks, others fitting
clofe ; and bright yellow flowers in fhort ereft fpikes
at the ends of the branches, appearing in June. S-.^e
nigricans grows with a ftioit flirubby ftcm, dividing
low into many ereft flender branches, forming a bufhy
Vol. V. Part II.
head four or five feet high, with oblong, oval, trifo* Oytifttj
liate leaves, and yellow flowers, terminating all the .1!
branches in upright fpikes, appearing in July. 4. The Cyzicutn.
hirfutus, or hairy evergreen Neapolitan cytifus, rifes ''
with an upright (hrubby grey ftem, fending out many
ere& greeniih hairy branches, forming a fine head fix
or eight feet high, clofely garniflied with fmall hairy
trifoliated leaves on (hort footftalks, and yellow flow-
’ers from the fides of the branches in ihort pendulou*
fpikes, appearing in June. 5. The Auftriacus, Au-
ftriari, or Tartarian evergreen cytifus, hath a ihrubby
ftem, dividing low into many greenifti branches, form¬
ing a bufliy head three or four feet high, having fmooth
whitifli-green leaves, and bright yellow flowers in clofc
umbellate heads at the ends of the branches, having a
clufter of leaves under each head. Thefe flowers ap¬
pear in May.
Culture, &c. All the forts are hardy, and will pro-
fper in any common foil and expofure: though, as the
hirfutus is fomctimes affe&ed by fevere froft, it fhould
have a dry foil, and a fomewhat flickered fituation.
They may all be propagated by feeds or cuttings, and
all the culture they require in the nurfery is to have
the ground kept clear from weeds, and dug annually
between the rows. Though they are generally con-
fidered only as ornamental flirubs, yet the firft fpecies,
if originally trained to a ftem, and fuffered to Hand,
will grow to the fize of pretty large timber trees.
They grow naturally on the Alps, the mountains of
Dauphine, and the highlands of Scotland; and the
timber being very hard, and taking a fine polifh, is
frequently ufed for making chairs, tables, bed-fteads,
and other furniture ; and is faid to equal the fineft ma-
hogony in beauty. A fpecies of cytifus, called by
Linnaeus cytifus cajan, is known in the Weft Indies,
where it is a native, by the name of the pigeon-pea,
from the feeds being the common food of thefe birds
in that part of the world. Thefe feeds are alfo fome-
times ufed as food for the human fpecies; and as they
are of a very binding quality , afford a wholefome nou-
riftiment during the wet feafon, when dyfenteries are
fo frequent.
CYZICENS,Cyzicena, among the ancient Greeks,
were a fort of magnificent banqueting-houfes, always
looking towards the north, and ufually opening upon
gardens.
They had their name from Cyzicus, a city very con-
fiderable for the grandeur of its buildings; fituated in
an ifland of Myfia, bearing the fame name.
CYZICUM, or Cyzicus Jane, geog.), one of the
nobleft cities of the Hither Afia; fituated in a cogno¬
minal ifland of the Propontis, on the coaft of Myfia ;
joined to the continent by two bridges (Strabo); the
firft by Alexander: the city, a colony of the Nfile-
fians (Pliny). Rendered famous by the fiege of Mi-
thridates, which was railed by Lucullus.—The inhabi¬
tants were made a free people by the Romans, but for¬
feited their freedom under Tiberius. It was adorned
with a citadel and walls round it; had a port and
marble towers; and three magazines, one for arms,
another for warlike engines, and a third for corn.
Cyziceni, the people ; noted by the ancients for their
timidity and effeminacy : hence the proverb in Zeno-
dotus and others, Tinftura Cy%enica, applied to perfons
guilty of an indecency through'fear: but Stateres Cy-
4 M %kenti
C Z A [64
Czack- vicem, nummi Cyziceni, denote things executed to per-
thurn, feftiou.
Lzar'i CZACKTHURN, a ftrong town of Germany, in
Auftria, and near the frontiers of Hungary. It is feat-
ed between the rivers Drave and Muhir, in E. Long.
17. *9. N. Lat. 46. 24.
CZAR, a title of honour, affumed by the grand-
dukes, or, as they are now ftyled emperors of Ruffia.
The natives pronounce it tear, or %aar; and this, by
corruption (it has been fancied) from Ctefar “ em¬
peror,” from fome imagined relation to the Roman
emperors. But this etymology does not feem correft.
When the czar Peter formally required of the Euro¬
pean courts an acknowledgement of his imperial titles,
' and that the appellation of Emperor fliould never be
omitted, there was great difficulty made about it,
efpecially at the court of Vienna ; which occafioned
him to produce the famous letter, written in the Ger¬
man tongue, from Maximilian I. emperor of Germany,
to Vaffili Ivanovitch, confirming a treaty of alliance
offenfive and defenfive againft Sigifmond king of Po¬
land. In this difpatch, which is dated Auguft the
4th, 1514, and is ratified with the feal of the golden-
bull, Maximilian addreffes Vaffili by calling him Kayfer
and Herrfcher aller RvJJen ; “ emperor and ruler of all
the Ruffias.” But independently of this document,
there could be no doubt that the foreign courts, in
their intercourfe with that of Mofcow, ftyled the fo-
vereigns indifcriminately Great Duke, Czar, and Em¬
peror. With refpeft to England in particular, it is
certain, that in Chancellor’s Account of Ruffia, fo
early as the middle of the 16th century, Ivan Vaffilie-
vitch II. is called Lord and Emperor of all Ruj/la; and
in the Englifh difpatches, from the reign of Elizabeth
to that of Anne, he is generally addrefled under the
fame appellation. When the European powers, how¬
ever, ftyled the tzar Emperor of Mufcovy, they by mo
means intended to give him a title fimilar to that
which was peculiar to the emperor of Germany ; but
they beftowed upon him that appellation as upon
an Afiatic fovereign, in the fame manner as we
now fay the emperors of China and Japan. When
Peter, therefore, determined to affume the title of em¬
peror, he found no difficulty in proving that it had
been conferred upon his. predecefibrs by mail of the
2 1 c z o
European powers ; yet when he was defirous of affix'- Cellar
ing to the term the European fenfe,. it was confidered II
as an innovation, and was productive of more nego- Czon-
tiations than would have been requifite for the termi- grodt-
nation of the moft important ftate affair. At the v
fame time it occafioned a curious controverfy among
the learned, concerning the rife and progrefs of the
titles by which the mbnarchs of this country have been
diftinguiftied. From their refearches, it appeared that
the early fovereigns of Ruffia were called great duke,
and that Vaffili Ivanovitch was probably the firft who
ftyled himfelf tzar, an expreffion which in the Sclavonian
language fignifies king; and that his fucceffors continued
to bear within their own dominions that title as the
moft honourable appellation, until Peter the Great firft-
took that of Povelitel or emperor. After many delays
and objections, the principal courts of Europe con-
fented, about the year 1722, to addrefs the fovereign
of Ruffia with the title of Emperor; without prejudice,
neverthelefs, to the other crowned heads of Europe.
CZ ASLAU, a town of Bohemia, and capital of a
circle of the fame name. Here is the higheft tower
in all Bohemia ; and near this place the king of Pruffia
gained a victory over the A.uftrians in 1742. It is
(eated on the river Crudenka, in E. Long. 15. 33.
N. Lat. 49. 50.
CZENSTOKGW, a town of Poland in the.palati¬
nate of Cracovia, with a fort, in which they keep a-
rich treafure, called “ the treafure of the virgin Ma¬
ry.” The pilgrims flock hither fo much for the fake
of a convent near it, that it is called the Loretto of
Poland. The town is fituated on the river in Warte,
E. Long. 19. 15. N. Lat. 50 48.
CZERNIC, a town of Carniola, in Auftria, fituated
in E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 46. 12. It is remarkable
for its lake ; for a particular defcription of which fee.
the article Circhnitzer. *
CZERNIKOU, a confiderable town of Mufcovy,.
and capital of a duchy of the fame name, with a caftle.
It is feated on the river Dezna, in E. Long. 32. 13..
N. Lat. 51. 20.
CZONGRODT, a town of Upper Hungary, and,
capital of a territory of the fame name, at the conflu¬
ence of the rivers Teiffe and Kerts. E. Long. 20.,
57. N. Lat. 46. jo.
[ 643 1
D.
v D TA THE fourth letter of the alphabet, and the
f II I J > third confonant.
Dacca. Grammarians generally reckon D among the
V*'^v lingual letters, as fuppofing the tongue to have the
principal lhare in the pronunciation thereof; though the
Abbot de Dangeau feems to have reafon in making it
a palate letter. The letter D is the fourth in the He¬
brew, Chaldee, Samaritan, Syriac, Greek, and Latin
alphabets; in the five firfl of which languages it has
the fame name, though fomewhat differently fpoke,
f. g. in Hebrew and Chaldee Daleth, in Syriac jDo/tth,
and in Greek Delta..
The form of our D is the fame with that of the La¬
tins, as appears from all the ancient medals and infcrip-
tions; and the Latin D is no other than the Greek a,
rounded a little, by making it quicker and at two
ftrokes. The A of the Greeks, again, is borrowed from
the ancient charafter of the Hebrew Daleth; which:
form it ft ill retains, as is fhown by the Jefuit Souciet,
in his Differtation on the Samaritan Medals.
D is alfo a numeral letter, fignifyingjfw hundred>
which arifes hence, that, in the Gothic characters, the
D is half the M, which fignifits a thoufand. Hence
the verfe,
Litera D •velut A quingentos Jignificalit.
A dafh added a-top, ]5> denotes it to ftand for five
thoufand.
Ufed as an abbreviation, it has various fignifications:
thus D ftands for X)oCtor ; as, M. D. for DoCtor of
Medicine ; D. T. DoCtor of Theology ; D. D. im¬
plies DoCtor of Divinity, or “ dono deditD. D. D.
is ufed for “ dat, dicat, dedicatand D. D. D. D. for
“ dignum Deo donum dedit.”
DAB, in ichthyology, the Englifh name of a fpe-
cies of Pleuronectes.
DABUL, a town of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, on
the coaft of Malabar, and to the foath of the gulf of
Cambaye, on a navigable river. It was formerly very
flourifiling, but is now much decayed. It belongs to
the Poituguefe, and its trade confifts principally in pep¬
per and fait E. Long. 73. 55. N. Lat. 17. 30.
DACCA, a town of Alia, in the kingdom of Ben¬
gal in the Eaft Indies, fituated in E. Long. 89. 10.
N. Lat. 24. o.—The advantages of the fituation of
this place, and the fertility of the foil round it, have
long finqe made it the centre of an extenfive commerce.
The courts of Delhi and Muxadavad are furnilhed from
thence with the cottons wanted for their own con-
fumption. They each of them maintain an agent on
thefpot to fuperintend the manufacture of them ; and
he has an authority, independent of the magiftrate,
over the brokers, weavers, embroiderers, and all the
workmen whofe bufinefs has any relation to the objeCt
of. his commiffion. Thefe unhappy people are forbid¬
den, under pecuniary and corporal penalties, to fell, to
any perfon whatever, a piece exceeding the value of
three guineas : nor can they, but by dint of money, re- Dacca,
lieve themfelves from this oppreffion. Dace-
In this, as in all the other markets, the Europeans ,
treat with the Moorilh brokers fettled upon the fpot,
and appointed by the government. They likewife lend
their name to the individuals of their own nation, as
well as to Indians and Armenians living in their fettle-
ments, who, without this precaution, would infallibly
be plundered. The Moors themfelves, in their private
tranfaftions, fometimes avail themfelves of the fame pre¬
tence, that they may pay only two, inftead of five per
cent. A diftindion is obferved, in their contracts, be¬
tween the cottons that are befpoke and thofe which the
weaver ventures, in fome places, to manufacture on his
own account. The length, the number of threads, and
the price, of the former are fixed: nothing further than
the commifiion for the latter is ftipulated, becaufe it is
impolfible to enter into the fame detail. Thofe na¬
tions that make a point of having fine goods, take pro¬
per meafures that they may be enabled to advance mo¬
ney to their workmen at the beginning of the year.
The weavers, who in general have but little employ¬
ment at that time, perform their work with lefs hurry
than in the months of OCIober, November, and De¬
cember, when the demand is preffing.
Some of the cottons are delivered unbleached, and
others half bleached. It were to be wifhed that this
cuftom might be altered. It is very common to fee
cottons that look very beautiful, go cff in the bleach¬
ing. Perhaps the manufacturers and brokers forefee
how they will turn out; but the Europeans have not
fo exquifite a touch, nor fuch an experienced eye to
difcern this. It is a circumftance peculiar to India,
that cottons, of what kind foever they are, can never
be well bleached and prepared but in the place where
they are manufactured. If they have the misfortune
to get damage before they are (hipped for Europe,
they muft be fent back to the places from whence they
came.
DACE, in ichthyology, a fpecies of Cyprinus.
This fifh is extremely common in our rivers, and
gives the expert angler great diverfion. The dace will
bite at any fly ; but he is more than ordinarily fond of
the (lone caddis, or. May-fly, which is plentiful in the
latter end of April and the whole month of May.
Great quantities of thefe may be gathered among the
reeds of fedges by the watcr-fide } and on the hawthorn
bufhes near the waters. Thefe are a large and hand-
fome bait; but as they laft only a fmall part of the year
in feafon, recourfe is to be had to the ant-fly. Of thefe
the black ones found in large mole hills or ant-hills
are the beft. Thefe may be kept alive along time in a
bottle, with a little of the earth of the hill, and fome
roots of grafs ; and they are in feafon throughout the
months of June, July, Auguft, and September. The
beft feafon of all is when they fwarm, which is in the
4M 2 end
D A C [ 644 ] D A C
achaw end of July or beginning of Auguft ; and they may
Dac*el'• be kept many months in a veffel waihed out with a fo-
i lution of honey in water, even longer than with the
earth and grafs-roots in the vial; though that is the
moft convenient method with a fmall parcel taken
for one day’s fiihing. In warm weather this fiih very
feldom refufes a fly at the top 9! the water ; but
at other.times he muft have the bait funk to within
three inches of the bottom. The winter firtiing for
dace requires a very different bait: this is a white mag¬
got with a reddifli head, which is the produce of the
eggs of the beetle, and is turned up with the plough
in great abundance. A parcel of thefe put in any vef¬
fel, with the earth they were taken in, will keep many
months, and are an excellent bait. Small dace may be
put into a glafs jar with freffi water ; and there prefer-
ved alive for a long time, if the water is properly chan¬
ged. They have been obferved to eat nothing but the
animalcula of the water. They will grow very tame
be degrees.
DACHAW, a town of Bavaria in Germany. It is
pretty large, well built, and feated on a mountain, near
the river Amber. Here the elector has a palace and
fine gardens. E. Long. 11. 30. N. Lat. 48. 20. ‘
DACIA (anc. geog.), a country which Trajan,
who reduced it to a province, joined to Moefia by an
admirable bridge. This country lies extended between
the Danube and the Carpathian mountains, from the
river Tibifcus, quite to the north bend of the Danube;
fo as to extend thence in a diredt line to the mouth of
the Danube and to the Euxine; on the north-fide
next the Carpates, terminated by the river Hierafus,
now the Pruth ; on the weft by the Tibifcus or Teifs;
comprifing a part of Upper Hungary, all Tranfylvania
and Walachia, and a part of Moldavia. Dad, the
people; a name which Strabo takes to be the fame
with the Davi of Comedies: neighbours, on the weft,
to the Getae; an appellation common alfo in Come¬
dies. Jofephus mentions a fet of religious men among
the Daci, whom he calls PUJli, and compares with the
Effeni; of thefe Plifti no other author makes any men¬
tion. Dacicus, the epithet; affumed by fame em¬
perors, (Juvenal.) There was a Dacia Aureliani, a
part of Illyricum, which was divided into the eaftern
and weftern; Sirmium being the capital of the latter,
and Sardica of the former. But this belongs to the
lower age.
DACIER (Andrew), born at Caftres in Upper
Languedoc, 1651, had a great genius and inclination
for learning, and ftudied at Saumur under Tannegui
le Fevre, then engaged in the inftruftion of his daugh¬
ter, who proved afterwards an honour to her fex- This
gave rife to that mutual tendernefs which a marriage
of 40 years could never weaken in them. The duke of
Montaufier hearing of his merit, put him in the lift of
commentators for the ufe of the dauphin, and enga¬
ged him in an edition of Pompeius Feftus, which he
publiftied in 1681. His edition of Horace printed at
Paris in 10 vols in r zmo, and his other works, railed
him a great reputation. He was made a member of
the academy of inferiptions in 1695. When the hi-
ftory of Louis XIV. by medals was finifhed, he was
chofen to prefent it to his majefty; who being inform¬
ed of the pains which he had taken in it, fettled upon
him a penfion of 2000 livres, and appointed him keep-
3
er of the books of the king’s clofet in the Louvre. Dacier, |
When that poft was united to that of library-keeper to Dadyl. J
the king, he was not only continued in the privileges of v' '
his place during life, but the furvivance was granted to
his wife, a favour of which there had been no inftance
before. But the death of Madam Dacier in 17 2d, ren¬
dered this grant, which was fo honourable to her, in-
effedual. He died September 18. 1722, of an ulcer
in the throat. In his manners, fentiments, and the whole
of his conduit, he was a complete model of that ancient
philofophy of which he was fo great an adu.irer, and
which he improved by the rules and principles of Chri-
ftianity.
Dacier (Anne), daughter of Tannegui le Fevre,
profeffor of Greek at Saumur in France. She early
fhowed a fine genius, which her father cultivated with
great care and fatisfaftion. After her father’s death
flie went to Paris, whither her fame had already reach¬
ed ; flie was then preparing an edition of Callimachus,
which fhe publiftied in 1674. Having ftiown fome
ffieets of it to Mr Huet, preceptor to the dauphin, and
to feveral other men of learning at the court, the work
was fo highly admired, that the duke of Montaufier
made a propofal to her of publiftiing feveral Latin au¬
thors for the ufe of the dauphin. She reje&ed this pro¬
pofal at firft, as a talk to which fhe was not equal.
But the duke infifted upon ft; fo that at laft he gain¬
ed her confent; upon which fhe undertook an edition
of Florus, publiftied in 1674. Her reputation being
now fpread over all Europe, Chriftina queen of Swe¬
den ordered count Konigfmark to make her a compli¬
ment in her name : upon which Mademoifelle le Fevre*
fent the queen a Latin letter, with her edition of Flo¬
rus: to which her majefty wrote an obliging aufwer ;
and not long after fent her another letter, to perfuade
her to abandon the Protettant religion, and made her
confiderable offers to fettle at her court. In 1683 Ihe
married Mr Dacier ; and foon after declared her defign
to the duke of Montaufier and the bilhop of Meaux of
reconciling herfelf to the church of Rome, which Ihe
had entertained for fome time: but as Mr Dacier was
not yet convinced of the reaionablenefs of iueh a
change, they retired to Cadres in 1684, where they
had a fmall eftate, in order to examine the points of
controverfy between the Protellants and the Roman
Catholics. They at laft determined in favour of the
latter, and made their public abjuration in 1685. Af¬
ter this, the king gave both hufband and wife marks
of his favour. In 1693, Ihe applied herfelf to the edu¬
cation of her fon and daughter, who made a prodigi¬
ous progrefs: the fon died in 1694, atK* the daughter
became a nun in the abbey of Longchamp. She had
another daughter, who had united in her all the virtues
and accomplilhments that could adorn the lex ; but ftie
died at 18. Her mother has immortalized her me¬
mory in the preface to her tranflation of the Iliad.
Madam Dacier was in a very infirm ftate of health the
two laft years of her life ; and died, after a very pain¬
ful ficknefs, Auguft 17. 1720, aged 69. She was re¬
markable for her firmnefs, generofity, equality of tem¬
per, and piety.
DACTYL, daftyhs, a foot in the Latin and Greek
poetry, confifting of a long fyllable, followed by two
Ihort ones : as carmine.
Some fay it is derived from « a finger,”
becaufe
D jE D [ 645 ] D ^ M
DaAylus becaufe it is divided into three joints, the firft of which
II _ is longer than the other two.
i PadtyUc. | The dafliyl is faid to have been the invention of
v Dionyfius or Bacchus, who delivered oracles in this
meafure at Delphos, before Apollo.- The Greeks call
it wcMTiKo?. The daftyl and (pondec are the moll
conliderable of the poetical feet; as being the mea-
fures ufed in heroic verfe, by Homer, Virgil, &c.
Thefe two are of equal time, but not equal motion.
The fpondee has an even, ftrong, and Heady pace,
like a trot: the daftyl refembles the nimbler llrokes
of a gallop.
Dactylus was alfo a fort of dance among the an¬
cient Greeks, chiefly performed, Hefychiu? obferves,
by the athletae.
Dactyls alfo denote the fruit of the palm-tree,
more ufually called data.
DACTYLI ibaji ; the Fingers of Mount Ida.
Concerning thefe. Pagan theology and fable give very
different accounts. The Cretans paid divine worlhip
to them, as thofe who had nurfed and brought up the
god Jupiter; whence it appears, that they were the
fame as the Corybantes and Curetes. Neverthelefs
Strabo makes them different; and fays, that the tradi¬
tion in Phrygia was, that “ Curetes and Corybantes
were defcended from the Dactyli Idasi: that there were
originally an hundred men in the illand, who were call¬
ed DaSy/i Idai; from whom fprang nine Curetes, and
each of thefe nine produced ten men, as many as the
fingers of a man’s two hands; and that this gave the
name to the anceftors of the Dadlyli Idaei.” He re¬
lates another opinion, which is, that there were but
five DaClyli Idaei; who, according to Sophocles, were
the inventors of iron: that thefe five brothers had five
fillers, and that from this number they took the name
offingers of mount Ida, becaufe they were in number
ten ; and that they worked at the foot of this moun¬
tain. Diodorus Siculus reports the matter a little dif¬
ferently. He fays “ the firft inhabitants of the ifland
of Crete were the Dadtyli Idsei, who had their refi-
dence on mount Ida : that feme faid they were an
hundred ; others only five, in number equal to the fin¬
gers of a man’s hand, whence they had the name of
Dafiyli: that they were magicians, and addidled to
myffical ceremonies : that Orpheus was their difciple,
and carried their mylleries into Greece: that the Dac¬
tyli invented the ufe of iron and fire, and that they
had been recompenced with divine honours.”
Diomedes the Grammarian fays, The Dadtyli Idxi
were pridlsof the goddefs Cybeler called Idai, becaufe
that goddefs was chiefly worlhipped on mount Ida in
Phrygia; and DaByli, becaufe that, to prevent Saturn
from hearing the cries of infant Jupiter, whom Cybele
had committed to their cuffody, they ufed to fing cer¬
tain verfes of their own invention, in the Da&ylic
meafure. See Curetes and Corybantes.
DACTYLIC, fomething that has a relation to
dadtyls.
Anciently, there were da&ylic as well as fpondaic
flutes, tibia daBylica. The dadtylic flutes confilled of
unequal intervals; as the daftylic foot does of unequal
meafures.
Dactylic Vtrfes are hexameter verfes, ending in a
daftyl inllead of a fpondee ; as fpondaic verfes are
thofe which have a fpondee in the fifth foot inllead
©f adaftyl.
An inllance of a dadlylic verfe we have in Virgil: Dactjdla.
Bis f atria ctciclcm mast us : quin protinui omnia mancy
Per legcrcnt oculis j9tN. vj. 33. H
DACTYLIOMANCY, Dactyliomantia, a fort, _Da:dala-,
of divination performed by means of a ring. The
word is compofed of the Greek <fa*Tux<t>f “ ring,” of
/axrvAoj- finger,” and divination.”
Daclyliomancy confilled principally in holding a ring,
fufpended by a fine thread, over a round table, on the
edge whereof were made divers marks with the twen¬
ty-four letters of the alphabet. The ring in lhaking,
or vibrating over the table, Hopped over certain of the
letters, which, being joined together, compofed the
anfwer required. But the operation was preceded and
accompanied by feveral fuperffitious ceremonies; for
firll the ring was to be confecrated with a great deal
of myHery : the perfon who held it was to be clad in
linen garments to the very Ihoes ; his head was to be
•lhaved all round; and in his hand he was to hold ver¬
vain. And before he proceeded on any thing, the
gods were firll to be appeafed by a formulary of pray¬
ers, &c. Ammianus Marcellinus gives the procefs at
large in his 29th book.
DACTYLIS, Cock’s-foot grass : A genus of
the digynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
4th order, Gramina. The calyx is bivaived and com-
preffed, with the one valve longer than the other,,
carinated, or having5 the rachis prominent and lharp.
There are two fpecies, the cynofuicides or fmooth
cock’s-foot grafs, and the glomeratus or rough cock’s,
foot grafs. Both are natives of Britain : the firll
grows in marlhy places, and the latter is common in
meadows and pallure-grounds. This lail is eat by
horfes, Iheep, and goats; but refufed by cows.
DACTYLUS, in zoology, a name given by Pliny
to the Pholas.
DADUCHI, in antiquity, priefts of Ceres. Tha*
goddefs having loH her daughter Proferpine, fay' my-
thologifls, began to make fearch for her at the begin *
ningof the night. In order to do this in the dark,
Hie lighted a torch, and thus fet forth on her travels-
throughout the world : for w'hich reafon it is that fne
is always feen reprefented with a lighted torch in her
hand. On this account, and in commemoration of
this pretended exploit, it became a cufiom for the
prieffs, at the featis and facrifices of this goddefs, to.
run about in the temple, with torches after this man¬
ner ; one of them took a lighted torch from off the
altar, and holding it with his hand, ran with it to a cer¬
tain part of the temple, where he gave it to another,
faying to him, Tibi trado : this fccond ran after the
like manner to another part of the temple, and gave
it to the third, and fo of the reff. From this cere¬
mony the prieffs became denominated daduchi,
q. d. “ torch-bearers ;” from <>«?, “ an undtuous refi-
nous wood, as pine, fir, &c.” whereof the ancients,
made torches; and “ I have, 1 hold.”—The Athe¬
nians alfo gave the name deduchus to the high-prieff of.
Hercules.
D^EDALA, a mountain and city of Lycia, where
Daedalus was buried, according to Pliny. - Alfo two
feffivals in Bceotia, fo called; one of them, obferved
at Alalcomenos by the Platseans in a large grove, where
they expofed in the open air pieces of boiled flelh, and
carefully obferved whether the crows that came to.
prey
d iE d [ 646 I r> m m
feasi’.ul*, prey upon them dire&ed their flight. All the trees
Dieaaiua. Upon any 0f thefe birds alighted were imme¬
diately cut down, and with them ftatues were made,
called Dadala, in honour of Daedalus. The other fef-
tival was of a more folemn kind. It was celebrated
every 60 years by all the cities of Boeotia, as a com-
penfation for the intermiffion of the, fmaller festivals,
for that number of years, during the exile of the Pla-
taeans. Fourteen of the ftatues called Daclala were
diftributed by lot among the Plataeans, Lebadoeans,
Coroneans, Orchomenians, Thefpians, Thebans, Ta*
nagraeans, and Chaeroneans, becaufe they had efferfted
a reconciliation'among the Platasans, and caufed them
to be recalled from exile about the time that Thebes
was reftored by Caflander the fonof Antipater.
During this feftival a woman in the habit ,of a bride-
maid accompanied a ftatue which was drefled in fe¬
male garments, on the banks of the Eitrotes. This
proceffion was attended to the top of mount Cithseron
by many of the Boeotians, who had places affigned
them by lot. Here an altar of fquare pieces of wood
cemented together like ftones was erefted, and upon
it were thrown large quantities of combuftible mate¬
rials. Afterwards a bull was facrificed to Jupiter, and
an ox or heifer to Juno, by every one of the ci¬
ties of Bceotia, and by the moft opulent that attend¬
ed. The pooreft citizens offered fmall cattle; and all
thefe oblations, together with the Daedala, werethrown
into the common heap and fet on fire, and totally redu¬
ced to afhes. They originated in this: When Juno,
after a quarrel with Jupiter, had retired to Euboea;
and refufed to return to his bed, the god, anxious
for her return, went to Confult Cithaeron ' king of
Plataea, to find fome effe&ual meafure to, break her
obftinacy. Cithseron advifed him to drefs a ftatue in
tkoman’s apparel, and carry it in a chariot, and pub-
lickly to report it was Plataea the daughter of Afopus,
whom he was going to marry. The advice Was fol¬
lowed; and Juno, informed of her hulband's future mar-i
riage, repaired in hafte to meet the chariot, and was
eafily united to him, xvhen ftie difcovered-the artful
meafureshe made ufe of to effedt a reconciliation.
DAEDALUS, an Athenian, fon of Eupalamus, de-
fcended from Erechtheus king of Athens. He was
the moft ingenious artift of his age; and to him we are
indebted for the invention of the wedge, and many
other mechanical in ftruments, and the fails of. Ihips.
He made ftatues which moved of themfelves, and feem-
ed to be endowed with life. Talus his'lifter’s fort
promifed to be as great as himfelf by the ingenuity of
his inventions ; and therefore from envy he threw
him down from a window and killed him. After the
murder of this youth, Dsedalus, with his- fon Icarus,
fled from Athens to Crete, where Minos king-of the
Country gave him a cordial reception. Due dal us made
a famous labyrinth for Minos, and aflifted Pafiphae
the queen, to gratify her unnatural paffion for a bull.
For this aftion Dasdalus incurred the; difpleafure of
Minos, who ordered him to be confined in the laby¬
rinth which he had conftruifted. Here he made him¬
felf wings with feathers and wax, and Carefully fitted
them to his body and that of his fon, who was the
• companion of his confinement. They took their flight
in the air from Crete; but'the heat of the fun melted
the wax on the wings of Icarus, whofe flight was too
high, and he fell into that part of the ocean which D*mm,
from him has been called the Icarian Sea. The father —v*~
by a proper management of his wings alighted at
Cumae, vyhere he built a temple to Apollo, and thence
diredled his courfe to Sicily, where he was kindly re¬
ceived by Cocalus, who reigned over part of the coun¬
try. He left many monuments of his ingenuity in
Sicily, which ftill exifted in the age of Diodorus Si¬
culus. He was difpatched by Cocalus, who was afraid
of the power of Minos, who had declared war againft
him becaufe he had given an afylumto Daedalus. The
flight of Daedalus from Crete with wings is. explain¬
ed by obfervingthat he was the inventor of fails, which
in his age might pats at a diftance for wings. He lived
1400 years before the Chriftian era. There, were two
ftatuaries of the: fame name; One of Sicyom fon of
Patroclus ; the other a native of Bithynia.
DiEMON a name given'by the ancients to
certain fpirits or genii, which they fay appeared to'
men, either to do them fervice or to hurt them.
The Greek word JxiM-av is derived (according to
Plato, in his-Cratylus, p. 398. ed. Serranl, vol. i.). front
Jadhav, “knowing or intelligent;” but according to
others from taio/x.a,, “to diftribute,” (fee the Scholiaft
on Homer, II. i. ver. 222). Either of thefe deriva¬
tions agrees with the office afcribed to daemons by the
ancient heathens, as the fpirit intrufted with the in-
fpedlion and government of mankind. For, accor¬
ding to the philofophers, daemons held a middle rank
between the celeftial gods and men on earth, and car¬
ried on all intercourfe between them ; conveying the
addreffes of men to the gods, and the divine benefits
to mdn. It was the opinion of many, that the ce-
leftidl divinities did not themfelves interpofe in hu¬
man affairs, but committed the entire adminiftration
of the government of this lower world to thefe fubal-
tern deities Neque enim pro majejiate deum calejiiumfue*.
rit, h&c curart; ( Apuleius dedqp Socratis, p. 677). Cunc-
ta calejliufn niolilntate, numine & authoritate, fed damonwn
obfequio. Id Opera, Id mnijlerw fieri arbitrandum eji ; f Id.
p. 675.^ Hence they became the objects of divine
worfhip. “ If idols are nothing f fays Celfus (apud Ori-
gen cant. 6Vy.lib.viii. p. 393.), “what harm can there be
to join in the public feftivals ? If they are daemons, then
it is certain that they are gods, in whom we are to
confide, and to whom we ihould offer facrifices and
prayers, to render them propitious.”
Several of the heathen philofophers held, that there
were different kinds of daemons; that fome of them
were fpiritual fubftances of a more -noble origin
than the human race, and that others had once been
men. . . '
But thofe daemons who were the more immediate
objeefts of the eftabliihed wforihip amongft the ancient
nations Were human fpirit» fuch as were believed to
become demons or deitie«'iafter their departure from
their bodies. PIutardlptcaches ( Vit. Romul. p. 36.
ed. Paris) “that according to a divine nature andju-
ftice,. the fouls of Virtuous men are advanced to the
rank of dasmooS ; ’&nd that from daemons, if they are
properly purified, they are exalted into gods, not by
any political inftitution, but according to right reafon.”
The fame author fays in another place {de If id Ofir.
p. 361.), “ that Ifisand Oliris were, for their virtue,'
changed from good daemons into gods, as were Her¬
cules
D JL M [ 647 ] D iE M
Demoniac, cules and Bacchus afterwards, receiving the united ho-
1 v 1 nours both of gods and daemons.” Hefiod and other
poets who have recorded the ancient hiitory or tradi¬
tions on which the public faith and worihip were foun¬
ded, affert, that the men of the golden age, who were
fuppofed to be very good, became daemons after death,
arid difpenfers of good things to mankind.
Though damon is often ufed in a general fenfe as
equivalent, to a deity ; and is accordingly applied to
fate ox fortune, or whatever elfe was regarded as a god:
yet thofe daemons who were the more immediate ob-
je£ts of divine worihip amongft the heathens were hu¬
man fpirits; as is fhown in Farmer on Miracles, chap. iii.
fedt. 2.
The word damon is ufed indifferently in a good and
in a bad fenfe. In the former fenfe, it was very com¬
monly ufed among the ancierit heathens^ “ We muft
not (fays Menander) think any dasmon to be evil,
hurtful to a good life, but every god to be good.”
Neverthelefs, thofe are certainly miitaken who affirm,
that deem on never fignifies an evil being till after the
times of Chrift. Pythagoras held daemons who fent
difeafes to men and cattle {Diogen. Laert. Vit.Py-
tbagor. p. 514. ed. Amflel.) Zaleucus, in his preface
to his 'L.a.v/s ^apud Stobaum, Serm. 42.) fuppofes that
an evil daemon might be prefent with a man, to influ*
ence him to injuftice. The daemons of Empedocles
were evil fpirits, and exiles from heaven ; (Plutarch,
Itrf/rw ,«» And in his life of Dion
(p. 958) he fays, “ It was the .opinion of the ancients,
that evil and mifehievous daemons, out of envy and
hatred to good men, oppofe whatever they do.” Scarce
did any opinion more generally prevail in ancient times
than this, viz... that as the departed fouls of good men
became good daemons, fo the departed, fouls of bad
men became evil daemons.
It has been generally thought, that by deemons we
are to underftand devils, in the Septuagint verfion of
the Old Tellament. Others think the word is in that
verfion certainly^ applied to the ghofts of fuch dead men
as the heathens deified, in Deut. xxxii. 17. Pf. cvi. 37.
That deemon often bears the fame meaning in the New
Teftament, and particularly in A£ts xvii. 18. 1 Cor. x»
:2i. 1 Tim: iv. 1. Rev. ix. 13. is fhown at large by
Mr Jofeph Mede (Works, p. 623, etfeq.) That the
word is applied always to human fpirits in the New
Teftament,- Mr Farmer has attempted to fhow in his
Effay on Demoniacs, p. 208, et feq. As to the mean¬
ing of the word dtemon in the fathers of the Chriftian
church, it is ufed by them in the fame fenfe as it was
by the heathen philofophers, efpecially.the latter Pla-
tonifts ; that is, fometimes for departed human fpirits,
and at other times for fitch fpirits as had never inha¬
bited human bodies. In the fathers, indeed, the word
is more commonly taken in an evil fenfe, than in the
ancient philofophers Befides the two forementioned
kinds of daemons, the fathers, as well as .ths ancient phi¬
lofophers, held a third, viz. fuch as fprang from the
congrefs of fuperior beings with the daughters of men.
In the theology of the fathers, thefe were the worft
kind of daemons.
Different orders of daemons had different Rations and
employments affigned them by the ancients. Good
daemons were confidered as the_authors of good to
mankind; evildsemonsbrought innumerable evils both
upon men and beafts. Amongft evil daemons there Datmomae.'
was a great diftindtion with refpeft to the offices af-
figned them ; fome compelled men to wickednefs,
others ftimulated them to madnefs. See Demoniac.
Much has been faid concerning the daemon of So¬
crates. He pretended to his friends and difciples, and
even declared to the world, that a friendly fpirit,
whom he called his damon, directed him how to act on
every important occufion in his life, and reftrained him
from imprudence of conduct.
In contemplating the character of this great philo-
fopher, while we admire him as the nobleft pattern
of virtue and moral wifdom that appeared in the hea¬
then world, we are naturally led to inquire, whether
what he gave out concerning his daemon were a trick
of impofture, or the reverie of a heated imagination,
or a fober and true account of a favour which heaven
defigned to confer on fo extraordinary a man.
To afeertain in this cafe, the object of our inqui¬
ries, is by no means fo eafy as the fuperficial think¬
er may be apt to imagine, When we confider the
dignity of' fentiment and fimplicity of manners which
Socrates difplayed through the general tenor of his
life, we cannot readily bring ourfelves to think that
he could be capable of fuch a trick of impofture. No¬
thing of tire wildnefs of an enthufiaft appears in his
character ; the modefty of his pretenfions, and the
refpedt which in his converfation and conduit he uni¬
formly teftified for the ordinary duties of focial life,
fufficiently prove that he was free from the influence
of blind enthufiafm : we cannot infer, therefore, that,
like the aftronomer in Raffelas, he was deceived with
refpedt to his daemon by an overheated imagination.
It is no lefs difficult to believe, that God would dif-
tinguiflr an heathen in fo eminent a manner, and yet
leave him uninftrudted in the principles of true reli¬
gion. Surely, if ever fcepticifm be reafonable, it muft
be in fuch matters as the prefent.
Yet, if it be ftill infifted, that fome one of thefe
three notions concerning the daemon of Socrates muft
be more probable than the others; we would rather
efteem Socrates an enthufiaft in this inftance, than
degrade him to the bafe chara&er of an impoftor, or
fuppofe that a fpiritual being actually revealed him-
felf to the. philofopher, and condefcended to become
his conftant attendant and counfellor. People are of¬
ten under the influence of an over-heated imagination
with regard to fome. one thing, and cool and fober as
to every thing elfe. t
DiEMQNIAC (from dzmon), a human being whofe Definitions,
volition and other mental faculties are overpowered
and reftrained, and his. body poffeffed and aCfuated,
by fome created fpiritual being of fuperior power.
Such feems to be the determinatefenfe of the word;D;fpUte.
but it is difputed whether any of mankind ever were concerning/
in this unfortunate condition. ... datpooi--
It is generally .agreed, that neither good nor evil acs‘
fpirits. are known to exert fuch authority at prefent
over the human race: but in the. ancient heathen
world, and among the Jews, particularly in the days
of our Saviour,. evil fpirits, at leaft, are thought by
many to have been more troublefome.
The Greeks and Romans imagined, that their der= Notions of
ties, to reveal future events, frequently entered intoth® Gretks
the prophet or prophetefs who was confulted, over- conning8
4, powered poffeffion.
D £ M [548] D M
‘a* ^OT’fred tlieir faculties, and uttered' r^fponfes with
thtir organs of fpeech. Apollo was believed to enter
into the Pythonefs, and to di&ate the prophetic an-
fwers received by thofe who confulted her. Other
oracles befides that of Delphi were fuppofed to unfold
futurity by the fame machinery. And in various
other cafes, either malignant daemons or benevolent
deities were thought to enter into and to actuate
human beings.-TheLymphafia, tht Cerriti, the Larvati,
of the Romans, were all of this defcription ; and the
<Jreeks, by the ufe of the word (how that
they referred to this caufe the origin of madnefs.
Among the ancient heathens, therefore, it appears to
have been a generally received opinion, that luperior
beings entered occafionally into men, overpowered the
faculties of their minds, and a&uated their bodily or¬
gans. They might imagine that this happened in in-
itan-ces in which the effefts were owing to the opera¬
tion of different caufes but an opinion fo generally
4 prevalent had furely fome plaufible foundation.
Of the The Jews too, if we may trull the facred writings
Jews. or Jofephus, appear to have believed in daemoniacal
poffeffion. The cafe of Saul may be recollected as
one among many in which fuperior created beings
were believed by the Jews to exert in this manner
their influence over human life. The general tenor
of their hiftoty and language, and their doftrines con¬
cerning good and evil fpirits, prove the opinion of dae¬
moniacal pofleflion to have been well known and go
5 nerally received among them.
Of mankind in the days of our Saviour, it would appear that
in the ^ <^;trnon*aca^ pofleffion was very frequent among the
ofourSa-ySJews and t^ie neighbouring nations. Many were the
viour. evil fpirits whom Jefus is related in the gofpels to
have ejected from patients that were brought unto him
as pofleffed and tormented by thofe malevolent dae¬
mons. His apoftles too, and the firft Chriflians, who
were mod a6tive and fuccefsful in the propagation of
Chriftianity, appear to have often exerted the mira¬
culous powers with which they were endowed on fi-
milar occafions. The daemons difplayed a degree of
knowledge and malevolence which fufficiently diftin-
guifhed them from human beings: and the language
in which the doemoniacs are mentioned,- and the ac¬
tions and fentiments aferibed to them in the New
Teftament, (how that our Saviour and his apoftles did
not confider the idea of daemoniacal poffeflion as being
merely a vulgar error concerning the origin of a difeafe
A or difeafes produced by natural caufes.
Jefus The more enlightened cannot always avoid the ufe
Chrift and ef metaphorical modes of expreflion ; which though
mufthfvf founded upon error, yet have been fo eftablifhed in
believed language by the influence of cuftom, that they cannot
dsemoria- be fuddenly difmiffed. When we read in the book of
«aJ poflef- Jolhua, that the fun on a certain occalion flood Hill,
lion to be to allow that hero time to complete a vi&ory; we
m ' eafily find an excufe for the conduCl of the facred hi-
ftorian, in accommodating his narrative to the popular
ideas of the Jews concerning the relative motions of
the heavenly bodies. In all fimilar inftances, we do
not complain much of the ufe of a fingle phrafe, ori¬
ginally introduced by the prevalence of fome ground-
lefs opinion, the falfity of which is well known to the
writer.
But in deferiptions of chara&ers* In the narration of
N° 97*
fafts, and in the laying down of fyflems of do&rir.e, Dasmonwe.
we require different rules to be obferved. Should any '——y—
perfon, in compliance with popular opinions, talk in
lerious language of the exiftcnce, difpofitions, decla¬
rations, and adlions of a race of beings whom he knew
to be abfolutely fabulous, we furely could not praife
him for candid integrity: we muft luppofe him to be
either exulting in irony over the weak credulity of
thofe around him, or taking advantage of their weak-
nefs, with the dilhonefty and the felfifh views of an
impoftor. And if he himfdf (hould pretend to any
,ponne<£lion with this imaginary fyftem of beings; and
Ihould claim, in confequence of his connexion with
them, particular honours from his contemporaries;
whatever might be the dignity of his charadter in all
other refpedls, nobody could hefitate even for a mo¬
ment to brand him as an impoftor of the bafeft cha-
radler.
Precifely in this light muft we regard the condudl
of our Saviour and his apoftles, if the idea of daemo¬
niacal poffeffion were to be confidered merely as a vul¬
gar error. They talked and adled as if they believed
that evil fpirits had adlually entered into thofe who
were brought to them as poffeffed with devils, and
as if thofe fpirits were adlually expelled by their au¬
thority out of the unhappy perfons whom they had
poffeffed. They expedled, they demanded too, to
have their profeffions and declarations believed, in con¬
fequence of their performing fuch mighty works, and
to be honoured as having thus triumphed over the
powers of hell. The reality of daemoniacal poffeftion 7
Hands upon the fame evidence with the gofpel lyftem in ReJ?fo'}aHc'
general. _ dSrfnc
Neither is there any thing abfurd or unreafonable in
this dodlrine. It does not appear to contradict thofe
ideas which the general appearances of nature and the
feries of events fuggeft concerning the benevolence
and wifdom of the Deity, and the counfels by which
he regulates the affairs of the univerfe. We often
fancy ourfelves able to comprehend things to which
our underftanding is wholly inadequate : we perfuade
ourfelves, at times, that the whole extent of the works
of the Deity muft be well known to us, and that his
defigns muft always be fuch as we can fathom. We
are then ready, whenever any difficulty arifes to us, in
confidering the conduft of Providence, to model things
accoiding to our own ideas; to deny that the Deity
can poffibly be the author of things which we cannot
reconcile; andtoaffert, that he malt aft on every occa-
fion in a manner confiftent with our narrow views.
This is the pride of reafon; and it feems to have fug-
gefted the ftrongeft objeflions that have been at any
time urged againft the reality of dsemoniacal poffef¬
fion. But the Deity may furely connect one order of
his creatures with another. We perceive mutual re¬
lations and a beautiful connexion to prevail through
all that part of nature which falls within the fphere
of our obfervation. The inferior animals are con-
nedted with mankind, and fubjedted to their autho¬
rity, not only in inftances in which it is exerted for
their advantage, but even where it is tyrannically abu-
fed to their dellrudiion. Among the evils to which
mankind have been fubjedled, why might not their
being liable to daemoniacal poffeffion be one ? While
the Supreme Being retains the fovereignty of the
univerfe,
DAE [ 649 ] DAE
Dsemoniac. univerfe, he may employ whatever agents he thinks
—v—' proper in the execution of his purpofes: he may either
commiffion an angel or let loofe a devil; as well as
bend the human will, or communicate any particular
impulfe to matter.
All that revelation makes known, all that human
reafon can conje&ure, concerning the exiftence of va¬
rious orders of fpiritual beings, good and bad, is
perfe&ly confiftent with, and even favourable to, the
do&rine of dsemoniacal poffeffion. It was generally
believed through the ancient heathen world; it was
equally well known to the Jews, and equally refpe&ed
by them; it is mentioned in the New Teftament in
fuch language, and fuch narratives are related concern¬
ing it, that the gofpels cannot well be regarded in any
other light than as pieces of impotture, and Jefus
Chrift. muft be confidered as a man who difhoneftly
took advantage of the weaknefs and ignorance of his
contemporaries, if this doftrine be nothing but a vulgar
error ; it teaches nothing inconfiftent with the general
conduft of Providence ; it is not the caution of philo-
fophy, but the pride of reafon, that fuggefts objections
g againft this doCtrine.
Arguments Thofe, again, who are unwilling to allow that angels
of the An- or devils have ever intermeddled fo much with the
ggacmom- concern3 0f human life, urge a number of fpecious ar-
p guments in oppofition to thefe.
The cafes The Greeks and Romans of old, fay they, did be-
in which i;eve in the reality of daemoniacal poffeffion. They
andRomans ^uPP0fe^ ^at fpiritual beings did at times enter into
fuppofed the fons or daughters of men, and diftingui/h them-
demoniacal felves in that fituation by capricious freaks, deeds of
poffeffion, wanton mifchief, or prophetic enunciations. But in
infhnces the inftances in which they fuppofed this to happen, it
of madnefs, *s evident that no fuch thing took place. Thei: ac-
Jkc. counts of the ftate and conduct of thofe perfons whom
they believed to be poffeffed in this fupernatural man¬
ner, {how plainly that what they afcribed to the in¬
fluence of daemons were merely the effeCts of natural
difeafes. Whatever they relate concerning the larval},
the cerriti, and the lymphatic}, Ihows that thefe were
merely people difordered in mind, in the fame unfor¬
tunate fituation with thofe madmen and idjots and
melancholy perfons whom we have among ourfelves.
Feftus dtfcribes the Larvati as being furioji el tncnte
moti. Horace fays,
Hellaie percuffii, Marius cum pracipltat fc,
Ccrritus fuit t
Plato, in his Simceus, fays, y*? «»»<>««• «p**1iTai yav7/xvf
»»9;ovx, akuSovc, Lucian defcribes daemoniacs as lunatic,
and as flaring with their eyes, foaming at the mouth,
tC and being fpeechlefs.
The f*me It appears ftill more evidently, that all the perfons
is true of fpoken of as poffefFed with devils in the New Tef-
the Demo- tament, were either mad or epileptic, and precifely
NewTef-6 ‘n t^e ^amc con<ht>on with the madmen and epileptics
ament. °I modern times. The Jews, among other reproaches
which they threw out againft our Saviour, faid, He
hath a devil, and is mad; <why hear ye him ? The ex-
preffions he hath a devil, and is mad, were certainly ufed
on this occafion as fynonymous. With all their vi¬
rulence, they would not furely aferibe to him at once
two things, that were inconfiftent and contradictory.
Thofe who thought more favourably of the charafter
of Jefus, afferted concerning his difeourfes, in reply to
Vol. V. Part II.
his adverfaries, Thefe are not the words of him that hath Betrwffxr.
a damon; meaning, no doubt, that he fpoke in a more ra- —
tional manner than a madman could be expedted to fpeak.
The Jews appear to have afcribed to the influence of
daemons, not only that fpecies of madnefs in which the
patient is raving and furious, but alfo melancholy mad¬
nefs. Of John, who fecluded himfelf from intercourfe
with the world, and was diftinguiflied for abftinenee
and a£ts of mortification, they faid, He hath a deemon.
The youth, whofe father applied to Jefus to free him
from an evil fpirit, deferibing his unhappy condition
in thefe words, Have mercy on my fon, for he is lunatic
and fore vexed with a demon ; for oft times he falleth into
the Jire, and oft into the water, was plainly epileptic.
Every thing indeed that is related in the New Tefta¬
ment concerning daemoniacs, proves that they were
people affefted with fuch natural difeafes as are far
from being uncommon among mankind in the prefent
age. When the fymptoms of the diforders cured by
our Saviour and his apoftles as cafes of daemoniacal
poflVffion, correfpond fo exaCtly with thofe of difeafes
well known as natural in the prefent age, it would be
abfurd to impute them to a fupernatura! caufe. It is
much more confiftent with common fenfe and found
philofophy to fuppofe, that our Saviour and his apo¬
ftles wifely, and with that condefcenfion to the weak¬
nefs and prejudices of thofe with whom they converfed,
which fo eminently diftinguifhed the chara&er of the
Author of our holy religion, and muft always be a pro¬
minent feature in the charaCler of the true Chriftian,
adopted the vulgar language in fpeaking of thofe unfor¬
tunate perfons who were groundlefsly imagined to be
poffeffed with daemons, though they well knew the
notions which had given rife to fuch modes of ex-
preffion to be ill-founded, than to imagine that dif¬
eafes, which arife at prefent from natural caufes, were
produced in days of old by the intervention of dae¬
mons, or that evil fpirits ftill continue to enter into
mankind in all cafes of madnefs, melancholy, or epi*
kpfy.
Befides, it is by no means a fufficient reafon for
receiving any doCtrine as true, that it has been gene¬
rally received through the world. Error, like an epi¬
demical difeafe, is communicated from one to another.
In certain circumftances, too, the influence of imagi¬
nation predominates, and reftrains the exertions of
reafon. Many falfe opinions have extended their in¬
fluence through a very wide circle, and maintained it
long. On every fuch occafion as the prefent, there¬
fore, it becomes us to inquire, not fo much how gene¬
rally any opinion has been received, or how long it
has prevailed, as from what caufes it has originated^
and on what evidence it refts.
When we contemplate the frame of nature, we be¬
hold a grand and beautiful fimplicity prevailing thro' If
the w'hole : Notwithftanding its immenfe extent, and Inference
though it contains fuch numberlefs diverfities of being; from thel
yet the fimpleft machine conftrudled by human ait3"^0^
does not difplay eafier fimplicity, or an happier connet-naluie‘
tion of parts. We may therefore venture to draw an
inference, by analogy, from what is obfervable of the
order of nature in general to the prefent cafe. To
permit evil fpirits to intermeddle with the concerns of
human life, would be to break through that order which
the Deity appears to have eftablilhed through his
DAI [ <5j
paemr'-iiao worksit Would be to introduce a degree of confu*
^ tlj. fion unworthy of the wifdom of Divine Providence.
. ,e‘ Such art the moil rational arguments that have been
* urged on both fides in this contrOverfy. Perhaps the
dasmonianiil;? have the ftreoger probabilities on tlieir
fide ; but we will not prefume to take upon ourfelves
the office of arbitrators in the difpute.
• DiEMONIACS, in church-hiltoty, a branch of
the Anabaptills; vvhofe diilinguiffiing tenet is, that the
devils fhall be faved at the end of the world.
DAFFODIL. See Narcissus.
DAGNO, a town of Turky in Europe, in Albania,
with a bilhop’s fee. It is the capital of the diltrift of
Ducagini, and is feated on the rivers Drino and Nero,
near their confluence. It is 15 miles fouth-eaft of Scu*
tari, and 15 north-eaft of Aleffio. E. Long. 19. 48.
N. Lnt. 42. o.
DAGO, or Dagho, an illand in the Baltic Sea,
on the coaft of Livonia, between the gulf of Finland
and Riga. It is of a triangular figure, and may be
about 20 miles in circumference. It has nothing con-
fiderable but two caitles, called Dagger-wort and Paden.
E. Long. 22. 30. N. Lat. 58. 48.
* Sec x Sam. DAGON, the falfe god of Affidod*, or, as the
chap. v. Greeks call it, Jpootus. He is commonly reprefented
as a monfter, half man and half fiih; whence molt
learned men derive his name from the Hebrew dag,
which fignifies “ a filh.” Thofe who make him to have
been the inventor of bread-corn, derive his name from the
Hebrew Dugan, which ligniflesfrumeutum ; whence Philo
Biblius calls him 'Jupiter Aratrius.
This deity continued to have a temple at Afhdod
during all the ages of idolatry to the time of the Mac¬
cabees : for the author of the firlt book of Maccabees
tells us, that “ Jonathan, one of the Maccabees, having
beaten the army of Apollonius, Demetrius’s general,
they fled to Azotus, and entered into Bethdagon (the
temple of their idol); but that Jonathan fet fire to
Azotus, and burnt the temple of Dagon and all thofe
who were fled into it.”
Dagon, according to fome, was the fame with Ju¬
piter, according to others Saturn, according to others
Venus, and according to moft Neptune.
DAHGESTAN, a country of Afia, bounded by
Cireaffia on the north, by the Cafpian Sea on the eaft,
by Chirvein a province of Perfia on the fouth, and by
Georgia on the weft. Its chief towns are Tarku and
Derbent, both fituated on the Cafpian Sea.
DAHGME, a kingdom of Africa, on the coaft of
Guinea, to the north of Whidah, or Fida. The king
of this country conquered Whidah, and very much dif-
tuvbed the flave-trade of the Europeans.
DAILLE (John), a Proteftant minifter near Pa¬
ris, was one of the moft learned divines of the 1 yth
century, and was the moft efteemed by the Catholics
of all the controverfial writers among the Proteftants.
He was tutor to two of the grandfons of the illuftrious
Mr Du Pleffis Mornai. Mr Daille having lived 14
years with fo excellent a mafter, travelled into Italy
with his two pupils : one of them died abroad; with
the other he faw Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Flan¬
ders, Holland, and England, and returned in 1621.
He was received minifter in 1623, and firft exercifed
his office in the family of Mr Du Pleffis Mornai; but
o J DAK
this did not lafl long, for that lord died foon after. Duiri
The memoirs of this great man employed Mr Daille H. ‘ i
the following year. In 1625 he was appointed mini- 1>ll::r' .
fter of the church of Sainur, and in 1626 removed to v'
Paris. He fpent all the reft of his life in the fervice
of this laft church, and compofed feveral works. His
firft piece was his mafterpiece, and an excellent work.
Of the Ufe of the Fathers, printed 1631. It is a ftrong
chain of reafoning, which forms a moral demonftration
again!! thole who would have religious difputes de¬
cided by the authority of the fathers. He died in 1670,
aged 77.
DAIRI, or Dairo, in the hiftory of Japan, is the
fiwereign pontiff of the Japauefe ; or, according to
Kaempfer, the hereditary ecclefiattical monarch of ja¬
pan. In effeift, the empire of Japan is at prefent un¬
der two fovereigns, viz. an eccleliaftical one called the
dairo, and a fecular one who bears the title of iubo.
The laft is the emperor, and the former the oracle of
the religion of the country,
DAIRY, in rural affairs, a place appropriated for
the management of milk, and the making of butter,
cheefe, &c. See Butter, Cheese, <?jc.
The dairy-houfe Ihould always be kept in the neateft
order, and fo fituated as that the windows or lattices
never front the fouth, fouth-eaft, or fouth-weft. Lat¬
tices are alfo to be preferred to windows, as they ad¬
mit a more free circulation of the air than glazed
lights poffibly can do. It has been objected, that they
admit cold air in winter and the fun in fummer; but
the remedy is eaftly obtained, by making a frame the
fixe of or fome what larger than the lattice, and conilr ac¬
ting it fo as to Hide backward and forward at pleafure.
Packthread {trained acrofs this frame, and oiled cap
papi palled thereon, wall admit the light, and keep
out the fun and wind.
It is hardly poffible in the fumraer to keep a dairy-
houfe too cool; on which account none fhouldbe fitua¬
ted far from a good fpring or current of water. They
ftrould be neatly paved either with red brick or fmooth
hard ftone; and laid with a proper defcent, fo that no¬
water may lodge. This pavement ftiould be well w a fir¬
ed in the fummer every day, and all the utenfils be¬
longing to the dairy fhonld be kept perfectly cleans.
Nor Ihould we ever fuffer the churns to be Raided in
the dairy, as the fteam that arifes from hot water will
injure the milk. Nor fhould cheefe be kept therein,
nor rennet for making cheefe, nor a cheefe-prefs he
fixed in a dairy, as the whey and curd will diffufe their
acidity throughout the room.
The proper receptacles for milk are earthen pans,
or wooden vats or trundles; but none of thefc Ihould
be lined with lead, as that mineral certainly contains a
poifonous quality, and may in fome degree affedl the
milk: but if people are fo obftinate as to perfift in
ufing them, they fbould never forget to fcald them,
fcrub them well with fait and water, and to dry them
thoroughly, before they depoftte the milk therein.
Indeed all the utenfils fhould be cleaned in like manner
before they are ufed; and if after this they in the leaftr
degree fmell four, they muil undergo a fecond fcrub-
bing before they are fit for ufe.
DAKIR, in our ftatutes, is ufed for the twentieth
part of a laft of hides. According to the ftatute of
5*
DAL [6
51 Hen. III. I)e compofitione potufn'um & men fur arum, a
laft of hides confifts of twenty dakirs, and every dakir
of ten hides. But by I Jac. cap. 33. one laft of hides
or fluns is twelve dozen. See Dicker.
DAIS, in botany: A genus of the monogynia order,
belonging to the decandria clafs of plants ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 31ft order, Veprecuhe.
The involucrum is tetraphylious; the corolla quadritid
or quinquefid; the fruit a mcnofpermous berry.
DAISY. See BelDs.
DALACA, an illand of the Red Sea, over-againft
the coaft of Abex, about 72 miles in length and 15 in
breadth. It is very fertile, populous, and remarkable
for a pearl fiihery. The inhabitants are negroes, and
great enemies to the Mahometans. There is a town
of the fame name feated over-againft Abaffia.
DALBERGIA, in botany ; a genus of the oftan-
dria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants.
There are two filaments or ftamina quadrilid at top.
The fruit is pedicellated, not gaping, leguminous,
jnembrano-comprefl'ed, and bearing feeds.
DA LEA, a province of Sweden, bounded on the
north by Daleearlia, on the eaft by the Wermeland
and the lake Wener, on the fouth by Gothland, and on
the north by Norway and the fea.
DALEBURG, a town of Sweden, and capital of
the province of Dalia, feated on the weftern bank of
the lake Wener, 50 miles north of Gottenburg. E.
Long. 13. o. N. Lat. 59. o.
DALECARLIA, a province of Sweden, fo called
from a river of the fame name, on which it lies, near
Norway. It is divided into three parts, which they
call volieys; and is about 175 miles in length,and too
in breadth. It is full of mountains, which abound in
mines of copper and iron, fome of which are of a pro¬
digious depth. The towns are very fmall, and Idra is
the capital. The inhabitants are rough, robuft, and
warlike ; and ail the great revolutions in Sweden had
their rife in this province. The river rifes in the Dof-
rine mountains; and, running fouth-eaft thro* the pro-'
vince, falls into the gulph of Bothnia.
DALECHAMP (James), a phyfician in Norman¬
dy, in the t6th century, wrote a Hiftory of Plants,
and was well Ikilled in polite learning. Pie wrote notes
on Pliny’s Natural Pliftory, and tranflated Athenseus
into Latin. He practifed phyfic at Lyons from 1552
to 1558, when he died, aged 75.
DALECHAMPIA, in botany : A genus of the
adelpbia order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
38th order, Trkccctc. The involucrum of the male is
common and quadripartite ; the calyces hexaphyllous ;
corolla none ; the nedlarium laminated or fealy; the
ftamina monodelphous or coalited at the bafe, and po-
lyandrous or numerous. The female involucrum is
common and triphyllous ; corolla none; ftyleone; the
vapfule tricoccous.—There is but one fpecies, viz. the
fcandens, a native.of Jamaica. It is a climbing plant,
which rifes to a confiderable height; and is remark¬
able for nothing but having its leaves armed with briit-
iy hairs, which fting the hands of thole who unwarily
touch them.
DAI.EM, a town of the United Provinces, and
capital of a diftricl of the fame name. It was taken by
5t ] DAL
the French in 1672, who demolifhcd the fortifications. D’ W
It is feated on the river Bervine, five miles north-eaft bo!
of Liege. E. Long. 5. 59. N. Lat. 50. 40. ,,
D’ALEMBERT. See Alembert. ^
DALEN (Cornelius Van), an eminent engraver,
who flourifhed about the year 1640. He was a native of
Holland ; but under what matter he learned the art of
engraving, is uncertain. It is difficult to form a pro¬
per judgment of his merit; for fometimes his prints
refemble thofe of Cornelius Vifcher, of Lucas Voiler-
man, of P. Pontius, of Bolfvvert, and other mailers.
A fee of antique ftatues, engraved by him, are in a
bold, free ftyle, as if founded upon that of Goltzius;
others, again, feem imitations of that of Francis Poilly.
In all thele different manners he has fucceeded ; and
they plainly manifeit the great command he had with
his graver, for he worked with that inftrqment only.
He engraved a great variety of portraits, fome of
which are very valuable, and form the. beft as well as
the larger part of his works.
DALKEITH, a town of Scotland, in Mid-Lothian,
fix miles fouth-eaft of Edinburgh; W. Long. 2. 20.
N. Lat. 55. 50. It is the principal refidence of the
Duke of Buccleugh, who has here a noble, houi'e and
extenfive parks, in this houfe, which at the time was
the head-quarters of General Monk, the reftoration
of Charles II. was planned.—-The Duke’s eldeft Ion
has the title of Earl of Dalkeith. Here is- a confidcr-
able market weekly on Thurfdays, which fupplies in-
part both Edinburgh and Glafgow.
DALMATIA, a province of Europe, bounded on
the north by Bof'nia, on the fouth by the gulph of Ve¬
nice, on the eaft by Servia, and on the weft by Mor-
lachia. Spalatio is the capital of that part belonging
to the Venetians; and Raguza, of a republic of tiiat
name; the I’urks have a third, whofe capital is Herze¬
govina. The air is wholefome, and the foil fruitful f
find it abounds in wine, corn, and oil.
DALTON, a town of Lancafhire, in England. It
is feated on the fpring-head of a river, in a champaign,
country, not far from the fea ; and the ancient c-ailie
is made nfe of to keep the records, and prifoners ibr
debt in the liberty of Fumes. W. Long. 3. o. N.
Lat. 54. 18.
Dalton (John), D. D. an eminent divine and poet*
was the fon of the Rev. Mr John Dalton vector of
Dean near Whitehaven in Cumberland, where he vyjs
born in t 709. He was educated at Queen’s College,
Oxford ; and became tutor or governor to the Lord-
Beauchamp, only fon of the Earl of Hertford, late
Duke of Someriet,; during which time he adapted
Milton’s admirable Mafic of Comus to the ftage, by a
judicious infer turn of feveralfongsand different paffages
fdedfed from other of Milton’s works, as well as of
feveral fongs and other elegant additions of his own,
fuited to the charadfters and to the manner of the ori¬
ginal author. During the run of this piece he induftri-
ouily fought out a grand-daughter of Milton’s, oppref-
fed both by age and poverty ; and procured her a be¬
nefit from it, the profits of which amounted to a very
coniiderable fum. He was promoted by the king to a
prebend of Worcefter; where he died on the 2 2d of
July 1763. Betides the above, he wrote a defc rip five
poem, addreffed to two ladies at their return from view-
4 N 2 ing
DAM t 652 ] DAM
Dam ing the coal-mines near Whitehaven; and Remarks on
_ H 12 hiftorical defigns of Raphael, and the Mufeum Gra-
Damafcus.
. cum (jf bgyptiacum.
DAM, a boundary or confinement, as to dam up or
dam out. Infra damnum fuum, within the bounds or
limits of his own property or jurifdi&ion.
DAMA, in zoology. See Cervus.
DAMAGE, in law, is generally underftood of a hurt
or hindrance attending a perfon’s eftate : but, in com¬
mon law, it is part of what the jurors are to inquire
of in giving verdidt for the plaintiff or defendant in a
civil adtion, whether real or perfonal; for after giving
verdidt on the principal caufe, they are likewife aflced
their confciences touching cofts and damages, which
contain the hindrances that one party hath fuffered
from the wrong done him by the other. See Costs.
DAMAN, a maritime town of the Eaft Indies, at
the entrance into the gulph of Cambay. It is divided
by the river Daman into two parts; one of which is
called New Daman, and is a handfome town, well
fortified, and defended by a good Portuguefe garrifon.
The other is called Old Daman, and is very ill built.
There is a harbour between the two towns, defended
by a fort. It was taken by the Portuguefe in 1535.
The mogul has attempted to get poffeffion of it feveral
times, but always without effedl. E. Long. 72. 35.
N. Lat. 21. £.
DAMASCENUS (John), an illuftrious father of
the church in the 8th century, born at Damafcus,
where his father, though a Chriffian, enjoyed the office
of counfellor of ftate to the Saracen caliph ; to which
the fon fucceeded. He retired afterwards to the mo-
naftery of St Sabas, and fpent the remainder of his life
in writing books of divinity. His works have been often
printed: but the Paris edition in 1712, 2 vols folio, is
eileemed the befl.
DAMASCIUS, a celebrated heathen philofopher,
born at Damafcus in the year 540, when the Goths
reigned in Italy. He wrote the life of his matter 111-
dorus; and dedicated it to Theodora, a very learned
and philofophical lady, who had alfo been a pupil to
Indorus. In this life, which was copioufly written, he
frequently made oblique attacks on the Chriftian reli¬
gion. We have nothing remaining of it but fome ex-
trafts preferred by Photius. Damafcius. fucceeded
Theon in the rhetorical fchool, and Ifidorus in that of
philofophy, at Athens.
DAMASCUS, a very ancient city of Syria in A-
fia, feated in E. Long. 47. 18. N. Lat. 35. o. Some
of the ancients* iuppofe this city to have been built by
one Damafcus, from whom it took its name ; but the
moft generally received opinion is, that it was found¬
ed by Uz the eldeil fon of Aram. It is certain, from
Gen. xiv. 5. that it was in being in Abraham’s time,
and confequently may be looked upon as one of the
moil ancient cities in the world. In the time of king
David it feems to have been a very confiderable place ;
as the facred hiftorian tells us, that the Syrians of Da-
mafcus fent 20,000 men to the relief of Hadadezer
king of Zobah. We are not informed whether at that
time it was governed by kings, or was a republic. Af¬
terwards, however, it became a monarchy which pro¬
ved very troublefome to the kingdom of Ifrael, and
would even have deftroyed it entirely, had not the Dei¬
ty miraculoufly interpofed in its behalf. At laft this
monarchy was deftroyed by Tiglath Pilefer king of Daaiafcoi,
Affyria, and Damafcus was never afterwards governed Pamalia-.
by its own kings. From the Affyrians and Babylonians
it patted to the Perfians, and from them to the Greeks
under Alexander the Great. After his death it belong¬
ed, with the reft of Syria, to the Seleucidse ; till their
empire was fubdued by the Romans, about 70 years be¬
fore Chrift. From them it was taken by the Saracens
in 633 ; and it is now in the hands of the Turks.—
Notwithftanding the tyranny of the Turkiih govern¬
ment, Damafcus is ftill a confiderable place. It is fi-
tuated in a plain of fo great extent, that one can but
juft difeern the mountains which compafs it on the
other fide. It Hands on the weft fide of the plain,
about two miles from the head of the river Barrady,
which waters it. It is of a long, ftrait figure, extend¬
ing about two miles in length, adorned with mofques
and fteeples, and encompafled with gardens computed,
to be full 30 miles round. The river Barrady, as foon
as it iffues from the clefts of the Antilibanus into the
plain, is divided into three ftreams, whereof the mid-
dlemoft and biggeft runs dire&ly to Damafcus, and is
diftributed to all the citterns and fountains of the city..
The other two feem to be artificial; and are drawn,
round, one to the right, and the other to the left, on.
the borders of the gardens, into which they are let by
little currents, and difperfed every where. The houfes
of the city, whofe ftreets are very narrow, are all built
on the outfide either with fun-burnt brick, or Flemiffi
wall: and yet it is no uncommon thing to fee the
gates and doors adorned with marble portals, carved
and inlaid with great beauty and variety ; and within
thefe portals to find large fquare courts beautified with,
fragrant trees and marble fountains, and compafled
round, with fplendid apartments. In thefe apartments,
the ceilings are ufually richly painted and gilded; and
their duans, which are a fort of low ftages feated in the
pleafanteft part of the room, and elevated about 16 or
18 inches above the floor, whereon the Turks eat, lleep,
fay their prayers, &c. are floored, and adorned on the
fides with variety of marble mixed in mofaic knots and
mazes, fpread with carpets, and furnifhed all round
with bolfters and culhions, to the very height of luxu¬
ry. In this city are ihown the church of John the Bap-
tift, now converted into a famous mofque; the houfe
of Ananias, which is only a fmall grotto or cellar
wherein is nothing remarkable ; and the houfe of Ju*
das with whom Paul lodged. In this laft is an old
tomb, fuppofed to be that of Ananias; which the
Turks hold in fuch veneration, that they keep a lamp
continually burning over it. There is a caftle belong¬
ing to Damafcus, which is like a little town, having
its own ftreets and houfes; and in this caft'le a maga¬
zine of the famous Damafcus fteel was formerly kept.
The fruit-tree called the damafeene, and the flower
called the damajk rofe, were tranfplanted from the gar¬
dens belonging to this city; and die filks and linens
known by the name of damajks, were probably invented
by the inhabitants.
Damascus Steel. See Damask.
DAMASIA (anc. geog.), a town of Vindelicia on
the Licus. Afterwards called Augufla. Now Augs~
burg in Suabia, on the Lech. E. Long. 10. 50.
N. Lat. 48. 2.0.
DAMASK, a fort of filken fluff, having fome parts
raifed
DAM L 653 ] DAM
turn an: raifed above the ground, reprefenting flowers or other
9 figures. Darnafk (hould be of dreffed filks, both in
, amiet **, warp and woof. It has its name from its being ori¬
ginally brought from Damafcus in Syria.
There is alfo a fluff in France called the cajfart da-
tnq/hy made in imitation of the true damafk, having
woof of hair, coarfe filk, thread, wool, or cotton. Some
have the warp of filk and the woof of thread; others
are all thread or all wool.
Damask is alfo a.kind of wrought linen, made in
Flanders, fo called, becaufe its large flowers re-
femble thofe of damafks. It is chiefly ufed for tables ;
a table-cloth and a dozen of napkins are called a da-
majk-fermce.
Damask is alfo applied to a very fine Heel, in fome
parts of the Levant, chiefly at Damafcus in Syria;
whence its name. It is tifed for fword and cutlafs
blades, and is finely tempered.
DAMASKEENING, or Damasking, the art or
operation of beautifying iron, fteel, &c. by making
incifions therein, and filling them up with gold or filver
wire ; chiefly ufed for adorning fword-blades, guards
and gripes, locks of pillols, &c.
Damafkeening partakes of the mofaic, of engraving,
and of carving : like the mofaic, it has inlaid work ;
like engraving, it cuts the metal, reprefenting divers
figures; and, as in chafing, gold and filver is wrought
in relievo. There are two ways of damalking : the
one, which is the fineft, is when the metal is cut deep
with proper inftruments, and inlaid with gold and filver
wire : the other is fuperficial only.
DAMELOPRE, a kind of bilander, ufed in Hol¬
land for conveying merchandife from one canal to an¬
other ; being very commodious for palling under the
bridges.
DAMIANISTS, in church-hiftory, a branch of
the ancient acephali-feveritas. They agreed with the
catholics in admitting the Vlth council, but difowned
any diftindtion of perfons in the Godhead ; and pro-
feflbd one Angle nature, incapable of any difference :
yet they called God “ the Father, Son, and Holy
Ghoft.”
DAMIETTA, a port-town of Egypt, fituated on
the eaftern mouth of the river Nile, four miles from the
fea, and 100 miles north of Grand Cairo. E. Long.
32. and N. Lat. 31. The prefent town Hands upon
a different file from the ancient Damietta fo re¬
peatedly attacked by the European princes. The
latter, according to Abulfeda, was a “ town fur-
rounded by walls, and fituated at the mouth of the
eaftern branch of the Nile.” Stephen of Byzantium
informs us, that it w'as called Thamiatis under the go¬
vernment of the Greeks of the lower empire, but that
it was then very inconfiderable. It increafed in im¬
portance every day, in proportion as Pelufium, which
was frequently plundered, loft; its power. The total
ruin of that ancient town occafioned the commerce of
the eaftern parts of the Delta to be transferred to Da¬
mietta. It was, however, no longer a place of ftrength,
when, towards the year 238 of the Hegira, the em¬
perors of Conflantinople took poffeffion of it a fecond
time. The importance of a harbour fo favourably fitu¬
ated opened the eyes of the caliphs. In the.year 244
of the Hegira^Eimetouakkel furrounded it withftrong
walls. This obftacle did not prevent Roger king of Damietu.
Sicily from taking it from the Mahometans in the year v—
550 of the Hegira. He did not, however, long en¬
joy his conquefl. Salah Eddin, who about that period
mounted the throne of Egypt, expelled the Europeans
from Damietta. Fifteen years after they returned to
befiege it; but this able fultan baffled all their efforts.
Notwithftanding their land army was fupported by a
fleet of 1 200 fail, they were obliged to make a dif-
graceful retreat.
It was the fate of this place to be conflantly be*
fieged. In the year 615 of the Hegira, under the
reign of Eladel, the crufaders attacked it with a very
confiderable force. They landed on the weftern fhore
of the Nile ; and their firft care was to furround their
camp'with a ditch and pallifado. The mouth of the
river was defended by two towers, furnifhed with nu¬
merous garrifons. An enormous iron chain, ftretch-
ing from one fide to the other, hindered the approach
of vefftls. The crufaders carried by ftorm the tower
on the fame fide with their camp, broke the chain,
and opened the entrance of the river for their fleet.
Nejm Eddin, the fultan’s fon, who was encamped near
Damietta, covered it with an army. To flop the ene¬
mies veffels he threw a bridge over the Nile. The
Franks overturned it, and the ptince adopted the mea-
fure of choking up the mouth of the river, which he
almoft rendered impaffable by feveral large boats he funk
there. After alternate and various fucceffes, many
bloody battles, and a fiege of 17 months, the Chriftian
princes took Damietta by ftorm. They did not, how¬
ever, long enjoy the fruit of fo much blood fpilt, and of
an arrftament which had coft immenfe fums. Completely
invefted near the canal of Achmoun, by the waters of
the Nile and by the Egyptian army, they purchafed
their lives and their liberty by the facrifice of their
conqueft.
One-andsthirty years after this defeat St Louis car¬
ried Damietta without linking a llroke. The Arabs,,
however, foon recovered it; but, tired of keeping a
place which continually drew upon them the moll
warlike nations of Europe, they totally deftroyed
it, and rebuilt it further up in the country. This
modern Damietta, firft called Menchie, as Abulfeda
tells us, has preferved the memory of its origin in
a fquare Hill called by that name. Writers in ge¬
neral have confounded thefe two towns, aferibing to
the one t.he attributes of the other. The modern
Damietta is rounded in a femicircle on the eaftern
bank of the Nile, two leagues and a half from the
mouth of it. The eye, placed at one of the ex¬
tremities of the crefcent, takes in its whole extent.
It ;is reckoned to contain 80,000 fouls. It has fe¬
veral fquares, the moll confiderable of which has re¬
tained the name o$ Menchie. The bazars are filled with
merchants. Spacious okals, or khans, colledling under
their porticos the Huffs of India, the filks of mount
Lebanoa, fal-ammoniac, and pyramids, of rice, pro¬
claim that it is a commercial town. The houfes, thofe
in particular which are on the banks of the river, are
very lofty. They have in general handfome falcons
built on the top of their terraces, which are cheerful,
belvideres, open to every wind, where the Turk, effe¬
minately reclining on a fopha, paffes his life in fmo-
kingr-
:d am I 6
Dan'.ietta. king, in looking on the fea, which hounds the hori-
*“—y—— 2on on one iide, on the great lake that extends itfelf
on' the other, 'and on the Nile, which, running be¬
tween them, tra^erfes a rich country. Several large
mofques, adorned with lofty minarets, are difperled
-over the town. The public baths, lined with marble,
are diilributed in the fame manner as thofe of Grand
Cairo. The linen you are ferved with is clean, and
the water very pure. The heat and the treatment in
them, fo far from injuring the health, ferve tqstrength¬
en, nay even to improve it, if uftd with moderation.
This cuftom, founded on experience, is general in
Egypt-
The port of Damietta is continually filled with a
multitude of boats and fmall veffcls. Thofe called
Scherm ferve to convey the merchandize on board the
(hips in the road, and to unload them ; the others har¬
ry on the coafting trade. This town carries on a great
trade with Syria, with Cyprus, and Marfeilles. The
rice called Mexelaoui, of the fined quality there is in
Egypt, is cultivated in the neighbouring plains. The
exports of it amount annually to about fix millions of
livres. The other articles of the produce of the coun¬
try are linens, fal-ammoniac, corn, &c. A ruinous
policy for the country prohibits the exportation of this
laft article ; but the law is evaded, and it paffes under
the name of rice.
The Chriftians of Aleppo and Damafcus, fettled in
this town, have for feveral ages carried on its principal
qommerce. Turkifh indolence, content with extort¬
ing from them from time to time, differs them to be¬
come rich. The exportation of rice to foreign coun¬
tries is prohibited ; but by>means of feme douceurs to
the cuftomhoufe officers, the people of Provence load
annually feveral fhips with it. The Bogaz preventing
them from entering the Nile, their cargoes are con¬
veyed on board by the boats of the country. This in¬
convenience is thefource of endleis vexation and abufts.
The boat, which is loaded in the evening with rice of
the firft quality, is frequently not that which arrives at
the /hip ; an'inferior quality is fubflituted for it during
the night. The Marfeilles captains, aware of thele
, rogueries, without being able to prevent them, endea¬
vour to play off trick againfi trick, fo that this com¬
merce has become a general feene of knavery. But
the badnefs of the port is dill more detrimental to Da¬
mietta. The road where the veffels he being expoied
to every wind, the flighted gale obliges the captains
to cut their cables and take fhelter at Cyprus, or to
itand off to fea. It would be eafy, by cutting a canal
only of half a league, to open a paffage for Ihips into
the Nile, where there is deep water. This work,
which might be executed aj very little expence, would
render Damietta a noble harbour; but defpotifm, ift-
fenfible to the interell of the people, is always fur-
rounded by deltruftion in its progrefs, and wants both
the will and the power to create.
The tongue of land on which Damietta is fituated,
ftraitened on one fide by the river, and on the other
by the wedern extremity of lake Menvale, is only from
two to fix miles wide from ead to wed. It is inter¬
fered by innumerable rivulets in every direftion, which
render it the mod fertile fpot in Egypt. The foil
there produces, communlbut annis, 80 bufhds of rice for
5
;4 ] DAM
one. The other produce is in thd fame proportion.
It is there that nature, lavifhing profufel) her pomp Damocbs. hi
and riches, prefents flowers, fruits, and harvefts, at j
every feafon of the year. Winter never deprives it of
thefe advantages ; its beauties are never impaired by
fummer. Ddlru&ive heats, as well as chilling colds,
are equally unknown in that happy fpot. The ther¬
mometer varies only from 9 to 24 degrees above the
freezing point. Damietta is indebted for this charm¬
ing temperature to the immenfe quantity of water
with which it is furrounded. The verdure is no
where fo frdh ; the trees are no where covered ,
with fuch quantities of fruit. The rivulets around
the fields of rice are lined with feveral kinds of
reeds, fome of which rife, to a great height. The
reed calamus is here found in abundance, which is
made ule of for writing by the orientals. Its (len¬
der (talk bears long narrow leaves, which hang grace-
fully, and fpreading branches covered with white flow¬
ers. Here alfo are to be feen foreits of papyrus, of
which the ancient Egyptians made their paper. Strabo,
who calls itB'ddus, gives an accurate deicription of it. It
is here alfo that the Lotus, of which the Arabs have
prefervrd the priu.itive name of Nuphar, exalts its
lofty (talk above the waters. Its large calyx blows ei¬
ther of an azure blue or of a brilliant white, and it
appears with the majefty of the king of the aquatic
plants. The marfhes and the canals in the interior
parts of the country are filled with this fuperb flower,
which diffufes a moll agreeable odour.
There are a great many villages around Damietta,
in moft of which are manufactures where the molt
beautiful linens of the country are fabricated. The
fined napkins in particular are made there, fringed
with (ilk. You are ferved at table with them, but
efpecially on ceremonial vifits, when the flave prefents
you with one to wipe your mouth w ith, after you have
drank your fherbet, or eat the fweetmeats, which are
CH;ried round on a lilver plate to all the company.
Tilde fmall towms, generally furrounded with little
woods, or trees promifeuoufly planted, foirn a whhn-
fical and pisSturefque affemblage. By the fide of the
fycamore and the melancholy tamarind, one fees the
elegant caffia tree, with its clutters of yellow flowers,
like thofe of the cytifus. The top of the date-tree,
loaded with enormous bundles, riles above the grove.
The caffia, with its fwcet-fcented flower, grows under
its (bade. The orange and lemon trees cover the la¬
bourers cabin with their golden fruit. The banana-
tree with its long leaves, the pomegranate with its
tcarlet flower, and the fig-tree with its. fugary fruit,
throw a vail variety into thefe landfcapes.
DAMNII, anciently a people of Britain ; fituated
between the Selgovae to the fouth and the Caledonii
to the north. Now Clydefdale.
DAMNONII. SecDANMONii.
DAMOCLES, one of the flatterers of Dionyfius
the Eider of Sicily. He admired the tyt ant’s wealth,
and pronounced him the happielt man on earth. Dio¬
nyfius prevailed upon him to undertake for a while the
charge of royalty, and be convinced of the happinefs
which a fovereign enjoyed. Damocles afeended the
throne, and while he gazed upon the wealth and fplen*
dor that funounded him, he perceived a fword hang-
DAM [ 655 1 D A M
j'ng over his head by a horfe hair. This fo terrified
him that all his imaginary felicity vanilhed at onee, and
he begged Dionyfius to remove him from a fituation
which expofed his life to fuch fears and dangers.
DAMON, the name of feveral illuilrious ancients ;
particularly of a Pythagorean philofopher very inti¬
mate with Pythias. When he had been condemned to
death by Dionyfius, he obtained from the tyrant leave
to go and fettle his domeftic affairs, on promife of re¬
turning at a ftated hour to the place of execution.
Pythias pledged himfelf to undergo the punifhment
which was to be inflifted on Damon, ffrould he not re¬
turn in time, and- he confequently delivered himfelf
into the hands of the tyrant. Damon returned at the
appointed moment, and Dionyfius was fo Itruck with
the fidelity of thofe two friends, that he remitted the
punifhment, and intreated them to permit him to fhare
their friendfhip and enjoy their confidence.
DAMPIER (William), a famous navigator, de-
fcended from a good family in Somerfetfhire in Eng¬
land, was born in 1652. Lofing his father when very
young, he was fent to the fea, where he foon diftiuguiffi-
ed himfelf, particularly in the South Sea. His voyage
round, the world is well known, and has gone through
many editions. He appears afterward to have enga¬
ged in an expedition concerted by the merchants of
Briftol to the South Sea, commanded by Captain
Woods Rogers; who failed in Auguff 1708, and re¬
turned in September 17x1 : but we have no further
particulars of his life or death.
DAMPS, in natural hiftory (from the Saxon word
damp, fignifying vapour or exhalation), are certain
noxious exhalations ifi’uing from fome parts of the
earth, and which prove almoft inftantly fatal to thofe
who breathe them.
Thefe damps arc chiefly obferved in mines and coal¬
pits : though vapours of the fame kind often iffue from
old lavas of burning mountains ; and, in thofe countries
where volcanoes are common, will frequently enter
houfes, and kill people fnddenly without the leafl warn¬
ing of their approach. In mines and coal-pits they
are chiefly of two kinds, called by the miners and col¬
liers the choke and Jire damps ; and both go under one
general name of foul air. The chohe damp is very
much of the nature of fixed air ; and ufually infefts thofe
places which have beeij formerly’ worked, but long
mglefted, and are known to the miners by the name
of wafies. No place, however, can be reckoned fafe
from this kind of damps, except where there is a due
circulation of air ; and the procuring of this is the only
proper means of preventing accidents from damps of all
It inds. The choke-damp fuffbeates the miners fuddenly,
with all the appearances found in thofe that are fuflb-
cated by fixed air. Being heavy, it defeends towards
the lowefl parts of the workings, and thus is danger¬
ous to the miners, who can fcarce avoid breathing it.
The fire-damp, which feems chiefly to be compofed of
inflammable air, rifes to the roof of the workings, as
being fpecifically lighter than the common atmofphere ;
and hence, though it will fuftbeate as well as the o-
ther, it feldom proves fo dangerous in this way as by
its inflammable property, by which it often takes fire
at the candles, and explodes with extreme violence.
In the Phil. Tranf. n° 119. there is an account of
fome explofions by damps of this kind, nu which we
have the following obfervations. 1. Thofe who are in
the place where the vapour is fired, fuddenly find them-
felves furrounded with flames, but hear little or no
noife ; though thofe who are in places adjacent, or a-
bove ground, hear a very great one. 2. Thofe who
are furrounded by the inflamed vapour feel themfelves
fcorched or burnt, but are not moved out of their
places, though fuch as unhappily hand in the way of
it are commonly killed by the violence of the Ihock,
and often thrown with great force out at the mouth of
the pit ; nor are the heavidt machines found able to re-
f,-'_ the impetuofity of the blaft. 3. No fmell is perceived
before the fire, but a very ftrong one of brimftone is
afterwards felt. 4. The vapour lies towards the roof,
and is not perceived if the candles are held low ; but
when thefe are held higher, the damp defeends like a
black mift, and catches hold of the flame, lengthening
it to two or three Jiandfuls ; and this appearance ceafes
when the candles are held nearer the ground. 5. The
flame continues in the vault for feveral minutes after
the crack. 6. Its colour is blue, lomething inclining
to green, and very bright. 7. On the explofion of the
vapour, a dark fmoke like that proceeding from fired
gunpowder is perceived. 8. Damps are generally ob¬
ferved to come about the latter end of May, and to
continue during the heat of fummer. They return fe¬
veral times during the fuxnmer feafon, but obferve no
certain rule.
Befides thefe kinds of damps, which are very com¬
mon, we find others deferibed in the Philofophical
Tranfaclions, eoncerning the nature of which we can
fay nothing. Indeed the account feems fomewhat fu-
fpicious. They are given by Mr Jeflbp, from whom
we have the foregoing obfervations concerning the fire¬
damp, and who had thefe from the miners in Derbv-
fhire. After deferibing the common damp, which
confifts of fixed air, “ They call the fecond fort (fays
he) the peafe-bloom damp, beraufe, as they fay, it firuils
like peaft bloom. They tell me it always comes in the
fummer-time; and thofe grooves are not free winch
are never' troubled with any other fort of damps. I
never heard that it was mortal; the feent, perhaps,
freeing them from the danger of a furprift : but by
reafon of it many good grooves lie idle at the bell and
moft profitable time of the year, when the fubterratiy-
ous waters are the loweft. They fancy it proceeds fiom
the multitude of red-trefoil flowers, by them called -
neyfuckies, with which the limeitone meadows in the
Peake do much abound. The third is the ftrangeft and
moft peftilential of any; if all be true which is faid con¬
cerning it. Thofe who pretend to have feen it (for it
is vifible) deferibe it thus: In the higheft part of the
roof of thofe paffages which branch out from the main
groove, they often fee a round thing hanging, about
the bignefs of a foot-ball, covered with a Ikin of the
thicknefs and colour of a cob-web. This, they fay, if it
is broke by any accident, as the fplinter of a ftone, or
the like, difperfeth itfelf immediately, and fuffbeates
all the company. Therefore, to prevent cafualties as,
foon as they have efpied it, they have a way, by the
help of a flick and long rope, of breaking it at a di-
ftance ; which done, they purify the place well with
fire, before they ckre enter it again. I dare not a-
■vouch
DAM [ 656 5 DAM
Damps, vouch the truth of this ftory in all its circumftances,
becaufe the proof of it feems impoffible, fince they fay
it kills all that are likely to bear witnefs to the parti¬
culars : neither dare I deny but fuch a thing may
have been feen hanging on the roof, fxnce I have heard
many affirm it.”—Some damps, feemingly of the fame
nature with thofe laft mentioned, are noticed by the
author of the Chemical Dictionary, under the word
Damps. “ Amongft the noxious mineral exhalations
(fays he), we may place thofe which are found in the
mines of Sal-gem in Poland. Thefe frequently appear
in form of light flocks, threads, and fpiders webs. They
are remarkable for their property of fuddenly catching
fire at the lamps of the miners with a terrible noife
and explofion. They inftantly kill thofe whom they
touch. Similar vapours are found in fome mines of
foffil coal.”
With regard to the formation of damps we have as
yet no certain theory; nor, though the experiments
of aerologifls are abundantly able to fliow the compo-
fition and manner of forming thefe noxious airs arti¬
ficially, have they yet thrown much light on the me¬
thod by which nature prepares them on a large fcale.
There are two general ways in which we may fuppofe
this to be done ; one by the ftagnation of atmofpheri-
eal air in old wafte places of mines and coal-pits, and
its converfion into thefe mephitic exhalations ; the
other by their original formation from the phlogiftic
or other materials found in the earth, without any in¬
terference of the atmofphere. In favour of the for¬
mer opinion it may be urged, that old waftes are ne¬
ver free from damps, efpecially thofe of the kind re-
fembling fixed air ; nor are they always deficient in
the inflammable kind. The fame is alfo true of old
wells, or even cellars, and in fhort in every place
where the air flagnates for any confiderable time. But,
on the other hand, we have many inftances of fixed
air coming out of the earth, and that in vaft quanti¬
ties, where no confiderable ftagnation of the atmo¬
fphere could be fufpefted ; as for inftance, in the grot¬
to del Cani in Italy, where a continual ftream of it has
iffued from time immemorial. The fame feems to be
1 the cafe with the tops of fome high mountains, parti¬
cularly Mont Blanc, the higheft in Europe ; on the
top of which M. Sauflure found the atmofpherc fo
much impregnated wuth fixed air, that lime-water ex-
pofed to it very quickly gathered a cruft on itsfurface.
Sir William Hamilton, in his account of the eruptions
of Vefuvius, informs us, that the inhabitants in the
neighbourhood of that mountain are infefted with a
kind of peftilential vapours named by them mofctes,
which iffue from the old lavas thrown out by the vol¬
cano. Thefe are of the nature of the damps in our
mines or coal-pits, and ilfue forth in fuch quantity as
■either to infeft the atmofphere for a very confiderable
way round, or to do mifchief by being carried from
place to place by the atmofpherical currents, which
are not ftrong enough to diffipate them for fome time.
From fome late accounts, the fcmid (or' fcorching
winds, as they have been reprefented) in the eaitern
countries, feem to be no other than ftreams of fixed
air of confiderable extent, which exert their ufual and
fatal effefts on tbofe who breathe them. A ftrong ar¬
gument in favour of this opinion is, that thtfc winds
N° 97.
cannot crofs a river, it being the nature of water to Damps,
abforb fixed air, and thus deftroy them. J
Hence it is rendered probable that thefe mephitic
vapours are often to be met with in the open atmo¬
fphere, and confequently cannot always be the effeft
of ftagnation ; nor indeed does it at all appear that
mere ftagnation can affedf the quality of the atmo¬
fphere either one way or other. This fluid cannot
have its properties altered but by fomething immerfed
in it upon which it can adt, and by means of which
a&ion its component parts may be changed or fepa-
rated. While this procefs is going on, there is gene¬
rally, if not always, an abforption of air, accompanied
indeed frequently with an emiffion of fome aerial fluid
equal in quantity to that which is abforbed. Mr
Scheele, in his Eflay on Fire, has fliown by a number
of experiments the effeft of expofmg certain fubftan-
ces to the adtion of air, both on the fubftances them-
felves and on the aerial fluid. The refult of all thefe
is no other than what we might expeft from a very flow
combuftion, and which perhaps may on inquiry be
found to be the only way by which air can be decom-
pofed. If the fubftance expofed to the air was capa¬
ble of abforbing that part of the fluid which had un¬
dergone a change, there was always an evident dimi¬
nution, but not otherwife- Thus, on inclofing fome
cauftic fixed alkali in a phial of atmofpheric air, a con¬
fiderable diminution took place ; and the alkali, by be¬
coming faturated with fixed air, fliowed that a decom-
pofition had taken place, and that the dephlogifticated
part of the air had feparated from the other, attached
itfelf to the fixed alkali, and become fixed air by uni¬
ting with a certain proportion of phlogiftic matter.
Hence we may conceive, that in any place where the
air was confined over a vaft quantity of cauftic alkaline
fait, it would foon become unfit for the purpofes of
animal life, and we might fay that a damp would be
formed. But this would be a damp of a very differ¬
ent kind from that ufually met with in mines; for
here the dephlogifticated part of the atmofphere be¬
ing converted into fixed air, and abforbed by the fait,
only the poifonous mephitic, or as it is commonly
called phlogi/iicated, air would remain, fo that no fixed
air could ever be feparated from it.
Let us now fuppofe, that inftead of the alkaline
fait a quantity of burning charcoal is confined in a
place where there is not a proper circulation of air,
and we will foon fee that a damp of the very fame
kind with that called by miners the choke-damp
will be formed. But this, according to the late dif-
coveries, takes place by reafon of the diffipation of
the charcoal by heat, and its union with the dephlo¬
gifticated part of the atmofphere, which always con-
ftitutes fixed air *. In this cafe, however, the damp . See
muft be but of ftiort continuance, and will foon be logy and
diffipated after the charcoal is extinguiflied ; but if, in- fix:d Air.
Head of the charcoal, we fubftitute a large quantity
of fermenting liquor, from whence the fixed air is na¬
turally emitted, a damp will be formed much more
difficult to be diffipated than the former, becaufe it
renews itfelf in a very fhort time } and, unlefs there
is a very conftant circulation of air, it will be danger¬
ous to enter the place where it is.
From the1 lafl example we may form an idea of the
manner
Damp*.
DAM [ 657 ] DAM
manner in which thefe damps, confifting chiefly ef
fixed air, are formed. We know not indeed thorough-
ly the nature of fermentation ; but we are affured,
that it is always accompanied by an internal heat;
which, in fome cafes, is raifed to the utmoft height,
infomuch that large quantities of moitt vegetable fub-
ftances, packed together, will fometimes burft out into
flame. It is not, however, at all times neceffary for
the extrication of fixed air, that the heat (hould come
to this extremity. The example of fermenting liquors
Crows, that in fome cafes a very moderate heat is fuf-
ficient for the purpol'e. Now, though the compari-
fon may feem fomewhat inadequate between the folid
fubftance of the earth and a fermenting liquid, yet
we know that a gentle heat conftantly takes place in
the bowels of the earth ; and that almoft all terrellrial
fubftances will emit fixed air on being expofed to
heat. It is not at all improbable, therefore, that, on
the large fcale of nature, the quantity of materials may
compenfate for the weaknefs of the heat, and thus oc-
cafion a conftant emilfion of fixed air ; which, though
flow in comparifon of what is effected in our experi¬
ments by a violent artificial heat, may yet accumu¬
late in the narrow fpaces of mines in fuch a manner
as to be very troublefome. In volcanic countries,
where the heat of the earth is much greater, the emif-
fion of fixed air is in proportion ; and thus we may
account for that continual ftream of it, which iffues
from the grotto del Cani, and perhaps other places
The mofetes, which are faid to proceed from old lavas,
can only be accounted for by fuppofing the heat,
which originally took place in them, to be in fome
meafure renewed ; or that they have been again, by
fome means or other, difpofed to take fire as formerly:
but this we offer merely as a conjefture there not
being as yet fufficient data to determine any thing pp-
fitively upon the iubjedl.
It may be objefted to the hypothefis juft now laid
down, that, if there is a continual difpofition in the
earth to produce fixed,air, the whole furface of it muft
pour out fuch a quantity as would deftroy every living
creature upon it- This indeed might be granted,
were the furface of the earth quite bare, and deftitute
of vegetation : but we know that fixed air is compofed
of the dephlogifticated kind and phlogifton ; and that
thefe two ingredients, after being once joined, may
be feparated from each other, and reaffume their pro¬
per charafters. There is no abfurdity, therefore, in
fuppofing that the fixed air may be continually de-
compofed by the vegetables which grow all over the
furface of the earth ; and the atmofphere not only
thus prefervcd from any taint from it, but fupplied
with a quantity of pure dephlogifticated air, which
it is certain that vegetables do emit. It is alfo cer¬
tain, that wherever the atmofphere is fuffered to be
in contaft with the bare furface ef the ground for
fome time, a confiderable quantity of fixed air will
be produced, unlefs there is a conftant circulation
of atmofpherical air to carry off the former before it
has time to produce any fenfible effeft. Hence we
may account for the damps in wells, cellars, and even
in the confined places of old caftles and ruinous build¬
ings, where the air is not in contaft with the furface of
the ground itfelf, but with mere heaps of rubbiili and old
walls.
Vol.V. Part II,
With regard to what is called the fire damp, the
cafe feems to be more plain. In the Phil. Tranf. 'r~*“
n° 136, we have the following account of one of
this kind which feemed evidently to iffue from the
earth. “ This work is upon a coal of five yards in
thicknefs, and hath been begun upon about fix or
eight and thirty years ago. When it was firft found,
it was extremely full of water, fo that it could-not be
wrought down to the bottom of the coal; but a luitchet^
or cave, was driven out of the middle of it, upon a le¬
vel, for gaining room to work, and drawing down the
fpving of water that lies in the coal to the eye of the
pit In driving of which wkchet, after they had gone
a confiderable way under ground, and were fcanted of
wind, the fire-damps did begin by little and little to
breed, and to appear in crevices and flits of the coal,
where water had lain before the opening of the coalj,
with a fmall bluifti flame, working and moving conti¬
nually ; but not out of its firft feat, unlefs the work¬
men held their candles to it; and then being weak*
the blaze of the candle would drive it with a fuddea
fizz away to another crevice, where it would foon af¬
ter appear blazing and moving as formerly. This wa*
the firft knowledge of it in this work, which the work¬
men made but a fport of; and fo partly neglefted, till
it had gotten fome ftrength ; and then upon a morning,
the fir ft collier that went down, going forwards in the
witchet with his candle in his hand, the damp pre-
fently darted out fo violently at his candle, that it ftruck
the man clear down, iinged all his hair and clothes, and
difabled him from working for a while after. Some
other fmall warnings it gave them, infomuch that thef
refolved to employ a man on purpofe that was more re-
folute than the re::, to go down a while before them
every morning, to chafe it from place to'place, and fo
to weaken it. His ufual manner was to put on the
word rags he had, and to wet them all in water, and
when he came within the danger of it, then he fell
down groveling upon his belly, and fo went forward,
holding in one hand a long wand or pole, at the head
whereof he tie-d candles burning, and reached them by
degrees towards it; then the damp would fly at them,
and if it miffed of putting them out, would quench it¬
felf with a blaft, and leave an ill-fcented fmoke behind.
Thus they dealt with it till they had wrought the coal
down to the bottom, and the water following, and not
remaining as before in the body of it, among fulphu-
feous and brafly metal that is in fome veins of the
-coal, the fire-damp was not feen nor heard of till the
latter end of the year 1675, which happened as fol-
loweth.
“ After long working of this coal, it was found up¬
on the rifing grounds that there lay another roach of
coal at the depth of 14 yards under it, which proved
to be 34yards thick, and fomething more fulphureous.
This encouraged us to fink in- one of the pits we had
formerly ufed on the five-yards coal.—As we funk the
lower part of it, we had many appearances of the fire¬
damp in the watery creviees of the rocks we funk
through, flafhing and darting from fide to fide of the
pit, and fhowing rainbow-like colours upon the furface
of the water in the bottom ; but upon drawing up of
the water with buckets, which ftirred the air in lire pit,
it would leave burning, till the colliers at. work, with
-their breath-and fweat, and the fmoke of their candles,
4 Q thickened
DAM [ 658 ] DAM
thickened the air in the pit, and then it would appear
again ; they lighted their candles at it fometimes when
they went out; and fo in this pit it did no further
harm.,,
In another pit, however, it foon appeared, and atlaft
produced a moft terrible explofion. This was occa-
ixoned by one of the workmen going imprudently down
with a lighted candle, after a cefiation of work for fome
days, and the force exerted by it feemed equal to that
of gun-powder.
The formation of inflammable air in mines cannot
be attributed to any vitiation of the atmofphere ; for
there is no natural procefs with which we are ac¬
quainted, by which fuch a change could be accom-
plifhed. In one inftance, however, we have an ex¬
ample of a fire-damp being produced, not only with¬
out any confiderable ftagnation of atmofpherical air,
but where there is the belt circulation imaginable.
This is in large bellows ufed in metallurgic works,
which are fometimes burft by an explofion of inflam¬
mable matter proceeding from the rancid matters
with which the leather is greafed. Dr Prieftley has
fhown, that inflammable air is compofed of pure ele¬
mentary fire, charcoal or phlogifton, and a little wa¬
ter; and that this compofition may take place even
in vacuo. All thefe materials are to be met with in
the bowels of the earth. Coal, a bituminous fub'ilance,
is abundantly able to fupply the phlogifton; the na¬
tural moifture of the earth affords water, and the
heat, however gentle, which conftantly exifts in the
bowels of the earth, may be fufficient to produce a
quantity of inflammable air, which gradually accumu¬
lating in thofe places where there is not a conftant
ftream of atmofpherical air to carry it off, will foon
produce the dreadful effects already mentioned. .
A much more important confideration than the
formation of damps, however, is the proper method of
avoiding their pernicious effects. The inflammabi¬
lity of one kind afford%an eafy method of preventing
it from accumulating, viz. by fetting fire to it. This
may be done with fafety, unlefs it has been fuffered to
go too far before the experiment is made: for the in¬
flammable air, being much lighter than any other
kind,will naturally rife to the top; fo that a man, ly¬
ing flat on the ground to avoid the force of the ex-
plofion, and holding up a lighted candle fixed upon a
pole, may at once free the mine from fuch a trouble-
fome gueft. But where it has been allowed to ac¬
cumulate in too great quantity, fo that this method
cannot be ufedj or in the other kind, which is not in¬
flammable, the method commonly praCtifed is to pro¬
duce a conftant circulation of air as much as poffible
through all parts of the mine. To procure this, they
make a perpendicular opening,' which they call a Jhank
or fiaft, fo that the mine may have two or more
openings; and thus by reafon of the difference of tem¬
perature between the open atmofphere and that in the
mine, there is a continual draught of air through
them both, This current will always be ftronger in
proportion to the difference between the external at¬
mofphere and th^t of the mine ; and likewife in pro¬
portion to the difference between the depth of the two
(hafts. But as the temperature of the atmofphere is
variable, it happ'ens, at certain feafons of the year,
that there is not a fufEcient difference between that
of the atmofphere and in the mine to produce the ne- Damfd
ceffary circulation. This happens principally in the
fpring and autumn ; at which feafons it is neceffary to ■ anae’
light fires in the drafts, which are always efficacious fer
the purpofe defired.
Among the other ufes to which dephlogifticated air,
might be applied, Mr Cavallo reckons that of fccuring
people from the dangerous effe&s of damps in mines,
and other fubterraneous places. “ If a large blad¬
der,” fays he, “ into which a folution of lime in wa¬
ter is introduced, be filled with dephlogifticated air,
and a fmall wooden or glafs pipe be adapted to its
neck, a man may hold that pipe in his mouth, and
iftay breathe the dephlogifticated air; and thus equip¬
ped he may enter into thefe fubterranean places,
amidft the various elaftic fluids contained in them.
A large bladder of dephlogifticated air will ferve
for above a quarter of an hour, which is a length of
time fufficient for various purpofes; befides, if longer
time is required to be fpent in thefe places, a per-
fon may have two or more bladders of dephlogifticated
air along with him, and may fhift as foon as the air of
one is contaminated. Without the neceffity of any
more complicated apparatus, the bladders full of de¬
phlogifticated air may be kept ftopped by putting corks
into the glafs or wooden pipes that are tied to their
necks. This air might alfo be ufed for diving-bells.” <
DAMSEL, from the French damoifel or damoifeau,
an appellation anciently given to all young people of
either fex, that were of noble or genteel extradiion, as
the fons and daughters of princes, knights, and barons:
thus we read of Damfel Pepin, Damfel Louis le Gros,
Damfel Richard prince of Wales.
From the fdns of kings this appellation firft paffed
to thofe of great lords and barons, and at length to
thofe of gentlemen who were not yet knights.
At prefent damfel is applied to all maids or girls not
yet married, provided they be not of the vulgar.
DAN, or Jor-dan, which laft literally denotes “ the
x-iver Dan;” fo named from the people where it has
its fource, which is a lake called Phial a, from its round
figure, to the north of its apparent rifing from the
mountain Panium or Paneum, as was difcovered by
Philip, Tetrarch of Trachonites ; for on throwing light
bodies into the Phiala, he found them to emerge again
at Paneum (Jofephus). Frpm Paneum it runs in a
diredt courfe to a lake called Samachonites ; as far as
which it is called 'Jordan the Lefs ; and thence to the
lake Genefareth, or of Tibex-ias, where it comes in-
creafed by the lake Samachonitis and its fprings, and
is called the Greater Jordan; continuing its diredt
courfe fouthwards, till it falls into the Afphaltites.
Dan (anc. geog.), a town to the weft of the fource
of the Jordan ; formerly called Lais (Jofliua, Judges,
Jofephus). This was the north, as Beerftieba was the
fouth, boundary of the Ifraelites; as appears from the
common expreffion in Scripture, from Dan to Beerjhe-
la. At Dan Jeroboam eredted one of the golden
calves (1 Kings xii.).
Dan, the tribe, extended itfelf weftward of Judah,
and was terminated by Azotus and Dora on the Medi¬
terranean (Jofepkus).
D ANAE, in antiquity, a coin fomewhat more than
an obolus, ufed to be put into the mouths of the dead,
to pay their paffage over the river Acheron.
Danae*.
DAN
[ 659 1
DAN
Danae, in fabulous hiftory, was the daughter of A- nor king of Argos. Gelanor had lately afcended the
crifius king of Argos, by Eurydice. She was confined throne, and the fir ft years of his reign were marked
in a brazen tower by her father, who had been told by with diiTenfions with his fubjeds. Danaus took ad-
an oracle that his daughter’s fon would put him to death, vantage of Gelanor’s unpopularity, and obliged him to
His endeavours to prevent Danae from becoming a mo- 1   r„   r , T ...
ther proved fruitlefs ; and Jupiter, who was enamoured
of her, introduced hirofelf to her bed by changing him-
felf into a golden fiiower. From his embraces Danae
leave the crown. In Gelanor, the race of the Inachidse
was extinguiflied, and the Bolides began to reign at
Argos in Danaus. Some authors fay, that Gelanor
voluntarily refigned the crown to Danaif?, on account
had a fon, with whom fhe was expofed on the fea by of the wrath of Neptune, who had dried up all the
her father. The wind drove the bark which carried her waters of Argolus, to punifh the impiety of Inachus.
to the coafts of the ifland of Seriphus; where the was The fuccefs of Danaus invited the fifty fons of zEgyp-
faved by fome fifhermen, and carried to Polydedtes tus to embark for Greece. They were kindly re¬
king of the place, whofe brother, callededu- ceived by their uncle; who, either apprehenfive of their
cated the child called Perfeus''And. tenderly treated the  -'c-J 1— —1 L: 1 ’
mother. Polydectes fell in love with her ; but as he
was afraid of her fon, he fent him to conquer the
number, or terrified by an oracle which threatened his
ruin by one of his fons-in-law, caufed his daughters, t o
whom they were promifed in marriage, to murder them
Gorgons, pretending that he wiflied Medufa’s head to the firft night of their nuptials. His orders were executed.
adorn the nuptials which he wa$ going to celebrate
with Hippodamia the daughter of Qinomaus. When
Perfeus had viftorioufly finiihed his expedition, he re¬
tired to Argos with Danae to the houfe of Acrifius,
whom he inadvertently killed. Some fuppofe that it
was Proetus the' brother of Acrifius who introduced
Hypermneftra alone fpared the life of Lynceus: (See
Danaides). Danaus at firft perfecuted Lynceus with
unremitted fury ; but he was afterwards reconciled to
him, and he acknowledged him for his fon-in-law and
fucceffor after a reign of 50 years. He began his reign
about 1586 years before the Chriftian era; and after
himfelf to Danae in the brazen tower; and inftead of death he was honoured with a fplendid monument in
a golden fiiower, it was maintained that the keepi
of Danae were bribed by the gold of her feducer.
the town of Argos, which ftill exifted in the age of
Paufanias. According to iEfchylus, Danaus left E-
Virgil mentions that Danae came to Italy with fome gypt» not to be prefent at the marriage of his daugh-
fugilives of Argos, and that (he founded a city called
Arch a.
DANAIDES (fab. hift.), the fifty daughters of Da¬
naus king of Argos. When their uncle VEgyptus came
ters with the fons of his brother, a connexion winch
he deemed unlawful and impious.
DANCE, or Dancing, as at prefent praftifed, may
be defined, “ an agreeable motion of the body, ad-
from Egypt with his fifty fons,, they were promifed in jutted by , art to the meafures or tune of inftruments,
marriage to their coufins; and before the celebration of or of the voice.”—But, according to what fome
their nuptials, Danaus, who had been informed by an reckon more agreeable to the true genius of the
oracle that he was to be killed by the hands of one of art, dancing is “ the art of expreffing the fentiments
his fons-in-law, made his daughters folemnly promife of the mind, or the paffions, by meafured fteps or
that they would deftroy their hulbands. They were bounds that are made in cadence by regulated motions
provided with daggers by their father; and all except of the body, and by graceful geftures ; all performed
Hypermneftra ftained their hands with the blood of to the found of mufical inftruments or of the voice.”
their coufins the firft night of their nuptials; and as
a pledge of their obedience to their father’s injunc¬
tions, they prefented him each with the head of the
murdered fons of JEgyptus. Hypermneftra was fum-
moned to appear before her father, and anfwer for her
difobedience in fuffering her hulband Lynceus to efcape;
but the unanimous voice of the people declared her
innocent, and file dedicated a temple to the geddefs of
Perfuafion. The fillers were purified of this murder
by Mercury and Minerva by order of Jupiter ; but
according to the more received opinion, they were
condemned to fevere punilhment in hell, and were
compelled to fill with water a velfel full of holes, fo that
the water ran out as foon as poured into it; and
therefore their labour was infinite, and their punilhment
eternal. The heads of the fons of JEgyptus were bu¬
ried at Argos; but their bodies were left at Lerna,
where the murder had been committed.
DANAUS (fab.hift.), afon of Belus and Anchinoe,
who after his father death reigned conjointly with his
brother .fltgyptus on the throne of Egypt. Some time
after, a difference arofe between the brothers, and Da¬
naus fet fail with his fifty daughters in quell of a fet-
tlement. He vifited Rhodes, where he confecrated a
ftatue to Minerva, and arrived fafe ©n the coaft of Pe-
loponnefus, where he was hofpitably received by Gela-
There is no account of the origin of the practice
of dancing among mankind. It is found to exift
among all nations whatever, even the moll rude and
barbarous ; and, indeed, however much the alfiftance
of art may be neceffary to make any one perfedl in th«
practice, the foundation mull certainly lie in the me-
chanifm of the human body itfelf.
The connection that there is between certain founds
and thofe motions of the human body called dancing,
hath feldom or never been inquired into by philofo-
phers, though it,is certainly a very curious fpeculation.
The power of certain founds not only over the human
fpecies, but even over the inanimate creation, is indeed’
very furprifing. It is well known, that the moll folid
walls, nay the ground itfelf, will be found to lhake at
fome particular notes in mufic. This ftrongly indi¬
cates the prefence of fome univerfally diffufed and ex¬
ceedingly elaftic fluid, which is thrown into vibrations
by the concuflions of the atmofphere upon it, produced
by the motion of the founding body.—If thefe con¬
cuflions are fo ftrong as to make the large quantity of
elaftic fluid vibrate that is difperfed through a Hone
wall or a confiderable portion of earth, it is no won¬
der they Ihould have the fame effetl upon that invifible
and exceedingly fubtile matter that pervades and feems
to refide in our nerves.
4 O 2
Some
DAN [ 660 1 DAN
Some there are that have their nerves conftru&ed
in fuch a manner, that they cannot be affecfced by the
founds which affeft others, and feme fcarce with any,
while others have fitch an irritability of the nerves in
this cafe, that they cannot, without the greateft diffi¬
culty, fit or Hand ftill when they hear a favourite piece
of mufic played.
It is conjectured by very eminent philofophers, that
all the fenfations and paffions to which we are fubjeft
<Jo immediately depend upon the vibrations excited in
the nervous fluid above mentioned. Hence, mufical
founds have the greateft power over thofe people who are
of a delicate fenfible frame, and who have flrong paffions.
If it be true, therefore, that .every paffion in the hu¬
man nature immediately depends upon a certain affec¬
tion of the nervous fyftem, or a certain motion or
vibration in the nervous fluid, we fhall immediately fee
the origin of the different dances among different na¬
tions. One kind of vibration, for inftanee, raifes the
paffions of anger, pride, &e. which are indifpenfably
neceffary in warlike nations. The founds, for fuch
there are, capable of exciting a fimilar vibration, would
naturally conllitute the martial mufic among fuch na¬
tions, and dances conformable to it \Vould be in (Hin¬
ted. This appears to be the cafe particularly among
barbarous nations, as we fhall prefently have occafion
to remark. Other vibrations of the nervous fluid
produce the paffions of joy, love, &c.; and founds
capable of exciting thefe particular vibrations will
immediately be formed into mufic for dances of an¬
other kind.
As barbarous people are obferved to have the flrong-
®ft paffions, fo they are alfo obferved to be the moft
eafily affe&ed by founds, and the moft addidted to dan¬
cing. Sounds to us the moft difagreeable, the drum¬
ming with flicks upon an empty cafk, or the noife made
by blowing into reeds incapable of yielding one mufi¬
cal note tolerable to us, is agreeable mufic to them.
Much more are they affedted by the found of inftru-
ments which have any thing agreeable in them. Mr
Gallini informs us, that “ The fpirit of dancing pre¬
vails almoft beyond imagination among both men and
women in moft parts of Africa. It is even more than
inftindl, it is a rage, in fame countries of that part of
the globe.—Upon the gold coaft efpecially, the inha¬
bitants are fo paffionately fond of it, that in the midft
©f their hardeft labour, if they hear a perfon ling, or
any mufical inftrument played, they cannot refrain from
dancing.—There are even well attefted ffiories of feme
segroes flinging themfelves at the feet of an European
playing on a fiddle, intreating Kirn^to defift, unlefs he
bad a mind to tire them to death ; it being impoffible
for them to ceafe dancing while he continued playing.”
•—The fame thing is found to take place in America,
though, as the inhabitants of that continent are found
to be of a more fierce and barbarous nature than the
African nations, their dances are ftill more uncouth
and barbarous than thofe of the negroes. “ In Mexi¬
co, fays Gallini, they have alfo their dances and mu¬
fic, but in the moft uncouth and barbarous ftyle. For
their fymphony they have wooden drums, fomething
in form of a kettle-drum, with a kind of pipe or fla-
gellet, made of a hollow cane or reed, but very gra¬
ting to an European ear. It is obferved they love every
thing that makes a noife,. how difagreeable foever the
found is. They will alfo hum over fomething like a Dane*,
tune when they dance 30 or 40 in a circle, ftretching —y-*-»
out their hands, and laying them on each others fhoul-
ders. They ftamp and jump, and ufe the moft antic
geftures for feveral hours, till they are heartily weary.
And-one or two of the company fometimes ftep out
of the ring to make fport for the reft, by ffiowing feat*
of activity, throwing their lances up into the air,
catching them again, bending backwards, and fpring*
ing forwards with great agility.”
The origin of dancing among the Greeks was moft
certainly the fame as among all -other nations ; but av-
they proceeded a certain length in civilization, their
dances were of cpnfequence more regular and agree¬
able than thofe of the more barbarous nations. They
reduced dancing into a kind of regular fyftem; and had
dances proper for exciting, by means of the fympathy
above mentioned, any paffion whatever in the minds of
the beholders. la this way they are faid to have pro¬
ceeded very great lengths, to us abfolutely incredible..
At Athens^ it is faid, tTiat the dance of the Eumeni-
des or Furies on the theatre had fo expreffive a cha-
ratter as to ftrike the fpectators with irreiiftible terrorj
men grown old in the pro^effion of arms trembled j
the multitude ran out ; women with child mifearried;.
people imagined they faw in earneft thofe terrible dei¬
ties commiffioned with the vengeance of heaven to pur-
fue and punifh crimes upon earth.
The Greeks had martial dances, which they reckoned
to be very ufeful for keeping up the warlike fpirit of
their youth ; but the Romans, though equally warlike
with the Greeks, never had any thing of the kind.—-
This probably may be owing to the want of that roman¬
tic turn for which the Greeks were fo remarkable. The.
Romans had no heroes among them, fuch as Hercules,
Achilles, or Ajax ; nor does the whole Roman hiftory
furnifti an example of a general that made war after the.
manner of Alexander the Great. Though their foldiers
were as valiant as ever the Greeks could pretend to be,.
the object with them was the honour of the republic,,
and not their own perfonal praife. Hence there was
lefs fury, and much more cool deliberate valour, exerci-
fed by the Romans, than any other nation whatever.
The paffions of pride, refentment, obftinacy, &c. were
excited in them, not by the mechanical means of mufic
and dancing, but by being taught that it was their
chief honour to fight for the republic.—It does not how¬
ever appear, that the Romans were at all lefs capable
of being affe&ed in this mechanical manner than the
Greeks. When dancing was once introduced,, it had
the very fame effefts at Rome as at Athens.
Among the Jews, dancing feems to have made a
part of the religious worfhip on fome occafions, as we
learn from fome paffages in the Pfalms, though we do
not find either that or finging pofitively enjoined as a
divine precept.—In the Chriilian churches mentioned
in the New Teftament, there is no account of dancing
being introduced as an a£t of worftu'p, though it is'cer¬
tain that it was ufed. as fuch in after ages. Mr Gal¬
lini tells us, that “ at Limoges, not long ago, the
people ufed to dance the round in the choir of the
church which is under the invocation.of their patron
faint; and at the end of each pfalm, inftead of the
Gloria Patri, they fung as follows : St Marcel, fray
for us, and ive will dance in. honour of you*’'—Though
dan-
DAN [ 65i 7 DAN
B?.r.ce, dancing "would now be looked upon as the higheft de-
—v  gree of profanation in a religious affembly, yet it is
certain, that dancing, confidered as an expreffion of
joy, is no more a profanation than finging, or than
fimple fpeaking ; nor can it be thought in the leaft
more abfurd, that a Chriitian fhould dance for joy that
Jefus Chrift is rifen from the dead, than that David dan¬
ced before the ark when it was returned to him after a
long abfence.
Plato reduces the dances of the ancients to three
claffes. I. The military dances, which tended to make
the body robuft, adtive, and well-difpofed for all the
exereifes of war. 2. The domeftic dances, which had
for their objedt an agreeable and innocent relaxation
«nd amufement. 3. The mediatorial dances, which
were in ufe in expiation and facrifices.—Of military
dances there were t wo forts : the gymnopedique dance,
or the dance of children ; and the enoplian, or armed
dance. The Spartans had invented the firft for an
early excitation of the couiage of their children, and
to lead them on infenfibly to the exercife of the armed
dance. This childrens dance ufed to be execu:ed in
the public place. If was compofed of two choirs; the
one of grown men, the other of children; whence, be¬
ing chiefly defigned for the latter, it took its name.
They were both of them in a date of nudity. The
choir of the children regulated their motions by thofe
of the men, and all danced at the fame time, linging
the poems of Thales, Aleman, and Dionyfodotus. —
The enoplian or pyrrhic was danced by young men
trmed cap-a-pee, who executed, to the found of the
flute, all the proper movements either for attack or
for defence. It was compofed of four parts.—The
firft, podifm or footing ; which confided in a quick
ftiifting motion of the feet, fuch as was neceffary for
overtaking a flying enemy, or for getting away from
him when an overmatch.—The fecond part was the
xiphifm ; this was a kind of mock-fight, in which the
dancers imitated all the motions of combatants; aim¬
ing a ftroke, darting a javelin, or dexteroufly dodging,
parrying, or avoiding a blow or thruft. The third
part, called the iemos, confifted in very high leaps or
vaultings, which the dancers frequently repeated, for
the better ufing themfelves occafionally to leap over a
ditch, or fpring over a wall. The tetracomos was the
fourth and laft part: this was a fquare figure, execu¬
ted by flow and majeftic movements ; but it is uncer¬
tain whether this was every where executed in the fame
manner.
Of all the Greeks, the Spartans were thole who moft
cultivated the Pyrrhic dance. Athenaeus relates, that
they bad a law by which they were obliged to exercife
their children at it from the age of five years. This
warlike people conftantly retained the cuftom of accom¬
panying their dances- with hymns and fongs. The
following was fang for the dance called trickoria, faid
to be inftituted by Lycnrgus, and which had its name
from its being compofed of three choirs, one of
children, another of young men, and the third of old.
The old men opened the dance, faying, “ In time paft.
we were valiant.” The youngjnen anfwered, “ We
are fo at prefent.” “ We lhall be dill more fo when
our time comes,” replied the chorus of children. The
Spartans never danced but with real arms. In procefs
«f time, however, other nations came to ufe only wea-
z
pons of wood on fuch occafions. Nay, it was only fo Dance,
late as the days of Athenaeus, who lived in the fecond -—y——
century, that the dancers of the Pyrrhic, indead of
arms, carried only flafles, ivy-bound wands (thyrfus)
or reeds. But, even in Ariflotle’s days, they had be¬
gun to ufe thyrfufes indead of pikes, and lighted torches
in lieu of javelins and fwords. With thefe torches they
executed a dance called the conjlagration of the world.
Of the dances for amufement and recreation, fome
were but fimply gambols, or fportive exercifes, which
had no character of imitation, and of which the greater
part exilt to this day. The others were more complex,
more agreeable, figured, and were always accompanied
with finging. Among the firfl or -fimple ones was the
ajcoliafmus; which confided in jumping, with one foot
only, on bladders filled with air or with wine, and rub¬
bed on the outfide with oil. The dypodium was jumped
with both feet clofe. The kyhejlefis was what is called
in this country thzfomerfet. - Of the fecond kind was
that called the wine-prefs, of which there is a defeription
in Longinus, and the Ionian dances: thefe lad, in the
original of their inditution,. had nothing but what
was decent and modefl; but, in time, their movements
came to be fo depraved, as to be employed in expref-
fing nothing but voluptuoufnefs, and even the grolTefl;
obicenity.
Among the ancients there were no fedivals nor reli¬
gious aflemblies but what were accompanied with fongs
and dances. It was not held poflible to celebrate any
mydery, or to be initiated, without the intervention of
thefe two arts. In fliort, they were looked upon to be
fo eflential in thefe kinds of ceremonies, that to exprefs
the crime of fuch as were guilty of revealing the facrcd
myderies, they employed the word kheijhz, “ to be out
of the dance.” The mod ancient of thefe religious
dances is the Bacchic; which was not only confecrated
to Bacchus, but to all the deities whofe fedival was ce¬
lebrated with a kind of enthufiafm. The mod grave
and majedic was the hyporchematic: it was executed to-
the lyre, and accompanied with the voice.—At his re¬
turn from Crete, Thefeus indituted a dance at which
he himfelf affifled at the head of a numerous and fplen-
did band of youth round the altar of Apollo. The
dance was compofed of three parts; the frophe, the an-
tijlrophe, and the Jlationary. In the drophe, the move-
tnents were from the right to the left; in the antiflro-
phe, from the left to the right. In the flationary, they
danced before the altar; fo that the dationary did not-
mean an abfolute paufe or red, but only a more flow
or grave movement. Plutarch is perfuaded, that in
this dance there is a profound mydery. He thinks, that
by the flrophe is indicated the motion of the world from
ead to wed; by the antidrophe, the motion of the pla¬
nets from the wed to the ead ; and by the dationary,
the dability of the earth. To this dance Thefeus gave
the name of geranos, or “ the crane becaufe tire fi¬
gures which chara&erifed it bore a refemblance to thofe-
deferibed by cranes in their flight.
With regard to the modern praftice of dancing as an
art, there are few directions that can be of much fervicev
The following is extracted from Mr Gallini’s deferip¬
tion of the feveral fleps or movements.
“ The dancing (fay's he) is generally on a theatrej
or in a faloon or room. At the theatre there are four
pails to be confidered. z. The neared front to the
fpe&ators*
DAN
fpe&ators. 2. and 3. The two fides or wings,
furtheft front from the fpeftators.
“ In a faloon or room, the place in which are the
fpecftators decides the appellation refpeftively to them
of right and left. The dancer Ihould place himfelf in
as advantageous a point of view to them as poffible.
“ In the dance itfelf, there are to be diftinguilhed,
the attitude of the body, the figure, the pofitions, the
bends, the rifings or leaps, the fteps, the cabriole, the
fallings, the Aides, the turns of the body, the cadences.
I 662 ] DAN
4. The fame place, the trach is only to be confidered as the
conductor of the Jleps, but not of the figure; but when '■
the dance continues, without being confined to the
fame place, then the track mull be confidered as the
conductor both of the fteps and of the figure.
“ Now, to obferve the figure, the dancer muft have
placed himfelf at the beginning of the tradt upon
which he is to dance, and comprehend the figure before
he himfelf begins it. He is to remark and conceive
whether the figure is right, diametral, circular, or ob-
The attitude of the body requires the prefenting lique; if it is progreffive or retrogreffive, or towards
one’s felf in the moft graceful manner to the company.
“ 'The. figure is to follow the track prefcribed to the
fteps in the dance.
“ The pofition is that of the varied attitudes, which
muft be at once ftriking and eafy, as alfo of the differ¬
ent exertions of the legs and feet in dancing.
“ The lends are inflexions of the knees, of the body,
of the head, or the arms.
“ The rifings are the contrail to the bends, the ex-
tenfion of the knee. One of thefe two motions necef-
farily precedes the other.
“ The fiep is the motion by the foot or feet from
one place to another.
“ The leap is executed by fpringing up into the air;
it begins with a bend, and proceeds with a quick ex-
tenfion of the legs, fo that both feet quit the ground.
“ The cabriole is the crofting, or cutting of capers,
during the leap, before the return of the feet to the
ground.
“ The falling is the return of the feet to the ground,
by the natural gravitation of the body.
“ The Jllde is the aftion of moving the foot along
the ground without quitting it.
“ The turn is the motion of the body towards either
fide, or ,quite round.
“ The cadence is the knowledge of the different
meafures, and of the times of movement the moft
marked in the mufic.
the right or left. He flrould have the air played c _
fung to him, to underftand the movement.—Where the
tracks crofs one another, the fteps of each of the couples
muft leave a fufficient diftance between them not to
confufe the figure.
“ There are commonly reckoned ten kinds of pofi¬
tions, which are divided into true and falfe, five each.—
There are three principal parts of the foot to be obfer-
ved; the toes, the heel, and the ancle.
“ The true pofitions are when the two feet are in a
certain uniform regularity, the toes turned equally out¬
wards.—The falfe are divided into regular and irregu¬
lar. They differ from the true, in that the toes are either
both turned inwards; or if the toes of one foot are
turned outwards, the others are turned inward.
“ In the firft of the true pofitions, the heels of the
two feet are clofe together, fo that they touch; the
toes being turned out. In the fecond, the two feet are
open in the fame line, fo that the diftance between the
two heels is precifely the length of one foot. In the
third, the heel of one foot is brought to the ancle
of the other, or feems to lock in with it. In the fourth,
the two feet are the one before the other a foot’s length
diftance between the twq heels, which are on the fame
line. In the fifth, the two feet are acrofs, the one
before the other ; fo that the heel of one foot is direct¬
ly oppofite to the toes of the other.
In the firft of the falfe pofitions, the toes of both
‘ The track is the line marked by the dance : it feet are turned inwards, fo that they touch, the heels
may be either ftraight of curve; and is fufceptible of all being open. The fecond is, when the feet are afunder
the inflexions correfpondent to the various defigns of at a foot’s diftance between the toes of each, which are
the compofer.—There are the right, the diametral
line, the circular line, and the oblique line. The right
line is that which goes lengthwife, reckoning from one
end of the room towards the other. The diametral line
is acrofs the room, from one fide to the other. The
circular line is waving, or undulatory, from one place
to another. The oblique line proceeds obliquely from
turned inward, the heels being on a line. The third
is, when the toes of one foot are turned outwards, the
other inwards, fo that the two feet form a parallel.
The fourth is, when the toes of the two feet are turn¬
ed inwards; but the toes of one foot are brought nearer
the ancle of the other. The fifth is, when the toes of
the two feet are turned inwards, but the heel of one
e quarter of the room towards another.—Each of foot is oppofite to the toes of the other.
• fa op or flpnarjitplv form tlif* f^anof»r,« ** mJnofitionc
thefe lines may direCtly or feparately form the dancer’s
track, diverfified with fteps and pofitions.
“ The regular figure is when two or more dancers
move in contrary directions ; that is to fay, that when
ene moves towards the right, the other moves to the
left.—The irregular line is when the couples figuring
together are both on the fame fide.
There are mixed pofitions, compofed of the true
and falfe in combination; which admit of fuch an infi¬
nite variety, and are in their nature fo unfufceptible
of defcription by words, that it is only the fight of the
performance that can give any tolerable idea of them.
“ Of the bends of the knee there are two kinds; the
one fimple, the other forced. The fimple bend is an in-
Commonly the man gives the right hand to the flexion of the knees without moving the heel, and is ex-
lady in the beginning Or ending of the dance, as 1
fee in the minuet, louvre, &c.
“ When a greater number of dancers figure together,
they are to execute the figure agreeably to the compo-
fition of the dance, with fpecial attention to keep an
eye conftantly on the. partner.—When, in any given
dance, the dancers have danced for feme time in the
ecuted with the foot flat to the ground. The forced
bend is made on the toes with more force and lower.
“ Much is to be obferved on the head offieps. Firft,
not to make any movement before having put the body
in an upright pofture, firm on the haunches.
“ Begin with the inflexion of the knee and thigh;
advance one leg foremoft; with the whole foot on the
ground,
DAN [ 663 ] DAN
ground, laying the flrefs df the body on the advanced
kg’ ' .
“ There are fome who begin the ftep by the point
of the toes ; but that has an air of theatrical affe&a*
tion. Nothing can be more noble than a graceful eafe
and dignity of ftep. The quantity of Heps ufed in
dancing are almoft innumerable ; they are" neverthelefs
reducible under five denominations, which may ferve
well enough to give a general idea of the different
movements that may be made by the leg, viz. the di¬
re# ftep, the open ftep, the circular ftep, the twifted
ftep, and the cut ftep.
“ The </ira5 ftep is when the foot goes upon a right
line, either forwards or backwards.
The open ftep is when the legs open. Of this ftep
there are three kinds : one when they open outwards;
another, when, defcribing a kind of circle, they form
an in-knee’d figure; a third, when they open fide-
ways; this is a fort of right ftep, becaufe the figure is
in a right line.
“ The round ftep, is when the foot, in its mo¬
tion, makes a circular figure, either inwards or out¬
wards.
“ The twifled ftep, or pas tortille, is when the foot
in its motion turns in and out. There are three kinds
of this ftep; one forwards, another backwards, the
third fidelong.
“ The cut ftep is when one leg or foot comes to ftrike
againft the other. There are alfo three forts of this
ftep ; backwards, forwards, and fidelong.
“ The fteps may be accompanied with bendings,
rifings, leaps, cabrioles, fallings, Hidings, the foot in
the air, the tip-toe, the reft on the heel, quarter-turns,
half-turns, three-quarter turns, and whole-turns.
“ There may be praftifed three kinds of bends, or
finkings, in the fteps; wz. bending before the ftep
proceeds, in the a# of ftepping, and at the laft of the
fteps.
“ The beginning or initial fink-pace is at the firft
fetting off, on advancing the leg.
“ The bend in the aft of ftepping continues the
march or walk.
“ -The final fink-pace clofes the march.
“ The rifing is juft the reverfe of the bend, or fink-
pace, which (hall have^preceded it.
“ Some great mafters in the art of dancing, having
obferved that mufic, which is infeparable from it, was
capable of being preferved and conveyed by the mufi-
cal charafters, imagined by analogy, that the like ad¬
vantage could be procured to the compofition of dan¬
ces. Upon this plan they attempted what is called
the chorograpby, an art which they fuppofe was either
utterly unknown to the ancients, or not tranfmitted to
us from them.
“ It may indeed be eafily allowed, that the track or
figure of a dance may be determined by written or en¬
graved lines; but thofe lines will neceffarily appear fo
perplexing, fo intricate, fo difficult, if notrimpoffible
to feize, in their various relations, that they are only
fit to difguft and difcourage, without the poffibility of
their conveying a fatisfaftory or retainable inftruftion.
—Thence it is, that the article of Chorography in the
Trench Encyclopedic is univerfally exploded as unintelli¬
gible and, ufelefs : though nothing more than an ele¬
mentary indication of the art; and an explanation, fuch
as it is, of fome of the technical terms of it.”
Stage-DANCES. The Greeks were the firft who uni¬
ted the dance to their tragedies and comedies ; not in¬
deed as making part of thofe fpeftacles, but merely as
an acceffary.
The Romans, as ufual, copied after the Greek*,;
but in the reign of Auguftus they left their'inftruftors
far behind, them. Two very extraordinary men made
their appearance at that time'.- they invented a new
fpecies of entertainment, and carried it to an aftonifh-
ing degree of perfeftion. Nothing was then talked of
but the wonderful talents and amazing performances of
Pylades and Bathylus, who were the firft to introduce
among the Romans what the French call the ballet d’ac¬
tion, wherein the performer is both aftor and dancer.
Pylades undertook the hard talk of reprefenting,
with the affiftance of the dance alone, ftrong and pa¬
thetic fituations. He fucceeded perhaps beyond hii
own expeftation,0and may be called the father of that
ftyle of dancing which is known to us by the name of
grave or ferious pantomime.
Bathylus an Alexandrian, and a freedman of Me-
cenas, took upon himfelf to reprefent fuch fubjefts as-
required a certain livelinefs and agility. He was hand-
fome in his perfon; and the two great fcourges of
Roman follies, Periius and efpecially Juvenal, fpeak
of him as the gallant of every womaq in Rome. The
latter, in his cynic ftyle, even goes fo far as to fay,
that when Bathylus performed the dance called, after
the name of a celebrated female dancer, Chiromenos-Leda,
the graveft matron was turned off her guard, and the
young virgin longed for the dancer’s addreffe?.
Nature had been exceffively partial to thofe two
men. They were endowed with genius, and all the
exterior charms that could captivate the eye. By their
ftudy, application, and a defire to eftablifh a lading
reputation, they difplayed to the greateft advantage
all the refources which the art of dancing could fupply,
Thefe, like two phenomena, difappeared, and never
did the world fee “ their like again.” Government
withdrew its proteftion, the art gradually funk into
obfcurity, and became even entirely forgotten on the
acceffion of Trajanus to the empire.
Thus buried with the other arts in entire oblivion,
dancing remained uncultivated till about the 15th cen¬
tury, when ballets were revived in Italy at a magnifi¬
cent entertainment given, by a nobleman of Lombardy
at Tortona on account of the marriage between Galeas
Duke of Milan and Ifabella of Arragon. Every re-
fource that poetry, mufic, dancing, and machinery
could fupply, was employed and exhaufted on the oc-
cafion. The defcription given of fo fuperb an enter¬
tainment excited the admiration of all Europe, and ex¬
cited the emulation of feveral men of genius, who im¬
proved the hint to introduce among their countrymen
a kind of fpeftacle equally pleafing and novel.
It would feem, however, that at firft the women had
no fhare in the public or theatrical dance ; at leaft we
do not fee them mentioned in the various entertainments
given at the opera in Paris till the 21 ft of January
1681, when the then Dauphinefs, the Princefs of
Conti, and fome other ladies of the firft diftinftion in.
the court of Louis XIV. performed a ballet with the
3 ■ opera
DAN [ 664 1 DAN
Trance, opera called Le Trwmphe de VJmovr. This union of
——v  the two fexes ferved to enliven and render the fpectacle
more pleafing and far more brilliant than it ever was at
any other period. It was received with fo much ap-
plaufe, that on the 16th of May following, when the
fame opera was afted in Paris at the theatre of the Pa-
Jais Royal, it was thought indifpenfable for the fuccefs
of that kind of entertainment to introduce female dan¬
cers. They have continued ever fince to be the prin¬
cipal fupport of the opera.
The dance is now in fuch commendation, that, par¬
ticularly in France, the opera-houfe feems rather an
academy for dancing than calculated for the reprefen-
tation of lyric poems. The difgufting and immoderate
length of their recitatives is one of the chief caufes of
that general tafte for dancing which prevails amongft
them. A wit being alked one day what could be done
to keep up an opera threatened with a moft complete
damnation ? “Do! (fays he); why, lengthen the
dances and flrorten the petticoats.” ®So evident it is,
that finging, though apparently the chief purpofe of
an opera, is by no means the molt pleafing part of the
entertainment for the fpeotators.
Thus, what was at firft introduced as a mere accef-
fary to the mufical performance, became in procefs of
time its only fupport; and this circumftance excited
the emulation of feveral eminent ballet-mailers. The
art, however, of compofing thofe grand dances, which
are now fo much admired, was for many years in a
Hate of infancy, till Monficur Noverre itept forth and
gave it that degree of perfection which it feems impof-
iible to exceed. This celebrated ballet-mailer and per¬
former, in a work lately publilhed, has with great
elegance and ingenuity delineated the nature, objeCts,
and powers of dancing, enumerated the proper requi-
iites to give it tffeCl, and ihown how much it may be
ennobled by an acquaintance with the kindred arts.
Ballets, he obferves, have hitherto been the faint
ficetch only of what they may be one day. An art
entirely lubfervient, as this is, to taite and genius, may
receive daily variation and improvements. Hiilory,
painting, mythology, poetry, all join to raife it fiom
that obicurity in wdiich it lies buried ; and it/ is truly
furprifing, that compofers have hitherto difdained fo
many valuable refources.
According to our author, the reafon why this art
lias remained fo long in its infancy, is becaufe its ef¬
fects have been rettrained to the tranfitory ones of
fire-works calculated only to pleafe the eye ; and it
never was Juppofed to have powers fufficient to fpeak
to the heart: whereas it may vie, he fays, with the
belt dramatic pieces, prove equally interelling, and
captivate, the fpeCtator by the charms of the molt com¬
plete illufion.
If ballets, therefore, fays he, “ are for the moft
part uninterdting and uniformly dull; if they fail in the
charaCleriltic expreffion which conilitutes their dfence,
the defect does not originate from the art itfclf, but
Ihould be afcribed to the artiils. Are then the latter
to be told, that dancing is an imitative art ? I am
indeed inclined to think that they know it not, fince
we daily fee the generality of compofers facriiice the
-beauties of the dance, and give up the graceful naivete
of fentiment, to become the fervile copiells of a cer¬
tain number of figures, known and hackneyed fox
*N^7.
above a century; fo that the ballets of Phaeton, or Banc*,
of any ancient opera, revived by a modern compofer,v—>
would prove fo very fimilar to former ones, that one
would think they have undergone no alterations, and
are the fame in every ftep.
“ Ballet-malters Ihould eonfult the productions of
the moll eminent painters. This would bring thera
nearer to nature, and induce them to avoid, as often
aspoffible, that fymmetry of figures, which, by repeat-,
ing the objeCt, prefent two different pictures on one
and the fame, canvas.
“ Thofe fymmetrical figures from right to left, ac¬
cording to my judgement, are fupportable only in the*
entrees, which are not meant to exprefs anything in par¬
ticular, but are only calculated to afford fome relief to
the principal dancers. They may be introduced in a
general dance at the conclufion of an entertainment,
they may alfo be admitted in the pat of four, fix,
&c. though in my opinion it be ridiculous even in
this cafe to prefer the difplay of bodily tlrength and
agility to exprdfion and fentiment. But fuch figures
mult give way to nature in what we term ballets a’ac¬
tion. An inltance, though perhaps not very forcible,
may ferve to elucidate and iuppoft my argument.
“ At the fudden and unexpected appearance of
fome young fauns, a troop of nymphs take them-
felves to flight with equal affright and precipitation.
The former are in purfuit of the latter with that
eagerneis which the very hope of pleaiure can in-
fpire. Now they flop to obierve what impreflion they
have made on the nymphs; thefe at the fame time,
and for a fimilar reafon, check their career: with
fear they furvey their purfurers, endeavour to guefs at
their intentions, and provide for a retreat to fome
fpot, where they may reft fecure from the dangers
that threaten them. Both troops now join, the
nymphs refill, defend themfelves, and at laft effect their
elcape with no lets fwiftnefs than dexterity.
“ This I call a bufy active feene ' in which the
dance, as it were, fhould fpeak with energy. Here
ftudied and fymmetrical figures cannot be introduced
without a manifelt violation of the truth, without de-
ftroying the rules of probability, and without weaken¬
ing the aCtion and leflening its effect. This feene
Ihould be confpicuous; for its beautiful diforder, and
the art of the compofer, muft here be the handmaid of
nature.
“ A ballet-mafter, devoid of tafte and difeernment,
will make of this a mechanical piece of dancing, and
thus deprive it of the effeCt it was calculated to pro¬
duce for want of entering into the fpirit of it. His
nymphs and fauns will be arranged upon a parallel line,
he will place the former in attitudes aukwardly uni¬
form, and infill on. the latter holding up their arms to
an even altitude ; rather than deviate from the beaten
path, and the antique rules of opera dancing, he will
cautioufly avoid to have, on the right and left, his
nymphs pkced in unequal numbers, but will reduce
a feene of aCtion, which ought to be fupported with
fpirit, to an exercife equally affeCted and unintereft-
ing.
“ Perhaps fome ill-difpofed critics, fo far ftrangers
to the art as not to judge of it from its various effeCts,
will maintain, that the above feene Ihould prefent only
two different cbjeCts, the one pourtrayed in the love-
fick
DAN C 665 ] DAN
Dance, fick fauns, the other exprefled by the affright of the
v nymphs. But how many (hades may ferve to embel-
lifh thofe pictures ? how varied may be the ftrokes
of the pencil ? how oppofite the lights ? and what a
number of tints ought to be employed in order to
draw from this twofold fituation a multiplicity of ima¬
ges, each more lively and fpirited than the other ?
“ As all men (hare the fame paffions, and thefe dif¬
fer in proportion to their fenfations and feelings, they
may therefore be worked upon more or lefs powerful¬
ly in proportion as they manifeft: themfelves outward¬
ly with more or lefs force and impetuoiity. This
principle once acknowledged, and nature indeed in¬
forces it daily, it would certainly be more to the pur-
pofe to diverfify the attitudes and vary the expreffion ;
for then the pantomime adtion of each perfonage
would be divefted of a difgufting uniformity. The
truth of imitation and the (kill of the painter would
confpicuoufly appear in giving a different afpedt to
the features, fome of them expreffive ©f a kind of fe¬
rocity, others betraying lefs eagernefs, thefe calling a
more tender look; and to the reft, the languilhing
air of voluptuoufnefs. The (ketch of this firft pidture
naturally leads to the compolition of the fecond: here
fome nymphs appear divided between fear and delire ;
there fome others exprefs by the contraft of their at¬
titudes the various emotions of their foul. Some
are more fcornful than their companions, whilft others
betray a curiolity equal to their fears. This enfemble
gives life to the whole pidture, and is the more plea-
fing that it is perfedtly confident with nature. From
this expofition, you will not hefitate to agree with me,
that fymmetry, the offspring of art itfelf, (liould never
find place in the ballets d’ adtion.
“ I (hall beg leave to enquire of all thofe who rea-
fon from habitual prejudice, whether they will look
for their favourite fymmetry in a herd of (Keep flying
from the wolf, or amongft wretched peafants leaving
their huts and fields, in order to (helter them¬
felves from the fury of a party of enemies ? By no
means. But the art lies in concealing art itfelf; my
aim is by no means to introduce diforder and confu-
lion ; on the contrary, I will have regularity even in
irregularity. What I moft infift upon is, the intro¬
ducing of well concerted groups, fituations forcibly
rxpreffed, but never beyond nature, and above all, a
certain eafe in the compofition, which betrays not the
labour of the compofer. As for the figures, they are
likely to pleafe only in proportion as they quickly fuc-
ceed each other, and are devifed with equal tafte and
elegance.”
A ballet perfedt in all its parts, our author proceeds
to obferve, is a pidlure, drawn from life, of the man¬
ners, dreffes, ceremonies, and cultoms of all nations.
It muft therefore be a complete pantomime,’ and
through the eyes fpeak, as it were, to the very foul
of the fpedtator. If it wants expreffion, if it be de¬
ficient in point of fituation and feenery, it degenerates
into a fpedlacle equally flat and monotone.
According to Plutarch, a ballet is, if the expreffion.
may be allowed, a mute converfation, or a fpeaking
and animated pidlure, whofe language confifts of mo¬
tions, figures, and geftures.—Thefe figures, fays our
author, are unlimited in their number, becaufe there
are a thoufand things that the ballet may exprefs,
Vox.. V. Part II.
Phrynicus, one of the oldeft tragedy writers, fays, that Dance,
he could find in our ballet as many figures as the fea'”,~^'~“
rolls waves in a high winter tide.
A well compofed ballet, therefore, may do without
the affiftance of words: M. Noverre even remarks, that
thefe only ferve to weaken the adtion, and partly deftroy
itseffedts. He has no opinion of a pantomime which,
in order to be underftood, muft borrow the help of a
verbal explanation. “ Any ballet whatever (fayshe),
deftitute of intrigue, adtion, and intereft, difplaying
nothing more than the mechanical beauties of the art,
and, though decorated with a pompous title, is unintel¬
ligible throughout, is not unlike thofe portraits and
pidtures to which the painters of old fubfcribed the
names of the perfonages and adtion they meant to re-
prefent: becaufe they were imperfedt in point of imi¬
tation, the fituations weakly expreffed^ the outlines in-
corredt, and the colours unfeemly.
“ When dancers (hall feel, and, Proteus-like, trans¬
form themfelves into various (hapes to exprefs to the
life the conflidt of paffions; when their features, their
very looks, (hall-fpeak their inward feelings ; when, ex¬
tending their arms beyond the narrow circle prefcri-
bed by the rigid rules of pedantry, and with equal
grace and judgment giving them a fuller fcope, they
(hall by proper fituations defcribe the gradual and fuc-
ceffive progrefs of the paffions; when, in fine, they
call good fenfe and genius to the affiftance of their art*
then they may expedt to diftinguifli themfelves : ex¬
planatory fpeeches will become ufelefs ; a mute but
powerful eloquence will be fubftituted to much better
effedt; each motion will be a fentence ; every attitude
willpouitray afituation; each gefture convey a thought,
and each glance a new fentiment: every part will
pleafe, becaufe the whole will 'be a true and faithful
imitation of nature.”
A ballet, in whatever (lyle it may be, (hould, ac¬
cording to Ariftotle, be compofed, as well as poetry,
of two different parts, which he calls parts of quality
and parts of quantity. Nothing exifts in nature with¬
out matter, form, and figure : the ballet therefore be¬
comes a mere nonentity, if it be deficient in any of
thofe effential parts, which mark and conftitute the be¬
ing of any one thing animate or inanimate. The mat¬
ter here is the fubjedt intended for reprefcntation ; its
form confifts in the ingenious diftribution of the plan ;
and the various compounding parts conftitute its figure.
Form therefore contains the parts of quality, and the
extent the parts of quantity.
Thus it appears, that ballets are in fome 'degree
fubjedt to the rules of poetical compofition. They,
neverthelefs, differ from tragedies and comedies, in
that the former are not fubjedt to the three unities of
time, place, and adtion : Yet they require an unity of
plot, in order that the various fcenes may meet and
end on the fame point.—The ballet, therefore, may be
termed the brother of the drama ; though not reftrain-
ed to its ffridter rules: which only ferve to cramp the
imagination, check its flight, and confine genius ; and
if adhered to, muft fet afide all thought of compofition
of ballets, by depriving them of their chief ornament,
pleafing variety.
M. Noverre confiders tragedy as the fubjedt molt
fuitable for the art of dancing. The former abounds
in noble incidents, fituations, &c. and thefe produce
4 P the
DAN [ 666 ] DAN
the beft ftage effe£b. Befides, the paflions are more “ Yet, either through ignorance or in confequence
forcibly expreffed by great charadlers than by common of a vitiated habit, there are but few well fupported u"
men : the imitation is of courfe lefs difficult, the ac- ballets. Dance is introduced for the mere purpofe of
tion in the pantomime more' fignificant, natural, and dancing: the end is fuppofed to be anfwered by the
intelligible. mechanical motions of the feet, or by high jumping,
“ The bufinefs of a Ikilful mafter (he obferves), is and that the idea which people of real tafte may have
to forefee, as it were, at one glance, the general effedl of a ballet is fully anfwered, when ina&ive performers
that may refult from the enfemble, and never give the are introduced in it, who mix and joftle each other,
preference to one fingle part over the whole. The only prefenting a confufed heap of pi&ures, fketched with-
way for him to beftow his thoughts on the greateft out tafte, aukwardly grouped, and totally devoid of
number, is to forget for a while the principal charac- that harmony and expreffion, the offspring of the foul,
teis of the drama: if his whole attention fhould entire- which alone can embelliih art by giving it life.”
ly be taken up with the parts of his firft dancers of M. Noverre, in confidering the knowledge neceflary
both fexes, the aftion is fufpended, tbe fcenes are flow for attaining perfe&ion in the prefent art, obferves,
in their progrefs, and the whole performance muft fall that mythology, ancient poetry, and chronology, ought
fhortof its defired effetSt. to be the primary ftudiesof a ballet-mafter; who ought
In the tragedy of Merope by Voltaire, the princi- alfo to poffcfs a genius for poetry and painting, fmce
pal chara&ers are,' Merope, Polifonte, Egifte, and the art borrows all its chawns from a perfeft imitation
Narbas : But although the parts of the inferior a&ors of nature.
are not of equal importance, yet they all concur to the A flight knowledge of geometry cannot but prove
general aftion, and to the progreffion of the drama, very advantageous, as it will help the mafter to intro-
which would appear deficient in fome parts, fhould ei- duce his figures in due proportion, to calculate exaft-
ther of thofe charafters be wanting in the reprefenta- ly, and execute with precifion. By means of that un-
tion. No ufelefs perfonage fhould be obtruded on the erring guide, he wall retrench every fuperfluous accef-
ftage. Every thing therefore that may tend to weak- fary, and thus enliven the performance. Tafte will in-
en the effeft of the drama ought to be carefully avoid- troduce elegance, genius create variety, and judgment
ed, and only that number of aftors introduced which direct the whole.
is barely requifite for the execution of the perform- Wh .t is a ballet but a piece of more or lefs compli¬
ance. cated machinery, which ftrikes or furprifes the behol-
“ A ballet is a produ&ion of the fame kind. It der by its various effe&s, only in proportion as thofe
muft be divided into afts and fcenes, each of which, as are diverfified and fudden ? That chain and connec-
well as the aft itfelf, muft have its beginning, its tion of figures, thofe motions fucceeding each other
middle, and its end ; that is, in other words, expolition, with rapidity, thofe various forms turning contrary
plot, and denouement. ways, that mixture of different incidents, the enfemble
“ I have obferved above, that the principal per- and harmony which mark the fteps and accompany the
formers in a ballet fhould be forgotten for a while: My exertions of the dancers; do not all thefe give you the
reafon is, that, in my opinion, it is eafier to give ilri- idea of a mechaniftn moft ingenioufly contrived ?
king parts to Hercules and Omphale, Ariadne and Ballets are often built on preternatural fubjefts :
Bacchus, Ajax and Ulyffes, See. than to 24 perfons feveral of them require the affiftance of machinery,
in their retinue ; If jthefe have nothing to fay, they For tnftance, few of the fubjefts taken from Ovid will
are fuperfluous, and, of courfe ought to be rejeft- be fit for reprefentation, without a change of feenery,
ed; but, if they are to fppak, let their converfa- flights through the air, metamorphofes,. See. This
tion be efinfonant with that of the principal charac- author therefore muft never be taken for a model, un-
ters. lefs the ballet-mafter himfelf be an expert mechanift.
“ The difficulty, therefore, does not lie in.affigning None are to be found out of the capital but journey-
a primary and diftinftive patt to Ajax or Ulyffes; (ince men and ftage-fweepers, whom the patronage of fome
it fprings naturally from the importance of their fitua- mighty fon of the fock has preferred by degrees to that
tion in the play : but in introducing the figurers in a employment. The talents of thofe upftarts confift in,,
becoming ftyle, giving them parts of more or lefs im- and reach not beyond, the capacity of putting up the
pprtance, connefted with the aftion of the two he- lights which they were wont to fnuff for many years,,
roes ; in introducing women, fome of whom will ap- or letting down aukwardly a glory of the moft wretch-
pear concerned for Ajax, and the* greater numbetb ed ftyle. The theatres in Italy are not remarkable for
fhowing their partiality for Ulyffes. The triumph of their machinery; thofe of Germany., built upon the-
the latter, the former’s death, prefent to the man of fame plan,, are not lefs deficient in point of that en-
genius a feries of images that vie with each other in chanting part of ftage-exhibition ; fo that a ballet-
point of interefting and pittorefque fituations. Thefe^ mafter rouft, in thefe countries, find himfelf greatly-
by means of a colouring flcilfully contrafted, cannot but embarraffed, if un(killed in the mechanical arts, he
produce the moft lively fenfations- In fine, a ballet cannot convey, his ideas with perfpicuity, by building
pantomime (hould be dramatic in all its parts ; and the for that purpofe fmall models, which are better under¬
figure-dancers,. who fucceed to the principal perfor- flood by the generality of, workmen than the cleareft
mers, ought to continue the feene, not by a number verbal explanation.
of fymmetrical'figures and ftudied fteps, but- by that The theatres of Paris and London are the beft fup-
kind of animated expreffion which keeps up the atten- plied with thefe refources. The Englifh are very in-
tjon of the fpeftators to the main fubjeft for which the genious: their ftage machinery is more finii lified than
preceding ajetors,have prepared,the audience,. the Eiench ; and of courfe produce a quicker effeft„
DAN [ 667 ] DAN
Dance. Amongft them all thefe kinds of works are moft ex-
“■'V—'' quifitely finifhed ; that neatnefs, care, and exaditude,
which is remarkable throughout every part, greatly
contribute to the precifion of the whole. Thofe chef-
d’ceu-vres of mechanifm particularly difplay themfelves
in their pantomimes ; which, however, are low and
trivial, devoid of tafte and intereft, and built upon the
meanelt incidents. It may be faid that this kind of
entertainment, which is got up at a prodigious ex¬
pence, is only calculated to pleafe thofe eyes which are
fhocked at nothing ; and that it would meet with no
fuccefs on the French theatres, where no other pleafantry
is permitted but fuch as is not incompatible with de¬
cency, abounds with delicacy and wit, and is no ways
levelled againft morals and humanity.
A compofer who wiflres to rife fuperior to the gene¬
rality of ballet-mailers, ihould ftudy the painters, and
trace them in their various manners of drawing and
compofing. Both arts have the fame objed in view,
whether it be for taking likeneffes, mixing the colours,
and preferving the clare-obfcure ; or for grouping the
figures properly, laying on the draperies, throwing
the former into elegant attitudes, and giving them life
and expreffion.
Upon the fame principle, the knowledge of anatomy
will ferve to render more clear and intelligible the pre¬
cepts which he has to lay down for his pupils. It will
be an eafy matter for him to diftinguifh properly be¬
tween the natural and habitual defeds in their confor¬
mation. Thefe are the greateft obllacles that fo often
impede the progrefs of young beginners. Thus once
knowing the caufe, he will be able to remedy the evil;
as his leffbn and precepts will then be the refult of
ftrid attention, they never can fail of becoming pro¬
fitable.
Drawing is too ufeful in the compofition of ballets
for the mailer not to pay a ferious attention to that
art; it will contribute to the beauty of the forms; it
will give to the figures an air of novelty and elegance,
animate the groups, throw the body into graceful po-
fitions, and fhow the attitudes in a juft preciiion.
A ballet-mafter who is no proficient in mufic, will
make a bad choice of his airs. He will not enter into
the fpirit or charader of them. The motions of his
dancers will not beat time with that precifion and de¬
licacy which are abfolutely neceflary, unlefs he is en¬
dued with that fenfibility of organ which is more com¬
monly the gift of nature than the refult of art, and is
far above what may be acquired by long pradice and
Heady application.
A good choice of mufic is as effential to dancing as
the choice of words and the phrafing of a fpeech is
to eloquence. It is the tune and time of the mufic
that fix and determine the motions of the dancers. If
the former be uniform and devoid of tafte, the bal¬
let will, like its model, be dull and unmeaning.
By this immediate connedion between mufic and
dancing, it clearly appears, that, from a pradical
knowledge of the former, the ballet-mafter will derive
the greateft advantages. He will then be able to im¬
part his thoughts to the compofer; and if tafte and
knowledge combine together, he will either fet the
mufic himfelf, or at leaft furnifh tl}e compofer with
the principal outlines, to charaderife the adion
of the dancer; as this will be varied and expref-.
five, the ballet cannot fail of being equally fo. Mu¬
fic well compofed Ihould paint and fpeak ; and the
dance fet to thofe founds, will be, as it were, the echo
to repeat the words. If on the contrary it be mute,
if it fpeak not to the ear of the dancer, then all fen-
timent and expreffion are banifhed from the perform¬
ance.
As nothing can appear trifling to the man of ge¬
nius, nothing Ihould feem fo to the ballet-mafter. °It
is impoffible for him to diftinguifh himfelf in his pro*
feffion, unlefs he applies to ftudy thofe arts which have
been juft mentioned. Yet to infift that he fhould be
mafter of them all in that degree of perfedion which is
attainable only by thofe who give themfelves entirely up
to the ftudy of each of them in particular, would be re*
quiring a mere impoffibility.
All that can be deemed ftridly requifite, therefore,
is a general knowledge, a flight tindure of thofe faien¬
ces which, by the connedion they have with each
other, are likely to contribute to the improvement of
the art and to its reputation. From the natural
union, however, that fubfifts between the arts, and
from the harmony which reigns amongft them, that
ballet-mafter will ennoble his compofition with the moft
fire, fpirit, livelintfs, and intereft, who has moft ge¬
nius and imagination, and whofe knowledge is moft
extenfive.
As to performers, and their perfonal qualifications s
The firft point to which it is direded to pay attention
when one takes up the profeffion of a dancer (at leaft
fo foon as he becomes capable of refledion), is his bo¬
dily formation : If one is confcious of any natural de¬
feds which feem irremediable by art, it will bt beft
immediately to renounce every idea that may have been
formed of the advantage arifing from popular appro¬
bation. But where perfonal defeds can be reformed
by application, ftudy, or the advice and affiflance of
judicious mailers, then it becomes an effential concern
quickly to exert every effort, before the parts to be
correded have acquired ftrength and confiftence, be¬
fore nature has unalterably taken her bent, and the
error becomes too habitual and inveterate.
Among other perfonal defeds, there are two which
deferve particular notice : The firft is that of being
jarrete, “ knock-knee’d;” the other of being arqug or
“ bow-legg’d.”
A man is faid to be jarrete or in-knee’d when the
haunches are ftrait, and incline inwardly, the thighs
lie near, and the knees are protuberant, and fo clofe
that they touch and knock together at every ftep
even when the feet are at a diftance ; fo that fuch a
perfon, from the knees to the feet, makes the figure of
a triangle : in people of this formation, likewife, there
is a clumfinefs in the infide of the ancle, a great eleva¬
tion in the inftep, while the tendo AchilUs is not only
very flender, but much extended in the articula¬
tion.
The other defed, of being arque or bow-legged, is
the oppofite of the former : and exifts in the fame
parts, namely, from the haunches to the feet, which
defcribe a fort of bow or arch; for the haunches being
in this cafe hollow, the thighs and knees Hand open,
and at a diftance, and produce the fame effed in the
lower extremities, fo that they can never be brought
in proper contad like thofe of a well-lhaped perfon ;
4 P 2 their
DAN [ 668 ] DAN
Dance, their feet alfo are long and flat, the ancle juts out, and
—Y—the tendo -1 chillis is large and clofely inferted. A
Angle view of thefe diametrically oppofite defe&s, prove
. more forcibly than any arguments, that the inflruc-
tions which might correfit the errors of one of thofe
fort of dancers, 'would tend only to increafe the de¬
fers of the other ; and that confequently their aim
and lludy ought to be correfpondently oppofite.
The dancer whofe defeft is of the firft kind, that of
being jarrete, mult ufe the means which art furniflies
him with, to feparate and widen the too clofely con¬
nected parts. The firlt ftep to this end is to turn the
thighs otitwardly, endeavouring to move them in that
pofition, by taking the advantage of the free rotation
which the thigh-bone has in the cotiloidal cavity of the
haunches : aflifted by this exercife, the knees will fol¬
low the fame direction, and return as it were to their
proper pofition. The kneepart (which feems intend¬
ed to prevent the knee from being thrown too far
backward from its infertion) will Hand perpendicular
over the point of the foot, while the thigh and leg
thus placed defcribe a line that will enfure firmnefs
and liability to the whole body.
The fecond remedy to be ufed is, to keep the knees
in a conftant bend, and to make them appear very much
ftretched, without their being really fo. This mult
be the refult of long and conllant praCtice ; but when
the habit is firmly contracted, it is impofiible to return
to the former vicious polition, without caufing an in-
fupportable pain and numbnefs. Some dancers have
been able to conceal this defeCt fo artfully, that it was
entirely undifcoverable unlefs in dancing llrait-capers
or in very quick movements. The reafoh of its be¬
coming vifible at fuch times is, that the contraction of
the mufcles in the effort of leaping makes them ItifF
about the articulation, and forces every part into its
former and natural fituation ; the knees thus ftrained,
turn inwardly and (for the time) regain their ufual
protuberance, which becomes an obftacle to the difplay
of the entre-chat. The more thefe parts conneCt, to the
greater diftance will the lower extremities be thrown ;
hence the legs, neither being able to beat nor crofs,
remain motionlefs at the time of the knees rolling over
each other, while the entre-chat, being neither cut, beat,
nor’erofled by the feet, is deprived of that life and bril¬
liancy which are its chief merit.
A perfonthus formed, ftiould entirely renounce the
tntre-chat, cabrioles, and every kind of dance that re¬
quires very quick and complicated movements, as it
will infallibly render him weak and powerlefs; for the
haunches being fo ftrait, the mufcles that are attached
to them (whereon the motions of the trunk depend),
have not a proper and eafy play, which will be always
in proportion to the dimenfion of thefe bones, becaufe
then the mufcles fhoot out or divide from a point more
diftanced from the centre of gravity : therefore the
grander fort of dancing, and terre a terre, is the bell
adapted to fuch dancers; and we may add, that what¬
ever they lofe on the fcore of llrength, they regain in
Elegance and add refs. They are luxuriant and Ihining
/ in the fimplelt parts,; eafy, even in difficult ones, where
.I* no great efforts are required; juft in their execution ;
elegant in their difplay; and their fpring is always
exerted with an infinity of grace, as they dexteroufly
employ every refource which the motion of the inltep
can give them. Thefe are advantages which atone for
want of perfonal ftrength ; and in dancing agility and
addrefs are always preferable to the mere efforts of
force.
The art of concealing or overcoming the defeat of
fuch performers as we have characterized by being
arquZ or bow-legged, is in a great meafure the oppo¬
fite of the former ; namely, by endeavouring to bring
together the parts that are too much feparated, and
leflening that vacancy which is particularly obftrvable
between the knees. Thefe require no lefs exercife
than the former in turning the thighs outwardly, and
generally are lefs able to difguife their faults : for be¬
ing more robuft and vigorous, there is lefs pliability in
their mufcles, and their joints move lefs eafily. And
it mull be added, if the deformity refults from a na¬
tural diftortion of the bone, labour will be as ufelefs
as all the aids of art will be. impotent.
It was remarked, that dancers of the firft clafs, or
jarreti, fbould preferve a flight genuflexion or bend in
their performance ; while thefe, for the oppofite rea-
fon, ought to keep their limbs rather extended or
ftretched, and to crofs more clofely, by that means
dimimfhing the vacancy occafloned by the natural re¬
paration. Such dancers are nervous, lively, and bril¬
liant in all cafes which require more ftrength than ele¬
gance ; vigour and agility may be inferred from their
mufcular force, and the firmnefs and refxltance of their
articular ligaments; lively in their dancing, becaufe
they crofs low rather than high ; and requiring on
that account lefs fpace in beating time, they perform
it with more livelinefs : they difplay more brilliancy,
becaufe the light becomes vifible between the limbs
at the moment of croffing and recrofling; and this is
precifely the clair-ohfcure of dancing ; for if the time
in the entre-chat or crofs-caper is neither cut nor beat,
but.rolled or huddled over, there is no light to give
diftimftion to the fhadows, and the limbs, fo clofely
joined, prefent.an indiftindt and effedtlefs mafs.
Thefe dancers have lefs addrefs than the otheras
they generally depend on their ftrength ; and indeed
that ftrength is a conftant obftacle to eafe and pliancy;
if it forfakes them a Angle moment, they appear auk-
ward and ridiculous: nor can they conceal their fitua¬
tion by any trifling difplay ; that requiring mere ad¬
drefs, would give them time to recover, which their
want of natural elafticity otherwife prevents.
Dancers who are jarretes, are weak, flender, and de¬
licate ; the others, ftrong and vigorous, large made,
and nervous. It is a common opinion, that ftout,
fquat-built men, are heavy and fluggifli; which they
doubtlefs are in refpedt of bodily weight: but the
notion is erroneous fo far as regards dancing; for
activity owes its very exiftence to mufcular ftrength,,
and every man what has not a requifite fhare of that
will always fall heavy. The reafon is evident; the
weak parts, in the inftant of falling, not being able to-
refill the ftronger (that is, the weight of the body,
which acquires a momentum in proportion to the height
it falls or defeends from), yield and bend; and it is at
the moment of relaxation or flexion that the noife of
the fall is heard; a circumftance greatly leflened, or
rather entirely avoided, when the body is able to main¬
tain itfelf in a perpendicular diredtion ; and while the
mufcular fpring is fulficient to oppofe that defeending
force*
»
DAN [ 669 ] DAN
force, and vigoroufly refill a fliock which would other-
wife deftroy it.
Nature has not exempted the fair fex from thofe im-
perfeftions we have been taking notice of; but art,
and the ufe of petticoats, come fortunately to the help
of the female dancer. The hoop conceals a multitude
of defefts, which the critic’s curious eye cannot afcend
to difcover. Mott of them dance with their knees
open, as if they were naturally arquees ; but, thanks to
this bad habit, and to the petticoats, they appear more
brilliant than the men ; becaufe, as they beat from the
lower part of the leg, they perform the time quicker
than we, who, concealing nothing from the fpe&ator,
are obliged to beat at a greater extent, and to do it
originally from the haunch.
The vivacity of the fex contributes much to the
brilliancy of their execution; though certainly not
lefs is owing to the petticoats, which, by concealing
the length of the limbs, catch the attention, and fix
it more advantageoufly: thus all the fire of the beats
being united in one point, appears more lively and
brilliant; while the eye embraces one object only,
without being hurried and confufed, in proportion to
the fpace it has to overlook.
To perfection in dancing, Mr Noverre obferves,
nothing is more neceffary than the outward turn of the
thigh ; yet nothing is more natural to mankind than
the contrary pofition : it is born with us. It will be
fuperfluous, in eftablifiiing this truth, to cite for ex¬
ample the Afiatics, the Africans, or any people who
dance, or rather leap and move, without art or prin¬
ciple. If we attend only to children, or the ruftic in¬
habitants of the villages, we fhall fee that they all turn
their feet inwardly. The other pofition is purely in¬
vention ; and a proof, far from equivocal, of this fault
being an imaginary one, is, that a painter would tranf-
grefs as much againft nature as the rules of his art,
were he to place the feet of his portrait in the fitua-
tion of a dancer’s. It is plain, then, that to dance
elegantly, walk gracefully, or addrefs ourfelves with
cafe and manlinefs, we mutt abfolutely reverfe the na¬
ture of things; and force our limbs, by artificial ap¬
plications equally tedious and painful, to affume a very
different fituation from what they originally received.
Such a change, however neceffary in this art, can
only be accomplifhed by laying its foundation in the
earlieft ftages of infancy, when every bone and muf-
cle is in a ftate of pliability, and capable of receiving
any direction which we choofe to give them.
The difficulty of attaining the outward pofition of
the limbs is owing to our ignorance of the proper arts
to be employed. Mott beginners perfuade themfelves
that it is to be acquired by forcing the feet to turn
outward ; and though this part may readily take fuch
a direction, from their fupplenefs, and being fo eafily
moved at their articulation with the leg ; yet this me¬
thod is fo farfalfe, as it tends to difplace the ancle-bones,
and befides has not any effeCl upon either the knees
or thighs.
Neither is it poffible to throw the knees outwardly
without the affittance of the thigh. The knees have
only two motions, bending and extenfion.; the one
drawing the leg backward, the other throwing it for¬
ward : they have no power, therefore, of themfelves
to determine or affume an outward pofition j. but mull
eventually depend on the thigh, which entirely com¬
mands all the lower parts of the body, and turns them
in confequence of its own rotatory motion; fo that,
in fad, whatever motion or pofition that takes, the
knee, foot, and leg, are obliged to follow.
M. Nouverre condemns fhe tourne-haunch as a clum-
fy and ufelefs invention, which, inftead of producing
any good effeCl,. ferves only to lame thofe who ufe it,
by giving a diftortion to the waift, much more difa-
greeable than what it was intended to remove.
The fimpleft and moft natural means are thofe which
reafon and good fenfe ought to adopt; and of thefe a
moderate but continual exercife is indifpenfable : the
praClice of a circular motion or turning of the legs,
both inwardly and outwardly, and of boldly beating
at full extent from the haunch, is the only certain ex¬
ercife to be preferred. It infenfibly gives freedom,
fpring, and pliancy; while the motions acquired by
ufing the machine have more an air of conftraint,
than of that liberty and eafe which fhould fhine con-
fpicuous in them.
It has been maintained, that a ftrong and vigorous
perfon ought to fpring higher and better than a {len¬
der or weaker man. But experience (fays M. Noverre)
daily proves the contrary. We fee many dancers, who
cut the time very ftrong, who beat with much vigour
and firmnefs, and yet cannot fpring to any confiderable
perpendicular elevation : for an oblique elevation, or on
one fide, ought here to be diftinguiftied from the former ;
the latter is faint, and depends entirely upon addrefs ia
the dancer. There are others, again, whofe (lender
form renders their execution lefs bold, and rather ele¬
gant than forcible, rather lively than nervous, but wha
can rife to an extraordinary height: it is to the ffiape
and formation of the foot, and to the length and ela-
fticity of the tendon, that this power of elevation is
originally owing ; the knees, the loins, - and the arms,
all co-operate in this aftion ; the ftronger the preffure
upon the mufcles, the greater is the re-aftion, and the
fpring or leap is proportionably high. The alternate
motion of the knees participate with thofe of the in-
ftep and tendo Achillls, though the latter are ftill the
moft effential auxiliaries ; the mufcles of the trunk-
lend their affiftance, and preferve the body in a per¬
pendicular direction ; while the arms, running imper¬
ceptibly to the mutual affiftance of all the parts, ferve
as wings to counterbalance the machine.
Obferve all thofe animals that have long and (lender
ancles, as ftags, roebucks, (beep, cats, monkeys, &c.
and you will perceive that they have a quicknefs and
facility of fpringing and leaping, which animals dif¬
ferently formed in that part can never obtain.
But were a man endowed with all the other qualities
effential to the perfedlion of the art, yet ftill' without
ftrength and firmnefs in his loins he never can be a
good dancer. This ftrength is certainly the gift q£
nature j but it may be much improved by the affiduity
of an able teacher. We daily fee dancers who have
neither perpendicularity nor firmnefs, ancfAvhofe per¬
formance is altogether unftable and irregular : and we
likewife fee others, who, though they poffefs not fa
great a degree of native force, have all the appearance
of finewy firmnefs and mufcular ftrength, in their
haunches, back, and loins. Art has furniftied a fub-
ftitute for nature,, in the leffons of fome excellent
teacher.
DAN [ 670 ] DAN
Danee.
teacher, who has convinced them, that when once
they forego an attention to the loins, it is impofiible
to keep themfelves in a right perpendicular line ; and
therefore all their exertions will be devoid of tafte :
that all wavering and inllability in this part is incon-
fiftent with perpendicularity and firmnefs, and will cer¬
tainly caufe diftortion of the fhape and waift : that the
deprelfure and finking of the body deprives the lower
parts of that liberty which is neceifary to their eafy
motion : that hence the body is undetermined in its
pofitions; frequently drags the limbs ; and conftantly
lofes the centre of gravity 5 and therefore cannot re¬
cover an equilibrium, but after various efforts and con¬
tortions totally repugnant to the graceful and harmo¬
nious motions of good dancing.
Such is the performance of thofe dancers who have
no ftrength in their loins, or at leaft do not exert what
they poffefs. In order to dance well, the body fhould
be firm and fleady ; it fhould particulaily be motion-
lefs and free from wavering while the legs are in exer¬
tion ; for when the body follows the aftions of the
feet, it difplays as many grimaces and diftortions as
the legs execute different fteps ; the performance is
then robbed of its eafe, uniformity, harmony, exaid-
nefs, firmnefs, perpendicularity, and equilibrium; in
a word, of all thofe beauties and graces which are fo
effential to make dancing give pleafure and delight.
Many dancers are of opinion, that to be foft and
luxuriant, the knees muft be bent very low. But in
this they are moft certainly miftaken ; for a more than
ordinary flexion of the knees gives rather a drynefs
and infipidity to dancing ; and a dancer may be very
inelegant, and jerk, as it were, all his movements, as
well in bending very low as in not bending at all. The
reafon will appear natural and evident, when we refleft,
that the time and motions of the dancer are ftri&ly
fubordinate to the time and movements of the mufic :
purfuing this principle, it is not to be doubted, that
when the flexion of the knees is greater than what the
air or time of the dance.requires, the meafure then
drawls along, languifhes, and is loft. To recover and
catch again the time which this unneceffary flexion had
deftrcyed, the extenfion of the knee muft. be equally
quick ; and it is this fudden tranfition which gives fuck
a harflinefs and fterility to the execution, and renders
it as difguftful as the oppofite fault of ftiffnefs and in¬
flexibility.
That luxuriant foftnefs requires more to its perfec¬
tion than merely an exaft flexion and extenfion of the
knees ; the fpring of the inftep muft add its affiftance,
while the loins muft balanct the body to preferve thefe
fprings in proper bounds. It is this rare harmony of
motion (fays M. Noverrr) which has procured the ce¬
lebrated Dupr£ the glorious title of the God of Dance.
There are many dancers, and of an inferior clafs
only, who can difplay a great variety of fteps, badly
enough chofen to be fure, and often difplayed without
either judgment or tafte ; but it is very uncommon to
find among them that exaftnefs of ear (that rare but
innate talent of a dancer), which gives life to and
ftamps a value upon fteps, and which diffufes over all
their motions a fpirit that animates and enlivens
them.
There are fome ears ftupid and infenfible even to the
moft Ample, plain, and {hiking movements there are
others, more cultivated or refined, that can feel and
comprehe-nd the meafure, but cannot feize its intrica- N
cies; and there are others again to whom the moft dif¬
ficult airs and movements are eafy and intelligible, and
at once comprehended. It is neverthelefs certain, that
a dancer may have a very perfeft and nice feeling, and
yet not make his feelings intelligible to the audience,
if he has not the art of commanding thofe refources
which depend upon a proper exertion of the coup depied:
aukwardnefs becomes vifible where the exa&eft propor¬
tion was ueceffary 5 and every ftep which would have
been becoming, and produced the happieft effeft, had
it been fmartly introduced at the conclufion of the
meafure, will now be cold and lifelefs, if all the limbs
are in motion at once. It requires more time to move
the whole body than to exert any fingle member ; the
flexion and extenfion of the inftep is more readily and
quickly made than the reciprocal motion of all the
joints. This principle allowed, that the dancer is de-
ftitute of precifion, who (fuppofing he poffcfles a mu-
fical ear) knows not how to time his fteps ; the elafti-
city of the inftep, and the more or lefs a&ive play of
the mufcles, add to the natural fenfibility of the ear,
and ftamp value and brilliancy on the dance. The
joint charms of the harmony fpringing from the move¬
ments of the mufic, and the motions of the dancer,
captivate even thofe whofe eats are the moft infenfible
and leaft fufceptible of mufical impreflion.
There are fome countries where the inhabitants in
general are endowed with this innate mufical tafte.
The Palatinate, Wirtemberg, Saxony, Brandenbourg,
Auftria, and Bohemia, fupply the orcheftres of the
German princes with many excellent muficiansand emi¬
nent compofers. The Germans, indeed, are born
with a very lively and juft tafte for mufic, and have in
them the feeds of true harmony ; nothing is more com¬
mon than to hear concerts, both in the ftreets and in
the /hops of their mechanics, performed with the
greateft {kill and exaftnefs.
Such a natural and native tafte for mufic as we have
been mentioning, is ufually accompanied by, or in¬
cludes in it, a fimilar one for dancing ; they are kin¬
dred arts; the tender and harmonious accents of the
one excites and produces the agreeable and expref-
five motions of the other, and their union entertains
the eye and ear with animated pictures of fentiment;
thefe two fenfes, again, convey to the heart the inte-
refting images which affedl them, while the heart, in
its turn, communicates them to the mental faculty :
thus the pkafure refulting from the harmony and in¬
telligence of thefe two arts, enchants the ipe&ator,
and fills him with the moft feducing pleafures of vo-
luptoufnefs.
Dancing is probably no where varied to fucha de¬
gree as in the provinces of Germany; where the well
known dances of one village are ftrangers in the adja¬
cent hamlet; their fongs of mirth and merriment have
no lefs different airs and movements, though they are
all marked with that of gaiety. Their dances are
pleafing and engaging, becaufe the offspring of limple
nature ; their motions exprefs joy and pleafure ; and
the exadtnefs with which the whole is performed, gives
a peculiar agreeablenefs to their fteps, geftures, and
attitudes. Do they fpring ?—a hundred perfons, af-
fembled round an oak, or fome ancient pillar, feize
DAN [ 671 ] DAN
Dance, the time at one inftantj bound up, and defcend with the
' fame exaftnefs. Do they wifh to mark the meafure
by a coup-da-pied?—all flrike with one confent ; or
when they catch up their women, you fee them all in
the air at an equal height, nor do they defcend but at
the precife note that marks the time.
The counter-point, which is doubtlefs the touch-
flone of a delicate- ear, is to them an objeft of no dif¬
ficulty ; hence their dance is fo particularly animated,
and the nicety of that organ has the effect of giving
their different motions an air of gaiety and variety al¬
together exquifite.
A dancer whofe ear is untuned to harmony, difplays
his fteps without order or regularity, wanders from his
part, and purfues the meafure without being able to
reach it : devoid of judgment, his dancing has nei-
ther fentiment nor exprefBon ; and the mufic which,
fhould direft his motions, regulate his tfeps, and guide
his time, ferves only to expcfe his imperfc&hms and
infufficiency. The ftudy of mulic fhould therefore be
applied to for the purpofe of obviating this defedt, and
giving more ienfibility and exadlnefs to. the organs of
hearing.
It will not be expe&ed that we fhould proceed to
give a defcription of all the intricacies and combina¬
tions of fteps that are or can be exerted in dancing ;
or enlarge on the mechanical particulars of the art.
A diflertation on the latter would be infipid and dif-
gnilful ; for the language of the feet t»nd limbs is
addreffed to the eyes, not to the ears: and a detail
of the former would be endlefs, fince every dancer has
his peculiar manner of joining or varying the time.
It may be fufficient juft to mention on this point, that
it is in dancing as in mufic, and with dancers as with
muficians : Dancing does not abound with more fun¬
damental fteps than mufic with notes; but there are
odlaves, breves, femibreves, minims, crotchets, double
and treble crotchetstimes to count, and meafures to
follow. This mixture, however, of a fmall number of
fteps, and a few notes, furnifhes dancers with a mul¬
titude of conneftions and a variety of figures tafte
■and genius will always find a fource of novelty in ar-
ranging them in different manners, and to exprefs va¬
rious ideas. Slow and lengthened, or quick and pre¬
cipitate fteps, and the time correfpondently varied,
give birth to this endlefs diverfity.
Country-Dance. See Countrt-Dance.
Country-Dance, commonly fo written, and hence
feeming to imply a ruftic way of dancing borrowed
from country people or peafants, is by others fuppofed
to be a corruption of the French Contre-danfe, where a
number of perfons placing themfelves oppofite one to
another begin a figur e.
Rope-DANCER, fchosnobates, a perfon who walks,
leaps, dances, and performs feveral other feats, upon a
fmall rope or wire.
The ancients had ther rope-dancers as. well, as we.
Thefe had four feveral ways of exercifing their art:
The fii ft vaulted, or turned round the rope like a wheel
round its axis, and there hung by the heels or neck.
The fecond flew or Hid from above,. refting on their
ftomach, with.the arms and legs extended; The third
nan along a rope ftretched in a right line or up and
down. Daftly, the fourth not only walked on the
rope, but made furprifing leaps and turns thereon.
They had likewife the cremnobates and orolates; Dance
that is, people who walked on the brinks of precipi- n
ces: Nay more, Suetonius in Galba, c. 6. Seneca in anang’
his 85th Epiftle, and Pliny, lib. viii. c. 2. make men¬
tion of elephants that were taught to walk on the rope.
St Vitus’s Dance. See MEDiciNE-/«r/r*.
DANCETTE, in heraldry, is when the outline of
any bordure, or ordinary, is indented very largely, the
argenefs of the indentures being the only thing that-
diftinguifties it from indented.
DANCING. See Dance.
DANctNG-Girls of Egypt. See Alme.
Dancing-girls are empl yed all over the eaft, at
affording great diverfion at all public entertainments.-
They are all proftitutes ; and by the laws of their fo-
ciety are bound to refufe no one for their price,
which is rated according to their beauty and other
accompliftrments. There are even particular fehs of
them appropriated to the fervice of the Gentoo
temples and the ufe of the bramin priefts who attend
them. Thefe poor creatures fay that they were firft
debauched by their god, and afterwards by him con-
figned over to the ufe of the priefts who belong to his
temples.
Thefe dancing-girls, whether in a fettled or un¬
fettled condition, live in a band or community under
the dire&ion of fome fuperannuated female of the
fame profeffion, under whom they receive a regular
education, and are trained up in all the arts of love
and leafing, like fcholars in an academy. Thus they
acquire the art of captivating the affe&ions of the
other iex to fuch a degree, that nothing is more com¬
mon than for one of the princes or chief people of the
country to take a liking to one of thefe girls, and
wafte immenfe fums on her, though at the fame time
their own haram is flocked with beauties far fuperior,
and who are befides poffeffed of the natural modefty
of the fex, to. which the others have not the fmalleit
pretenfions. Thus fome of thefe girls acquire- im¬
menfe wealth. In the neighbourhood of Goa, for
inftance, on a part of the continent bordering on the
diftrift of that ifland, the dancing girls founded a-
village, after being driven from Goa by the zeal of the •
archbifhop. Here they refide in a body corporate, and
attend the parties of pleafure of the noblemen and
principal inhabitants, for it is not every one’s purfe
that can afford them. Here many of them acquire
eonfiderable fortunes by this fcandalous traffic, and
throw it into a common ftock for the fake of carry¬
ing on merchandife ; being concerned in fhipping and;
the moll profitable, voyages, for which they have regu¬
lar fa£lors and brokers.
The drefs of thefe women varies according to the-
country they live in ; but in all it is the moll gor¬
geous imaginable. They are loaded with jewels, lite¬
rally from top to toe, fince even on their toes they
wear rings. Their necks are adorned with carcanets,;
their arms with bracelets, and their ancles with chains,
of gold and filver, often enriched with precious Hones.
They alfo wear nofe-jewels, which at firft have an odd
appearance, but to which the eye is foon reconciled.
In Indoftan,. thefe dancing-girls,, as well as the other
women^of the country, have a peculiar method of pre-•
ferving and managing their breafts, which at the fame
time makes, no inconfiderable part, of their finery.
DAN
Dancing, They inclofe them in a pair of hollow cafes, exa&ly
fitted to them ; made of very light wood, linked to¬
gether, and buckled at the back. Thefe at once con¬
fine their breafts fo that they cannot-grow to any dif-
guftfully exuberant fize; though, from their fmooth-
nefs and pliancy, they play fo freely with every mo-
C 672 ]
DAN
■ accompanied with a mufic far from delightful, con¬
fiding of little drums called gumgums, cymbals, and a
fort of fife, which make a hideous din, and are played „
on by men, vvhofe effeminacy, grimaces, and uncouth
fhrivelled features, all together fhock the eye and tor¬
ture the ear. However, by ufe we become reconciled
tion of the body, that they do not crufh the tender to the noife, and may obferve fome not unpleafing airs,
  i:i,a n.-ff with which the dancers keep time: the words often
exprefs the matter of a pantomime dance, fuch as a
texture of the flefh in that part, like the ftiff whale¬
bone days in ufe among the Europeans. The out- _ t    
fide of them is fpread over with a thin plate of gold or lover courting his miftrefs ; a procurefs bringingf a let-
f 1 _ _ -.i :r.i  A  J j • _   _ 0 ^ “
fxlver, or fet with gems, if they can afford it. Ano¬
ther occafional ornament the dancing-girls put on,
particularly when they refort to their gallants, viz.
ter, and endeavouring to feduce a woman from one
gallant in favour of another; a girl timorous and a-
fraid of being caught in an intrigue. All thefe love-
a necklace of many loofe turns, compofed of flowers fcenes the girls execute in chara&er dances, and with
ftrung together, which they call mognes, fomewhat
refembling Spanifh double jeffamy, but of a much'
flronger and more agreeable fragrant odour, and far
preferable to any perfumes. “ They have nothing (fays
no defpicable expreffion, if they are proficients in their
art; for then their geflures, air, and fteps, are marking
and well adapted. In fome of their dances, even in
public, modefly is not much refpe&ed by the lafcivious
Mr Grofe) of that naufeous boldnefs which charac- attitudes into which they throw themfelves, without
terifes the European proftitutes, their ftyle of feduc-
tion being all foftnefs and gentlenefs.”
With regard to the performances of thefe women as
dancers, we have various accounts. The author of Me¬
moirs of the late War in Afia, acquaints us, “ that their
attitudes as well as movements are not ungraceful.
Their perfons are delicately formed, gaudily attired, and
highly perfumed. By the continuation of wanton at¬
titudes, they acquire, as they grow warm in the dance,
a frantic lafcivioufnefs themfelves, and communicate,
by a natural contagion, the moft voluptuous defires to
the beholders.Mr Ives feems to have been very cool
on this fubjeft. “ I could not (fays he) fee any
expofing any nudity ; being richly clad and bedecked
with jewels after their manner. But in private parties
to which they are called, as in gardens, they give
themfelves a greater loofe, and have dances in referve}
in which, though ftill without any grofsnefs in difco-
vering their bodies, they are miftrefles of fuch motions
and lewdnefs of looks and geftures as are perhaps more
provoking.
DANDELION, in botany. See Leontodon.
DANDINI (Pietro), an eminent painter, was born
at Florence in 1646, and received his firft inftru&ion
in the art of painting from Valerio Spada, who excel¬
led in fmall drawings with a pen. Whilfl he was un-
thing in their performance worthy of notice. Their der the care of that artift, he gave fuch evident proofs
movements are more like tumbling or flowing pollutes
than dancing. Their drefs is thin and light; and
their hair, necks, ears, arms, wrifts, fingers, legs, feet,
of a ready genius, that he was then placed as a dif-
ciple with his uncle Vincentio Dandini, a mafter of
great reputation through all Italy, who had been
and even the toes, are covered with rings of gold and bred up under Pietro da Cortona. He afterwards
filver, made after a clumfy manner. They wear two travelled through moft of the cities of Italy, ftu-
rings in their nofes ; and by their flaring looks and odd
gefticulations, you would rather fufpedl them to be
mad women than morris-dancers. The band of mufic
that attends them is not lefs Angular in its way : it is
chiefly compofed of three or four men, who hold two
pieces of bell metal in their hands, with which they
make an inceffant noife; another man beats what he
is pleafed to call a drum ; and that they may not want
vocal mufic to complete the band, there are always two
others appointed to fing. Thefe laft generally lay in
their mouths a good loading of beetel nut before they
begin ; which, after having been well chewed, tinges the
faliva with fuch a rednefs, that a ftranger would judge
them to bleed at the mouth by too violent an exertion
-of their voice. Thefe gentry are called tidy-taw boys,
from the two words /iriy-taw, which they continually re¬
peat, and chant with great vehemence. The dancing-
girls are fometimes made ufe of in their religious cq-
0 •  1 .i ■ u.• r  _• e
dying the works of thofe who were moft diftin-
guilhed ; and refided for a long time at Venice,
where he copied the paintings of Titian, Tintoretto,
and Paolo Veronefe. He next vifited Parma and Mo¬
dena, to defign the works of Correggio ; omitting no
opportunity that might contribute to improve his
hand or his judgment. When he returned to Flo¬
rence, the grand duke Cofmo III. the grand duchefs
Victoria, and the prince Ferdinand, kept him perpetu¬
ally employed, in frefco painting as well as in oil; his
fubjedts being taken not only from facred or fabulous
hiftory, but from his own invention and fancy, which
frequently furnilhed him with fuch as were odd and
Angular, and efpecially with whimfical caricatures.
He died in 1712.—This mafter had a moft extraor¬
dinary talent for imitating the ftyle of even the moft
celebrated ancient painters of every fchool, particu¬
larly Titian, Veronefe, and Tintoretto; and with a
remonies, as when the priefts bring forth the images of force and elegance, equal to his fuhjeits of hiftory,
their gods into the open fields on a car ornamented ^ ’•5 - J1*  ’ ’• ^ n
with lafcivious figures, thefe girls dance before the
images amidft a great crowd oF people 5 and having
been fele&ed for their fuperior beauty, are very pro¬
fitable to their matters the priefts, who are faid to pro-
ftitute them to all comers.”
Mr Grofe informs us, that “ thefe dances would
hardly at firft relilh with Europeans, efpecially as they
N® 97. 5
he painted portraits, landfcapes, architetture, flowers,
fruit, battles, animals of all kinds, and likewife fea-
pieces ; proving himfelf an univerfal artift, and excel¬
lent in everything he undertook.
He had a fon, Odtavio, who proved not inferior to
him in any branch of his profeffion, and was an honour
to his family and his country.
-Dandini (Caefare), hiftory' painter, was born at
Florence,
DAN [ 673 ] DAN
Ttenegelt Florence; and was the elder brother and firft inftruc- made prefeft of the province of-Babylon. In the reign Daniel.
H tor of Vincentio Dandini the uncle of Pietro. This of Darius the king of the Medes, he refufed to adore v~—J
anie ‘, mafter had fucceffively ftudied as a difciple with Ca- the golden ftatue of the king, and was caft into the
valier Curradi, Paffignano, and Chriftofano Allori; lions den, when thofe beads, tho’ pinched with hunger,
from whom he acquired a very pleafing manner of did him no manner of hurt. And he explained the
defigning and colouring. He was extremely correft charafters written on the wall of the room where Bd-
ih his drawing, and finifhed his pictures highly. Several fliazzar was feafting.
noble altar-pieces in the churches of Florence are of It is believed that Daniel died in Chaldea, and that
his hand ; and one, which is in the chapel PAnnon- he did not take advantage of the permiffion granted by
ciata, is particularly admired. Cyrus to the Jews of returning to their own country.
DANEGELT, an annual tax laid on the Anglo- St Epiphanius fays he died at Babylon; and herein he
Saxons, firft of 1 s. afterwards 2 s. for every hide of
land thro’ the realm, for maintaining fuch a number of
forces as were thought fufficient to clear the Britilh
Teas of Danifii pirates, which heretofore greatly an¬
noyed our coafts.
Danegelt was firft impofed as a ftanding yearly
tax on the whole nation, under king Ethelred, A. D.
is followed by the generality of hiftorians.
The prophecies of Daniel concerning the coming of
the Meffiah, and the ether great events of after-times,
are fo clear and explicit, that, as St Jerom tells us.
Porphyry obje&ed Jo them, that thofe which related
to the kings of Syria and Egypt, chap. xi. muft have
been written after the times of Antiochus Epiphanes;
991. That prince, fays Cambden, Britan. 142. much whereas this prophecy was tranflated into Greek 100
diftrefled by the continual invafions of the Danes, to
procure a peace, was compelled to charge his people
with heavy taxes, called danegelt.—At firft he paid
10,0001. then 16,0001. then 24,000!. after that
36,0001. and laftly 48,000 1.
Edward the Confeffor remitted this tax: William I.
years before his time, and the tranflation was in the
hands of the Egyptians, who had no great kindnefs
for the Jews and their religion. And thofe prophe¬
cies foretelling the fucceffes of Alexander, chap. viii.
5. xi. 3. were ftiown to Alexander by the Jews, in
confequence of which they obtained feveral privileges
A.,™ U™ - / lit * _ o \ rni n 1 •
and II. reaffumed it occafionally. In the reign of from him; (slnt. lib. xi. c. 8. ) The ftyle of Daniel
; the king’s ftanding is not fo lofty and figurative at that of the other pro-
Henry I. it was accounted among
revenues ; but king Stephen, on his coronation-day,
abrogated it for ever.
No church or church-land paid a penny to the dane¬
gelt ; becaufe, as is fet forth in an ancient Saxon law,
the people of England placed more confidence in the
prayers of the church than in any military defence
they could make.
DANDOLO (Henry), doge of Venice, a brave
phets; it is Clear and concife, and his narrations and
deferiptions fimple and natural: in Ihort, he writes
more like a hiftorian than a prophet.
The Jews do not reckon Daniel among the pro¬
phets ; part of his book, that is, from the fourth verfe
of his fecond chapter to the end of the feventh chap¬
ter, was originally written in the Chaldee language;
the reafon of which was, that in that part he treats
admiral and politician. With a Venetian fleet he took of the Chaldean or Babylonifh affairs : all the reft of
Conftantinople in 1203, and had the moderation tore-
fufe to be emperor. He died in 1250.
DANET (Peter), abbot of St Nicholas de Verdun,
was one of the perfons chofen by the duke of Montau-
the book is in Hebrew. The fix firft chapters of the
book of Daniel are a hiftory of the kings of Baby¬
lon, and what befel the Jews under their government.
In the fix laft he is altogether prophetical, foretelling
fier to write on the claffics for the ufe of the dauphin, not only what Ihould happen to his own church and
He had a lhare in Phasdrus, which he publifhed with
notes and explications in Latin. He alfo wrote a dic¬
tionary in Latin and French, and another in French
and Latin. He died at Paris in 1709.
DANIEL, the fourth of the greater prophets, was
nation, but events in which foreign princes and king-,
doms were concerned.
Daniel (Samuel), an eminent poet and hiftorianr
was born near Taunton in Somerfetlhire in the year
1562, and educated at Oxford : but leaving that u
born in Judea of the tribe of Judah, about the 25th verfity without a decree, he applied himfelf to Englifh
year of the reign of Jofiah. He was led captive to hiftory and poetry under the patronage of the earl of
Babylon, with other young Hebrew lords, after the ta- Pembroke’s family. He was afterwards tutor to the
king of Jerufalem by Nebuchadnezzar, who took them lady Ann Clifford ; and, upon the death of Spencer,
into his fervice. That prince gave them mafters to in- was created poet-laureat to queen Elizabeth. Inking
ftrudl them in the language and fciences of the Chal- James’s reign he was appointed gentleman extraordi-
deans, and ordered them to be fed with the moft de- nary, and afterwards one of the grooms of the privy-
licate viands ; but they, fearing that they fliould eat chamber to the queen confort, who took great delight
meat forbidden by the law of Mofes, defired the king’s in his converfation and writings. He wrote an hiftory
officers to allow them only pulfe. The wifdom and of England, feveral dramatic pieces, and fome poems ;
conduct of Daniel pleafing Nebuchadnezzar, that and died in 1619,
prince gave him feveral polls of honour. It is com- Daniel (Gabriel), a celebrated Jefuit, and one of
monly believed, that this prophet, when but 12 years of the beft French hiftorians, was born at Rouen in i6.|
age, made known the innocence of tire chafte Sufan-
nah ; but the learned are not agreed, that the young
Daniel, who confounded the old men, was the fame
with this prophet. However, he explained Nebuchad-
He taught polite literature, philofophy, and divinity,
among the Jefuits ; and was fuperior of their houfe at
Paris, where he died in 1728. There are a great
number of his works publiflted in French, of which
nezzar’s dream of the myfterious ftatue, which foretold the principal are, 1. An Hiftory of France, of which
the four great monarchies ;
Vql.V. Part. li¬
on which account he was he alfo wrote an abridgment in nine volumes izmo.
4 2. An
DAN [ 674 ] DAN
DanmottM, 2. An Hlftory of the French Militia, in 2 vols 4to.
Dante. 3. An Anfiver to the Provincial Letters. 4. A Voyage
to the World of Defcartes. 5. Letters on the Doc¬
trines of the Theorifts, and on Probability. 6. New
difficulties relating to the knowledge of Brutes : And,
7. A theological treatife on the Efficacy of Grace.
D ANMONII, an ancient Britiffi nation, fnppofed to
have inhabited that tra& of country which is now called
Cornwal and Devonftiire, bounded on the fouth by the
Britiffi Ocean, on the well by St George’s Channel,
on the north by the Severn Sea, and on the eaft by the
country of the Durotriges. Some other Britiffi tribes
were alfo feated within thefe limits; as the Coffini
and Oftidamnii, which were probably particular clans
of the Danmonii; and, according to Mr Baxter, they
were the keepers of tl^eir flocks and herds. As the
feveral tribes of the Danmonii fubmitted without much
refiftance to the Romans, and never joined in any re¬
volt againft them, that people were under no neceifity
of building many forts, or keeping,many garrifons
in their country. This is the reafon why fo few Ro¬
man antiquities have been found in that country, and
fo little mention is made of it-and its ancient inhabi¬
tants by Roman writers. Ptolemy names a few places,
both on the fea-coafts and in the inland parts of this
country, which were known to, and frequented by, the
Romans. The moll cpnfiderable.of thefe places are
the two famous promontories ofl Bolerium and Ocri-
num, now the Landfend and the Lizard; and the
towns of Ifca Danmoniorum and Tamare, now Exe¬
ter and Saltaffi. As the Danmonii fubmitted fo tame¬
ly to the Romans, they might perhaps permit them t«
live, for fome time at leaft, under their own princes
and their own laws; a privilege which we know they
granted to fome other Britiffi ftates. In the moft per-
fett ftate of the Roman government in Britain, the
country of the Danmonii made a part of the province
called Flava Caefarienfis, and was governed by the pre-
fident of that province. After the departure of the
Romans, kingly government was immediately revived
amongft the Danmonii in the perfon of Vortigern,
who was perhaps defcended from the race of their an¬
cient princes, as his name fignifies in the Britiffi lan¬
guage a chieftain or the head of a family.
DANTE (Aligheri), one ©f the firft poets of
Italy, was born at Florence in 1265, of an ancient and
honourable family. Boccacio, who lived in the fame
period, has left a very curious and entertaining treatife,
®n the life, the ftudies, and manners of this extraordi¬
nary poet; whom he regarded as bis mafter, and for
whofe memory he profefled the higheft veneration.
This biographer relates, that Dante, before he was
nine years old, conceived a paffion for the lady whom
lie has immortalized in his fipgular poem. Her age
was near his own ; and her name wars Beatrice, the
daughter of Folco Portinari, a noble citizen of Flo¬
rence. The paffion of Dante, however, like that of his
fucceffor Petrarch, feems to have been oP the chafte
and platonic kind, according to the account he has
himfelf given of it, in one of his early produftions in-
titled Vita Nuova; a mixture of myfterious poetry and
profe ; in which he mentions both the. origin of his af-
fettion and the death of his miftrefs, who, according
to Boccacio, died at the age of 2*4. The fame author
affcrts, that Dante fell, into a deep melancholy in con-
fi quence of this event, from which his friends endea- D.int*.
voured to raife him, by perfuading him to marriage.‘'"’—v—
After fome time he followed their advice, and repent¬
ed it; for he unfortunately made choice of a lady who
bore fome refemblance to the celebrated Xantippe.
The poet, n;« pofleffing the patience of Socrates, fe-
parated himfelf from her with fuch vehement expref-
fions of diflike, that he never afterwards admitted her
to his prefence, though ffie had born him fevcral
children. In the early part of his life he gained fome
credit in a military chara&er ; d'ftinguhhing himfelf
by his bravery in an arition where the Florentines obtain¬
ed a fignal viftory over the citizens of A rezzo. He
became Hill more eminent by the acquifition of civil
honours; and at the age of 35 he rofe to be one of
the chief magiftrates of Florence, when that dignity
was conferred by the fuffrages of the people. From
this exaltation the poet himffilf dated his principal
misfortunes, as appears from the fragment of a letter
quoted by Lionardo Bruni, one of his early biogra¬
phers, where Dante fpeaks of his political failure with
that liberal franknefs which integrity infpires. Italy
was at that time diftrafted by the contending faftions
of the Ghibellins and the Guelphs: the latter, among
whom Dante took an adtive part, were again divided
into the Blacks and the Whites. Dante, fays Gra-
vina, exerted all his influence to unite thefe inferior
parties; but his efforts were ineffeftual, and he had the
misfortune to be unjuftly perfecuted by thofe of hi^
own faction. A powerful citizen of Florence, named
Corfo Donati, had taken meafures to terminate thefe
inteftine broils, by introducing Charles of Valois, bro¬
ther to Philip the Fair king of France. Dante, with
great vehemence, oppofed this difgraceful project, and;
obtained the baniffiment of Donati and his partizans.
The exiles applied to the pope (Boniface VIII.),
and by his affiftance fueceeded in their defign. Charles
of Valois entered Florence in triumph, and thofe who
had oppefed his admiffion were baniffied in their turn.
Dante had been difpatched to Rome as the ambaffa-
dor of his party ; and was returning, when he received
intelligence of the revolution in his native city. His
enemies, availing themfelves of his abfence, had procu¬
red an iniquitous fentence againft him, by which he
was condemned to baniffiment, and his poffeffions
were confifcated. His two enthufiaftic biographers,.
Bocoacio and Manetti, exprefs the warmeft indigna¬
tion againft this injuftice of his country. Dante, on s
receiving the intelligence, took refuge in Siena, and
afterwards in Arezzo, where many of his party Were
affembled. An attempt was made to furprife the city
of Florence, by a fmall army which Dante is fup-
pofed to have attended: the defign mifearried, and
our poet is conjedtured to have wandered to various
parts of Italy, till he found a patron in the great Can-
della Scala, prince of Verona, whom he has celebrated
in his poem. The high fpirit of Dante was ill fuited
to courtly dependence ; and he is faid to have loft the
favour of his Veroneze patron by the rough franknefs
of his behaviour. From Verona he retired to France,
according to Manetti; and Boccacio affirms that he
difputed in the theological fchools of Paris with great
reputation. Bayle queftions his vifiting Paris at this
period of his life; and thinks it improbable, that a man*
who had been one of the chief magiftrates of Florence,
ffiould
DAN
©ante, /hould condefcend to engage in the public fquabbjes of
“—v  the Parifian theologifts ; but the fpirit both of Dante
and the times in which he lived fufficiently account
for this exercife of his talents ; and his rdidence in
France at this feafon is confirmed by Boccacio, in his
life of our poet, which Bayle feems to have had no
opportunity of confulting.
The ele&ign of Henry count of Luxemburgh to
the empire, in November 1308, afforded Dante a pro-
fpe& of being reftored to his nativft city, as he attached
himfelf to the ioterett of the new emperor, in whofe
fervice he is fuppofed to have written his Latin trea-
tife De Monarchia, in which he afferted the rights of
the' empiie againft the encroachments of the Papacy.
In the year 1311, he inftigated Henry to lay fiege to
Florence; in which enterprife, fays one of the bio¬
graphers, he did not appear in perfon, from motives of
refpeft towards his native city. The emperor was re-
pulfed by the Florentines ; and his death, which hap¬
pened in the fucceeding year, deprived Dante of all
hopes concerning re-ellablifhment in Florence. After
this difappointment, he is fuppofed to have puffed fome
years in roving about Italy in a flate of poverty'and
diftrefs, till he found an honourable eftabiifhment
at Ravenna, under the proteftion of Guido Novello
da Polenta, the lord of that city, wTho received this il-
luftrious exila with the moft endearing liberality, con¬
tinued to proteft him through the few remaining years
of his life, and extended his munificence to the alhes
of the poet.
Eloquence was bne of the many talents which Dante
pofieffed in an eminent degree. On this account he
is faid to have 'been employed on fourteen different
embaffies in the courfe of his life, and to have fuc-
ceeded in moft of them. His patron Guido had occa-
fion to try his abilities in a fervice of this nature, and
difpatched him as his ambaffador to negociate a peace
with the Venetians, who were preparing for hoftilities
againft Ravenna. Manetti afferts that he was unable
to procure a public audience at Venice, and returned
to Ravenna by land, from his apprehenfions of the
-Venetian fleet; when the fatigue of his journey, and
the mortification of failing in his attempt to preferve
his generous patron from the impending danger, threw
him into a fever, which terminated in death on the
14th of September 1321. He died, however, in the
palace of his friend ; and the affaftionate Guido paid
the moft tender regard to his memory. This magni¬
ficent patron (fays Boccacio) commanded the body to
be adorned with poetical ornaments, and, after being
carried on a bier through the ftreets of Ravenna by the
moft illuftrious citizens, to be depofited in a marble
coffin. He pronounced himfelf the funeral oration,
and expreffed his defign of ere&ing a fplendid monu¬
ment in honour of "the deceafed a defign which his
fubfequent misfortunes rendered him unable to accom-
_ plilh. At his requeft, many epitaphs were written on
" the poet: thebeft of them (fays Boccacio) by Giovan¬
ni del Virgilio of Bologna, a famous author of that
time, and the intimate friend of Dante. Boccacio then
cites a few Latin verfes, not worth tranfcribing, fix. of
which are quoted by Bayle as the compofition of Dante
himfelf, on the authority of Paul Jovius. In 1483
Bernardo Bemho, the father of the celebrated cardinal.
DAN
raifed a handfome monument over the neglefted afhes
of the poet, with the followjng infcription :
Exigna tumuli Danthes hie forte jaceba*
Squalenti nulli cognita pane fun ;
At nunc marmoreo fubnixus conderis arcu.
Omnibus et cultu fplendidiore nites:
Nimirum Bembus, Mufis incenfui Etrufcic
Hoc tibi, quern in primis hae coluere, dedit.
Before this period the Florentines had vainly endea¬
voured to obtain the bones of their great poet from
the city of Ravenna. In the age of Lea X. they
made a fecond attempt, by a folemn application to the
pope, for that purpofe; and the great Michael Angelo,
an enthufiaftic admirer of Dante, very liberally offered
to execute a magnificent monument to the poet. The
hopes of the Florentines were again unfuccefsful. The
particulars of their Angular petition may be found in
the notes to Codivi’s Life of Michael Angelo.
At what time, and in what place, he executed the
great and Angular work which has rendered him im¬
mortal, his numerous commentators feem unable to
determine. Boccacio afferts, that he began it in his
35th year, and had finifhed feven cantos of his Infer¬
no before his exile ; that in the plunder of his houfe,
on that event, the beginning of his poem was fortu*
nately preferved, but remained for fome time neglec¬
ted, till its merit being accidentally difeovered by' an
intelligent poet named Dino, it was fent to the mar¬
quis Marcello Malefpina, an Italian nobleman, by whom
Dante was then protected. The marquis reftored thefe
loft papers to the poet, and intreated him to proceed
in a work which opened in fo promifing a manner. To
this incident we are probably indebted for the poem of
Dante, which he muft have continued under all the
difadvantages of an unfortunate and agitated life. . It
does not appear at what time he completed it; per¬
haps before he quitted Verona, as he dedicated the Pa-
radife to his Veronefe patron. The critics have vari-
oufly accounted for his having called his poem Come¬
dia. He gave it that title (faid one of his fons), be-
caufe it opens with diftrefs and clofes with felicity.
The very high eftimation in which this produttion was
held by his country, appears from a fingular inftitutiori.
The republic of Florence, in the year 1373, affigned a
public ftipend to a perfon appointed to read lectures
on the poem of Dante : Boccacio was the firft perfon
engaged in this office ; but his death happening in two
years after his appointment, his comment extended
only to the feventeen firft cantos of the Inferno. The
critical differtations that have been written on Dante
are almoft as numerous as thofe to which Homer has
given birth ; the Italian, like the Grecian, bard, ha*
been the fubjeft of the higheft panegyric, and of the
groffeft inveftive. Voltaire has fpoken of him with
that precipitate vivacity, which fo frequently led that
lively Frenchman to infult the reputation of the nobieft
writers. In one of his entertaining letters, he lays to
an Italian abbd, “ Je fais grand cas du courage, avec
lequel vous avez ofe dire que Dante etoit un fou, et fon
ouvrage un monftre.—Le Dante pourra entrer dans les
bibliotheques des curieux, mais il ne fera jamais hi.’*
But more temperate and candid critics have not been
wanting to difplay the merits of this original poet. Mr
Wartsn has introduced into his laft volume onEngliffi
4 Q^ 2 poetry*
[ 675 ]
DAN [ 676 ] DAN
Dante, poetry, a judicious and fpirited fummary of Dante’s
Dantzic. performance.
Dante (John Baptift), a native of Perugia, an ex¬
cellent mathematician, called the new Dada/us, for the
wings he made himfelf, and widp which he flew feveral
times over the lake Thrafymjmus. He fell in one of
his enterprifes ; the iron work with which he managed
one of his wings having failed ; by which accident he
broke his thigh: but it was fet by the furgeons, and
he was afterwards called to Venice to profefs mathe¬
matics.
DANTZIC, the capital of Polifh Pruffia, Handing
on a branch of the Viftula, about four miles above
where it falls into the Baltic; in E. Long. 18. 36.
N. Lat. 54. 20. This city is famous in hiftory on
many accounts, particularly that of its being former¬
ly at the head of the Hanfeatic aflbciation, common;
ly called the Hanfe-towns. It is large, beautiful, po¬
pulous, and rich; its houfes generally are five ft ones
high; and many of its ftreets are planted with chef-
nut-trees. One of the fuburbs is called Scotland;
and the Scots have great-privileges in confequence of
their gallant defence of the town, under one of the fa¬
mily of Douglas, when it was befieged by the Poles.
It is faid there are upwards of 30,000 pedlars of that
nation in Poland who travel on foot, and fome with
three, four, or five horfes. In king Charles II.’s time
they were about 53,000: in that reign Sir John Den¬
ham and Mr Killigrew were fent to take the number
of them, and to tax them by the poll, with the king of
Poland’s licence; which having obtained, they brought
home L. 10,000 Sterling, befides their charges in the
journey. Dantzic has a fine harbour; and is flill a
moft eminent commercial city, although it feems to be
fomewhat paft its meridian glory, which was probably
about the time that the prefident de Thou wrote his
much efteemed Hijhria fui Temporis, wherein, under the
year 1607, he fo highly celebrates its commerce and
grandeur. It is a republic, claiming a fmall adjacent
territory about forty miles round it, which were under
the proteftion of the king and the republic of Poland.
Its magiftracy, and the majority of its inhabitants, are
Lutherans ; although the Romanifts and Calvanifts be
equally tolerated in it. It has 26 parifhes, with many
convents and hofpitals. The inhabitants have been
computed to amount to 200,000 ; but later computa¬
tions fall very confiderably fhort of it, as appears by
its annual bill of mortality, exhibited by Dr Bufching,
who tells us, that in the year 1752, there died but
1846 perfons. Its own fhipping is numerous; but
the foreign fhips conftantly retorting to it are more
, io, whereof 1014 arrived there in the year 1752 ; in
which year alfo 1288 Polifh veflels came down the
Viilula, chiefly laden with corn, for its matchlefs gra¬
naries ; from w-hence that grain is diftributed to many
foreign nations, Poland being juflly deemed the great-
eft magazine of corn in all Europe, and Dantzic the
greateft port for diftributing it every where : befides
which, Dantzic exports great quantities of naval ftores,
and vaft variety of other articles. Dr Bufching af¬
firms, that it appears from ancient records, as early as
the year 997, that Dantzic was a large commercial
city, and not a village or inconfiderable town, as fome
pretend. The inhabitants of Dantzic have often
changed their mailers, and have fometimes been un¬
der the prote&ion of the Englifh and Dutch ; but ge- Danuk '
nerally have fhown a great predile&ion for the king- il
dom and republic of Poland, as being lefs likely to ri- t Daphne. <
val them in their trade, or abridge them of their im
munities, which reach even to the privilege of coining
money. Though ftrongly fortified, and pofTeffed of
150 large brafs cannon, it could not, through itsfitua-
tion, ftand a regular flege, being furrounded with emi¬
nences. In 1734, the inhabitants difeovered a remark¬
able attachment and fidelity towards Staniflaus king
of Poland, not only when his enemies, the Ruffians,
were at their gates, but even in poffeffion of the city.
This city was exempted by the late king of Pruffia
from thofe claims which he made on the neighbouring
countries; notwithftanding which, his Pruffian ma-
jefty foon after thought proper to feize on the terri¬
tories belonging to Dantzic, under pretence of. their
having been formerly part of Polifh Pruffia. He then
proceeded to poflefs himfelf of the port-duties belong¬
ing to that city, and erefted a cuftom-houfe in the
harbour, where he laid arbitrary and infupportable du¬
ties upon goods exported or imported. To complete
the fyftem of oppreffion, cuftom-houfes were ere fled
at the very gates of Dantzic, fo that no perfons
could go in or out of the town without being fearch-
ed in the ftrifteft manner. Such is the treatment
which the city of Dantzic has received from the king
of Pruffia, though few cities have ever exifted which
have been comprehended in fo many general and par¬
ticular treaties, and whofe rights and liberties have
been fo frequently fecured, and guarantied by fo many
great powers, and by fuch a long and regular fucceffion
of public a£ls, as that of Dantzic has been. In the year
1784, it was blockaded by his troops on various pre¬
tences ; but by the interpofition of the emprefs of Ruf-
fia and of the king of Poland, they were withdrawn ;
and a compromife having taken place, the city was
reftored to its former immunities. Neverthelefs, its
trade has fince been rather upon the decline, the mer¬
chants choofing to fettle where their property may
be more fecure.
DANUBE, the largeft and moft confiderable river
in Europe, riling in the Black Foreft, near Zunberg ;
and running N. E. through Swabia by Ulm, the ca¬
pital of that Country ; then running E. through Baf-
faria and Auftvia, pafles by Ratifbon, Paffau, Ens, and
Vienna. It then enters Hungary, and runs S. E. from
Prefburg to Buda, and fo on to Belgrade; after wrhich
it divides Bulgaria from Molachia and Moldavia, dif-
charging itfelf by fever;A channels into the Black Sea,
in the province of Beffarabia. Towards the mouth,
it was called the Ifter by the ancients; and it is now
faid, that four of the mouths are choaked up with fand,
and that there are only two remaining. It begins to
be navigable for boats at Uhn, and receives feveral
large rivers as it pafles along. It is fo deep between.
Buda and Belgrade, that the Turks and Chriftians have,
had men of war upon it; and yet it is not navigable
to the Black Sea, on account of the cataradls. The
Danube was generally fuppofed to be the northern .
boundary of the Roman empire in Europe. It w'as
worfhipped as a deity by the Scythians.
DAPHNE, a daughter 6f the river Peneus by
the goddefs Terra, of whom Apollo became enamour-
. ed. This paffion had been failed by Cupid ; with
whom
DAP L 677 ] DAP
Daphne, whom Apollo, proud of his late conqueft of the fer-
"■“"v—pent Python, had difputed the power of his darts.
Daphn; heard with horror the addrefTes of the god,
and endeavoured to remove herfelf from his importu¬
nities by flight. Apollo purfued her, and Daphne,
fearful of being caught, intreated the afliftance of the
gods, who changed her into a laurel. Apollo crown¬
ed his head with the leaves of the laurel, and for
ever ordered that that tree fhould be facred to his di¬
vinity. Some fay that Daphne was admired by Leu¬
cippus, fon of CEnomaus king of Pifa, who to be in
her company difguifed his fex and attended her in the
woods in the habit of-a huntrefs. Leucippus gained
Daphne’s efteem and love ; but Apollo, who was his
powerful rival, difcovered his fex, and Leucippus was
killed by the companions of Diana. Daphne was al-
fo the name ©f a daughter of Tirefias, prieftefs in the
temple of Delphi. She was confeCrated to the fervice
of Apollo by the Epigoni, or according to others by
the goddefs Tellus. She was called Sibyl on account
of the wildnefs of her looks and expreffions when (he
delivered oracles. Her oracles were generally in verfe ;
and Homer, according to fome accounts, has intro¬
duced much of her poetry in his comppfitions.
Daphne (anc. geog.), a fmall village near to, or
in the fuburbs of, Antiochia of Seleucis in- Syria; with
a, large grove, well watered with fprings : In the mid¬
dle of the grove flood the temple of Apollo and Diana.
Its extent was 80 ftadia or 10 miles; the diflance
from the city five miles: A place pleafant and agree¬
able, from the plenty of water and the temperature of
the air, and its foft breathing breezes. The grove
was of bay-trees, intermixed with cyprefs; which laft
multiplied fo fall, as to occupy the whole of it. Pom-
pey gave fome land for enlarging the grove. Antio-
chus Epiphanes built a very large temple of Daph-
naeus Apollo. The place at length became fo infa¬
mous, that people of modefiy and charafter avoided
reforting thither: fo that Daphnici mores became pro¬
verbial.
Daphne (anc. geog.), a fmall diftrict on the lake
Samachonitis, in the Higher Galilee, very pleafant and
plentifully watered with fprings, which feed the Lefs
Jordan; whence its name feems to arife, probably in
imitation of that near Antioch of Syria on the river
Orontes.
Daphne, Spurge laurel•, a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the oftandria clafs of plants ; and
In the natural method ranking under the 3 i ft order,
VeprecuU. There is no calyx ; the corolla is quadri-
fid and marcefcent, inclofing the ftamina. The fruit
is a monofpermous berry. There are 15 fpecies; of
which the following are the moft remarkable.
1. Mezereum, the mezereon or fpurge-olive, is a low
deciduous flirub. It is a native of Germany, and has.
been alfo difcovered in this country in fome woods near
Andover in Hamplhire. Of this elegant plant there
are four varieties: 1.. The white ; 2. The pale-red;
3. The crimfon-; and, 4. The purple-flowering.—
Hanbury.is very lavifli of his praife of thefe fhrubs.
He fays, “ they have each every perfection to recom¬
mend them as flowering-ftirubs. In the firft place,
they are of. low growth, feldom arifing to more than
three or- four feet in height, and therefore are proper
even for .the fmalleft gardens. In.the next place, they
will be in bloom when few trees, efpecially of the Daphne.
Ihrubby tribe, prefent their honours. It wiH be in —r——
February, nay, fometimes in January ; then will the
twigs be garnifhed with flowers all around from one
end to the other. Each twig has the appearance of a
fpike of flowers of the moft confummate lultre ; and
as the leaves are not yet out, wdiether you behold this
tree near or at a diftance, it has a moft enchanting
appearance. But this is not all; the fenfe of fmell-
ing is peculiarly regaled by the flowers; their fpicy
fweetnefs is diffufed around, and the air is perfumed
with their odours to a confiderable diftance. Many
flowers, deemed fweet, are not liked by all; but the
agreeable ihoffenfive fweetnefs of the mezereon has e-
ver delighted the fenfe of fmelling, whilft the luftre
of its blow' has feafted the eye. Neither is this the
only pleafure the tree beftows; for befides the ,beauty
of the leaves, which come out after the flowers are
fallen, and which are of a pleafant green colour and
an oblong figure, it will be full of red berries in June,
which will continue growing till the autumn. Of
thefe berries the birds are very fond ; fo that whoever
is delighted with thofe fongfters, fliould have a quan¬
tity of them planted all over the outfides of his wilder-
nefs quarters.”
2. Gnidium, the flax-leaved daphne, is a low de¬
ciduous flirub; native of Italy,^Spain, and about-
Montpelier. This fpecies feldom grows higher than
three feet. The branches are veiy llender, and orna¬
mented with narrow, fpear-ftiaped, pointed leaves,
much like thofe of the common flax. The flowers are
produced in panicles at the ends of the branches :
They are fmall, come out in June, but are rarely fuc-
ceeded by feeds in England.
3. Cneorum, the fpear-leaved daphne or- cneo-
rum, is a very low deciduous ftirub ;.native of Switzer¬
land, Hungary, the Alps and Pyrenean • mountains.
This rifes with a ftirubby, branching, ftalk, to about
a foot or a foot and an half high. The leaves are nar¬
row, fpear-ftiaped, and grow irregularly on the branch¬
es. The flowers are produced in clufters at the ends-
of the little twigs : They make their appearance in
March, are of a purple colour, and poflefled of a fra¬
grance little inferior to that of the mezereon 5 but
they are feldom fucceeded by feeds in England.
4. Tartonraira, the oval-leaved daphne or tarton-
raira, a very low deciduous flirub,, is a native of France
and Italy. This rifes with a woody ftalk to the height-
of about two feet. The branches are numerous, ir¬
regular, tough, and covered with a light-browu-co-
loured bark. The leaves are oval,' very fmall, foft to
the touch, and ftiining. The flowers are produced in
clufters from the fides of the ftalks: They are white,
come out in June, and are fucceeded by roundifli ber¬
ries, which feldom ripen in England. This fort fliould
have a dry foil and a warm fituation.
5. Alpina, the alpine daphne or chamelasa, is a
low deciduous flirub, native of the Alps, Geneva, ,
Italy, and Auftria: This will grow to the height of
about a yard. The leaves are fpgar-fliaped,- obtufe,,
and hoary underneath. The flowers come out in cluf¬
ters from the fides of the branches, and are very fra¬
grant : They appear in March, and are fucceeded by '
red berries, that ripen in September.
6. Thymekea, the milkwort-leaved daphne or the-
thymekea 3
dap , r 6“
aphp.e tliymSaea ; a low deciduous Ihrub, native t>F Spain and
the fouth of Fiance. The thymelaea will grow to the
height of a yard. The ftalks of this fpecies are up¬
right, branched, and covered with a light-brown bark.
The leaves are fpear-fhaped, fmooth, and in fome re-
fpedt refemble thofe of milk-wort. The flowers are
produced in clufters from the fides of the ftalks: They
are of a greenifli colour, have no footftalks, appear in
March, and are fucceeded by fmall yellowilh berries,
which will be ripe in "Auguft. This fort requires a
dry foil and a warm fttuation.
7. Villofa, the hairy-leaved daphne, a very low de¬
ciduous. fhrub, native of Spain and Portugal. The
ftalks are ligneous, about two feet high, and fend
forth branches alternately from the fides. The leaves
are fpea'r-ihaped, plane, hairy on both fides, and grow
on very fliort footftalks. The flowers have very nar¬
row tubes, are fmall, and make no great Ihow: They
come out in June, and are not fucceeded by ripe feeds
in England. This {hrub, in fome fituations, retains
its leaves all winter in fuch beauty as to caufe it to be
ranked among the low-growing evergreens ; but as in
others it is fometimes Shattered with the firft black
winds, it is left to the gardener whether to place this
ihrub among the deciduous trees or evergreens.
8. Laureola, the fpurge laurel or evergreen daphne ;
a low evergreen ihrub, csmmon ia fome parts of this
kingdom, alfo in Switzerland and France. This fhrub
feldom -grows more than a yard or four feet high 5 it
fends out many branches from the bottom,. and thefe
are covered with a fmooth light-brown bark that is
very thick. The bark on the younger branches is
fmooth and green ; and thefe are very clofely garnifli-
•ed with leaves of a delightful ftrong lucid green co¬
lour. Thefe leaves fit clofe to the branches, and are
produced in fuch plenty, that they have the appear¬
ance, at a fmall diftanCe, of clufters at the ends of the
branches. They are fpear-fhaped, fhining, fmeoth,
and thick; their edges are entire. Hanbury extols
this plant with a degree of enthufiafm; continuing,
“ ahd this is another excellent property of this tree,
that it is thus poflefied of fuch delightful leaves for its
ornament. Thefe leaves, ■ when growing under the
drip of trees, fpread open, and exhibit their green pure
and untarnifhed, in its natural colour; when planted
fingly in expofed places, they naturally turn back with
a kind of twift, and the natural green of the leaf is of¬
ten alloyed with a brownifh tinge. This fhrub is alfo
valuable on account of its flowers; not becaufe they
■make any great fliow, but from their fragrance, and
the time they appear ; for it will be in blow the be¬
ginning of January, and will continue fo until the
.middle or latter end of April before the flowers fall
off; during which time they never fail to diffufe a-
broad their agfeeable odours, which are refrefhing and
inoffenfive. In the evenings efpecially, they are more
than-commonly liberal; infomuch that a few plants
will often perfume the whole end of a garden ; and
when this happens early, before many flowers appear,
the unfkiiful in flowers, perceiving an uncommon fra-
grancy, are at once ftruck with furprize, and immedi¬
ately begin enquiring from whence it can proceed.
Neither are its odours confined to a garden only; but,
when planted near windows, they will enter parlours,
and afcend even into bed-chambers, to the great com-
1 DAP
fort of the polfeffor, and furprize of every frefh vfii- Daphne. ’
tor.” Thefe flowers make but little fhow ; for they
are fmall, and of a greenifh-yellow. They are pro¬
duced amongft the leaves from the fides of the ftalks,
in fmall clufters, and will often be fo hid by them, as
to be unnoticed by any but the curious. They are
fucceeded by oval berries, which are firft green, and
afterwards black when ripe. Thefe berries will be
in fuch plenty as to be very ornamental; but will
foon be eaten up by the birds ; which is another good
property of this tree, as it invites the different forts
of whittling birds to flock where it is planted in great
plenty.
Propagation. The mezereon ripens its feeds with
us, which may at any time be eafily obtained, if they
are fecured from birds. Previous therefore to fowing,
the healthieft and mott thriving trees of the white, the
pale, and the deep-red forts, ftiould be marked out, and
as foon as the berries begin to alter from green, they
mutt be covered with nets, to fecure them from the
birds, which would otherwife devour them all. The
berries will be ripe in July ; and due obfervance muft
be had to pick th£m up as they fall from the trees,
and to keep the forts feparate. As foon as they are
all fallen, or you have enough for your purpofe, they
may then be fown. The heft foil for thefe plants is a
good fat'black earth, fuch as is found in kitchen-gar¬
dens that have been well manured and managed for
many years. In fuch foil as this they will not only
come up better, but will grow to a greater height
than in any other. No particular regard need be paid to
the fituation; for as this tree is a native of the northern
parts of Europe, it will grow irt a north border, and
flourifli there as well as in a fouth; nay, if there be
any difference, the north border is more eligible than
the fouth. The ground being made fine, and cleared
of roots of all forts, the feeds fhould be fown hardly
half an inch depth. The mould being riddled over them
that depth, let the beds be netted up, and they will
want no other attention until the fpring. Thefe feeds
will fometimes refnain in the ground two years; but
for the moft part they come up the fpring after fow¬
ing ; and the feedlings will require no other care du¬
ring the fummer than weeding, and gentle watering
in dry weather. After they have been in the feed-bed
one year, the ftrongeft may be drawn out, and planted
in the nurfery, to make room for the others; though,
if they do not come up very clofe, it would be as well
to let them remain in the feed-bed until the fecond
autumn : when they fhould be taken up with care, and
planted in beds at a foot afunder each way. This
will be diftance enough for thefe low-growing fhrubs.
O&ober is the heft month for planting them out final¬
ly ; for although they will grow if removed any time
between then and fpring, yet that wfill certainly be a
more proper feafon than when they are in full blow.
Such is the culture of this (hrub. The other fpecies
of this genus require a different management.
The fpurge laurel is propagated by feeds, in the
fame manner as tlie common mezereon. The feeds
muft be preferved from the birds by nets, until they
are ripe. Soon after, they muft be fown as is dire£t-
ed for the mezereon. They will often be two years
before they come up ; during which time, and after¬
wards, they may have the fame management as has
been
BAP [ 679 1 DAP
Paphne. been laid down for the common mezereon until they
■—v  be finally fet out. This Ihrub will grow in almoft
any foil or fituation, but flourifties moft under the
fhade and drip of taller plants, giving a peculiar
ebeerfulhefs to the bottoms of groves and clumps in
winter.
All the other forts are with fame difficulty ^-opa-
gated and retained. They will by no means bear re¬
moving, even when feedlings ; and if ever this is at¬
tempted, not one in an hundred muft be expe&edj to
grow. They are raifed by feeds, which we receive
from the places where they grow naturally ; and he
who is defirous of having thefe plants, maft manage
them in the following manner: Let a compoft be pre¬
pared of thefe equal divifions; one-fourth part of lime--
rubbifh,' one-fourth part of drift or fea fand ; another
of fplinters of rocks, fume broad anil others fmaller ;
and the other part of maiden earth from a- rich pas¬
ture. Let thefe Be mixed alb together, and filled in¬
to largiffi pots. In each of thefe pots put a feed or
two, about half an inch deep, in the fineft of the
mould. We receive the feeds in the fpring; fo that
there is little.hopes of their coming up until the fpring
following: Let,.therefore, the pots be fet ijj the fhade
all the fummer, and in the autumn removed intoW
warm fituation, where they may enjoy every influence
of the fun’s rays all winter. In March let them be
plunged into a moderate hot-bed, and the plants will foon
after appear. This bed will caufe them to beftrongplants
by the autumn ; and when all danger of froft is over,
they may be uncovered wholly, and permitted to en¬
joy the open air. In the autumn, they fhould be re¬
moved into the greenhoufe, or fet under an hot-bed
frame all winter ; and in fpring they fhould be placed
where they are to continue, moulding them up the
height of the pot; the pots being fufficiently broken
to make way for their roots as they fhoot, and then
left to nature.—The fituation of the four tenderer
forts muft be well flickered: and if it be naturally
rocky, fandy, and dry, it will be the better; for in
the places where they grow naturally, they ftrike into
the crevices of rocks, and flourifh where there is hard¬
ly any appearance of foil..
This is one method of- obtaining thefe fhrubs. A-
nother way is, by fowing the feeds in the places where
they are to remain. The fituation and nature of the
foil fhould he as near that above deferibed as pof-
frble ; and the mould fhould be made fine in fome pla¬
ces, and a feed or two fown in each. After this, pegs
fhould be ftuck down on each fide of them, to direct
to the places where they are fown. The exafteft care
muft be obferved, all fummer, to pull up the weeds
as often as they appear; for if they are permitted
to get ftrong, and have great roots, they will pull
up the feeds with them. In the fpring following,
if the feeds are good, the plants will appear. During
the lummer, they fhould be watered in dry weather ;
and, for the firft winter or two, fhould have fome
furze-bufhes pricked all round them, at'a proper dif-
tanc^, which will break-; the keen edge of the frofty
winds, and preferve the young plants until they are
ftrong enough to defend themfelves.
The cneorum and the alpine chameloea are very
hardy, and will grow in the coldeft fituation ; but the
other .forts fhould have .a warm, foil and a well-fheltered
2
fite, or they will be fubjeft to be deftroyed in bad wea- Eaphne,-
then DahP0hr^-
Medicinalproperties. The root of the mezereon was long . '.lf
ufed in the Lifbon diet-drink for veneral complaints, par¬
ticularly nodes and other fymptoms refilling the ufe of
mercury ; but with the compofition of this artitle we
were unacquainted, till an account of it was publifhed in
the Edinburgh Phyfical Effays, by Dr Donald Monro
of London. On chewing it a little, it proves very pun¬
gent, and its acrimony is accumulated about the fauces,
and is very durable. It is employed chiefly under the
form of decoftion ; and it enters the deco&urn farfa-
parillae compofitum of the London college; but it has
alfo been ufed in powder combined with fome, inadlive
one, as that of liquorice root. It is apt to occafion vo¬
miting and purging; fo muft be begun in grain-dofes,-
and gradually increased. It. is often ufefully com¬
bined with mercury. The bark of the root contains
moft acrimony, though fome prefer the woody part.
Mtzerton has alfo been ufed with good effedls in tu¬
mors and cutaneous eruptions not venereal. The
whole plant is very corrofive. Six of the berries will
kill a wolf. A woman gave 12 grains of the berries
to her daughter who had a quartan ague ; fhe vomited-
blood, and died immediately.
DAPHNEPHGRIA, a feftival in honour of A-
pollo, celebrated every ninth year by the Boeotians. It
was then ufual to adorn an olive bough with garlands of
laurel and other flowers, and placed on the top a bra¬
zen globe, on which were fufpended fmaller ones. In
the middle was placed a number of crowns, and a globe
of inferior fize, and the bottom was adorned with a
faffron-coloured garment. The globe oil the top re-
prefented the fun or Apollo. That in the middle was
an emblem of the moon, and the others of the ftars.
The crowns, which were 65 in number, reprefented the
fun’sannualrevolution. This bough was carried in folemn
proceffi©n by a beautiful youth of an illuftrious family,
and whofe parents were both living. The youth was
drefled in rich garments which reached to the ground,.
his Hair hung loofe and diftievelled, his head was cover¬
ed with a golden crown, and he wore on his feet flioee
called Ipbicratida, from Iphicrates an Athenian, who
firft invented them. He was called Aapv^opor, laurel-
bearer; and at that time he executed the office of prieft
of Apollo. He was preceded by one of his neareft re¬
lations, bearing a rod adorned with garlands, and be¬
hind him followed a train of virgins with branches in
their hands. In this order the procefficn advanced as •
far as the temple of Apollo, furnamed Ifmenius, where
fupplicatory hymns were fung to the god.—This fefti¬
val owes its origin. to the following circumftance:
When an oracle advifed the iEtolians, who inhabited
Arne and the adjacent country, to abandon their ancient
pofleffions and go in queft of a fettlement, they invaded ■
the Theban territories, which at that time were pilla¬
ged by an army of Pelafg&ns. As the celebration of .
Apollo’s fellival was near, both nations, who reli
gioufiy obferved it, laid afide all hoftilities, and ac¬
cording to cuftom cut down laurel boughs from mount
Helicon, and in the neighbourhood of the river Melas, .
and walked in proceffion in honour of the divinity.
The day that this falemnity was obferved,Pdlematas the
general of the Boeotian army faw a youth in a dream,.
that prefented him with a complete fuit of armour, and ’
commanded.
BAR
;Dap!fer commanded the Boeotians to offer folemn prayers to
. Apollo, and walk in proceflion with laurel boughs in
Daur^m' their hands every ninth year. Three days after this
> dream., the Boeotian general made a fally and cut off
the greateft part of the befiegers, who were compelled
by this blow to relinquiih their enterprife. Polematas
immediately inftituted a novennial feftival to the god,
-who feemed to be the patron of the Boeotians.
DAPIFER, the dignity or office of grand-mafler
of a prince’s houfehold. This title was given by the
Emperor of Conftantinople to the Czar of Ruffia as a
teftimony of favour. In France the like officer was in¬
ftituted by Charlemagne, under the title of dapiferat;
and the dignity of dapifer is ftill fubfifting in Germany,
the eleftor of Bavaria affirming the title of arch dapi¬
fer of the empire, whofe office is, at the coronation of the
emperor, to carry the firfl: difh of meat to table on
horfeback.
DAPPLE-bav, in the manege : When bay horfes
have marks of a dark bay, they are called dapple-lays.
Datfle-Black: When a black horfe has got fpotsor
marks more black or ffiining than the reft of his fkin,
he is called a dapple-black.
DAftANTASIA, (anc. geog.), called ForumClau-
dii by the Romans ; a town of the Centrones in Gallia
JNarbonenfis, fituated between Lemincum and Augufta
Pretoria. Now Moujliers, and Moufliers en Farantaife,
in Savoy.
DARAPTI, among logicians, one of the modes of
fyllogifms of the third figure, whofe premifes are uni-
verfal affirmatives, and the conclufion is a particular af¬
firmative : thus,
Dar- Every body is divifible ;
ap- Every body is a fubftance ;
ti, Therefore, fome fubftance is divifible.
DARDA, a town and fort of Lower Hungary,
built by the Turks in 1686, and taken by the Impe
rialifts the next year, in whofe hands it remains. It is
‘feated oh the river Draw, 10 miles from its confluence
with the Danube, and at the end of the bridge of Ef-
feck. E. Long. 19. xo. N. Lat. 45. 45.
DARDANELLES, two ancient and ftrong caftles
of Turky, one of which is in Romania, and the other
in Natolia, on each fide the canal formerly called the
Hellefpont. This keeps up a communication with the
Archipelago, and the Propontis or Sea of Marmora.
The mouth of the canal is four miles and a half over ;
P.nd the caftles were built in 1659, to fecure the Turk-
ifh fleet from the infults of the Venetians. The Ihips
that come from Conftantinople are fearched at the
caftle on the fide of Natolia, to fee what they have on
board.
DARDANIA, (anc. geog.), a diftrift of Moefia
Superior to the fouth. Now the fouth part of Servia,
towards the confines of Macedonia and Illyricum. Dar-
dani was the name of the people, who feem to have been
defendants of the Dardani of Troas. Alfo a fmall di-
ftrift of Troas, along the Hellefpont, (Mela, Virgil. )
—And the ancient name of Samothracia, (Piiny); from
Dardanus, who removed thither.
DARDANIUM promontorium, (Pliny); Dar-
danis, (Strabo): A promontory of Troas, near A-
bydos, running out into the Hellefpont; with a cog-
nominal town at it, called alfo Dardanus and Darda-
tium : All which gfe name to the Dardanelles.
N° 97.
DAR
DARDANUS, a fon of Jupiter and Eleftra, who,
after the death of his brother Jafion, left Samothrace
his country, and p«fied into Afia Minor, where he mar¬
ried Batia, the daughter of Teucer king of Teucria.
After the death of his father-in-law he afcended the
throne, and reigned 62 years. He built the city of
DardQiia, and was reckoned the founder of the king*
dom of Troy. He was fucceeded by Eiichthonius.
According to fome, Corybas, his nephew, accompa¬
nied him to Teucria, where he introduced the worlhip
of Cybele. Dardanus taught his fubje&s to worfhip
Minerva, and he gave them two ftatues of the goddefs,
one of which is well known by the name of Palladium.
According to Virgil, Dardanus was an Italian by origin.
DARE, in ichthyology, the fame with dace. See
Dace-
DARES, a Phrygian, who lived during the Tro¬
jan war, in which he was engaged, and of which he
wrote the hiftory in Greek. This hiftory was extant
in the ageofiElian; the Latin tranflation, now ex¬
tant, is univerfally believed to be fpurious, though it
is attributed by fome to Cornelius Nepos. This tranf¬
lation firft made its appearance A. D. 1477, at Milan.
Homer fpeaksof him, II. 5. v. 10. and 27.
DARIC, in antiquity, a famous piece of gold, firft:
coined by Darius the Mede about 538 years before
Chrift; probably during his ftay at Babylon, out of the
vaft quantity of gold which ha^ been accumulated in
the treafury. From thence it was difperfed over the
eaft, and alfo into Greece ; fo that the Perfian daric,
which was alfo called Jiater, was the gold coin beft
known in Athens in ancient times. According to Dr
Bernard, it weighed two grains more than one of bur
guineas; but as it was very fine, and contained little
alloy, it may be reckoned worth about 25 s. of our
money. Plutarch informs us, that the darics were
ftamped on one fide with an archer clothed in a long
robe, and crowned with a fpiked crown, holding a bow
in his left hand and an arrow in his right; and on the
other fide with the effigies of Darius. All the other
pieces of gold of the fame weight and value that were
coined by the fucceeding kings, both of the Perfian and
Macedonian race, were called darics, from Darius, in
whofe teign this coin commenced. Of thefe there
were whole darics and half darics; and they are called
in thofe parts of Scripture written after the Baby-
lonifh captivity, adarkonim; and by the Talmudifts,
darkonoth. Greaves fays that the daric is ftill found in
Perfia; but it is certainly very fcarce, and perhaps of
doubtful antiquity.
DARIEN, or the Ifthmus of Panama, is a pro¬
vince between South and North America, being a nar¬
row ifthmus, or neck of land, which joins them to¬
gether. It is bounded on the north by the North Sea,
on the fouth by the South Sea, on the eaft by the
gulph or river of Darien, and on the weft by another
part of the South Sea and theprovince of Veragua. It
lies in the form of a bow, or crefcent, about the great
bay of Panama, in the South Sea; and is 300 miles
in length and 60 in breadth. This province is not
the richeft, but is of the greateft importance to Spain,
and has been the fcene of more a&ions than any other
in America. The wealth of Peru is brought hither,
and from hence exported to Europe. This has indu¬
ced many enterpriling people to make attempts on Pa¬
nama,
[ 680 ]
Dardanu*
BAR [ 681 ] BAR
nama, Porto-Bello, and other towns of this province,
; in- hopes of obtaining a rich booty.
The Scotch got pofiefiion of part of this province in
1-699, and attempted to form an eftablifhment which
would have proved one of the mod ufeful and import¬
ant that ever was projected. Of the rife, progrefs, and
cataftrophe, of this well-imagined, but ill-fated, under¬
taking, Sir John Dalrymple, in the 2d volume of his
Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland, has given a
very interefting account, authenticated in every parti¬
cular by unqueftionable documents. The proje&or
and leader of the Darien expedition was a clergyman
of the name of Paterfon ; who having a violent pro-
penfity to fee foreign countries, he made his profeffion
the inftrument of indulging it, by going to the new
weftern world, under pretence of converting the In¬
dians to the religion of the old. In his couifes there,
he became acquainted with Capt. Dampier and Mr Wa¬
fer, who afterwards publiihed, the one his Voyages and
the other his Travels, in the region where the fepara-
tion is narrowed between the Atlantic and the South
Seas ; and both of whom, particularly the fird, appear
by their books to have been men of confiderable obfer-
vation. But he got much more knowledge from men
who could neither write nor read, by cultivating the
acquaintance of fome of the old Buccaneers, who, af¬
ter furviving their glories and their crimes, dill, in the
extremity of age and misfortune, recounted with tranf-
port the eafe with which they had paded and repaded
from the one fea to the other, fometimes in hundreds
together, and driving drings of mules before them
loaded with the plunder of friends and of foes. Paterfon
having examined the places, fatisfied himfelf, that on
the idhmus Darien there was a tra£ of country run¬
ning acrofs from the Atlantic to the South Sea, which
the Spaniards had never podeded, and inhabited by a
people continually at war with them ; that along the
coad, on the Atlantic fide, there lay a dring ofifiands
called the Sambaloes, uninhabited, and full of natural
drength and foreds, from which lad circumdance one
of them Was called the ijland of the Pines; that the feas
there were filled with turtle and the manatee or fea-
cow ; that midway between Porto-bello and Cartha-
gena, but near 50 leagues didant from either, at a place
called ABa, in the mouth of the river of Darien, there
was a natural harbour, capable of receiving the greateft
fleets, and defended from dorms by other iflands which
covered the mouth of it, and from enemies by a pro¬
montory which commanded thepaflage, and by hidden
rocks in the palfage itfelf; that on the other fide of
the idhmus, and in the fame traft of country, there
were natural harbours, equally capaqious and well de¬
fended ; that the two feas were connefted by a ridge
of hills, which, by their height, created a temperate
climate in the midd of the mod fultry latitudes, and
were flreltered by foreds, yet not rendered damp by
them, becaufe the trees grew at a didance from each
other, having very little under-wood ; that, contrary
to the barren nature of hilly countries, the foil was of
a black mould two or three feet deep, and producing
fpontaneoufly the fine tropical fruits and plants, and
roots and herbs ; that roads could be made with eafe
along the ridge, by which mules, and even carriages,
might pafs from the one fea to the other in the fpace
Vou V. Part II.
of a day ; and confequently this padage «emed to be
pointed out by the finger of nature, as a common cen¬
tre, to conneft together the trade and intercourfe of the
univerfe.
Paterfon knew that drips which dretch in a draight
line from one point to another, and with one wind,
run lefs rifles, and require fewer hands, than fltips
which pafs through many latitudes, turn with many
coads, and require many winds; in evidence of which,
veflels of feven or eight hundred tons burden are often
to he found in the South Seas, navigated by no more
than eight or ten hands, becaufe thefe hands have little
elfe to Jo than to fet their fails when they begin their
voyage, and to take them in when they end it ; that
as foon as drips from Britain got fo far fouth as to
reach the trade-wind, which never varies, that wind
would carry them to Darien, and the fame wind
would carry (hips from the bay of Panama, on the op-
pofite fide of the idhmus, to the Ead-Indies 5 that as
foon as flrips coming from the Ead-Indies to the bay
of Panama got fo far north as the latitude of 40, to
reach the wederly winds, which, about thlt latitude,
blow almod as regularly from the wed as the, trade
winds do from the ead, thefe winds would carry them,
in the track of the Spahiflr Acapulco ftrips, to the
coad of Mexico ; from whence the land-wind, which
blows for ever from the north to the fouth, would car¬
ry them along the coad of Mexico into the bay of Pa¬
nama. So that in going from Britain, (hips would
encounter no uncertain winds, except during their paf-
fage fouth into the latitude of the trade wind; in co¬
ming from India to the bay of Panama no uncertain
winds, except in their paflage north to the latitude of
the wederly winds; and in going from the other fide
of the idhmus to the eafl, no uncertain wind whatfoever.
—Gold was feen by Paterfon in fome places of the
iflhmus; and hence an ifland on the Atlantic fide was
called the Golden Ijland, and a river on the fide to the
South Sea was called the Golden River; but thefe were
objedts which he regarded not at that time, becaufe far
greater were in his eye ; the removing of didances, the
drawing nations nearer to each other, the prefervation
of the valuable lives of feamen, and the faving in
freight, fo important to merchants, and in time fo im¬
portant to them, and to an animal whofe life is of fo
fliort duration as that of man.
By this obfeure Scotfman, a projedt was formed to
fettle,' on this negledted fpot, a great and powerful co¬
lony ; not as other colonies have for the mod part
been fettled, by chance, and unprotedted by the coun¬
try from whence they went; but by fyllem, upon fore¬
fight, and to receive the ample protedtion of thofe go¬
vernments to whom he was to offer his projedE And
certainly no greater idea has been formed fince the time
of Columbus.
Paterfon’s original intention was to offer his projedt
to England, as the country which had mod intered in
it, not only from the benefit common to all nations,
of fliortening the length of voyages to the Ead Indies,
but by the effedt which it would have had to connedt
the intereds of her European, Wed Indian, American,
African, and Ead Indian trade. But Paterfon having
few acquaintance, and no protedtion in London, thought
of drawing the public eye upon him, and ingratiating
4 R himfelf
D A It [68:
himfelf with monied men, and with great men, by
affifting them to model a projeft, which was at that
time in embryo, for erefting the Bank of England.
But that happened to him which has happened to
many in his fituation : the perfons to whom he applied
made ufe of his ideas, took the honour of them to
themfelvesj were civil to him for a while, and neglec¬
ted him afterwards. He therefore communicated his
project of a colony only to a few perfons in London,
and thefe few difcouraged him.
He next made offer of his projeft to the Dutch, the
Hamburghers, and the Elector of Brandenburgh ; be-
caufe, by means of the paffage of the Rhine and Elbe
through their ftates, he thought, that the great addi¬
tional quantities of Eaft Indian and American goods,
which his colony would bring into Europe, would be
diftributed through Germany. The Dutch and Ham¬
burgh merchants, who had moft intereft in the fubjedf
of his vifit, heard him with indifference: The Eleftor,
who had very little intereft in it, received him with ho¬
nour and kindnefs. But court-arts and falfe reports loft
him even that prince's favour.
Paterfon, on his return to London, formed a friend-
flrip with Mr Fletcher of Salton, whofe mind was
inflamed with the love of public good, and all of
whofe ideas to procure it had a fublimity in them.
Fletcher brought Paterfon down to Scotland with him,
prefented him to the Marquis of Tweeddale, then Mi-
nifter for Scotland; and then, with that power w hich
a vehement fpirit always pofleffes over a diffident one,
perfuaded the Marquis, by arguments of public good,
and the honour which would redound to his admini-
ftration, to adopt the projedt. Lord Stair and Mr
Johnfton, the two fecretaries of ftate, patronifed thofe
abilities in Paterfon which they poffeffed in themfelvesr
and the Lord Advocate Sir James Stuart, the fame
man wdio hadadjufted the Prince of Orange’s, declara¬
tion at the Revolution, whofe fon was married to a
niece of Lord Stair, went naturally along with his con¬
nections. Thefe perfons, in June 1695, procured a fta-
tutefrom parliament, and afterwards a charter from the
crown in terms of it, for creating a trading company to
Africa and the new world, with power to plant colonies
and build forts, with confent of the inhabitants, in
places not poffeffed by other European nations.
Paterfon, now finding the ground firm under him,
and that he was fupported by almoft all the power and
talents of his country, the character of Fletcher, and
the fanCtion of an arft of parliament and royal charter,
threw his projeft boldly upon the public, and opened
a fubfcription for a company. The frenzy of the Scots
nation to fign the folemn league and covenant never
exceeded the rapidity with which they ran to fubfcribe
to the Darien Company. The nobility, the gentry,
the merchants, the people, the royal burghs without
the exception of one, moft of the other public bodies,
fubferibed. Young women threw their little fortunes
into the flock, widows fold their jointures to get the
command of money for the fame purpofe. Almoft in an
inftant L.400,000 were fubferibed in Scotland, altho’
it be now known, that there was not at that time above
L.800,000 of cafh in the kingdom. The famous Mr
Law, then a youth, afterwards confeffed, that the fa¬
cility with which hejaw the paffion of fpeculation com-
! ] D A R
municate itfelf from all to all, fatisfied him of the pof-
fibility of producing the fame effeCl from the fame caufe, '
but upon a larger fcale, when the Duke of Orleans,
in the year of the Miffifippi, engaged him againft his
will to turn his bank into a bubble. Paterfon’s pro-
jed, which had been received by ftrangers with fears
when opened to them in private, filled them with hopes
when it came to them upon the wings of public fame :
For Colonel Erfkine, fon to Lord Cardrofs, and Mr
Haldane of Gleneagles, the one a generous branch of a
generous ftem, and the other a country gentleman of
fortune and charadler, having been deputed to receive
fubferiptions in England and on the continent, the Eng-
glifh fubferibed L. 300,000, and the Dutch and Hain-
burghers L.200,000 more.
In the mean time the jealoufy of trade (continues our
author), which has done more mifehief to the trade of
England than all other caufes put together, created an
alarm in England; and the Houfes of Lords and Com¬
mons, without previous inquiry or reflettion, on the 13th
of December 1695, concurred in a joint addrefs to the
King, againft the eftablifhment of the Darien Company,
as detrimental to the intereft of the Eaft IndiaCompany.
Soon after, the Commons impeached fome of their
own countrymen for being iniirumental in ere&ing the
company ; and all'o fome of the Scots nation, one of
whom was a peer, Lord Belhaven ‘t that is to fay, they
arraigned the fubje&s of another country for making
ufe of the laws of their own. Among 600 legiflatore,
not one had the happy ray of genius to propofe a com¬
mittee of both parliaments, to inquire into the prin¬
ciples and confequences of the eftabliffiment; and if
thefe fliould, upon inquiry, be found, that the benefit
of it fliould be communicated, by a participation of
rights, to both nations. The King’s anfwer was,
“ That he had been ill advifed in Scotland.” Fie
foon after changed his Scottifti minifters, and fent or¬
ders to his refident at Hamburgh to prefent a memo¬
rial to the fen ate, in which he di (owned the company-
and warned them againft all connexions with it. The
fenate fent the memorial to the aflembly of merchants,
who returned it with thefollowing fpiritedanfwer: “We
look upon it as a very ftrange thing, that the King of
Britain fhould offer to hinder us, who are a free people,
to trade with whom we pleafe; butare amazed to think,
that he would hinder us from joining with his own fub-
jeXs in Scotland, to whom he had lately given fuch
large privileges, by fo folemn an aX of parliament.”
But merchants, though mighty prone to paffion, are
eafily intimidated : The Dutch, Hamburgh, and Lon¬
don merchants withdrew their fubferiptions.
The Scots, not difcouraged, were rather animated
by this oppreffion ; for they converted it into a proof
of the envy of the Englilh, and of their confcioufnefs
of the great advantages which were to flow to Scotland
from the colony. The company proceeded to build
fix (hips in Holland, from 36 to Co guns, and they en¬
gaged 1200 men for the colony ; among whom were
younger fons of many of the noble and moft ancient
families of Scotland, and 60 officers who had been dif-
banded at the peace, who carried with them fuch of
their private men, generally raifed on their own, or the
eftates of their relations, as they knew to be faithful
and brave and moft of thefe were Highlanders. The
4 Scots
D A R [ 683 ] DA R
Oarien. Scots parliament, on the 5th Augull 1698, unani-
■ v ' moufly addreffed the King to fupport the company.
The Lord Prefident Sir Hugh Dalrymple, brother to
Lord Stair and head of the bench, and the Lord Ad¬
vocate Sir James Stuart, head of the bar, jointly drew
memorials to the King, able in point of argument, in¬
formation, and arrangement; in which they defended
• the rights of the company upon the principles of con-
flitutional and of public law. And neighbouring na¬
tions, with a mixture of furprife and refpedd, faw the
pooreft kingdom of Europe fending forth the moft gal¬
lant and the moft numerous colony that had ever gone
from the old to the new world.
On the 26th day of July of the year 1698, the whole
city of Edinburgh poured down upon Leith, to fee the
colony depart, amidft the tears and prayers and prai-
fes of relations and-friends and of their countryman.
Many feamen and foldiers, whofe fervices had been/re-
fufed^ becaufe more had offered themfelves than were
needed, were found hid in the (hips, and, when order¬
ed alhore, clung to the ropes and timbers, imploring
to go without reward with their companions. Twelve
1 undred men failed in five ftout Ihips, and arrived at
Darien in two months, with the lofs of only 15 of
their people. At that time it-was in theirpower, moft
of whom were well born, and all of them hardily bred,
and inured to the fatigues and dangers of the late war,
to have gone from the northmoft part of Mexico to the
fouthmoft of Chili, and to have overturned the whole
empire of Spain in the South, Seas : But modeft, re-
fpeding their own and their country’s charafter, and
afraid of being accufed that they had plunder, and not
a fettlement, in view, they began with purchaling lands
from the natives, and fending meffages of amity to
the Spanilh governors within their reach: and then
fixed their ftation at Adta, calling it Ne*w St Andrew,
from the name of the tutelar faint of Scotland, and the
country itfelf New Caledonia. One of the fides of the
harbour being formed by a long narrow neck of land
which ran into the fea, they cut it acrofs fo as to join
the ocean and the harbour. Within this defence they
> erefted their fort, planting upon k 50 pieces of cannon.
On the other fide of the harbour there was a mountain
a mile high, on which they placed a watch-houfe,
which, in the rarefied air within the tropics, fo favour¬
able for vifion, gave them an immenfe range of pro-
ipeft, to prevent all furprife. To this place, it was
obferved, that the Highlanders often repaired, to en¬
joy a cool air, and to talk of their friends they had left
behind in their hills; friends whofe minds were as high
as their mountains. The firft public aft of the colony
was to publilh a declaration of freedom of trade and
religion to all nations. This luminous idea originated
with Paterfon.
But the Dutch Eaft India Company having preffed
the king, in concurrence with his Engliih fubjefts,
to prevent the fettlement at Darien, orders had been
font from England to the governors of the Weft In¬
dian and American colonies, to iftue proclamations
againft giving afliilance, or even to hold correfpondencs
wuh the colony ; and thefe were more or lefs hardily
expreffed, according to the tempers of1 the different
governors. The Scots, trufting to far different treat¬
ment, and to the fupplies which they expefttd from
thofe colonies, had not brought provifions enough
with them ; they fell into difeafes from bad food and Dariem
from want of food. But the more generous favages,
by hunting and filhing for them, gave them that relief
which fellow Britons refufed. They lingered eight
months, awaiting, but in vain, for afllilance from Scot¬
land ; and almoft all of them either died out or quitted
the fettlement. Paterfon, who had been the firft that
entered the Ihip at Leith, was the laft who went on
board at Darien.
During the fpace of two years, whilt; the eftablilh-
ment of this colony had been in agitation, Spain had
made no complaint to England or Scotland againft it.
The Darien council even averred in their papers (which
are in the Advocates Library), that the right of the
company was debated before the king, in prefence of
the Spanilh ambaffador, before the colony left Scot¬
land. But now, on the 3d of May x 696,# the Spa¬
nilh ambaffador at London prefented a memorial to the
king, which complained of the fettlement at Darien
as an incroachment on the rights of his mafter.
The Scots, ignorant of the misfortunes of their co¬
lony, but provoked at this memorial, fent out another
colony foon after of 1300 men, to fupport an eftablhh-
ment which was now no more. But this laft expedi¬
tion having been more haftily prepared than the firft,
was unlucky in its paffage. One of the fliips was loft
at fea, many men died on (hip-board, and the teft ar¬
rived at different times, broken in their health and
'difpirited, when they heard the fate of thofe wlio had
gone before them.—Added to the misfortunes of the
firft colony, the fecond had a misfortune pteuliar to
itfelf: The General Affembly of the Church of Scot¬
land fent out four minifters, with orders, “ to take
charge of the fouls of the colony, and to ereft a pref-
bytery, with a moderator, clerk, and record of pro--
ceediogs ; to appoint ruling elders, deacons, overfeers
of the manners of the people, and afliftants in the
exe'rcife of church difcipline and government, and to
hold regular kirk-feflions.” When they arrived, the
officers and gentlemen were occupied in building houfes
for themfelves with their own hands, becaufe there
was no help to be got from others; yet the four mini¬
fters complained grievoufly that the council did not or¬
der houfes to be immediately built for their accommo¬
dation. They had not had the precaution to bring
with them letters of recommendation from the direc¬
tors at home to the council abroad. On thefe accounts,
not meeting with all the attention they expefted from
the higher, they paid court to the inferior ranks of
the colonifts, and by that means threw divifions into
the colony. They exhaufted the fpirits of the people,
by requiring their attendance at fermon four or five
hours at a ftretch, relieving each other by preaching
alternately, but allowing no relief to their hearers.
The employment of one of the days fet alide for re¬
ligious exercife, which was a Wednefday, they divided
into three parts, thankfgiving, humiliation, and fup-
plication, in which three minifters followed each other.
And as the fervice of the church of Scotland confifts
of a lefture with a comment, a fermon, two prayers,
three pfalais, and a blefiing, the work of that day,
upon an average of the length of the feryice of that
age, could not take up lefs than twelve hours: during
which fpace of time the colony was collefted, and kept
dole together in the guard-room, which was ufed as
D A It [ 684 ] D A R
a church, in a tropical climate, and in a fickly feafon.
They prefented a paper to the council, and made it.
public, requiring them to fet afide a day for a folemn
fading and humiliation, and contlining their reafons
for their requifition ; in which, under pretence of enu¬
merating the fins of the people, they poured abufe on
their rulers. They damped the courage of the people,
by continually prefenting hell to them as the termina¬
tion of life to moft men, becaufe mod men a're fmners.
Carrying the prelbyterian do&rine of prededination
to extremes, they flopped all exertions, by fliowingthat
the confequence of themdepended not on thofe by whom
they were made. They converted the numberlefs ac¬
cidents to which foldiers and feamen are expofed, into
immediate judgments of God againd their fins. And
having refolved to quit the fettlement, they, in excufe
for their doing fo, wrote bitter letters to the General
Aflembly againd the chara&ers of the colonids, and
the advantages of the colony itfelf.
One of them, in a kind of hidory of the colony
which he publidred, with a favage triumph exulted
over the misfortunes of his countrymen in the follow¬
ing w'ords:—“ They were fuch a rude company, that
I believe Sodom never declared fuch impudence in fin¬
ning as they. Any obfervant eye might fee, that they
^were running the way they went: hell and judgment
was to be feen upon them, and in them, before the
time : Their cup was full; it could hold no more :
They were ripe ; they mud be cut down with the
fickle of the wrath of God.”
The lad party that joined the fecond colony at Da¬
rien, after it had been three months fettled, was Cap¬
tain Campbell of Finab, with a company of the people of
his own edate, whom he had commanded in Flanders,
and whom he carried to Darien in his own drip. On their
arrival at New St Andrew, they found intelligence
had been lately received, that a Spanidi force of 1600
men, which had been brought from the coad of the
South Sea, lay encamped at Tubucantce, waiting
there till a Spanilh fquadron of eleven fliips which
was expe&ed fliould arrive, when they were jointly to
attack the fort. The military command was offered
to Captain Campbell, in compliment to his reputation
and to his birth, who was defcended from the families
of Breadalbane and Athole. In order to prevent a
joint attack, he refolved to attack firff ; and therefore,
on the fecond day after his arrival, he marched with
200 men to Tubucantce, before his arrival was known
to the enemy, dormed the camp in the night-time,
diffipated the Spanifh force with much daughter, and
returned to the fort the fifth day : But he found the
Spanifh (hips before the harbour, their troops landed,
and almoff all hopes of help or provifion cut off; yet he
doqd a fiegq near fix weeks, till almod all the officers were
dead, the enemy by their approaches had cut off his
wells, and his balls were fo far expended, that he was
obliged to melt the pewter difhes of the garrifon into
balls. The garrifon then capitulated, and obtained
»Qt only the common honours of war and fecurity
for the property of the company, but, as if they had
been conquerors, exafted hoftages for performance of
the conditions. Captain Campbell alone defined to be
excepted from the capitulation, faying, he was fure
the Spaniards could not forgive him the pfifchief which
he fo lately had done them. The brave, by their cou-
3
rage, often efcape that death which they feem to pro* Dane**
voke : Captain Campbell made his efcape in his veffel, -y—
and, flopping nowhere, arrived fafely at New York,
and from thence to Scotland, where the company pre»
fented him with a gold medal, in which his virtue was
commemorated, to inflame his family with the love of
heroic attions. And the Lord Lyon King at Arms,
whofe office it is in Scotland (and fnch offices fhould
be every where) to confer badges of diftindlion accord¬
ing to the rules of heraldry upon honourable adlions,
gave him a Highlander and an.Indian for fupporters
to his coat of arms.
A harder fate attended thofe whom Captain Camp¬
bell left at Darien. They were fo weak in their health
as not to be able to weigh up the anchors of the Rifing
Sun, one of their fliips, which carried 60 guns: But
the generous Spaniards affifted thym In going out of
the harbour ftie ran aground : The prey was tempting ;
and to obtain it, the Spaniards had only to ftand by
and look on : but fhowed that mercy to the Scots
in dillrefs, which one of the countrymen of thofe
Scots, General Elliot, returned to the poflerity of the
Spaniards at the end of the late conflagration at the
fiege of Gibraltar. The Darien fliips being leaky and
weakly manned, were obliged in their voyage to take
fhelter in different ports belonging to Spain and Eng¬
land. The Spaniards in the new world fliowed them
kindnefs ; the Englifl\governments fliowed them none ;
and in one place one of their fliips was feized and de¬
tained. Of thefe only Captain Campbell’s fliip and
another fmall one were faved : The Royal Sun was loft
on the bar of Charleftown; and of the colony, not
more than 30, faved from war, ftiipwreck, or difeafe,
ever faw their country again.
Paterfon, who had flood the blow, could not ftand
the reflexion of misfortune. He was feized with a
lunacy in his paffage home after the ruin of the firft
colony ; but he recovered in his own country, where
his fpirit, ftill ardent and unbroke, prefented a new
plan to the company, founded on the idea of King
William, that England fliould have the joint dominion
of the fettlement with Scotland.
Hefurvived many years in Scotland, pitied, refpeft-
ed, but negledted. After the union of the two king¬
doms, he claimed reparation of his Ioffes from the equi¬
valent-money given by England to the Darien Com¬
pany, but got nothing ; becaufe a grant to him from
a public fund would have been only an a£l of humani¬
ty, not a political job.
Thus ended the colony of Darien. Men look into
the works of poets for fubje&s of fatire ; but they are
more often to be found in the records of hiflory. The
application of the Dutch to King William againft the
Darien Company, affords the fureft of all proofs, that
it was the intereft of the Britifli iflands to fupport it.
England, by the imprudence of ruining that fettle¬
ment, loft the opportunity of gaining and continuing
to herfelf the greateft commercial empire that proba¬
bly ever will be upon earth. Had fhe treated with
Scotland, in the hour of the diftrefs of the company,,
for a joint poffeffion of the fettlement, or adopted the
union of the kingdoms, which the fovereign of both
propofed to them, that poffeffion could certainly have
been obtained. Had fhe treated with Spain to relin-
quifh an imaginary right, or at leaft to give a paffage
acrofa
D A R
aerofs the ifthmus, upon receiving duties fo high as to
"■ overbalance all the chance of lofs by a contraband trade,
die had probably obtained either the one or the other.
Had (he broke with Spain for the fake of gaining by
force one of thofe favours, die would have loft far lefs
than The afterwards did by carrying a war into that
country for many years, to force a king upon the Spa¬
niards againft their will. Even a rupture with Spain
for Darien, if it had proved fuccefsful, would have
knit the fwo nations together by the naoft folid of ties,
their mutual intereft: for the Englifh muft then have
depended upon Spain for the fafety of their caravans
by landj and the Spaniards upon England for the fafety
of their fleets by fea. Spain and England would have
been bound together as Portugal and England have
long been ; and the Spanilh treafures have failed, un¬
der the wings of Englifh navies, from the Spanifh main
to Cadiz, in the fame manner as the treafures of Por¬
tugal have failed under the fame protedtion, facred and
untouched, from the Brazils to Lifhon.
It has been made a queftion, Whether King Wil¬
liam behaved with his ordinary fincerity and fteadinefs,
in the affurances of favour which he gave more than
once to the company during their diftreffes. The fol¬
lowing anecdote makes it probable, that there was r
l 69s 1
D A R
lies.—-57r yo/jn Dalrympk's Mtmoirs of Great Britain and Darii
Ireland, vol. ii. j|
DARII, in logic^one of the modes of fyllogifm of Dsrknefs,
the firft figure, whetein the major propofition is an u- 1 v~
niverfal affirmative, and the minor and conclufion par¬
ticular affirmatives: thus.
Da- Every thing that is moved, is moved by
another;
R.i- Some body is moved y
i, Therefore, fomc body is moved by ano¬
ther.
DARIORIGUM (anc. geog.), a town of the Ve-
neti in Gallia .Celtica ; called in the Notitia Lugdu-
nenfis, Civitas Venetum, after the manner of the lower,
age. Now Vannes, or Venues, in Brittany. W. Dong.
2. 37. Lat. 47. 40.
DARIUS, the name of feveral kings of Perfia. See-
{Hljlory of) Persia.
DARKING, a market-town of Surrey in England,
fituated ten miles eaft of Guilford. Tire market is no¬
ted for corn and provifions, more efpecially for fowls-
W. Long. 8. 20. N. Lat. 51. 18.
DARKNESS, the abfence, privation, or want of
natural light. “ Darknefs was upon the face of the
deep” (Gen. i. 2.) ; that is to fay, the chaos was plun-
ttruggle in his breaft between the part which he was ged in thick darknefs, becaufe hitherto the light was
obliged to a£I to pleafe his Engliffi and Dutch at the
expence of his Scots fubjefts and his own feelings.
A provifion ffiip of the firft colony, in which were 30 a plague to the inhabitants of it. The Septuagint,
gentlemen paflengers, and fome of them of noble birth,  -—/r_-:— „r —a
having been ffiipwrecked at Carthagena, the Spaniards
believing, or pretending to believe, that they were
not created. One of the moft terrible forts of dark¬
nefs was that which Mofes brought upon Egypt as
'ague to the inhabitants of it. The Septuagint,
tranflation of the Bible, and indeed moft others,
explaining Mofes’s account of this darknefs, render
it, “ a darknefs which may be feltand the Vulgate
fmugglers, caft them into a dungeon and threatened has it, “a palpable darknefs;” that is, a darknefs
them with death. The company deputed Lord Bafil confifting of black vapours and exhalations, fo con-
Hamilton from Scotland to implore King William’s
prote&ion for the prifoners. The king at firft refufed
to fee him, becaufe he had not appeared at court when
he was laft in London. But when that difficulty was
removed by explanation, an expreffion fell from the
denfed that they might be! perceived by the organs of
feeling or feeing ; but fome commentators think that
this is carrying the fenfe too far, fince in fuch a me¬
dium as this mankind could not live an hour, much lefs
for the fpace of three days? as the Egyptians are faid
king which ffiowed his fenfe of the generous conduft to have-done, during the time this darknefs lafted ; and
of another, although influenced by the Engliffi and
Dutch Eaft India Companies, he could not refolve to
imitate it in his own. For Lord Bafil’s audience ha¬
ving been put off from time to time, but at laft fixed
to be in the council-chamber after a council was over,
the king, who had forgot the appointment, was paf-
fing into another room, when Lord Bafil placed him-
felf in the paffage, and faid, “ That he came commif-
fioned by a great body of his majefty’s fubje&s to lay
their misfortunes at his feet; that he had a right to
therefore they imagine, that inftead of a darknefs that
may be felt, the Hebrew phrafe may fignify a darknefs
wherein men went groping and feeling about for every
thing they wanted. Le Clerc is of this opinion, and
thinks that Philo,, in his life of Mofes, underftood the
paffage in its right fenfe. “ For in this darknefs (fays
he), whoever were in bed, durft not get up; and fuch
as their natural occafions compelled to get up, went-
feeling about by the walls, or anything they could lay
hold on, as if they had been blind.” What it was
be heard, and would be heard:” The king returned, that occafioned this darknefs, whether it was in the
liftened with patience, gave inftant orders to apply to air or in the eyes ; whether it was a fufpenfion of light
Spain for redrefs ; and then turning to thofe near him,
faid, “ This young man is too bold, if any man can
from the fun in that country, or a black thick vapour
which totally intercepted it, there is reafon to think
be too bold in his country’s caul'e.” I had this anec- that the defcription which the author of the book o£
dote from the prefent Earl of Selkirk, grandfon to
Lord Bafil.
King William’s defertion of a company erefted
Wifdom (xvii. 1, 2, 3, &c.) gives us of their inward
terrors and confternation, is not altogether conje&ural,.
_ ,   viz. that they were not only prifoners of darknefs, and
upon the faith of his own charter, and the Engliffi fettered with the bonds of a long night, but were hor-
oppreffions of it, were the reafons why fo many of the ribly aftoniffied likewife, and troubled with ftrange ap-
Scots, during four fucceffive reigns, difliked the caufe paritions; forwhile over them was fpread an heavynight,
i-- j-j-.t tT • * ’ ’ they were to themfelves more grievous than darknefs.
During the laft; three'hours that our Saviour hanged
of the Revolution and of the Union. And thatdiflike,
joined to Engliffi difcontents, brought upon both coun-   0
tries two rebellions, the expenditure of many millions upon the crofs, a darknefs covered the face of the earthj
of money, and (which is a far greater lofs) the down-
fal of many of their nobleft and moil ancient farai-
to the great terror and Amazement of the people pre¬
fent at his execution. This extraordinary alteration in
the-
DAS [ 686 ] DAS
Darlington the face of nature (fays DrMacknight, in his Harmony
I! of the Gofpels), was peculiarly proper, whilft the Sun
. P:lfyPl1s' 0f righteoufnefs was withdrawing his beams from the
" v land of Ifrael and from the world; not only becaufe
it was a miraculous teftimony borne by God hirnfelf
to his innocence ; but alfo becaufe it was a tit emblem
of his departure and its effe£ta, at lead till his light
(hone out anew with additional Iplendor in the miniftty
of his apoftles. Thg darknefs which now covered Ju¬
dea and the neighbouring countries, beginning about
noon and continuing till Jefus expired, was not the
effeft of an ordinary eclipfe of the fun : for that can
never happen but at the new moon, whereas now it
was full moon ; not to mention, that the total dark¬
nefs occafioned by eclipfes of the fun never continues
above twelve or fifteen minutes; wherefore it mud
have been produced by the divine power, in a manner
we are not able to explain. Accordingly, Luke
(xxiii. 44, 45.), after relating that there was darknefs
' over all the earth, adds, “ and the fun was darkened
which perhaps may imply, that the darknefs of the
fun did not occafion, but proceeded from, the dark¬
nefs that was over all the land. Further, the Chriftian
writers, in their moft ancient apologies to the Hea¬
thens, affirm, that as it was full moon at the paflbver
when Chrift was crucified, no fuch eclipfe could hap¬
pen by the courfe of nature. They obferve alfo, that
it was taken notice of as a prodigy by the Heathens
themfelves.
DARLINGTON, a town of the county of Dur¬
ham, fituated on a flat on the river Skerne, which falls
into the Tees. It is a pretty large place, has feveral
ftreets, and a fpacious market-place. It gives title of
earl to the Vane family. W. Long. 1. 15. N. Lat.
54- 30-
DA RMSTADT, a town of Germany in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and capital of the landgraviate
of Hefle-Darmftadt, with a handfome caftle, where
its own prince generally refides. It is feated on a ri¬
ver of the fame name in E. Long. 8. 40. N. Lat. 49.
50-
DARNEL, in botany. See Lolium.
DARNLEY (Lord). See {Hi/lory of) Scot¬
land.
DARTFORD, a town of the county of Kent in
England, feated on the river Darent not far from its
influx into the Thames. E.Long. o. 16. N. Lat. 51.
25-
DARTMOUTH, a fea-port town in Devonfhire,
feated on the river Dart, near its fall into the fea. It
is a well frequented and populous place, having a com¬
modious harbour, and a confiderable trade by fea.
The town is large and well built; but the ftreets are
narrow and bad, though all paved. It has the title of
an earldom, and fends two members to parliament.
W. Long. 4. o. N. Lat. 50. 25.
DARTOS, in anatomy, one of the coats which
form the fcrotum. It is called the dartos mufcle ; but
Dr Hunter fays, that no fuch mufcle can be found, and
Albinus takes no notice of it in his tables.
DASYPUS, the Armadillo or Tatou, in zoolo¬
gy ; a genus of quadrupeds, belonging to the order of
bruta. The dafypus has neither foreteeth nor dog¬
teeth ; it is covered with a hard bony (hell, interfered
with diftindl: moveable zones or belts: this Ihell covers
the head, the neck, the back, the flanks, and extends pm.
even to the extremity of the tail; the only parts to
which it does not extend, are the throat, the breaft,
and the belly, which are covered with a whitifh ikin of
a coarfe grain, refembling that of a hen after the fea¬
thers are pulled off. The ffiell does not confift of one
entire piece, like thatof the tottoife ; but is divided in¬
to feparate Jselts, connefted to each other by mem¬
branes, which enable the animal to move it, and even
to roll itfelf up like a hedge-hog., The number of
thefe belts does not depend on the age of the animal,
as fome have imagined ; but is uniformly -the iamerat all
times, and ferves to diftinguilh the different Ipecies.
All the fpecies of this animal were originally natives
of America : they were entirely unknown to the an¬
cients ; and modern travellers mention them as peculiar
to Mexico, Brafil, and the fouthern parts of America;
though fome indeed have confounded them with two
fpecies of manis or ffiell-lizard, which are found in
the Eaff Indies : others report that they arc natives
of Africa, becaufe fome of them have been tranfported
from Brafil to the coaft of Guinea, where a few have
fince been propagated : but they were never heard of
in Europe, Ana, or Africa, till after the difcovery of
America.—They are all endowed with the faculty of
extending and contracting their bodies, and of rolling
themfelves up like a ball, but not into fo complete a
fphere as the hedge-hog. They are very inoffenfive
animals, excepting when they get into gardens, where
they devour the melons, potatoes, and other roots.
They walk quickly ; but can hardly be faid to run or
leap, fo that they feldom efcape the purfuit either of
men or dogs. But nature has not left them altogether
defencelefs. They dig deep holes in the earth; and
feldom go very far from their fubterraneous habitations:
upon any alarm they immediately go into their holes ;
but, when at too great a diftance, they require but a
few moments to make one. The hunters can hardly
catch them by the tail before they fink their body in
the ground ; where they flick fo clofe, that the tail fre¬
quently comes away and leaves the body in the earth ;
which obliges the hunters, when they want to take
them alive and immutilated, to dilate the fides of the
hole. When they are taken, and find that there is
no refource, they inftantly roll themfelves up, and will
not extend their bodies unlefs they are held near a
fire. When in deep holes, there is no other method of
making them come out, but by forcing in fmoke or
water. They keep in their holes through the day, and
feldom go abroad in quell of fubllftence but in the 4
night. The hunter? ufually chafe them with fmall
dogs, which eafily come up with them. When the dogs
are near, the creatures inftantly roll themfelves up, and
in this condition the hunters carry them off. However,
if they be near a precipice they often efcape both the
dogs and hunters: they roll themfelves up, and tumble
down like a ball, without breaking their (hell, or re¬
ceiving any injury. The dafypus is a very fruitful a-
nimal : the female generally brings forth four young'
ones every month ; which is the reafon why the fpecies
are fo numerous, notwithftanding they are fo much
fpught after cn account of the fweetnefs of their flefh.
The Indians likewife make balkets, boxes, &c. of the
Ihells which cover their heads.
Linnaeus enumerates fix fpecics of dafypus, prinei-
paily
DAT [ 687 1 D A U
Bata pally cftftinguifhed by the number of their moveable
II belts. See Plate CLV.
Dative. DATA, among mathematicians, a term for fuch
v things or quantities are given or known, in order to
find other things thereby that are unknown. Euclid
ufes the word data (of which he hath a particular
traft) for fuch fpaces, lines, and angles as are given
in magnitude, or to which we can affign others equal.
From the primary ufe of the word data in mathe-
hnatics, it has been tranfplanted into other arts ; as
philofophy, medicine, &c. where it expreffes any quan¬
tity, which, for the fake of a prefent calculation, is
taken for granted to be fuch, without requiring an
immediate proof for its certainty ; called alfo the given
quantity, number, or power. And hence alfo fuch
things as are known, from whence either in natural
philofophy, the animal mechanilm, or the operation
of medicines, we come to the knowledge of others un¬
known, are now frequently in phyfical writers called
data.
DATJi, an addition or appendage in writings, afts,
inftruments, letters, &c. expreffing the day and month
of the year when the aft or letter was paffed or fign-
ed ; together with the place where the fame was done.
The word is formed from the Latin datum “ given,”
the participle of do “ I give.”
Our ancient deeds had no dates, but only the month
and year, to fignify that they w'ere not made in hafte,
of in the fpace of a day, but upon longer and more
mature deliberation. The king’s grants began with
thefe words, Pnefentibus & futuris, (ffc. but the grants
of private perfons with Omnibus prxfentes literas infpec-
turis, isfe.
A deed is good, though it mentions no date or
hath a falfe date ; or even if it hath an impoffible date,
as the 50th of February ; provided the real day of its
being dated or given, that is, delivered, can be proved.
Rlacljl. Com. vol. ii. p. 304.
Date, the fruit of the great palm-tree. See Phoe¬
nix.
DATI (Carlo), profeffor of polite learning at Flo¬
rence. His native country became very famous, as
well on account of his works as of the eulogies which
have been bellowed on him by learned men. The chief
work to which Dati applied himfelf, was Della Pittu-
ra Antiui, of which he publifhed an eflTay in the year
1667. He died in 1675, much lamented^ as well for
his humanity and amiable manners as for his parts and
learning.
DATISCA, in botany: A genus of the dodecandria
order, belonging to the dioecia clafsof plants; and in the
• natural method ranking under the 54th order, Mifcella-
nea. The male calyx is pentaphyllous ; there is no co¬
rolla ; the antherm are feflile, long, and 15 in number.
The female calyx is bidented ; no corolla ; the ftyles
three ; the Caplule triangular, three-horned, unilocular,
pervious, polyfpermous, inferior.
DATISI, in logic, a mode of fyllogifms in the
third figure, wherein the major is an univerfal affirma¬
tive, and the minor and qonclufion particular affirma¬
tive propofitions. For example,
Da- All who ferve God are kings ;
ti- Some who ferve God are poor ;
si, Therefore, fome who are poor are kings.
DATIVE, in grammar, the third cafe in the de*
clenfion of nouns ; expreffing the (late or relation of Datum
a thing to whofe profit or lofs fome other thing is re- II
ferred. See Grammar. Daucu8-
It is called dative, becaufe ufually governed by a v
verb implying fomething to be given to fome perfon.
As, commodare Socrati, “ to lend to Socrates ;” utilis
republic*, “ ufeful to the’comrnonwealth;” perniciofus
eedefix, “ pernicious to the church.”
In Engliffi, where we have properly no cafes, this
relation is expreffed by the fign to, or for.
DATUM, or Datus, (anc. geog.), a town of
Thrace, lituated between Neapolis and the river Nef-
tus: A colony of the Thracians, according to Eufta-
thius; who places it on the fea-coaft, near the Stry-
mbn, in a rich and fruitful foil, famous for ffiip-build-
ing and mines of gold ; hence the proverb tsahe kyutiav,
denoting profperity and plenty, (Strabo.) Appian de-
feribes it as feated on a fteep eminence, the whole of
which it covered. It was taken by Philip of Macedon,
who changed its name to Philippi, being originally cal¬
led Crenides on account of its fprings. It was after¬
wards famous for the defeat of Brutus and Caffius by
Auguftus and Antony.
DATURA,theTHORN-AppLE,in botany : A genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 28th order, Lurid*. The corolla is funnel-
fhaped, and plaited ; the calyx tubular, angulated, and
deciduous; the capfule quadrivaived. There are fix
fpecies. The ftramonium, or common thorn-apple,
rifes a yard high, with an ereft, ftrong, round,
hollow, green {talk, branching luxuriantly, having the
branches widely extended on every fide ; large, oval,
irregularly-angulated, fmooth, dark-green leaves ; and
from the divifions of the branches, large white flowers
fingly, fucceeded by large, oval, prickly capfules,
growing ereft, commonly called thorn-apples. At night
the upper leaves rife up and inclofe the flowers^ The
bloflbms have fometimes a tinge of purple or violet.
The flowers confilt of one large, funnel-lhaped petal,
having a long tube, and fpreading pentagonal limb*
fucceeded by large roundiffi capfules of the fize of
middling apples, clofely befet with {harp fpines. Air
ointment prepared from the leaves gives eafe in exter¬
nal inflammations and in the hcemorrhoids. The feeds
were lately recommended by Dr Storck to be taken
internally in cafes of madnefs; but they feem to be a
very unfafe remedy. Taken even in a fmall dofe, they,
bring on a delirium, and in a large one would certain¬
ly prove fatal. Cows, horfes> flieep, and goats, refufe
to eat this plant.
DAUCUS, the Carrot, in botany: A genus of
the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
45 th order, UmheUat*. The corolla is a little radiated,
all hermaphrodite. The fruit briftly with fliort hairs;
There are five fpecies; but the only one which merits
attention is the carota or common carrot. This is fo
well known as to need no defeription. There are fe-
veral varieties, as the white, the orange, and the purple
carrot; but of thefe the orange carrot is the moft e-
fleemed. It grows longer, larger, and is commonly
more handfome than the others, being often 15 or 18
inches long in the eatable part, and from two to four
in diameter at top. Carrots are propagated by feeds,
which
D A U r 688 ] D A U
which are fown at different feafons of the year, in or¬
der to procure a fupply of young roots for the table at
all times. The feafon for fowing for the earlieft crop
is foon after Chriftmas. They (hould be fown in an
open fituation, but near a wall; though if they are
fown clofe under it they will be apt to run up to feed
too faft, and give no good foots : about eight inches
diftance is the moft proper. They delight in a warm
fandy foil, which {hould be light, and well dug to a
good depth, that the roots may meet with no obftruc*
tion in running down, fo as to make them forked, and
(hoot out lateral branches. This will happen efpecial-
ly when the ground has been too much dunged the
fame year that the feeds were fown, which will alfo oc-
caSon them to be worm-eaten. The hairynefs of thefe
feeds makes the fowing of them difficult, on account
of their being fo apt to flick together. Before fowing,
therefore, they fhould be put through a fine chaff fieve ;
and a calm day {hould be chofen for fowing. them.
When fown, they {hould be trod in with the feet, and
the ground raked level over them. When they firft
come up they {hould be cut up to four inches diftance,
and a month after this they are to be cleared again
and if drawn while young, they are now to be left at
fix inches diftance every way ; if they are to Hand to
grow large, they muft be feparated to ten inches di-
flance. The fecond feafon for fowing carrots is in Fe¬
bruary. This muft be done under a wall or hedge, on
warm banks: but thofe which are to be on open large
quarters {hould not be fown till the beginning of March.
In July, carrots may be fown for an autumnal crop ;
and laftly, in the end of Auguft, for thofe which are to
{land the winter. Thefe laft will be fit for ufe in
March, before any of the fpring ones ; but they are
feldom fo tender or well tailed. In order to preferve
carrots for ufe all winter, they are to be dug up in the
beginning of November, and laid in a dry place in
fand ; and thefe roots being again planted in February,
will ripen feeds in Augult for fucceeding crops; the
longeft and ftraighteft roots are to be chofen for this
purpofe.
Under the article Agriculture, no 44. we have
taken notice of the good properties of carrots as a food
for cattle. They have been greatly recommended as
proper for fattening hogs; but from fome experiments
mentioned in the Gtorgical EJfays, it appears, that
though the bacon thus fed is of excellent quality, the
feeding is confiderably dearer than that fed with peafe,
pollard, &c. In the fame effays, the following experi¬
ment is mentioned by Dr Hunter, concerning the pro¬
priety of raifing carrots for the ufe of the diftiller. “ In
the month of Odlober (1773), I took 24bu{hels of car¬
rots. After being wafhed, topped, and tailed, I put
them into a large brewing copper with four gallons of
water; and covering them up with cloths to haften
the maceration, I ordered a fire to be kindled under¬
neath, which in a ftiort time reduced the wholejnto a
tender pulp. They were then put into a common
fcrew-prefs, and the juice taken from them; which,
together with the liqour left in the copper, was run
through a flannel bag. The juice was then returned
into the copper ; and as it was my defign to make it
into ale, I put to it a proportionable quantity of hops.
The liquor was then boiled about an hour, when it ac-
N° 98.
quired both the tafte and colour of wort. It was next Daacns, ]
pat into a cooler, and afterwards into the working DAV£n:ini:,J
veffel, where the yeaft was added to it. It worked ' " ■
kindly, and in all refpedts was treated as ale. I al¬
lowed it to remain in the Talk about four months, when
I broached it, but found it of a thick, muddy appear¬
ance. I attempted to fine it, but in vain. The tafte
was by no means difpleafing, as it much refembled
malt liquor. My firft intention being fruftrated, I
threw it into the ftill, being about 40 gallons in mea-
fure, and by two diftillations obtained four gallons of
a clean proof fpirit. It had, however, contradled a
flavour from the hop, which {hould be left out when
the intention is to reduce the liquor into fpirit. From
a grofs calculation, I am induced to think that a good
acre of carrots manufactured in this manner, will leave
a profit of L. 40. after deducting the landlord’s rent,
cultivation, diftillation, and other incidental expences.
In this calculation, I prefume that the fpirit is worth
fix {hillings per gallon, and not excifed. An acre of
barley will by no means produce fo much fpirit. A
rich fandy loam is the beft land for carrots; which, af¬
ter the crop is removed, will be in high clutivation for
corn.”
Attempts have alfo been made to prepare fugar from
carrots, but without fuccefs ; a thick fyrupy matter
like treacle being only obtainable.—Raw carrots are gi¬
ven to children troubled with worms. They pafs
through moft people but little changed.—A poultice
made of the roots hath been found to mitigate the pain
and abate the ftench of foul and cancerous ulcers.—
Crickets are very fond of carrots ; and are eafily de-
ftroyed by making a pafte of powdered arfenic, wheat-
meal, and fcraped carrots, which muft: be placed near
their habitations.—By their ftrong antifeptic qualities,
a marmalade made from carrots has alfo been found
ufeful in preventing and curing the fea-fcurvy. —The
feeds have been reckoned carminative and diuretic;
and were formerly much ufed as a remedy for the ftone,
but are at prefent difregarded.—Carrots were firft in¬
troduced into England by the Flemings, in the reign
of queen Elizabeth.
DAVENANT (Sir William), an eminent poet in
the 17th century, was born at Oxford in 1606. After
fome ftay at the univerfity, he entered into the fervice 01
Frances firft duchefs of Richmond, and afterward of
Fulke Grevil, lord Brook; who having an excellent
tafte for poetry, was much charmed with him. He
got great efteem by writing poems and plays; and up¬
on the death of Ben Johnfon was created poet-laureat.
He wrote his poem Goudibert at Paris. He formed
a defign for carrying over a confiderable number of
artificers, efpecially weavers, to Virginia, by the en¬
couragement of Henrietta Maria, the queen-mother of
England, who obtained leave for him of the king of
France. But he and his company were feized by fome
parliament {hips, and he carried prifoner firft to the ifle
of Wight, and then to the Tower of London ; but, by
the mediation of Milton and others, he got his liberty
as a prifoner at large. At this time tragedies and co¬
medies being prohibited, he contrived to fet up an O-
pera, to be performed by declamations and mufic. This
Italian opera began in Rutland-houfe in Charter-
houfe-yard, 1656 ; but was afterwards removed to the
Coek-
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'a^J^u^.or r Yrnura
/‘xinYY• /.
'yy/y/r/M, y/u-
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'-Yyy//sy»„yyYY«Y<-'>>,/y'y--
D A V L 689 ] D A V
kavenant Cock-Pit in Drury-Lane, and was much frequented
!l for many years. In 1648, his Madagafcar, with other
v aVI ■1 S‘ poems, were printed. He died in 1668.
DAVENANT (Dottor Charles), an eminent ci¬
vilian and writer, eldeft fon of the preceding, and edu¬
cated in Cambridge : he wrote feveral political trafts;
and likewife plays. He was (1685) impowered, with
the mafter of the revels, to infpeft the plays defigned
for the ftage, that no immoralities might be prefented.
His EfTays on Trade are in high efteem ; and were
reprinted in 5 vols. 8vo, in 1771. Doftor Davenant
was infpe&or-general of exports and imports ; and died
in 1712.
DAVENTRY, or Daintry, a handfome town of
Northamptonfhire in England, fituated on the fide of a
, Hill on the great road to Chefter and Carlifle. W.Long.
I. 15. N. Lat. 52. 12.
DAUGHTER, (film), a female child. See the ar¬
ticle Children.
Daughters, among the ancients, were more fre¬
quently expofed than fons, as requiring greater charge
to educate and fettle them in the world. See Ex¬
posing ofi Children. Thofe who had no legitimate
fons were obliged, by the Athenian laws, to leave their
cftatesto their daughter^ who were confined to marry
their neareft relations, otherwife to foifeit their inheri¬
tance ; as we find to have been pra&ifed likewife among
the Jews, many of whole laws feem to have been tran-
fcribed by Solon.
If an heirefs happened to be married before her
father’s death, this did not hinder the neareft relation
to claim the inheritance, and even to take the woman
from her hulband ; which is faid to have been a com¬
mon cafe.
DAVID, king of Ifrael, and Hebrew poet, was
born at Bethlehem 1085, and died 1014 years B. C.
His hiftory is particularly recorded in the facred wri¬
tings;
Sr DAVID’s, an epifcopal town of Pembroke-
Ihire, in S. Wales; but has neither market nor fair.
It is feated in a barren foil on the river Hen, not a
mile from the fea-lhore. It was once a confiderable
place, and had walls, which are now demolilhed; but
it is fmall at prefent, and thinly inhabited; however,
the cathedral is a pretty good ftrudture. From the
cape, near this place, there is a profpeft into Ireland.
W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 52. o.
St DAnn's, a town and fort of Alia, in the pe-
ninfula on this fide the Ganges, and on the coaft of
Coromandel, 80 miles S. of Fort St George. E.Long.
79. 55. N. Lat. 11. 30. On the taking of Madrafs
by the French in 1746, the prefidency of all the Englilh
fettlements on the Coromandel coaft was removed to
Fort St David, and continued there till about the year
1752, when it was removed back to Madrafs. In
June 1758, the fort was taken and demolilhed by the
French, and has never been rebuilt fince.
DAVIDISTS, Davidici, or David Georgians^
a fedl of heretics, the adherents of David George, a
native of Delft, who, in 1525, began to preach a new
do&rine ; publilhing himfelf to be the true Meffiah ;
and that he was fent thither to fill heaven, which was
quite empty for want of people to deferve it. He is
likewife faid to have denied the exiftence of angels,
good and evil, of heaven and hell, and to have rejected
Vol. V. Part II.
the do&rine of a future judgment. He reje&ed mar- Davd*.
riage, with the Adamites; held, with Manes, that the —“v——
foul was not defiled by fin ; and laughed at the felf-
denial fo much recommended by Jefus Chrift. Such
were his principal errors. He made his efcape from
Delft, and retired firft into Friefland and then to Ba-
fil, where he changed his name, afl'uming that of John
Bruck, and died in 1556.
He left fome difciples behind him, to whom he pro-
mifed, that he would rife- again at the end of three
years. Nor was he altogether a falfe prophet herein ;
for the magiftrates of that city, being informed, at the
three years end, of what he had taught, ordered him
to be dug up and burnt, together with his writings,
by the common hangman.
There are ftill fome remains of this ridiculous feft
in HoKlein, Friefiand, and other countries; whofc
temper and conduft feem to difcredit the exag¬
gerated account which fome writers have given of
their founder. He was probably a deluded fanatic
and myftic.
DAVILA (Henry Catherine), a celebrated hi-
ftorian, was the youngeft fon of Antonio Davila,
grand conftable of Cyprus, who on the taking of that
ifland by the Turks in 1570, had been obliged to re¬
tire into Spam, whence this family fuppofed they had
derived their name and origin. From Spain Antonia
repaired to the court of France, and fettled his fcyt
Louis and two daughters under the patronage of Ca¬
therine of Medic is; whofe name he afterwards gave
to the young luftorian, born 1576, at an ancient cartle
in the territories of Padua, though generally -called a
native of Cyprus. The little Davila was brought early
into France ; and at the age of 18, he fignalized him¬
felf in the military fee nes of that country. His la ft
exploit there was at the fiege of Amiens, where he
fought under Henry IV. and received a wound in the
knee, as he relates himfelf in his hiftory. After peace
was eftablifired in France, he withdrew into Italy, and
entered into the fervice of the Venetians. Davila,
while he was at Venice, wrote his admirable Hiftory of
the Civil Wars of France, which contains every thing
worth notice that paffed from the death of Henry IP.
in 1559, to the peace of Vervins in 1598. He con*
tinned to ferve the republic of Venice with great repu¬
tation, till a moft unfortunate adventure put an end to
his life in 1631. Palling through Vefonawith his wife
and family, on his way t© Crema, which he was ap¬
pointed to defend, and demanding, according to the
ufual cuftom of perfons in his ftation, a fupply of
horfes and carriages for his retinue, a brutal Veronefe,
called il Turco, entered the room where he and his fa¬
mily were at fupper, and being mildly reprimanded for
his iatrufion by Davila, difeharged a piftol at the hifto-
rian, and Ihot him dead on the inftant. His accom¬
plices alfo killed the chaplain of Davila, and wounded
many of his attendants. But his eldeft fon Antonio,
a youth of 18, revenged the death of his father, by
killing the murderer on the fpot. All the confe¬
derates were fecured next morning, and publicly exe¬
cuted at Verona. It is very remarkable, that Davila
paffed no cenfure on the maffacre of St Bartholomew.
His charafter of the queen mother has that partiality,
which it was natural for him to fiiow to the patronefs
of his family ; but his general veracity is confirmed by
4 S the
DAY L 690 ] D A U
Davis the great authority of the fir ft. duke of Epernon, who
Davit u^e t^e words of lord Bolingbroke) “ had been an
av‘ ' . a<ftor, and a principal aftor too, in many of the fcenes
that Davila recites.” - Girard, fecretary to this duke,
and no contemptible biographer, relates, that this hi-
ftory came down to the place where the old man re-
fided in Gafeony, a little before his death; that he
read it to him; that the duke confirmed the truth
of the narrations in it; and feemed only furprifed by
what means the author could be fo well informed
of the moft fecret councils and meafures of thofe
times.
DAVIS (Sir John), an eminent lawyer and poet,
born about the year 1570. He firft diftinguifhed him-
felf by his poem Nofce Teipfum on the Immortality of
the Soul. He became attorney-general, and fpeaker
of the houfe of commons in Ireland ; and afterward
was appointed lord chief juftice of the court of King’s
Bench in England, but died before his inftallation,
in 1626. He publiihed many law trails; but was
efteemed more of a fcholar and a wit than of a
lawyer.
Davis (John), a famous navigator in the 16th
century, was born at Sandridge, near Dartmouth in
Devonfhire; and diftinguifhed himfelf by making three
voyages to the moft northern parts of America, in or¬
der to difcover a north-weft paffage to the Eaft Indies;
in which he difcovered the Straits which bear his name.
He afterwards performed five voyages to the Eaft
Indies ; in the laft of which he was flain in a defpe-
rate fight with fome Japanefe, near the coaft of Malac¬
ca, on the 27th of December 1605. He wrote an ac¬
count of his fecond voyage for the difcovery of the
north-weft paflage; a Voyage to the Eait-Indies;
and other trails.
Davis’s Straits. See New Britain.
DAVIT, in a fhip, a long beam of timber* re-
prefented by a, a, Plate CLXV. and ufed as a crane
whereby to hoift the flukes of the anchor to the top
of the bow, without injuring the fides of the fhip
as it afeends; an operation which, by mariners, is cal¬
led fijhing the anchor. The anchors being fituated on
both the bows, the davit may be occafionally fhifted,
fo as to projeil over either fide of the fhip, according
to the polition of that anchor on which it is employed.
The inner end of the davit is fecured by being thruft
into a fquare ring of iron l, which is bolted to the
deck, and forelocked under the beams. This ring,
which is called the fpan-Jhackle, exhibited at large by
fig. 9. is fixed exa&ly in the middle of the deck, and
clofe behind the foremaft. Upon the outer end of the
davit is hung a large block f, through which a ftrong
rope traverfes, called the JiJh-pendent, d; to whofe
foremoft end is fitted a large iron hook e, and to its
after-end a tackle or complication of pullies f; the for¬
mer of which is called the JiJh-hook, and the latter the
jifh-tackle.
The davit, therefore, according to the fea-phrafe, is
employed to jijh the anchor; which being previoufly
catted, the fifh-hook is faftened upon its flukes ; and
the effort of the tackle being tranfinitted to the hook,
by means of the fifh-pendent, draws up that part of the
anchor fufficiently high upon the bow to faften it,
which is done by the Jhanh-painter. See that article.
— There is alfo a davit of a fmaller kind occafionally
fixed in the. long-boat, and employed to weigh the Danpfritr.
anchor therein. 1 i—
DAUPHIN is a title given to the eldeft fon of
France, and prefumptive heir of the crown; on account
of the province of Dauphine, which in 1343 was given
to Philip de Valois, on this condition, by Humbert
dauphin of the Viennois. The dauphin, in his letters
patent, ftyles himfelf, By the grace of Cod, eldejl fon of
France, and dauphin of Viennois.
Dauphin was anciently the title or appellation of
the prince of Viennois in France.
Moll authors who have fought the origin of the
name Dauphin and Dauphine, feem to have given too
much loofe to conjecture. Du-Chefne is of opinion,
that it was the grandfon of Guy the Fat who firft bore
the name of dauphin. Chorier obferves, that William,
canon of Notre Dame at Grenoble, who has written the
life of Margaret, daughter of Stephen earl of Burgun¬
dy, married with Guy, fon of Guy the Fat, calls the
latter fimply Guy the Old, and the former always
count Dauphin ; and adds, that no record, no monu¬
ment, ever attributes the title of dauphin to Guy the
Fat or any of his predecefibrs: fo that it mull necef-
farily have taken its rife in his fon, all whofe fucceffors
fo conftantly aflumed it, that it became the proper
name of the family. He died in 1142, in the flower
of his youth ; fo that it mull be about the year 1120
that the title commenced; and without doubt, adds
he, on fome illuftrious occafion. He obferves farther,
that this prince was of a military difpofition, and de¬
lighted in nothing but war ; and again, that it was the
cuftom of the cavaliers to deck their calks, coats of
arms, and the honiing of their horfes, with fome figure
or device peculiar to themfelves, whereby they were
diftinguilhed from all others engaged in the fame com¬
bat or tournament. From all thefe circumftances he
conjeftures, that this Guy chofe the dolphin for his
fignature ; that this was the creft of his helmet; and.
that he bore it on his coat in fome notable tournament
or battle, wherein he diftinguilhed himfelf. And this,
Chorier makes no doubt, is the real origin of the ap¬
pellation. Nothing was more common in thofe times*
than to make proper names become the names of fa¬
milies or dignities. Witnefs the Ademars, Arthauds,
Aynards, Atlemans, Berengers, and infinite others;.
who all owe their names to fome one of their anceftors,.
from whom it has been tranfmitted throughout the
family.
The feigneurs or lords of Auvergne have likewife
borne the appellation of dauphin ; but the dauphins of
Auvergne had it not till a good while after thofe of
the Viennois, and even received it from them. The
manner was this: Guy VIII. dauphin of Viennois, had
by his wife Margaret, daughter of Stephen earl of
Burgundy, a fon and two daughters. The fon was
Guy IX. his fuccelTof^ -Beatrix, one of the daughters,
was marrried to the count d’Auvergne, who, according
to Blondel, was William V. or rather, as Chorier and
others hold,. Robert VI. father of William V. This,
prince loft the greateft part of the county Auvergne*
which was taken from him by his uncle William, af-
fifted by Louis the Young : and was only left mailer
of the little canton whereof Vodable is the capitaL
He had a fon whom he called Dauphin, on account
of Guy, or Guigues, his unde by the mother’s fide..
DAY [ 691 ] DAY
Dauphin From his time his fuccefibrs, holding the fame petty
II canton of Auvergne, ftyled themfelves dauphins of Au-
v vergne, and bore a dolphin for their arms.
Dauphins, or Delphins, in literary hiftory, a name
given to the commentators on the ancient Latin au¬
thors, who were employed by order of Louis XIV. of
France, for the benefit of the prince, under the care
and dire&ion of M. de Montaufier his governor, Bof-
fuet and Huet his preceptors. They were 39 in
number.
DAUPHINY, a province of France, bounded on
the weft by the river Rhone, on the north by the
Rhone and Savoy, on the fouth by Provence, and on
the eaft by the Alps. Hence the prefumptive heir of
France is called the Dauphin. In fome places it is
very fertile; and produces corn, wine, olives, woad,
copperas, filk, cryftal, iron, and copper. But the
greateft part of this province is barren, and the inha¬
bitants are obliged to go into other countries for fub-
iiftence. The mountains abound in fimples and game
of all forts; and here are fir-trees proper for mafts.
The principal rivers are, the Rhone, the Durance, the
Ifere, and the Drone. There is a great number of
mineral fprings; and Grenoble is the capital town.
DAURAT (John), an eminent French poet, born
in 1507. In the reign of Henry II. he was preceptor
to the king’s pages, and Charles IX. who took great
delight in his converfation, and honoured him with the
title of his poet; but his generofity and want of ma¬
nagement placed him in that clafs of learned men who
have been very near ftarving. Conformable to the tafte
of the age, he had fo much fkill in making anagrams,
that feveral illuftrious perfons gave him their names to
anagrammatife: he alfo undertook to explain the Cen¬
turies of Noftradamus. Making verfes was a difeafe
in him: for no book was printed, nor did any perfon
of confequence die, but Daurat made fome verfes on
the occafion; as if he had been poet in ordinary, or his
mufe had been a hired mourner, to the whole kingdom.
Scaliger tells us, that he fpent the latter part of his
life in endeavouring to find all the bible in Homer. He
died in 1588.
DAY, according to the moft natural and obvious
fenfe of the word, fignifies that fpace of time during
which it continues to be light; in contradittinftion to
night, being that partition of time wherein it is dark :
but the fpace of time in which it is light, being fome-
what vague and indeterminate, the time between the
rifing and-the fetting of the fun is ufually looked on as
the day ; and the time which lapfes from its fetting to
its rifing again, the night.
The word day is often taken in a large fenfe, fo as
to include the night alio ; or to denote the time of a
whole apparent revolution of the fun round the earth ;
in which fenfe it is called by fome a natural day, and
by others an artificial one : but, to avoid confufion, it
is ufual to call it in the former fenfe limply the dayt
and in the latter a nychthemeron ; by which term that
acceptation of it is aptly denoted, as it implies both
day and night.
The nychthemeron is divided into twenty-four parts,
called hours; which are of two forts, equal and unequal
Or temporary. See the article Hour.
Different nations begin their day at a different hour.
Thus the Egyptians begin their day at midnight; from
whom Hippocrates introduced that way of reckoning
into aftronomy, and Copernicus and others have fol- u
lowed him : But the greateft part of aftronomers rec¬
kon the day to begin at noon, and fo count twenty-
four hours, till the noon of the next day; and not
twice twelve, according to the vulgar computation.
The method of beginning the day at midnight prevails
alfo in Great Britain, France, Spain, and moft parts of
Europe.
The Babylonians began their day at fun-rifing:
reckoning the hour immediately before its riling again,
the twenty-fourth hour of the day; from whence the
hours reckoned in this way are called the Babylonic. In
feveral parts of Germany, they begin their day at fun-
fetting, and reckon on till it fets next day, calling that
the twenty-fourth hour : thefe are generally termed Ita¬
lian hours. The Jews alfo began their nychthemeron
at fun-fetting: but then they divided it into twice
twelve hours, as we do; reckoning twelve for the day,
be it long or Ihort, and twelve for the night; fo that
their hours continually varying with the day and night,
the hours of the day were longer than thofe of the
night for one half year, and the contrary the other;
from whence their hours are called temporary: thofe
at the time of the equinoxes became equal, becaufe then
thofe of the day and night are fo. The Romans alfo
reckoned their hours after this manner, as do the Turks
at this day.
This kind of hours is called planetary, becaufe the
feven planets were anciently looked upon as prefiding
over the affairs of the world, and to take it by turns
each of thefe hours, according to the following order:
Saturn firft, then Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mer¬
cury, and laft of all the Moon: hence they denomina¬
ted each day of the week from that planet whofe turn
it was to prefide the firft hour of the nychthemeron.
Thus, affigning the firft hour of Saturday to Saturn,
the fecond will fall to Jupiter, the third to Mars, and
fo the twenty-fecond of the fame nychthemeron will
fall to Saturn again, and therefore the twenty-third to
Jupiter, and the laft to Mars: fo that on the firft hour
of the next day, it will fall to the Sun to prefide; and
by the like manner of reckoning, the firft hour of the
next will fall to the Moon ; of the next, to Mars; of
the next, to Mercury ; of the next, to Venus: hence
the days of the week came to be diftinguifhed by the
Latin names of Dies Saturni, Solis, Luna, Martis, Mer-
curii, Jovis, and Veneris; and among us, by the names
of Saturday, Sunday, Monday, &c.
DAr-Coal, in natural hiftory, a name given by the
miners of England, and the common people who live
in coal-countries, to that feam or ftratum of the coal
which lies uppermoft in the earth. The fame vein or
ftratum of coal ufually mns a great way through the
country, and dips and rifes in the earth at different
places; fo that this upper ftratum, or day-coal, is, in
the various parts of the fame ftratum, fometimes near
the furface and fometimes many fathoms deep. The
fubterranean fires found in fome of our coal-countries
feed principally on this coal; and are nearer to or far¬
ther from the furface as it rifes or finks.
Day-Fly. See Ephemeris.
Day-NsI, among fowlers. See Net.
Days of Grace, are thofe granted by the court at the
prayer of the defendant or plaintiff, in whofe delay it is.
4 S 2 Da^c
r> E A C 692 ] D E A
Day Days vf grace, in commerce, are a cuftomary num-
^ ber of days allowed for the payment of a bill of ex-
ea<:ori‘ . change, &c. after the fame becomes due.
Three days of grace are allowed in Britain ; ten in
France and Dantzic ; eight at Naples; fix at Venice,
Amfterdam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp; four at Franc-
fort; five in Leipfic; twelve at Hamburg ; fix in Por¬
tugal; fourteen in Spain; thirty in Genoa, &c.
In Britain the days of grace are given and taken as
a matter of courfe, the bill being only paid on the laft
day; but in other countries, where the time is much
longer, it would be reckoned difhonourable for a mer¬
chant to take advantage of it; bills are therefore paid
©n the very day they fall due.
DAr’s-Man, in the north of England, an arbitrator
or perfon chofen to determine an affair in difpute.
Intercalary Days. Stt Intercalary Days.
DAr’s-Work, among feamen, the reckoning or ac¬
count of the fhip’s courfe during 24 hours, or between
noon and noon, according to the rules of trigonome¬
try. See DEAD-Reckoning.
DAZE, in natural hiftory, a name given by our
miners to a glittering fort of ftotie, which often occurs
in their works ; and, as it is an unprofitable fubftance, is
one of thofe things they call weeds. The word da%e
takes in with them every ftone that is hard and glit¬
tering ; and therefore it comprehends the whole genus
of the telangia or ftony nodules, which have the
flakes of talk in their fubffanCe: thefe, according to the
colour of the ftony matter they are bedded in, and their
own colour, give the names of black daze, white, red,
and yellow daze, to thefe ftones.
DEACON, Diaconus, a perfon in the loweft de¬
gree of holy orders, whofe bufmefs is to baptife, read in
the church, and affift at the celebration of the eucharift.
The word is formed from the Latin Diaconus, of the
Greek ^<**<’>'»<^,> minifter, fervant. Deacons were in-
ftituted feven in number, by the apoftles, A8s chap. vi.
which number was retained a long time in feveral
churches. Their office was to ferve in the Agapae,
and to diftribute the bread and wine to the communi¬
cants. Another part of the office of deacons, was to
be a fort of monitors and dire&brs to the people in the
exercifc of their public devotions in the church ; for
which purpofe they made ufe of Certain known forms of
words, to give notice when each part of the fervice be¬
gan. Whence they are fometimcs called eirokerules;
“ the holy cryers of the church.”
Deacons had, by licence and authority from the bi-
ftiop, a power to preach, to reconcile penitents and
grant them abfolution, and to reprefent their bifhops
in general councils^ Their office out of the church was
to take care of the neceffitous, fuch as orphans, wi¬
dows, prifoners, and all the poor and iick who had any
title to be maintain &d out of the revenues of the church ;
to inquire into the morals and converfation of the people,
and to make their report thereof tothebiftiop. Whence,
©n account of the variety of bufinefs, it was ufual to
have feveral deacotis in the fame church.
In the Rbmifti church, it is the deacons office to in-
cenfe the officiating prieft or prelate ; to lay the cor¬
poral on the akar ; to receive the pattern or cup from
the fubdeacon, and-prefent them to the perfon officia¬
ting; to incenfe the choir; to receive the pax from the
officiating prelate, and carry it to the fubdeacon; and
at the pontifical mafs, when the bifhop gives the blef- Deaeonefd
fing, to put the mitre on his head, and to take off the  
archbifhop’s pall and lay it on the altar. In Eng¬
land, the form of ordaining deacons, declares that it is
their office to affift the prieft in the diftribution of the
holy communion : in which, agreeably to the practice
of the ancient church, they are confined to the admi-
nifteringthe wine to the communicants. A deacon in
England is not capable of any ecclefiaftical promotion;
yet he may be a chaplain to a family, curate to a be-
neficed clergyman, or le&urer to a parifh-church. He
may be ordained at 23 years of age, anno cur rente ;
but it is exprefsly provided, that the biftiop fhall not
ordain the fame perfon a prieft and deacon in the fame
day. Deacons, according to St Paul, fhould be chafte,
fincere, and blamelefs ; neither great drinkers, nor gi¬
ven to filthy lucre : they Ihould hold the myftery of
the faith in a pure confeience; and fhould be well ap¬
proved before they are admitted to the miniftry. In
the church of Scotland, the deacon’s office is only to
take care of the poor.
DEACONESS, a female deacon ; an order of wo¬
men who had their diftindl offices and fervices in tire
primitive church. This office appears as ancient as the
apoftolical age; for St Paul calls Phebe a fervant of
the church of Cenchrea. The original word is <!'<»-
anfwerable to the Latin word mint/bra. Ter-
tullian calls them viduee, widows, becaufe they were
commonly chofen Out of the widows of the church ;
and, for the fame reafon, Epiphanius, and the coun¬
cil of Laodicea, calls them elderly women,
becaufe none but fuch were ordinarily taken into this
office. For, indeed, by fome ancient laws, thefe four
qualifications were required in every one that was to
be admitted into this order. 1. That fhe ftiould be a
widow. 2. That Ihe fhould be a widow that had born
children. 3. A widow that was but once married.
4. One of a confiderable age, 40, 50, or 60 years old.
Though all thefe rules admitted of exceptions. Con¬
cerning their ordination, whether it was always per¬
formed by impofition of hands, the learned are much
divided in their fentiments. Baronins and Valeiius-
think they were not, and make no other account of
them than as merelay-perfons. But the author of the
conftitutions, fpeaking of their ordination, requires
the bifhop to ufe impofition of hands, with a form of
prayer which is there recited. We are not, however,
to imagine, that this ordination gave them any power
to execute any part of the facerdotal office. They
were only to perform fomeinferior fervieesof the church,,
and thofe chiefly relating to the women for whofe fakes
they were ordained. One part of their office was to
affift the minifter at the baptizing of women, to undrefs
them for immerfion, and to drefs them again, .that the
whole ceremony might be performed with all the de¬
cency becoming fo facred an a&ion. Another part of
iheir office was to be private catechifts to the women-
catechumens who were preparing for baptifm. They
were likewife to attend the women that were fick and
in diftrefs; to minifter to martyrs and confeffors in
prifon; to attend the womens gate in the church; and,
laftly, to affign all women their places-in the church,
regulate their behaviour, and prefide over the reft of
the widows; whence in fome canons they are ftyled
#t “ goveraelfes.” This order, which ftn-cfc
the.
D E A
Deacenry the *Oth or I2th century has been wholly laid afide,
was not abolifhed every where at once, but continued
in the Greek church longer than in the Latin, and in
feme of the Latin churches longer than in others.
DEACONRY, Di^onate, the order or miniftry
of a deacon or deaconefs. See Deacon and Dea¬
coness.
Deaconry, Diaconia, is alfo a name ft HI referved
to the chapels and oratories in Rome, under the di-
re&ion of the feveral deacons, in their refpeftive re-
fpeftive regions or quarters.
[ 693 ]
D E A
a Ihip makes much dead-water when fhe has a great
eddy following her ftern.
DEADLY-carrot. See Thapsia.
Dbadlt Fcudy in Englilh law-books, a profeffion of i_
irreconcileable enmity, till a perfon is revenged by the
death of his enemy. The word feud is derived from
the German Fehd; which, as Hottoman obferves, fig-
nihes modo bellum, nado capitales inimicitias *. Such «
enmity and revenge was allowed by law in the time of
the Saxons, viz. If any man was killed, and a pecu¬
niary fatisfaction was not made to the kindred, it was
To the deaconries were annexed a fort of hofpitals lawful for them to take up arms and revenge themfelves
or boards for the diftribution of alms, governed by the on the murderer: which was called deadly ftud. And
rtgioriary deacons, called cardinal deacons, of whom there this probably was the original of an Appeal.
r - - r—• _ r  — *1- -' -'-•.r DEAFNESS, the ftate of a perfon who wants the
fenfe of hearing ; or the difeafe of the ear, which pre¬
vents its due reception of founds. See Medicine-
Index.
Deafnefs generally arifes either from an obftruftion
or a comprellion of the auditory nerve ; or from forhe
collection of matter in the cavities of the inner ear; or
from the auditory palfage being Hopped up by foma
hardened excrement; or, laftly, from fome excrefcence,
a fwelling of the glands, or fome foreign body intro¬
duced within it.
Thofe born deaf are alfo dumb, as not being able
to learn any language, at leaft in the common way.
However, as the eyes in fame meafure ferve them for
ears, they may underftand what is faid by the motion
of the lips, tongue, &c. of the fpeaker; and even
accuftom themfelves to move their own, as they fee
were feven, anfwering to the feven regions, their chief
being called the archdeacon.
The. hofpital adjoining to the church of the dea¬
conry had an adminiftrator for the temporal concerns,
called the father of the deaemry, who was fometimes a
prieft-and fometimes a layman. ,
At prefent there are are fourteen of thefe deaconries
cr hofpitals at Rome, which are referved to the car¬
dinals. Du-Cange gives us their names: as, the dea¬
conry of St Maria in the Broad-way, the deaconry of
St Euftachio near the Pantheon, &c.
DEAD languages. See Philology, chap. iii.
Prefervationof Dead Bodies. See Embalming.
Feajl of the Dead. See Feast of the Dead.
DsAD-Lights, certain wooden ports which are made
to faften into the cabin windows, to prevent the waves
from gufhing into the ftiip in a high fea. • As they
are made exadly to fit the windows, and are ftrong other people do, and by this means learn to fpeak.—
enough to refill the waves, they are always fixed in
on the approach of a ftorm, and the glafs lights taken
out, which mull otherwife be fhattered to pieces by
the furges, and fuffer great quantities of water to enter
the veffel.
Thus it was that Dr Wallis taught two yoiing gentle¬
men born deaf to know what was faid to them, and to
return pertinent anfwers. Digby gives us another in-
llance of the fame within his own knowledge ; and
there was a Swifs phyfician lately living at Amlierdam,
DEAD-Mens-Eyes, in the fea-language, a kind of one John Conrad Amman, who etfedled the fame in
blocks with many holes in them, but no fheevers,
whereby the fhrowds are faftened to the chains ; the
crow-feet reeve aifo through thefe holes: and, in fome
(hips, the tnain-ftays are fet tight in them ; but then
they have only one hole, through which the lanyards
are paffed feveral times. SeePlate CLXY.
Dead's Part. See Law, N°clxxxi. 6.
DsAD-Reckoning, in navigation, the judgment or
eftimation which is made of the place where a fhip is
fituated; without any obfervation of the heavenly bo- lips only, whatever was faid to them, and would anfw
dies. It is difeovered by keeping an account of the di- pertinently to the queftion propofed. It feems thi
fiance Ihe has run by the log, and of Rer courfe lleered
by the compafs ; and by rectifying thefe data by the
ufual allowances for drift, lee-way, &c. according to the
Ihip’s known trim. This reckoning, however, is always
feveral children born deaf with furprifmg fuccefs. He
has reduced the thing to a fixed art or method, which
he has publilhed in his Surdus Loquens, Amftelod. 1692,
and de Loquela, ibid. ryoo.
In the Phil. Tranf. N° 312. we have an account by
Mr Waller, R. S. Seer, of a man and his filler, each
about 50 years old, born in the fame town with Mr
Waller, who had neither of them the leaft fenfe of
hearing ; yet both of them knew, by the motion of the
could both hear and fpeak when children, but loll their
fenfe afterwards; whence they retained their fpeech,
which, though uncouth, was yet intelligible.
Such another inftance is that of Mr Goddy’s daugh-
to be corredled, as often as any good obfervation of ter, minifler of St Gervais in Geneva, related by Bi
the fun can be obtained.
Dead-Sco, in geography,, a lake of Judea, into which
the river Jordan difeharges itfelf; being about yo miles
long and 20 broad. See Asphaltites.
DsAD-Tops, a difeafe incident to young trees, and
cured by cutting off the dead parts clofe to the next
good twig or Ihoot, and claying them over as in
grafting.
Ihop Burnet. “ At two years old theyr perceived Ihe
had loll her hearing ; and ever fince, though flie- hears
great noifes, yet hears nothing of what is faid to her.
But by obferving the motions of the mouth and lips of
others, Ihe acquired fo many words, that out of thefe
file has formed a foit of jargon, in which Ihe can hold
converfation whole days with thofe that can fpeak her
language.. She knows nothing that is faid to her un-
Dead-Water, at fea, the eddy-water juft aftern of lefs Hie fee the motion of their mquths that fpeak to
a ftiip ; fo called, becaufe it does not pafs away fo fwift
as the water running by her fides does. They fay that
her, fo that in the night they are obliged to light
caudles to fpeak to her. One thing will appear the
itrangelt
Deal,
Dean.
* See fur¬
ther the
artiele
Jiitmbncft.
D E A C 694 1 D E A
ftrangefl part of the whole narration : file haa a filter,
with whom Ihe has pra&ifed her language more than
with any body elfe ; and in the night, by laying her
hand on her filter’s mouth, file can perceive by that
what fhe faith, and fo can difcourfe with her in the
dark.” Burn. Let. IV. p. 248 *.
It is obfervable, that deaf perfo.ns, and feveral others
thick of hearing, hear better and more eafily if a loud
noife be raifed at the time when you fpeak to them: ■
which is owing, no doubt, to the greater tenfion of the
ear-drum on that occafion. Dr Wallis mentions a deaf
woman, who if a drum were beat in the room could
hear any thing very clearly ; fo that her hulband hired
a drummer for a fervant, that by this means he might
hold converfation with his wife. The fame author
mentions another, who, living near a lleeple, could
always hear very well if there was a ringing of three or
four bells, but never elfe.
DEAL, a thin kind of fir-planks, of great ufe in
carpentry. They are formed by fawing the trunk of
a tree into a great many longitudinal divifions, of more
or lefs thicknefs according to the purpofes they are in¬
tended to ferve.
A very good method of feafoning planks of deal and
fir is to throw them into fait water as foon as they are
fawed; and keep them there three or four days, fre¬
quently turning them. In this cafe they will be ren¬
dered much harder, by drying afterwards in the air
and fun : but neither this, nor any other method yet
known, will preferve them from Ihrinking.
Rods of deal expand laterally, or crofs the grain, in
mo ill weather, and contract again in dry ; and thence
have been found to make an ufeful hygrometer.
Deal, a town of Kent in England, lying between
Dover and Sandwich, in E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. yi.
16. is fuppofed to be the Dola of Nennius, and is li-
tuated on a flat and level coaft. This town, according
to Dr Campbell, juftifies an obfervation he had made
in favour of fituations of this kind, wz. that they are
lefs liable than others to be injured by the fea. The
town of Deal, as far as we are able to judge, except
it may be the fea’s fhrinking a little from it, is in much
the fame condition in which it ever was, even from the
earlieft accounts. The learned Dr Halley has proved,
Mifcellanea Curiofa, vol. iii. p. 426, that Julius Caefar
landed here, Auguft 26th, the year before the coming
of Chrift 55.—The great conveniency of landing has
been of infinite fervice to the place ; fo that it is large
and populous, divided into the upper and lower towns,
adorned with many fair buildings, and is in effeft the
principal placd on the Downs.
J)EAN, an ecclefiaftical dignitary' in cathedral and
collegiate churches, and head of the chapter.
Rural Dean, called alfo Arch-prejbyter, originally
exercii'ed jurifdiction over ten churches in the country,
and afterwards became only the bifhop’s fubftitute, to
grant letters of adminiftration, probate of wills, &c.;
to convocate the clergy; and to fignify to them fome-
times by letters the bifhop’s will, and to give indu&ion
to the archdeacon. Their office is now loft in that of
the archdeacons and chancellors.
Dean of a Mcnajlery, was a fuperior eflablifhed un¬
der the abbot, to eafe him in taking care of ten monks;
whence he was called decams.
Dean and Chapter, are the council of the bifirop, to
afiift him with their advice in affairs of religion, and alfo
in the temporal concerns of his fee. When the reft of
the clergy were fettled in the feveral parifhes of each
diocefe, thefe were referved for the celebration of di¬
vine fervice in the bifhop’s own cathedral; and the chief
of them, who prefided over the reft, obtained the name
of decams or dean, being probably at firft appointed to
fuperintend ten canons or prebendaries.
All ancient deans are eletled by the chapter by conge
d’ejl'ire from the king, and letters miffive of recommen¬
dation, in the fame manner as bifhops; but in thofe
chapters that were founded by Henry VIII. out of the
fpoils of the diffolved monafteries, the deanery is dona¬
tive, and the inftallation merely by the king’s letters
patent. The chapter, confifting of canons or preben¬
daries, are fometimes appointed by the king, fome-
times by the bifhop, and fometimes ele&ed by each
other.
The dean and chapter are the nominal ele&ors of a
bifhop. The bifhop is their ordinary and immediate
fuperior; and has, generally fpeaking, the power of
viiiting them, and correfting their exceffes and enor¬
mities. They had alfo a check on the bifhop at com¬
mon law ; for till the ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 28. his
grant or leafe would not have bound his fucceffors, un-
lefs confirmed by the dean and chapter.
Dean of Guild. See Law, NJclviii. 11.
DEANERY, the office of a dean.—Deaneries and
prebends may become void, like a bifhopric, by death,
by deprivation, or by refignation either to the king or
bifhop. If a dean, prebendary, or other fpiritual per-
fon, be made a bifhop, all the preferments of which he
was before poffeffed are void ; and the king may pre-
fent to them in right of his prerogative royal. But
they are not void by the elettion, but only by the con-
fecration.
DEATH, is generally confidered as the feparation
of the foul from the body; in which fenfe it ftands op-
pofed to life, which confifts in the union thereof.
Phyficians ufually define death by a total ftoppage of
the circulation of the blood, and a ceffation of the animal
and vital fundions confequent thereon; as refpiration,
fenfation, &c.
An animal body, by the adions infeparable from
life, undergoes a continual change. Its fmalleft fibres
become rigid ; its minute veffels grow into folid fibres
no longer pervious to the fluids ; its greater veffels
grow hard and narrow ; and every thing becomes con-
traded, clofed, and bound up : whence the drynefs,
immobility, and extenuation, obferved in old age. By
fuch means the offices of the minuter veffels are de-
ftroyed ; the humours ftagnate, harden, and at length
coalefce with the folids. Thus are the fubtilift fluids
in the body intercepted and loft, the concodion weak¬
ened, and the reparation prevented; only the coarfer
juices continue to run flowly through the greater vef¬
fels, to the prefervation of life, after the animal func¬
tions are deitroyed. At length, in the procefs of thefe
changes, death itfelf becomes inevitable, as the necef-
fary confequence of life. But it is rare that life is thus
long protraded, or that death fucceeds merely from
the decays and impairment of old age. Difeafes, a
long and horrid train, cut the work fhort.
The figns of death are in many cafes very uncertain.
If we confult what Winflow or Bruchier have faid on
1 this
D E A [ 695 ] DEB
Death, this fubjeft, we ftiall be convinced, that between life
" and death the (hade is fo very undiftinguiihable, that
even all the powers of art can fcarcely determine where
the one ends and the other begins. The colour of the
vifage, the warmth of the body, and fupplenefs of the
joints, are but uncertain figns of life llill fublifting;
while, on the contrary, the palenefs of the complexion,
the coldnefs of the body, the ftiffnefs of the extremi¬
ties, the ceffation of all motion, and the total infenfi-
bility of the parts, are but uncertain marks of death be¬
gun. In the fame manner alfo, with regard to the
pulfe and breathing; thefe motions are often fo kept
under, that it is impofiible to perceive them. By bring¬
ing a looking-glafs near to the mouth of the peifon
fuppofed to be dead, people often expedt to find whether
he breathes or not. But this is a very uncertain expe¬
riment : the glafs is frequently fullied by the vapour
of the dead man’s body ; and often the perfon is ftill
alive, though the glafs is no way tarnilhed. In the
fame manner, neither burning nor fcarifying, neither
noifes in the ears nor pungent fpirits applied to the no-
llrils, give certain figns of the difcontinuance of life;
and there are many inftances of perfons who have endu¬
red them all, and afterwards recovered without any ex¬
ternal afiiftance, to the allonifhment of the fpeftators.
This ought to be a caution againft hafty burials, efpe-
cially in cafes of hidden death, drowning, &c.
Death in Law. In law, there is a natural death
and a civil death : natural, where nature itfelf expires;
civil, where a perfbn is not a ft u ally dead, but adjudged
fo by law. Thus, if any perfon, for whofe life an eftate
is granted, remains beyond fea, or is othenXufe abfent,
feven years, and no proof made of his being alive, he
fhall be accounted naturally dead.
Brothers of Death, a denomination ufually given to
the religious of the order of St Paul, the firft hermit.
They are called brothers of death, fratres a morte, on ac¬
count of the figure of a death’s head, which they were
always to have wfith them, in order to keep perpetu¬
ally before them the thoughts of death. This order,
by its con.ftitutions made in 1620, does not feem to have
been eftablifhed long before Pope Paul V. Louis XIII.
in 1621, permitted them to fettle in France. The or¬
der w'as probably fuppreffed by Pope Urban VIII.
Ijaiu of Deathbed. See Law, N°clxxxi. 38—41.
Dv.ATH'Watch, in natural hiftory, a little infeft fa¬
mous for a ticking noife, like the beat of a watch, which
the vulgar have long taken for a prefage of death in
the family where it is heard : whence it is alfo called
pcdicuhis, fatidicus, mortfaga, pulfatorivs, &c.
There are two kinds of death-watches. Of the firft
we have a good account in the Phil. Tranf. by Mr Al¬
len. It is a fmall beetle, of an inch long, of a dark-
brown colour, fpotted ; having pellucid wings under
the vagina, a large cap or helmet on the head, and
two antennae proceeding from beneath the eyes, and
doing the office of probofeides. The part it beats
withal, he obferved, was the extreme edge of the face,
which he choofes to call the upper-lip, the mouth being
protrafted by this bony part, and lying underneath out
of view.
This account is confirmed by Dr Derham; with this
difference, that inftead of ticking with the upper-lip,
he obferved the infeft to draw back its mouth, and
beat with its forehead. That author had two death-
watches, a male and a female, which he kept alive in Death,
a box feveral months; and could bring one of them to Det>entu'e‘
beat whenever he pleafed, by imitating its beating. ' " ir
By this ticking noife he could frequently invite the male
to get up upon the other in the way of coition. When
the male found he got up in vain, he would get off a-
gain, beat very eagerly, and then up again : Whence
the ingenious author concludes thofe pulfations to be
the way whereby thefe infefts woo one another, and
find out and invite each other to copulation.
The fecond kind of death-watch is an infeft in ap¬
pearance quite different from the firft. The former
only beats feven or eight ftrokes at a time, and quicker;
the latter wiil beat fume hours together without inter-
miffion; and his ftrokes are more leifurely, and like the
beat of a watch. This latter is a fmall greyifh infeft;,
much like a loufe when viewed with the naked eye.
It is very common in all parts of the houfe in the
fummer-months : it is very nimble in running to fhel-
ter, and fhy of beating when difturbed ; but will beat
very freely before you, and alfo anfwer the beating, if
you can view it without giving it difturbance, or Iha-
king the place where it lies, &c. The author cannot
fay whether they beat in any other thing, but he never
heard their noife except in or near paper. As to their
neife, the fame perfon is in doubt whether it be made
by their heads, or rather fnouts, againft the paper; or
whether it be not made after fume fueh manner as-
grafhoppers and crickets make their noife. He in¬
clines to the former opinion. The reafon of his doubt
is, that he obferved the animal’s body to (hake and
give a jerk at every beat, but could fcarce perceive any
part of its body to touch the paper. But its body
is fo fmall and near the paper, and its motion in tick¬
ing fo quick, that he thinks it might be, yet he not per¬
ceive it. The ticking, as in the other, he judges to
be a wocing aft; as having obferved another, after much
beating, come and make offers to the beating infeft,
who, after fome offers, left off beating, and got upon
the back of the other. When they were joined, he
left off again ; and they continued fome hours joined
tail to tail, like dog and bitch in coition. Whether
this infeft changes its (hape and becomes another ani¬
mal or not, he cannot fay though he has fome caufe
to fufpeft that it becomes a fort of fly. It is at firft a
minute white egg, much fmaller than the nits of lice ;
though the infedl is near as big as a loufe. In March
it is hatched, and creeps about with its (hell on. When
it firft leaves its (hell, it is even fmaller than its .egg ;
though that be fearce difcernible without a microfcopc.
In ,this date it is. perfeftly like the mites in cheefe.
From the mite-ttate they grow gradually to their ma¬
ture perfeft date. When they become like the old
ones, they are at firft very fmall,. but run about much
more fwiftly than before.
DEBENTURE, a term of trade ufed at the cuftom-
houfe for a kind of certificate figned by the officers of
the cuftoms, which intitles a merchant exporting goods
to the receipt of a bounty or draw-back. All rner-
chandifes that are. defigned to be taken on board for
that voyage being entered and (hipped, and-the (hiq
being regularly cleared out, and failed out of port on
her intended voyage, debentures may be made put
from the exporter’s entries, in order to obtain the
drawbacks, allowances, bounties, or premiums; whicB
debentures
DEC [ 696 ] DEC
’Debenture debentures for foreign goods are to be paid within one
H month after demand. And in making out thefe de-
. ec^ e' bentureSf it muft be obferved, that evety piece of vel¬
lum, parchment, or paper, containing any debenture
for drawing back cuftoms or duties, muft, before wri¬
ting, be ftamped, and pay a duty of 8 d.
The forms of debentures vary according to the mer-
chandife exported. In the execution of debentures
for tobacco, it muft be particularly obferved, r. That
-debentures for the fame quantity may be made on one
or more parchments. 2. That the exporter’s oath muft
be printed, fpecifying whether he acts for himfelf or on
-commiffion. 3- If exported to any other foreign ports
than Ireland, the word Ireland muft be added to the
oath after Great Britain. 4. That as no tobacco may
be con fumed on board of fhips of war in Europe but
what has paid full duties, and been manufa&ured in
Great Britain, no drawback is to be allowed for to¬
bacco exported in any man of war. 5. That the eight
pounds per hogftiead of 350 pounds, or more, allowed
for draught at importation, muft not be deducted on
exportation. 6. That debentures for tobacco exported
to Ireland muft not be paid till a certificate be pro¬
duced, teftifying the landing thereof. 7. That no
perfons may fwear to the exportation but fuch as are
permitted to fwear to debentures for other goods*" In
debentures for all other foreign goods, no perfon may
be admitted to fwear to the exportation but the true
-exporter, either as a proprietor, or who, being employed
by commifiion, is concerned in the dire&ion of the
voyage. All kinds of debentures, before delivered or
paid to the exporters, are entered into a feparate book
kept for that purpofe by the collector and comptroller
of the cuftoms.
DEB1TA fundi. See Law, N°clxvi. 1.
Debita FruBuum. See Law, N°clxx. 17.
DEBILITY, among phyficians, a relaxation of
the folids, occafioning oftentimes weaknelfes and faint-
ings.
DEBIR (anc. geog.), a facerdotal city of Paleftine,
near Hebron ; but neither diftance, nor point of the
compafs on which it lies, can be determined. It was
anciently called Karlath-fepher or Kirjath-fepher, and
Khjath-fannn (Jofliua).—Another Debit in the tribe of
Gad, bevond Jordan.
DEBRECHEN, a town of Upper Hungary, a-
tfeout 77 miles eaft of Buda. E. Long. 21. 10. N. Lat.
47- 45-
DEBRUIZED, in heraldry, a term peculiar to the
Englifh, by which is intimated the grievous reftraint
of any animal, debarred of its natural freedom, by any
-of the ordinaries being laid over it.
DEBT, in law, any thing due to another, whether
it be money, goods, or fervices; or the action brought
for recovering the fame.
National Debt. See Funds and National Debt.
DEBTOR, a perfon who owes any thing to ano¬
ther ; in contradiftinftion to creditor, which is he to
whom the debt is owing.
Debtor, in merchants accounts. See Book¬
keeping.
DECAGON, in geometry, a plane figure with ten
Sides and ten angles.
DECADE, a word ufed by fome old writers for
the number ten, and decades for an enumeration by
N° 98.
tens. The word is formed from the Latin decas, which Deetgynis
is derived from a Greek word of the fame import. n
The word has been more peculiarly appropriated to the ^ "
number of books, q. d. decades, into which the Roman  ———.
Hiftory of Titus Livius is divided. Hence alfo came
decadal arithmetic, the Decameron of Boccacio, &c.
DECAGYNIA (from ten, and yv's a 'woman'),
the name of an order, or fecondary divifion, in the clafs
decandria, of the fexual method, confifting of plants
whofe flowers are furnifhed with ten ftamina and the
fame number of ftyles ; which laft are confidered by
Linnaeus and the fexualifts as the female organs of ge¬
neration in plants. Neurada and American night-
fhade furnifti examples.
DECALOGUE, the ten precepts orcommandments
delivered by God to Mofes, after engraving them on
two tables of ftone.
The Jews, by way of excellence, call thefe com¬
mandments the ten words, from whence they had af¬
terwards the name of decalogue: but it is to be obferved,
that they joined the firft and fecond into one, and divided
the laft into two. They underitand that again!! Heal¬
ing to relate to the ftealing of men, or kidnapping ;
alleging, that the ftealing one another’s goods or pro¬
perty' is forbidden in the laft commandment.
The emperor Julian objected to the decalogue, that
the precepts it contained (thofe only excepted which
concern the worfhip of falfe gods, and the obfervatioa
of the fabbath) were already fo familiar to all nations^
and fo univerfally received, that they were unworthy,
for that very reafon, to be delivered, by fo great a le-
giflator, to fo peculiar a people. The church of Rome
has ftruck the fecond commandment quite out of the
decalogue ; and to make their number complete, hath
fplit the tenth into two : The reafon of which may be
eafily conceived.
DECAN, a kingdom of Afia, in the peninfula on
this fide the Ganges, bounded on the fouth by the
kingdom of Bifnagar, on the weft by the ocean, on the
north by Moguliftan, and on the eaft by the moun¬
tains which feparate it from Golconda.
DECANDRIA (f«a ten, and a hujband),
Linnaeus’s tenth clafs, comprehending thofe herma¬
phrodite plants which bear flowers with ten ftamina.
See Botany, p. 430.
DECANTATION, among chemifts, ^:c. the gent¬
ly pouring off a liquor from its'fasces, by inclining the
lip or canthus of the veffel; whence the name.
DECANUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer who
prefided over the other ten officers, and was head of
the contubernium, or ferjeant of a file of foldiers.
DECAPOLIS (anc. geog.), a diftridt beyond Jor¬
dan, almoft all of it belonging to the half tribe of Ma-
nafieh ; before the captivity, called Bethfan; but after
occupied by heathens, who could not be driven out. It
comprifed, as the name denotes, ten principal cities on
the otherfide the Jordan, if we except Scythopolis, which
ftood on this fide, but its territory on the other.
DECAPROTI, decemprimi, in Roman antiqui¬
ty, officers for gathering the tributes and taxes.
The decaproti were alfo obliged to pay for the dead,
or to anfwer to the emperor for the quota parts of
fuch as died out of their own eftates.
DECASPERMUM, in botany ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of
5 plants.
DEC [ 697 ] DEC
Decaftyle plants. The calyx is a turbinated perianthium, quin-
Decemv'ri at t^ie aPex* The corolla -has five roundifh
■ eceaivin- petals. The llamina are many filiform filaments, a
w little fhorter than the corolla. The pericarpium is a
dry, globular, decemlocular berry, with folitary egg-
fliaped feeds.
DECASTYLE, in the apcient architefture, a build¬
ing with an ordnance of ten columns in front, as the
temple of Jupiter Olympius was.
DECEIT, in law, a fubtle trick or device, to which
may be added all manner of craft and collufion, or un¬
derhand pr?i6lice, ufed to defraud another, by any
means whatever.
DECEMBER, the laft month of the year, wherein
the fun enters the tropic of Capricorn, and makes the
winter folftice.
In Romulus’s year, December was the tenth month,
whence the name, viz. from decern “ ten:” for the Ro¬
mans began their year in March.
The month of December‘ifas under the prote&ion
of Vefta. Romulus affigned it 30 days, Numa redu¬
ced it to 29, which Julius Caefar increafed to 31.
Under the reign of Commodus, this month was
called, By way of flattery, jlma-zonius, in honour of a
courtefan whom that prince pafiionately loved, and had
got painted like an Amazon ; but it only kept the
name during that emperor’s life.
At the latter end of this month they had the juveniles
ludi; and the country people kept the feaft of the
goddefs Vacuna in the fields, having then gathered in
their fruits and fown their corn ; whence feems to be
derived our popular feftival called harvejl-home.
DECEM PAGI (anc. geog.), a town of Belgica:
Now Dieufey in Lorrain, on the rivulet Seille or Selna,
near the lake Lindre, about feven German miles to
the north-eaft of Nancy.
DECEMPEDA, Atxairovr, ten-feet rod, an inftrument
ufed by the ancients in meafuring.
The decempeda was a rule or rod divided into ten
feet ; whence its name, from decern “ ten,” and pes,
pedis, “ foot.” The foot was fubdivided into twelve
inches, and each inch into ten digits. The decempe¬
da was ufed both in meafuring of land, like the chain
among us ; and by architeds to give the proper dimen-
fions and proportions to the parts of their buildings,
which ufe it ftill retains. Horace, lib. ii. od. 15. bla¬
ming the magnificence and delicacy of the buildings of
his time, obferves, that it was otherwife in the times
of Romulus and Cato ; that in the houfes of private
perfons there were not then known any porticoes mea-
iured out with the decempeda, nor turned to the north
to take the cool air.
DECEMVIRI, ten magiftrates of abfolute autho¬
rity among the Romans. The privileges of the pa¬
tricians railed diflatisfaftion among the plebeians; who,
though freed from the power of the Tarquins, Hill faw
that the adminiftration of juftice depended upon the
will and caprice of their fuperiors, without any writ¬
ten ftatute to dired them, and convince them ithat
they were governed with equity and impartiality. The
tribunes complained to the fenate, and demanded that
a code of laws might be framed for the ufe and bene¬
fit of the Roman people. This petition was complied
with ; and three ambafladors were fent to Athens and
all the other Grecian ftates, to colled the laws of So-
Vox. V. Part II.
Ion and of all the other celebrated legillators of Greece. Decemviri
Upon the return of the commiffioners it was univer-
fally agreed, that ten new magiftrates called Decemviri, Dec^a .
fhould be eleded from the fenate to put the projed
into execution. Their power was abfolute, all other
offices ceafed after their eledion, and they prefided
over the city with regal authority. They were inveft-
ed with the badges of the conful, in the enjoyment of
which they fuccecded by turns; and only one was
preceded by the fafces, and had the power of aflem-
bling the fenate and confirming decrees. The firft de¬
cemvirs were Appius Claudius, T. Genutins, P. Sert-
tus, Sp. Veturius, C. Julius, A. Manlius, Sen Sulpi-
tius, Pluriatius, T. Romulus, Sp. Pofthumius, in the
year of Rome 302. Under them the laws which had
been expofed to public view, that every citizen might
fpeak his fentiments, were publicly approved of as con-
ftitutional, and ratified by the priefts and augurs in the
moft folemn and religious manner. They were ten in
number, and were engraved on tables of brafs; two were
afterwards added, and they were called the laws of the
twelve tables, leges duodecim talularum, and leges decemvira-
les. The decemviral power, which was beheld by all ranks
of people with thegreatell fatisfa&ion, was continued;
but in the third year after their creation the decemvirs
became odious on account of their tyranny, and the
attempt of Ap. Claudius to ravifli Virginia totally abo-
lilhed the office. The people were fo exafperated
againfl them, that they demanded them from the fe¬
nate to burn them alive. Confuls were again appoint¬
ed, and tranquillity re-eftablifhed in the ftate.—There
were other officers in Rome called decemvirs, who
were originally appointed in the abfence of the prse-
tor to adminifter juftice. Their appointment became
afterwards neceflary, and they generally affifted at
fales called fubhajlationes, becauft a fpear, hajla, was
fixed at the door of the place where the goods were
expofed to fale. They were called decemviri litibus ju-
dicandis. The officers whom Tarquin appointed to
guard the Sibylline books were alfo called decemviri.
They were originally two in number, called duumviri,
till the year of Rome 388, when their number was in¬
creafed to ten, five of which were chofen from the
plebeians and five from the patricians. Sylla increafed
their number to fifteen, called quindecemvirs.
DECENNALIA, ancient Roman feftivals, cele¬
brated by the emperors every tenth year of their reign,
with facrifices, games, and largefles for the people.
The emperor Auguftus firft inftituted thefe folemnities,
in which he was imitated by his fucceflbrs. At the
fame time the people offered up vows for the emperor,
and for the perpetuity of the empire; which were there¬
fore called vota decennalia. Auguftus’s view in efta-
bliftiing the decennalia was to preferve the empire and
the fovereign power without offence or reftraint to the
people. For during the celebration of this feaft, that
prince ufed to furrender up all his authority into the
hands of the people; who, filled with joy, and charmed
with the goodnefs of Auguftus, immediately delivered
it him back again.
DECHALES (Claudius Francis Milliet), an ex¬
cellent mathematician, mechanic, and atlronomer, de-
fcended from a noble family, and born at Chamberry
in 1611. His principal performances are an edition of
Euclid’s elements of geometry, in which the unfervice-
4 T able
Deciates
II
Decrus
DEC r 6oS 1 DEC
able prdpofitions are rejefted, and the ufes of thofe re¬
tained, annexed ; a difcourfe on fortification ; and an¬
other on navigation. Thefe with others have been col¬
lected firft in 3 vols folio, and afterwards in 4, under
the title of Mundus Mathemaiicus : being indeed a
complete courfe of mathematics. He died in 1678,
profefTor of mathematics in. the univerfity of Turin.
DECIATES, or Deciata, (anc. geog.) a people of
Gallia Narbonenfis, next the borders of Italy, on the
Mediterranean. Now the diocefe of Grace and An¬
tibes, Deciatum oppidum, was a town fituated between
Antibes and Nice.
DECIDUOUS, an appellation chiefly ufed in re-
fpedt of plants: thus, the calyx or cup of a flower is
fiaid to be deciduous, when it falls along with the flower-
petals ; and, on the contrary, it is called permanent,
when it remains after they are fallen. Again, decidu¬
ous leaves are thofe which fall in autumn ; in contraoii-
tiudion to thofe of the eyer-greens, which remain all the
winter. See Defoliation.
DECIL, in aftronomy, an afped or pofition of two
planets, when they are diftant from each other a tenth
part of the zodiac.
DECIMAL arithmetic, the art of computing by
decimal fra&ions. See Arithmetic.
DECIMATION, a punifhment inflided by the
Ecmans, on fuch foldiers as quitted their pofts, or be¬
haved themfelves cowardly in the field. The names of
the guilty were put into an urn or helmet, and as ma¬
ny were drawn out as made the tenth part of the whole
number, and thofe were put to the fword, and the o-
thers faved. This was called decimare ; a word of the
ancient Roman militia, who, to puniih whole legions
when they had failed in their duty, made every tenth
foldier draw lots, and put him to death for an example
to the others.
As the Romans had their dcclmatlo, they had alfo
the vicejimatio, and even centefimatio, when only the 20th
or tooth man fuffered by lot.
DECIPHERING, the art of finding the alpha¬
bet of a cipher. For the art both of Ciphering and
Deciphering, fee the article Cipher.
DECIUS Mus, a celebrated Roman conful, who,
after many glorious exploits, devoted himfelf to the
gods manes for the fafety of his country in a battle a-
gainft the Latins, about 340 years before the Auguf-
tan age. His fon Decius imitated his example, and
devoted himfelf in like manner in his fourth confulfhip,
when fighting againft the Gauls and Sanmites. His
grandfon alfo did the fame in the war againft Pyrrhus
and the Tarentines. This a&ion of devoting onefelf
was of infinite feivice to the ftate. The foldiers were
animated by the example, and induced to follow with
intrepidity a commander who, arrayed in an unufual
drefs, and addrefling himfelf to the gods with folemn
invocation, ruftied into the thickeft part of the enemy
to meet his fate.
Decius (Cn. Metius, Q^Trajanus), a native of
Pannonia, lent by the emperor Philip to appeafe a fe-
ditiqn in Mcefia. Inftead of obeying his mafter’s com¬
mand, he aflumed the imperial purple, and foon after
marched againft him, and at his death became the only
emperor. He fignalized himfelf againft the Perfians ;
and when he marched againft the Goths, he pufhed
his horfe into a deep marlh, from which he could net
extricate himfelf, and he perifhed with all his army by
the darts of the barbarians, A. D. 251, after a reign
of two years,
DECK, of a Ship, (from decken, Dan. to cover) ;
the planked floors of a fhip, which eonneft the fides,
together, and ferve as diflerent platforms to fupport
the artillery and lodge the men, as alfo to preferve the
cargo from the fea in merchant-veffels. As all fhips
are broader at the lower deck than on the next above,
it, and as the cannon thereof are always heavieft, it is
neceflary that the frame of it fhould be much ftronger,
than that of the others; and for the fame reafon the.
fecond or middle deck ought to be ftronger than the
upper deck or forecallle.
Ships of the fit ft and lecond rates are furnifhed with
three whole decks, reaching from the fterh to the ftern,.
befides a forecaftle and a quarter-deck, which ex¬
tends from the ftern to the mainmaft ; between which,
and the forecaftle a vacancy is left in the middle, open-.
ing to the upper deck, a»fd forming what is called the
waijl. There is yet another deck above the hinder
or aftmoft part of the quarter-deck, called the poop,
which alfo ferves as a roof for the captain’s cabin or
couch.
The inferior fhips of the line of battle are equipped
with two decks and a half; and frigates, floops, See.
with one gun-deck and a half, with a fpar-deck below
to lodge the crew.
The decks are formed and fuftained by the beams,
the clamps,, the water-ways, the carlings, the ledges,
the knees, and two rows of ftnall pillars called Jfanchions,
&c. See thofe articles.
That the figure of a deck, together with its corre-
fponding parts, may be more clearly underftood, we
have exhibited a plan of the lower-deck of a 74 gun
fhip in Plate CLVI. And as both fides of. the
deck are exadlly fimilar, the pieces by which it is fup-
ported appear on one fide, and on the other fide the
planks of the floor of which it is compofed, as laid up
on thofe upper pieces.
A, the principal or main hatch-way.
B, the ftern-poft.
C, the ftem.
D, the beams, compofed of three pieces, as exhi¬
bited by D, in one of which the dotted lines fliow the
arrangement of one of the beams under the other fide
of the deck.
E, part of the vertical or hanging knees.
F, the horizontal or lodging knees, which fallen the
beams to the fides.
G, the carlings ranging fore and aft,, from one beam
to another.
H, the gun-ports.
I, the pump-dales, being large wooden tubes, which
return the water from the pumps into the fea.
K, the fpurs of the beams, being curved pieces of
timber ferving as half-beams to fupport the decks,
where a whole beam cannot be placed on account of
the hatchways.
L, the wing-tranfem, which is bolted by the middle
to the ftern-poft, and whofe ends reft upon the fafhion-
pieces.
M, the bulk-head or partition, which inclofes the
manger, and prevents the water which enters at the
hawle-holes from running aft between decks.
N N,
DEC [
NN, the fore liatch-way.
O 0, the after hatch-way.
P, the drum-head of the gear capitern.
P p, the drum-head of the main capflern.
The wing-tranforn knee.
R, one of the breaft-hooks under the gun deck.
S, the breafl-hook of the gun-deck.
TT, the ftation of the chain-pumps.
V, the breadth and thicknefs of the timbers at thfe
height of the gun-deck.
699 ] DEC
pantomime before his audience. The preacher fhould fie^una-
not, however, roar like a common cryer, and rend the , ,
ear with the voice of thunder; for fuch kind of decla-
mation is not only without meaning and without per- ‘
fuafion, but highly incongruous with the meek and
gentle expreffions of the gofpel. He fhoiild likewife
take particular care to avoid a monotony ; his voice
Ihould rife from the beginning, as it were by degrees,
and its greateft ftrength fliould be exerted in the appli¬
cation. Each inflexion of the voice fliould be adapted
UU, fcuttles leading to the gunner's ftore-room, to the phrafe, and to the meaning of the words ; and
and the bread-room,
W, the ftation of the fore-maft.
X, the ftation of the matn-maft.
Y, the ftation of the mizen-maft.
Z, the ring-bolts of the decks, ufed to retain the
cannon whilft charging.
a a, The ring-bolts of the fides whereon the tackles
are hooked that fecure the cannon at fea.
each remarkable exprdffion fhould have its peculiar in¬
flexion. The dogmatic requires a plain, uniform tone
of voice only ; and the menaces of the gofpel demand a
greater force than do its promffes and rewards: but the
latter fhould net be pronounced in the foft tone of a
fliite, nor the former with the loud found of a trum-
pet. The voice fhould ftill retain its natural tone in all
its various inflexions. .Happy is that preacher, to whom
d, The water ways, through which the feupper nature has given a voice that is at once ftrong, flexible,
pierced, to carry the water off from the deck and harmonious.
An air of complacency and benevolence, as well as
devotion, fhould be conftantly vifible in the countenance
of the preacher. But every appearance of affe&ation
muft be carefully avoided : for nothing is fo difguftful
to an audience, as even the femblance of diflimulation-
Eyes conftantly rolling, turned towards heaven, and
flreamifig with tears, rather denote a hypocrite, than
holes-
into the fea.
b b, Plan of the foremoft and aftmoft cable-bits, with
the), crofs-pieces gg, and their ftandards e e.
T us w’e have reprefehted on one fide all the pieces
which fuftain the deck with its cannon ; and 6-n the
other fide, the deck itfelf, with a tier of 32 pounders
planted in battery thereon. In order alfo to (how the
ofe of the breeching and train-tackle, one of the guns a man poffeffed of the real fpirit of religion, and that
ia 00 f.-.r v->.qn- feels the true import of what he preaches. An air of
affefted devotion infallibly deftroys the efficacy of all
that the preacher can fay, however juft and important
it may be’. On the other hand, he muft avoid every
appearance of mirth or raillery, or of that cold unfeel¬
ing manner which is fo apt to freeze the hearts of his
hearers.
The body fliould be in general ereft, and in a natural
and eafy attitude. The perpetual movement, or con¬
tortion, of the body, has a ridiculous effedl in the
pulpit, and makes the figure of a preacher and a
harlequin much too fimilar. But, on the other hand,
he ought not to remain conftantly upright and motion-
lefs, like a fpeaking ftatue. '
The motions of the hands give a ftrong expreffion to a
difeourfe ; but they fhould be conftantly decent, grave,
noble, and expreffive. The preacher, who is inceffantly
in a&ion, who is perpetually clafping his hands, or
who menaces with a clenched fift, or counts his argu-
™ h;s fingers, will only excite mirth among his
is drawn in as ready for charging.
The number of beams by which the decks of ffiips
are fupported, is often very different, according to the
practice of different countries; the ftrength of the tim¬
ber of which the beams are framed ; and the fervices
for which the fhip is calculated.
As the deck which contains the train of a fire-fhip
is furniflied with an equipage peculiar to itfelf, the
whole apparatus is particularly deferibed in the article
Fire-5/^.
FluJh-DECR implies a continued floor laid from
Item to ftern, upon one line, without any flops or in¬
tervals.
Half-Deck, a fpace under the quarter deck of a
fhip of war, contained between the foremoft bulk-head
of the fteerage and the fore-part of the quarter-deck.
In the colliers of Northumberland the fteerage itfelf is
called t\\t half-deck, and is ufually the habitation of the
crew.,
DECLAMATION, a fpeech made in public, in
the tone and manner-of ah oration, uniting the expref¬
fion of action to the propriety of pronunciation, in or¬
der to give the fentiment its full impreffion upon the
mind. According to the manners and cuftoms of the
prefent age, public harangues are made only, 1. In
the pulpit. i "
spublic affembly.
theatre.
I. With regard to the declamation of the pulpit, the
auditory. In a word, declamation is an art that the
facred orator fhould ftudy with the utmoft affiduity.
The defign of a fermon is to convince, to affeft, and to
perfuade. The voice, the countenance, and the aftion.
which are to produce this triple effetf, are therefore the
In the feiiate, in council, or other objefts to which the preacher fhould particularly apply
4. By public profeffors. 5. Oir the "himfelf.
II. The declamation of a minifter or fta.tefman in
the fenate, in council, or other public affembly, is of
dignity and fanftity of the place, and the importance a more unconfined nature. To perfuade, to move the
of the fubjeft, require the preacher to exert the utmoft' paffions, and gain an afcendancy in a public aflembly,
powers of his voice to product* a pronunciation that is the orator (hould hi.nfelf feel the force of what he fays,
perfectly diftinft and'harmonious, and that he obferve and the declamation fhould only exprefs that internal
a deportment and adtion which is exprellive and grace- fenfation. But nothing'fhould be carried to excefs. A
ful. No man, therefore, who is deflitute of a voice, fuavity in the tone of voice, a dignity of deportment
fliould afeend the pulpit, and there aft the part of a a graceful aftion, and a certain tranquillity of counte-
2 4 T 2 nance.
DEC [ 700 ] DEC
Declama- nance, fhould conftantly accompany the flatefman when
, t‘on, he fpeaks in public, even when he is molt earneitly en-
v~ '" gaged in debate, or when he is addreffing his fovereign
in perfon. A pleafing tone of voice, and a diftin& pro¬
nunciation, prejudice the hearers greatly in the fpeak-
er’s favour. A young man may improve thefe to a
furprifing degree. Demofthenes, who had a natural
impediment in his fpeech, was accuftomed to go to the
fea-(hore, and partly filling his mouth with pebbles he
declaimed with a loud voice. The ftones by degrees
gave a volubility to his tongue, and the roaring of the
waves reconciled him infenfibl^o the noife of the mul¬
titude.
III. The principal objeft of a public profeffor is the
inftruftion of the ftudious youth : for which purpofe,
he is to convince and perfuade. Every tone of voice,
every expreffion of the countenance, or action of the
body, which can produce this effeft by enforcing the
words, fhould therefore be employed by thofe who are
to teach the fciences. There is, moreover, one very
effential refleftion which every profeffor ought to
ma’ke, and which is, that the chair, from which he ha¬
rangues, is furrounded by young ftudents, naturally
pofieifed with vivacity, not unfrequently ludicrous, and
for the moft part previoufly inftrufted in the prepara¬
tory fciences. They’ are therefore conftantly inclined
to.criticife, to jeft, and to ridicule: for which reafon,
the profeffor ftiould endeavour to infpire them with re-
fpeft and attention, by a grave, commanding, and ve¬
nerable countenance; and carefully avoid all appearance
of grimace in his aftion, and every kind of affeftation
in his difcourfe, that he may not afford the leaft oppor¬
tunity for pleafantry.
IV. We are now come to theatric declamation.
I. This was very different among the ancients from
what it is, and ought to be, with us, from the nature
of the thing itfelf, and from the difference of circum-
flances. Numberlefs paffages in Quintilian, and other
ancient hiftorians, critics, grammarians, and commen¬
tators, evidently prove, that the ancient dramatic de¬
clamation was fubfervient to the rules of the mufical
*P‘ Mufca-,ihythmus; and by this, according to Ariftides*, their
aftion, as well as recital, was regulated. But to ex¬
plain this feeming paradox, it will be neceffary to make
here fome preliminary remarks. The ancients gave a
much more extenfive fignification than we do to the
word mujic (muftca), which they derived from the
mufes, or at leaft from fome of them. It is for this
reafon, that the fame Ariftides and Quintilian define
it to be “ An art that teaches all that relates to the
rife of the voice, and the manner of performing all the
motions of the body with grace Sirs decoris in voci-
lus & motibus. Therefore poetry, declamation, dan¬
cing, pantomimes, and many other geftures and ex-
ercifes, were fubfervient to this art.
2. That part of general mufic which taught the art
of declamation and gefture according to the rules of
an eftabliihed method (and which we perform by in-
ftinft, or at moft by the aid of common fenfe), was
diftinguiihed by the name of hypocritic mujic: and this
mufical art was called by the Greeks orchefis ; and by
the Romans faltatio. It was, however, fo far from
being an advantage to the ancients to have had this art,
which we have not, that it was, on the contrary, a mark
of great imperfe&ion. For, in the firft place, it was an
inftance of high abfurdity to reprefent a tragedy, or Declama-
comedy, before an audience of twenty thoufand people, t‘^,n•
the far greateft part of whom could neither hear nor
fee what paffed to any good purpofe, unlefs they were
poffeffed of organs which we have not. The theatres
of London and Paris may conveniently contain about
a thoufand perfons ; and that is found fufficient in the
moft populous cities, where there are feveral places of
entertainment on the fame day, and where the people
are reafonable enough to fucceed each other in their
diverfions. As the features of the face could not be
diftinguifhed at fo great a diftance, and ftill lefs the
alteration of countenance in order to reprefent the
different paifions, they were obliged to have recourfe
to majhs} a wretched, childifh invention, that deftroy-
ed all the ftrength and variety of expreffion. Their
action became extravagant; and, at the fame time,
fubfervient to a regular mechanifm, which prevented
all the refinement, and all the pleafure of furprife,
in the performance; and muft have had an effedt hor¬
ribly difagreeable to thofe who were placed near the
ftage.
3. The egregious imperfection of their language
likewife, which confifted of fyllables long and fhort,
whofe duration was determined by a fet meafure of
time, and their manner of tuning thefe fyllables, after
the method of the orchefis of the Greeks, was another
difadvantage. For by this means they determined by
notes or characters placed after the long and ffiort fyl¬
lables, not only the nature, but the duration, of each
aCtion. Now, nothing could be more affeCted, more
conftrained and difguftful, than fuch method of de¬
claiming. How far fuperior in this refpeCt are the
moderns, who confult nature alone in their theatric de¬
clamation ; who can make the audience hear each figh ;
who can- accompany it with a proper attitude ^ who
can inceffantly vary their aCtion ; who can feize the
lucky moment, and make the countenance fully ex-
prefs the fenfations of the mind ? Nature does all here j
and art, infinitely inferior to nature, did all among the
ancients. Modern declamation cannot be fubfervient
to a mufical rhythmus, feeing we fpeak rapidly, and
without affeCIation. Our aCtors learn their art without
art, from nature itfelf, affifted by reflection; and they
arrive at a degree of excellence infinitely greater than
that of the ancients, by a method far more fimple, and
by efforts incomparably more eafy.
4. We do not, moreover, precifely know what the.
theatrib declamation of the ancients was; nor what
were the mufical inftruments which accompanied that-
declamation. The title to the Eunuch of Terence
fays, for example, “ That Flaccus, the freedman of
Claudius,, made the mufic of that piece, in which he
employed the two flutes, the right and the left.” Thefe
flutes, it is likely, gave the tone to the aCtor; which
muft have had a very odd effeCt on the audience. Moft
of the ancient pieces have fimilar titles. They who
would be particularly informed of the art of declaim¬
ing among the Greeks and Romans, may read to ad¬
vantage the Critical Refleftions on Poetry and Paint¬
ing by the Abbe du Bos. The third part of that
work confifts entirely of learned refearches and inge¬
nious refledions on this filly praftice of the ancients.
But as this art has happily no place in modern decla¬
mation, and can at beft ferve only to make a parade
i o£
DEG [ 701 1 DEC
Bec!ama- of erudition, we (hall fay no more of it, but pafs to
t!0n- matters, of real utility.
u“"_v 5. We think there is good reafon to believe, more¬
over, that the moft polifhed nations of modern Europe
do not accompany their difcourfes, in general, with fo
many gefticulations, as did the Greeks, the Romans,
and other inhabitants of warm climates. They ap¬
pear to have found the method of animating a difcourfe,
and giving it an expreffion, by the iimple inflexions of
the voice, and by the features of the countenance }
which is far more decent, more juft, and rational, than
all thofe contortions which perpetually derange the na¬
tural atitude of the body and its members, and give
the fpeaker the air of a harlequin.
6. ExpreJJion, therefore, forms at once the eflence
and the end of declamation; and the means of produ¬
cing it confifts in a pronunciation that is fonorous, di-
ftintt, and pleafing, fupported by an aXion that is de¬
cent and proper to the fubjeX. If the beft dramatic
poet has need of a good declaimer or aXor to make
his writing produce its proper effeX, the aXor has
likewife need of a good poet to enable him to pleafi*)
and affeX by his aXion : for it is to little purpofe
that he endeavours to charm his auditory by uniting,
with nature, all the powers of art, if the poet has not
furnilhed him with fentiments that are rational and af-
feXing.
7. The aXor, in ftudying his part before a large
mirror, where he can fee his whole figure, in order to
determine the moft proper expreffion for every thought,
fhould confult nature, and endeavour to imitate her.
But, in this imitation, he ftiould take care not to make
too fervile a copy. He has this to obferve, in common
with his colleagues, the mafters in all the polite arts:
The theatre is intended to exhibit an imitation of na¬
ture, and not nature itfelf. Tragedy and comedy form
piXures of human life; but thefe piXures are alfo
pieces of perfpeXive, which require ftrokes fomewhat
ftronger than .nature, that they may be difcerned at a
diftance. The aXor is elevated to a confiderable
height from the ground; he is furrounded by fcenery,
he is feparated from the audience by the orcheftra, and
he fpeaks in verfe; all this is not natural: but the
fpeXator is to accede to this neceifary illufion, in order
to promote his own pleafure, which would not be fo
great as it is were all thefe matters otherwife difpofed.
Declamation, therefore, fhould fomewhat exceed, but
never lofe fight of, nature.
8. The tone of the aXor’s voice fhould be natural,
but regulated by the extent of the theatre; fufficiently
loud to be heard by all the audience, but not fo vio¬
lent as to rend their ears. A pure and graceful pro¬
nunciation, without any provincial accent, is likevvife
a great merit in an aXor; and he fhould alfo habituate
himfelf to fpeak in a manner perfeXly diftinXk It is
a capital point in the pronouncing of verfe, not to fe-
parate the two hemiftics, by refting too long on the
cafura in the middle, or dwelling on the end of each
hemiftic: for, by fo doing, the aXor falls into a mo¬
notony, an infufferable uniformity of cadence, in a
piece that confifts of feme thoufand verfes. The gra¬
dations of the voice demand alfo a very judicious ob-
ferv ance. The fpeaker, who begins in a high tone,
will find it very difficult to fullain it through the whole
jliece; and he, who clamours inccflantly, will find his
lungs fail him in thofe parts where the vehemence of Declarato-
paflion requires the ftrongeft efforts. If we may be
allowed the expreffion, the ftrongeft touches, the bold- Deocxftion.
eft figures, will not there ftand out from the piXure in t - ^
a linking manner.
9. The deportment of an aXor fhould be conftantly
graceful, decent, and proper to the charaXer he repre-
fents. An old man has a different pofition of body
from a young petit maitre; an aged queen from a
young princefs; a noble gallant from a valet de cham--
bre. A rational obfervance of nature, and an imita¬
tion of the beft aXors, are here the fureft guides. The
fame may be faid of the aXion of tire hands, the thea¬
tric ftep, &c. An inanimated figure, a body in the
pofition of a ftatue, add hands immoveable, are as dif-
pleafing in the feene as a player whofe inceffant gefti-
culation refembles the aXion of a puppet.
10. Every aXor who afpires to make his art fome-
thing more than merely mechanical, will begin by e-
nabling himfelf readily to repeat his part, that the de-
fcX of his memory may not embarrafs his aXion.
When he is fo far a mailer of it, he will make it the-
fubjeX of ferious refleXion in his clofet; endeavour to
feize the true fenfe of the author; and to find out that
expreffion of each fentiment and paffion, which is the
moft natural, the moft ftriking, and beft adapted to the
ftage ; and which he will cultivate by repeated eflays,
till he is able to render it in its full force.
DECLARATORY action. See Law, N0clxxxii.
21.
DECLENSION, in grammar, an inflexion of
nouns according to their divers cafes; as nominative,
genitive, dative, &c. See Grammar.
DECLINATION, in aflronomy, the diftance of
any celeftial objeX from the equinoXial, either north¬
ward or fouthward. It is either true or apparent, ac¬
cording as the real or apparent place of the objeX is
confidered. See Astronomy, n°409, 410.
Declination of the Sea-Compafs or Needle, is its va¬
riation from the true meridian of any place.
Declination of a Wall or Plane, for Dials, is an
arch of the horizon, contained either between the plane
and the prime vertical circle, if you reckon it from the
eaft or weft ; or elfe between the meridian and the
plane, if you account it from the north or fouth. See
Dial.
DECLINATORIES, are inftruments for taking
the declinations, inclinations, and reclinations of planes;
and they are of feveral kinds.
The beft fort for taking the declination confifts of a
fquare piece of brafs or wood, with a limb accurately
divided into degrees; and every fifth minute, if poffible,
having a horizontal dial moving on the centre, made
for the latitude of the’place it is to ferve in; and which
has a fmall bit of fine brafs fixed on its meridian line,
like a fiducial edge, to cut the degrees of the limb: for
at any time when the fun fliines, by having the hour of
the day, you may find the declination of any wall or
plane by this inftrument.
DECLINATURE 0/Judges. See Law, N0clvi\.
12.
DECLIVITY denotes the reverfe of Acclivity.
DECOCTION, ufually fignifies either the aXion
of boiling a fubftance in water, or the water itfelf in
which the fubftance has been boiled.. It is only appli¬
cable
DEC [ 702 ] DEC
Decollation cable to matters containing fome principles foluble in
Decoration water » Part<cularly are animal and vegitable
w»— 'matters. Deco&ion ought not to be ufed with fuch
fubftances as contain any volatile principles, as they
would b<J diflipated in the air during the procefs. But
it may be fafely ufed, nay even becomes neceffary, when
the matters to be treated are felid, and of a clofe and
compact texture ; becaufe then the water could not
extraft its principles without a boiling heat. Moll foft
animal matters, as flelh, fkin, tendons, may be conve¬
niently boiled in water; becaufe they contain no prin¬
ciple volatile with a boiling heat. Water extra&s from
them nothing but a gelatinous fubftance, and fome
oily parts which float on the furface of the water. All
vegetable matters which are inodorous, and particular¬
ly thofe which are hard, as roots, barks, &c. are ge¬
nerally boiled, when an extra&ion of their principles
by water is required.—To this rule, however, tliere
are fome exceptions. Peruvian bark, for inftance, gives
its ftrength to cold water better than to fuch as is boil¬
ing hot. Many other vegetables alfo have the fame,
property of yielding lefs to boiling than to cold water.
And therefore a general rule may be eftablifhed, that
decodtion ought not to be employed but when abfo-
lutely neceffary ; that is, when the fame principles, or
the fame quantities of thofe principles, cannot be ob¬
tained by an infufion, and that without heat, if it can
be fo done, confidering that the proximate principles
of vegetables are generally fo delicate, and fo fufeep-
tible of change and deeompofition, that frequently the
moft gentle heat changes much their nature and pro¬
perties.
DECOLLATION, beheading, a term feldom
ufed but in the phrafe decollation of St John Baptift ;
which denotes a painting, wherein is reprefented the
Baptift’s head ftruck off from his trunk ; or the feaft
held in honour of that martyr.
DECOMPOSITION, in chemiffry, ufuafly figni-
fies the difunion or reparation of the conftituent parts
of bodies. — It differs from mere mechanical divifion, in
that when a body is chemically decompofed, the parts
into which it is refolved are effentially different from
the body itfelf; but though a mechanical force is ap¬
plied to it ever fo long, or with ever fo much violence,
the minuteft particles into which the body may be re¬
duced, ftill retain their original nature.—Thus, for ex¬
ample, though we Tuppofe nitre, or any other fait, to
be reduced to ever fo line powder, each particle retains
the. nature of nitre., as much as the largeft unpounded
mafs; but if oil of vitriol is applied, a decompofition
takes place, and one of the component parts of the ni¬
tre rifes in the form of a fmoking acid fpirit, which
never could have been fufpetled to lie hid in the mild
neutral fait.
DECORATION, in architecture, any thing that
adorns and enriches a building,- church, triumphal
arch, or the like, either without fide or within.
The orders of architecture contribute greatly to the
decoration ; but then the fevera! parts of thofe orders
muff have their juft proportions, characters, and orna¬
ments ; otherwife the fin eft order will bring confuiton
rather than richnefs. See Architecture.
Decorations in churches, are paintings, vafes, ft-
ftoons, &c. occafionally applied to the-walls; and with
ft? much conduct and diferetion, as not to take off any
. thing from the form of the architecture : as is much Dreoratlo*
pra£tifed in Italy at the folemn fcafts. II
Decoration is more particularly applied to the , ^.
feenes of theatres.
In operas, and other theatrical performances, the
decorations muft be frequently changed conformably to
the fubjetft.
The ancients had two kinds of decorations for their
theatres: the firft, called" verfatiles, having three fides,
or faces, which were turned fucceffively to the fpecta-
tors: the other called duSiles, (bowing a new decor?,
tion by drawing or Hiding another before it.—This
latter fort, is ftill ufed, and apparently with much
greater fuccefs than among the ancients, who were
obliged to draw a curtain whenever they made a
change in the decoration ; whereas on our ftage. the
change is made in a moment, and almoft without be¬
ing perceived.
DECORUM, in archite&ure, is the fuitablenefs of
a building, and the feveral parts and ornaments there¬
of, to the ftation and occafion.
® DECOUPLE, in heraldry, the.fame as uncoupled:
thus a chevron decouple, is a chevron wanting fo
much of if towards the point, that the two ends (land
at a difiance from one another, being parted and un¬
coupled.
DECOY, in ’naval affairs, a ftratagem. employed,
by a (hip of war to betray a vefiftl of inferior force
into an uncautiotxs purfuit, till (he has drawn her with¬
in the range of her cannon, or what is- called within
'gunjhot. It is ufually performed by painting the ftern
and lideS in fuch a manner as to difguife the (hip, and
•reprefent her either much fmaller and of inferior force,
©r as a friend to the hoftile veffel, which (lie endeavours
to enfnare, by affirming the emblems and ornaments of
the nation to which the ftranger is fuppofed to belong.
When (he has thus provoked the adverfary to chafe, in
hopes of acquiring a prize, (he continues the decoy,
by fpreading a great fail, as endeavouring to efcape ;
at the fame time that her courfe is confiderably retard¬
ed by an artful alteration of her trim till the enemy
approaches. Decoying is alfo performed to elude the
chafe of a (hip of a fuperior force in a dark night, by
throwing out a lighted cafk of pitch into the fea, which
will burn fora confiderable time and mifguidetheene-
my. Immediately after the calk is thrown out, the
(hip changes her courfe, and may eafily efcape if at
any tolerable diftance from the foe.
Decoy, among fowlers, a place made for catching
wild-fowl. A decoy is generally made where there is
a large pond furrounded with wood, and beyond that
a marflry and uncultivated country : if the piece of wa¬
ter is not thus furrounded, it will be attended with the
noife and other accidents which may be expended to
frighten the wild fowl from a quiet haunt, where they
mean to deep, during the day-time, in fecurity. If
thefe noifes or difturbances -are wilful, it hath bees
held that an action will lie againft the difturber.— As
foon as the evening fets in, tire decoy rifes (as they
term it), and the wild fowl feed during the night. If
the evening is ftill, the noife of their wings, during
their flight, is heard at a very great diftance, and is a
pleafing though rather melancholy found. This rf iig
of the decoy in the evening, is in Somerfetfliire called
DEC [ 705 1 DEC
rThe decoy-ducks are fed with liempfeed, wliich is
thrown over the fkreens in fmall quantities, to bring
them forwards into the pipes or canals, and to allure the
wild- fowl to follow, as this feed is fo light as to float.
There are feveral pipes, as they are called, which
lead up a narrow ditch that clofes at lait with a funnel-
net. Over thefe pipes (which grow narrower from
their firft entrance) is a continued arch of netting
fufpended on hoops. It is neceflary to have a pipe or
ditch for almoft every wind that can blow, as upon
this circumftance it depends which pipe the fowl will
take to ; and the decoy-man always keeps on the lee¬
ward fide of the ducks, to prevent his effluvia reaching
their fagacious neftrils, All along each pipe, at certain
intervals, are placed fkreens made of reeds, which are
fo fituated, that it is impoffible the wild-fowl fhould
fee the. decoy-man, before they have paiTed on towards
the end of the pipe, where the purfe-net is placed.
The inducement to the wild-fowl to go up one of
thefe pipes is, btcaufe the decoy-ducks trained to
this lead the way, either after hearing the whiftle of
the decoy-man, or enticed by the hempfeed; the lat¬
ter will dive under water, wfiilft the wild-fowl fly on,
and are taken in the purfe.
It often happens, however., that the wild-fowl are
in fuch a ftate of fleepinefs and dozing, that they will
not follow the decoy-ducks. Ufe is then generally
made of a dog, who is taught his leflbn : he paffes
backwards and forwards between the reed-fkreens (in
which are little holes, both for the decoy man to fee,
and the little dog to pafs through); this attra&s the
eye of the wild-fowl, who, not choofing to be inter¬
rupted,, advance towards the fmall and contemptible a-
nimal, that they may drive him away. The dog all the
time, by the diredlion of the decoy-man, plays among
the fkreens of reeds, nearer and nearer the purfe-net;
till at laft, perhaps, the decoy-man appears behind
a flcreen, and the wild fowl not daring to pafs by him
in return, nor being able to efcape upwards on account
of the net-covering, rufh on into the purfe-net. Some¬
times the dog will not attraft their attention, if a red
handkerchief; or fomething very Angular, is not put
about him..
The general feafon for catching fowl in decoys, is
from the latter end of Odlober till February : the ta¬
king of them earlier is prohibited by an aft 10 Geo. II.
c. 32. which forbids it from June ift: to Oftober ift,
under the penalty of five firillings for eaqh bird deflroy-
ed within that fpace.
The Lincolnfhire decoys are commonly fet at a cer¬
tain-annualrent, from 5 to 20 pounds a-year: and
there is one in Somerfetflilre that pays 301. The for¬
mer contribute principally to fupply the markets in
London. Amazing numbers of ducks, wigeons, and.
* Pennant's teal, are taken:, by an account fent us * of the number
£rit. Ziol. caught a few winters part, in one feafon, and in only
“•-59S- ten decoys, in the neighbourhood of Wain-fleet, it ap¬
peared to amount to 31,200, in which are included fe¬
veral other fpecies of ducks : it is alfo. to be obferved,
that, in the above particular, wigeon and teal are rec¬
koned butasone, and confequently fell but at half price
of the ducks. This quantity makes them fo cheap on
thefpot, that we have been afiured, feveral decoy-men
would be content to contraft for years to deliver their
ducks at Bofton, for 10 d. per couple. The account of
the numbers here mentioned, relates only to thole that Eecree
were fent to the capital. 11
It was cuftomary f®rmerly to have in the fens an, etrel:a ^
annual driving of the young ducks before they took
wing. Numbers of people affembled, who beat a vaft
traft, and forced the birds into a net placed at the
fpot where the fport was to terminate. A hundred and
fifty dozens have been taken at once: but thispraftice
being fuppofed to be detrimental, has been abolilhed
by aft of parliament.
DECREE, an order made by a fuperior power for
the regulation of an inferior..
Decree, in the civil law, is a determination which
the emperor pronounces upon hearing a particular caufe
between the plaintiff and defendant.
Decrees of Councils, are the laws made by them,
to regulate the doftrine and policy of the church.
Decrees in Chancery, are the determination of the
lord-chancellor, upon a full heating of the merits of a
caufe.
DECREET, in the law of Scotland, a final decree
or judgment of the lords of feffion; from which an ap¬
peal only lies to parliament.
Decreet-Arbitral, in Scots law, the Sentence or
judgment of one to whom parties voluntarily fubmit the
determination of any queftion betwixt them *. * See Law,
DECREMENT, in heraldry, fignifies the wane ofn° C^£XX<’
the moon from the full to the new. The moon in this1'**
itate is called moon decrefcent, or in decours ; and when
borne in coat-armour, faces to the left fide of the e-
fcutcheon, as fhe does to the right fide when in the in¬
crement.
DECREPITATION, in chemiftry, fignifies the
quick feparation of the parts of a body, occalioned by
a ftrong heat, and accompanied with noife and crack¬
ling. This effeft is moil frequently produced by wa¬
ter contained betwixt the parts of the decrepitating bo¬
dy, when thefe parts have a certain degree of adhefion
together. This water being quickly reduced into va¬
pour by the heat fuddenly applied to it, rarifies, and
burfts with noife the parts which comprefs it. The bo¬
dies moft fubjeft to decrepitation are certain falls, fuch
as common fait, vitriolated tartar, nitre of lead, &c.
the decrepitation of all which proceeds from the water
of their cryrtallizatiom Clays which are not perfect¬
ly dry, and flints, are alfo fubjeft to decrepitation.
DECREPITUDE, in medicine, the confequence
of the infirmities o.f old age ; which by degrees leads
to death. See Deatet.
DECRETAL, in the canon law, a letter of a
Pope determining fome point or queftion in the eccle-
fialtical law. The decretals compofe the fecond part
of the canon law. The firft genuine one, acknowledged
by all the learned as fuch, is a letter of Pope Siricius,
written in the year 3 By, to Himerus biftiop of Tarra¬
gona, in Spain, concerning fome dii'orders which had
crept into the churches of Spain. Gratian publiflied'
a colleftion of decretals, containing all the ordinances
made by the popes till the year 1150. Gregory IX.
in 1227, following the example of Theod. iius and Ju-
ftinian, formed a conftitution of his own, collefting into
one body all the decifions and all the caufes which.:
ferved to advance the papal power; which colleftion.
of decretals was called the pcntateuch, becaufe it con¬
tains five books.
DECUMA?vIA3,
DEG L 7°4 ] DEC
Dtoimarla DECUMAR1A, in botany: A genus of the mono-
.11 . gynia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of
Dcdicat'or.piantS ; au(j ;n natural method ranking under thofe
of which the order is doubtful. The calyx is deca¬
phyllous, fuperior ; the petals ten; the fruit unknown.
DECUMATES Agri, tithed fields, or granted on
a tithe, as appears from Tacitus, to that rabble of
•Gauls who fucceeded the Marcomanni, that had till
then proved a check to the Roman conquefts up the
Rhine; and hence probably their name, people living
■on the marches or limits of the empire. In Cicero we
have Ager Decumans, which is of the fame import
tvith the AgerDecumas of Tacitus.
DECUPLE proportion, that often to one.
DECURIO, a fubalcern officer in the Roman ar¬
mies. He commanded a decuria, which confifted of
ten men, and was the third part of a turma, or the
30th part of a legio of horfe which was compofed of
g8o men. There were certain magiftrates in the pro¬
vinces called decurlones municipales> who formed a body
to reprefent the Roman fenate in free and corporate
towns. They confided of ten ; whence the name and
their duty extended to watch over the interefts of their
fellow citizens, and to increafe the revenues of the com¬
monwealth. Their court was called curia decurionum
and minor fenatus.; and their decrees, called decreta decuri¬
onum, were marked with two D. D. at the top. They
generally ftyled themfelves civitatum patres curiales and
honorati municipiorum fenatores. They were ele&ed with
the fame ceremonies as the Roman fenators; they were
to be at lead 25 years of age, and to be pofleffed of a
certain fum of money. The ele&ion happened in the
kalends of March. .
DECURRENT leaf. See Botany, p. 440.
DECURY, ten perfons ranged under one chief or
leader, called the decurio.
The Roman cavalry was divided into decuries, which
Were fubdivifions of a century, each century containing
ten decuries.
DECUSSATION, a term in geometry, optics, and
anatomy, fignifying the croffing of two lines, rays, or
nerves, when they meet in a point, and then go on fe-
parately from one another.
DECUSSQRIUM, a furgeon’s indrument, which,
by preffing gently on the dura mater, caufes an evacua¬
tion of the pus colle&ed between the cranium and the
before mentioned membrane, through the perforation
made by the trepan.
DEDHAM, a town of Eflex in England, confid¬
ing of about 400 lofty houfes. The dieets are not
paved, but very clean, occafioned by their lying pretty
high. It has one large old church, remarkable for a
fine Gothic deeple, with a great deal of carved work
about it, but much injured by time. E. Long. 1. 10.
N. Lat. 52. 5
DEDICATION, the aft of confecrating a temple,
altar, datue, palace, &c. to the honour of fome deity.
The ufe of dedications is very ancient both among
the worfhippers of the true God and among the hea¬
thens: the Hebrews call it rosn hhanuchah, “ imita¬
tion which the Greek tranflators render H7xai»ia, and
EUxivuruof,«« renewing.”
In the fcripture we meet with dedications of the ta¬
bernacle, of altars, of the fird and fecond temple, and
■even of the houfes of private perfons. There are alfo
N° 98-
dedications of vefiels, and garments of the prieds and Dedication,
Levites, and even of the men themfelves. , Dee- .
The heathens had alfo dedications of temples, altars, ’ ^
and images of their gods, &c. Nel|«chadnezzar held a
'folemn dedication of his datue, Dan. iii 2. Pilate
dedicated gilt bucklers at Jerufalem to Tiberius, Pbi/o
de legat. Petronius would have dedicated a datue to
the emperor in the fame city, ibid. p. 791. Tacitus,
Hijl. lib. iv. c. 53. mentions the dedication of the Ca¬
pitol, upon rebuilding it by Vefpafian, &c.
The Jews celebrated the anniverfary of the dedica¬
tion of their temple every year for eight days. This was
fird enjoined by Judas Maccabeus, and the whole fyna-
gogue, in the year of the Syro-Macedonian era 148,
i. e. 164 years before Chrid. The heathens had the
like anniverfaries, as that of the dedication of the tem¬
ple of Parthenope, mentioned by Lycophron. Under
Chridianity, dedication is only applied to a church ;
and is properly the confecration thereof performed by
a bilhop, with a number of ceremonies preferibed by
the church.
The Chridians finding themfelves at liberty under
Condantine, in lieu of their ruinous churches, built
new ones in every place ; and dedicated them with a
deal of folemnity. The dedication was ufually per¬
formed in a fynod ; at lead they aflembled a number of
biihops to affid at the fervice. We have the deferip-
tion of thofe of the churches at Jerufalem and Tyre in
Eufebius, and many others in later writers.
Dedication, in literature, is an addrefs prefixed to
a book, foliciting patronage, or tedifying refpeft for
the perfon to whom it is made. The dedication of the
fourth part of Mr Edwards’s Hidory of Birds, is cu¬
rious: To God ! the one eternal! the incomprehenjible !
the omniprefent! omnifeient and almighty Creator of all
things that ixijl! from orbs immeafurably great to the minu-
tejl points of matter, this Atom is dedicated and devoted,
ninth allpoffille gratitude, humiliation, and worfhip, and the
highejl adoration both of body and mind, by his mofl refigned,
low, and humble creature, G. E.
DEE (John), a famous mathematician and adro-
loger, was born (July 1527) in London, where his fa¬
ther was a wealthy vintner. In 1542, he was lent to
St John’s college, Cambridge. After five years clofe
application to mathematical dudies, particularly adro-
nomy, he went to Holland, in order to vifit feveral e-
minent mathematicians on the continent. Having con¬
tinued abroad near a year, he returned to Cambridge;
and was there elefted one of the fellows of Trinity
college, then .fird erefted by king Henry VIII. In
1548, he took the degree of mader of arts; and, in
the fame year, left England a fecond time ; his day at
home being rendered uneafy to him, by the fufpicions
that were entertained of his being a conjuror ; arifing
partly from his application to adronomy, but efpecially
on account of a piece of machinery in the of A-
ridophanes, which he exhibited to the univerfity, and
in which he reprefented the Scarabeus flying up to
Jupiter, with a man and a balket of viftuals on its
back. Thefe fufpicions he could never after fliake off;
nor did his fubfequent conduft, as we fliall fee, tend to
clear him of the imputation ; for if he was not aftually
a conjuror, it was not for want of endeavours.
Up^n leaving England, he went to the univerfity of
Lodvain ; where he was much edeeraed, and vifned by
feveral
D % E
feveral peffons of high rank. Here he re Tided about
"J two years, and then fet out for France ; where, in the
college of Rheims, he read leftures of Euclid’s elements
with vaft applaufe. In i$51, he returned to England,
and was introduced by the fecretary Cecil to king Ed¬
ward, who affigned him a penfion of TOO crowns, which
he afterwards relinquilhed for the reftory of Upton
upon Severn : but foon after the acceflion of queen
Mary, having fome correfpondence with the lady Eli¬
zabeth’s fervants, he Was accufed of praftifing againft
the queen’s life by enchantment. On this account he
fuffered a tedious confinement, and was feveral time*
examined; till, in the year 1555, he obtained his li¬
berty by an order of council.
When queen Elizabeth afcended the throne, our
^Urological Dee was confulted by lord Dudley, con¬
cerning a propitious day for her majefty’s coronation.
He was on this occafion introduced to the queen, who
made him great promifes, which were never performed,
though (he condefcended to receive his inftruftiorts re¬
lative to the myftical interpretation of fome of his un-
i .telligible writings, which he publilhed about this time.
In 1564, he made another voyage to the continent;
in order to prefent a book which he had dedicated to
the emperor Maximilian, He returned to England in
the fame year ; but in 1571, we find him in Lorrain ;
where, being dangeroufly ill, the queen fent over two
phyficians to his relief. Having once more returned
to his native country, he fettled at Mortlake in Surrey,
where he continued his fiudies with unremitting ardor,
■and collefted a conliderable library of curiods books
and manufcripts, with a variety of inftruments; moil
of which’ were afterwards deftroyed by the mob, as
belonging to one who dealt with the devil. In 1578,
the queen being much indifpofed, Mr Dee was fent a-
broad to confult with German phyficians and philofo*
pliers (aftiologers no doubt) on the occafion. We
now behold him again in England, where he was foon
after employed in a more rational ferviee. Her ma-
jefty, defirous to be informed concerning her title to
thofe countries which had been difcovertd by her fub-
jedls, Commanded Mr Dee to confult the ancient re¬
cords, and furniih her with proper geographical dc-
fcriptions. Accordingly, in a fhort time he prefented
to the queen, in the gardens at Richmond, two large
rolls, in which the di(covered countries were geogra¬
phically defcribed and hiftotically illuftrated. Thefe
rolls are preferVed in the Cotton library, slugiij}us I.
His next employment Was the reformation of the ka-
lendar, on which fubjeft he wrote a rational and learn>-
ed treatife, preferved in the Alhmolean library at Ox¬
ford.
Hitherto the extravagancies of our eccentrical phi-
lofopher fetm to have been counterpotfed by a tolerable
proportion of reafon and fcience ; but henceforward we
confrder him as a mere necromancer and Credulous al-
thymift. In the year 1581, he became acquainted
with one Edward Kelley, by whofe afllftance he per¬
formed diverfe incantations, and maintained a frequent
imaginary intercourfe with fpirits. He was particu-
lary intimate, it feems, with the angels Raphael and
Gabriel, One of them made him a prefent of a black
1'peculum, in which his angels and demons appeared
'as often as he had occafion for them ; they anfwered
Vos.. V. Part II.
[ 7°5 1
DEE
his quellions, and Kelley’s bufinefs was to record the.V Des
dictates: _ ••
Deemften
Kelley did all his feats Upon < , ,
The devil’s looking-glafs, a ilone
Hue IB. fart ii. canto Hi. v. 6^t.
In 1583, they were both introduced to a certain Po-
lilh nobleman, then in England, named Albert Lajki%
palatine of Siradia, a perfon equally addicted to the
fame ridiculous purfuits. He was fo charmed with
Dee and his companion, that he pcrfuaded them to ac»
company him to his native country. They embarked
for Holland in Sept. 1583; and travelling over land,
arrived at the town of Lafici in February following.
Their patron, however, finding himfelf abufed by their
idle pretenfions, perfuaded them to pay a vifit to Ru¬
dolph king of Bohemia ; who, though a credulous
man, was foon difgulted with their nonfenfe. They
were afterwards introduced to the king of Poland, but
with no better fuccefs. Soon after this, they were
invited by a rich Bohemian nobleman to his caftle of
Trebona, where they continued for fome time in great
affluence ; owing, as they aflerted, to their art of
tranfmutation by means of a certain powder in the
poffeflion of Kelley.
Dee, now quarrelling with his companion in iniqui¬
ty, quitted Bohemia, and returned to England, where
he was once more gracioufly received by the queen ;
who, in 1595, made him warden of Manchefter col¬
lege, in which town he refided feveral years. In 1604,
he returned to his houfe at Mortlake, where he died
in the year 1608, aged 81 ; leaving a large family,
and many works, behind him.—The black Hone into
which Dee ufed- to call his fpirits, was in the collec¬
tion of the earls of Peterborough, whence it came to
lady Elizabeth Germaine. It was next the property
of the late duke of Argyle, and is now Mr Walpole’s,
It appears upon examination to be nothing but a po¬
liced piece of cannel-coal.—That Dee was a man of
confiderable acquirements, is beyond a doubt ; his
mathematical knowledge is generally allowed : but,
unlefs we fuppofe him a wicked impoftor, which is by
no means improbable, we mult tranfmit him t'o pof-
terity as one of the mod foqliih, fuperilitious, necro¬
mancers of his time. Neverthelefs, the celebrated Dr
Hook, many years after Dee’s death, took it into his
head to prove that his journal, publilhed by Cafaubon,
was entirely cryptographical, concealing his political
tranfa&ions, and that he was employed by queen Eli¬
zabeth as a fpy.
DEE, the name of feveral rivers in Scotland and
England ; as thofe whereon the cities of Cheller in
England, and New Aberdeen in Scotland, are litua-
ted. The river Dee in Aberdeenlhire abounds with
falmon, fo as to form one of the greatell fidmon-filh-
ings in Scotland.—Over this river there is a bridge of
feven arches, built by a bilhop of Aberdeen, vv-ho left
for its fupport a revenue, which is now fo large, that
in order to exhauft the fund, a perfon has a falary to
fweep the bridge once a-day.
DEED, an inftrument written on paper or parch¬
ment, comprehending fome contradl, bargain, or agree¬
ment between the parties thereto, in relation to the
matter therein contained.
DEEMSTERS, or Demsters; (from the Saxon
4 U demit,
D E F [ 706 1 D E F
Deeping dema, judge or umpire). All controverfies in the Ifle
D f’cate ^an are procefs, writings, or any
, e ti:a e' charges, by certain judges, chofen yearly from among
themfelves, called deanjiers ; there being two of them
for each divilion of the idand: they fit judges in all
courts, either for life or property; and with the advice
of 24 keys, declare what is law in uncommon emer-
' gencies.
DEEPING, a town of Lincolnfhire in England,
feated on the river Weland, in a fenny ground. W.
Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 52. 35.
DEER, in zoology. See Cervus.—The method
of hunting deer in the ifland of Ceylon is very parti¬
cular. The huntfmen go out in the night, and only
two ufually go together: the one of thefe carries upon
his head an earthen veffel, in which there is fome fire
burning and flaming; the ingredients are generally
fmall ftieks cut into pieces, and common rofin. Of
this the other man carries a fupply about him to re-
plenifti the pot when it grows'low. The perfon who
has the fire upon his head, carries in one hand a ftaff,
on which there are fixed eight bells; and the larger
thefe are, the better. This man goes firft into the
woods, and the other follows clofe behind with’ afpear
in his hand. As foon as the deer hears the noife of
the bells, he turns towards the place whence the found
comes ; and feeing the fire, he eagerly runs up to it,
and ftands gazing at a fmall diftance: the fecond man
has then nothing to do but to kill him with the fpear;
for he fees neither of them.—Not only deer, but even
elks and hares, are thus taken; for they gaze at the •
fire, and never fee the men. The profits of this fort
of hunting are very large, and the danger nothing;
for though there are numbers of tygers, elephants, and
wild boars, in thefe woods, the huntfmen are in no
danger from them while the fire burns, for they ajl run
away from it.
DE facto, fomething actually in fa£, or exifting;
in contradiftinftion to de jure, where a thing is only fo
in juftice, but not in fa& : as a king de fa8o, is a per¬
fon who is actually in poffeffion of a crown, but has
no legal right to the fame ; and a king de jure, is the
perfon who has a juft right to the crown, though he
is out of poffeffion thereof.
DEFAMATION, the fpeaking ftanderous words
cf another ; for which the flanderer is punifhable, ac¬
cording to the nature of his offence, either by action
upon the cafe at common law, or by ftatute in the ec-
clefiaftical court.
DEFAULT, in law, is generally taken for non-
appearance in court, at a day affigned; but imports
any omiffion of that which we ought to do, for wdiich
judgment may be given againft the defaulter.
DEFEASANCE, or Defeisance, inlaw, a con¬
dition relating to fome certain deed, which being per¬
formed, the deed is defeated and rendered void, as if
it had never been made. The difference between a
common condition and a defeafance is, that the condi¬
tion is annexed to, or inferted in, the deed ; and a
defeafance is a deed by itfelf, concluded and agreed
on between the parties, and having relation to anotlier
deed.
DEFECATE, in chemiftry, a term applied to a
•body freed and purged from fames and impurities.
DEFECTION, the a£I of abandoning or relin- Defe&iow,
quilhing a party or intereft a perfon had been enga- tl
ged in.—The word is formed of the Latin dejicio, to Defen<ier**j
fall off.     
DEFECTIVE, in general, an appellation given to
things which want fome of the properties that naturally
they ought to have. Thus,
Defective or Deficient Nouns, in grammar, arefuch
as want either a whole number, a particular cafe, or
are totally indeclinable. See Noun.
The term defeSive is alfo applied to a verb that has
not all its moods and tenfes. See Verb, Mood, &c.
DEFENCE, in fortification, all forts of works
that cover and defend the oppofite polls, as flanks,
cafements, parapets, and fauffebrays. See Fortifi¬
cation.
Line of Defence, a fuppofed line drawn from the
angle of the curtin, or from any other part in the cur-
tin, to the flanked angle of the oppofite baftion.
DEFEND, in general, fignifies much the fame with
protefting, or keeping off injuries offered to any perfon
either by enemies or otherwife.
Defend, in our ancient laws and ftatutes, fignifies
to prohibit or forbid : as, Ufuarios defendit quoque rex
Ed-tvardus ne remanerent in regno. L. L. Edw. Conf.
c. 37. iff 5 Rich. 2. e. 7. In which fenfe Chaucer al-
fo ufes it in the following paffage :
“ Where can you fay in any manner age,
“ That ever Go ! JefindcJ marriage.”
In 7 Edw. I. there is a ftatute intitled, “ Statutum de
defenfione portandi arma,” &c. And “ it is defended
by law to diftrain on the highwayCoke on Litth
fol. 161.
DEFENDANT, in law, the perfon fued in an ac¬
tion perfonal; as tenant is he who is fued in an adlion
real. See Action.
DEFENDER of the Faith (Fidei Defafor), a pe¬
culiar title belonging to the king of England ; as Ca-
tholicus to the king of Spain, and ChrifiianiJJimus to the
king of France, &c. Thefe titles were given by the
popes of Rome. That of Fidei Defenfor was firft con¬
ferred'by Leo X. on king Henry VIII. for writing
againft Martin Luther; and the bull for it bears date
quintoidus Oflob. 1521. It was afterwards confirmed
by Clement VII. But the pope, on Henry’s fuppref*
fing the houfes of religion at the time of the Refor-
mation, not only deprived him of his title, but depa-
fed him from his crown alfo : though in the 35th year
of his reign, his title, &c. was confirmed by parlia¬
ment ; and hath continued to be ufed by all fucceedv
ing kings to this day.—Chamberlayne fays, the title
belonged to the kings of England before that time ;
and for proof hereof appeals to feveral charters grant¬
ed to the univerfity of Oxford. So that pope Leo’s
bull was only a renovation of an ancient right.
DEFENDERS, were anciently notable dignita¬
ries both in church and ftate, whofe bufinefs was to
look to the prefervation of the public weal, to pro-
te£f the poor and helplefs, and to maintain the inte-
lefts and caufes of churches and religious houfes. See
Protector.—The council of Chalcedon, can. 2. calls
the defender of a church ExJ<xof. Codin, de ojficiis
aula Confi. makes mention of defenders of the palace.
There were alfo a defender of the kingdom, defenfir
'regni i
Defile
II
Defiagia-
D E F [7
regtii; defenders of cities, defcnfores civitatis ; defen¬
ders of the people, defenfor-es flebls; of the poor, father-
lefs, widows, See.
s About the year 420, each patriarchal church began
to have its defender ; which cuftom was afterwards in¬
troduced into other churches, and continued to later
days under other names; as thofe of Advocate, and
Advowee.
In the year 407, we find the council of Carthage
alking the emperor for defenders, of the number- of
Scholajlici, i. e. advocates who were in office; and
that it might be allowed them to enter and fearch the
cabinets and papers of the judges and other civil ma-
giftrates, whenever it fhould be found neceffary for
tiie intereft of the church.
DEFILE, in fortification, a ftrait narrow paf-
fage, through which a company of horfe or foot can
pafs only in file, by making a fmall front.
DEFINITE, in grammar, is applied to an article
that has a precife determinate fignification ; fuch as the
article the in Englilh, le and la in French, &c. which
fix and afcei tain the noun they belong to, to fome par¬
ticular ; as the king, le roy: whereas, in the quality of
king, de roy, the articles of and de mark nothing pre¬
cife, and are therefore indefinite.
DEFINITION, in general, a ihoit defeription of
a thing by its properties; or, in logic, the explication
of the effence of a thing by its kind and differ¬
ence.
DEFINITIVE, a term applied to whatever termi¬
nates a procefs, queftion," &c.; in oppofition to provi-
iional and interlocutory.
DEFLAGRATION, in chemiftry, the kindling or
letting fire to a fait or mineral, &c. either alone or
mixed for that purpofe with a fulphureous one, in or¬
der to purify it.
This fhort procefs has been often recommended to
the world as of great ufe in trying the flrength of
brandies and other vinous fpirits, and has been greatly
improved in this refpeft by Mr GeofFroy.
The common way of trying fpirits by deflagration,
is to meafure out any quantity of it, then to heat it,
and fet it on fire. If, after it wall no longer burn, the
remainder is half as much as the quantity meafured out
for the trial was, then the fpirit tryed is found to con-
fill of half water, and half totally inflammable fpirit;
that is, it is fomewhat below what we underftand by
the term perfefi proof.—This method is much more
Certain than that by the crown of bubbles which arifes
upon lhaking the fpirit in a vial. Monf. Geoffroy’s
method is this: Take a cylindric veffel two inches
high, and as much in diameter, confifting of thin plate
fdver, that metal being much lefs liable to rufl than
copper;; ‘this veffel muft be fitted with a little rectan¬
gular gage exacliy graduated into lines, half lines, &c.
then the veffel being fet level upon a copper cafe made
to contain it, a parcel of the brandy to be examined is
poured in, to the height of 16 lines. This height is to
be exaCtly hit by pouring in more than enough at firft,
and then fucking out the overplus with a very fmall
tube. Then the velfel being heated a little, fo as juft
to make the liquor fume, it is to be fet on fire, and
left to go out of itfelf; af the inftaut when the
fame expires, the gage is plunged perpendicularly into
the veffel, and the lines and • quarters exaClly noted
07 ] D E F
which the liquor wants of its former height: this dif- Defledion
ference gives the precife quantity of alcohol or pure II
fpirit contained in the liquor. Thus, if eight lines of De Fof- t
phlegm are found remaining, -this being the half of the *" "l
16 lines of the original filling, it is plain, that the li¬
quor contained one half fpirit, or was fomething below
proof. If only four lines remained, it was nearly
double proof, or of a middle nature betwixt alcohol
and common proof-fpirit.
DEFLECTION of the Rays of Light, a property
which Dr Hook obferved in 1675, and read an account
of before the Royal Society, March 18, the fame year.
He fays he found it different both from reflection and
refraClion, and that it was made towards the furface of
the opaque body, perpendicularly. This is the fame
property which Sir Ifaac Newton calls Inflection.
DEFLORATION, or Deflowering, the aft of
violating or taking away a woman’s virginity. See
Virginity.-- Death, or marriage, are decreed by the
civil law in cafe of defloration.
The ancients had fo much refpeCl for virgins, that
they would not put them to death till they had firft
procured them to be deflowered. It is faid, the na¬
tives of the coaft of Malabar pay ftrangers to come and
deflower their brides.
In Scotland, and the northern parts of England, it
was a privilege of the lords of the manor, granted them
by king Ewen, that they ffiould have the firft night’s
lodging with their tentants wives. King Malcolm III.
allowed the tenants to redeem this fenfice at a certain
rate, called marcheta, confifting of a certain number of.
cows: Buchanan fays it was redeemed with half a
mark of diver. The fame cuftom had place in Waless
Flanders, Friefeland, and fome parts of Germany.
DEFLUXION, in medicine, the falling of the
humours from a fuperior to an inferior part of the
body.
DE FOE (Daniel), a writer famous for politics
and poetry, was bred a holier; which profeffion how¬
ever he foon forfook, and became one of the moll enter-
prifing authors that any age produced. When difeon-
tents ran high at the Revolution, and king William
was obliged to difmifs his Ducth guards, De Foe, who
had true notions of civil liberty, ridiculed the enemies
of government in his well-know poem, called The
True-born Englijhman, which had a prodigious fale.
The next fatire he wrote was intitled, Reformation of
Manners ; aimed at fome perfons of high rank, who
rendered themfelves a difgrace to their country. When
the ecclefiailics in power breathed too much of a fpirit
of perfecutisn, De Foe wrote a trail called The Short-
ejl Way with the Dijfenters; for which he was called to
account, and explained himfelf with great firmnefs. He
was afterward fentenced to the pillory for attacking
fome public meafures ; which fo little intimidated him,
that, in defiance of their ufage, he wrote A Hymn to the
Pillory. It would be endlefs to enumerate all his pub¬
lications ; but the following are the principal: The
Hijlory of the Plague in 1665 ; a novel intitled The Hi-
Jlory of Colonel Jack ; A new Voyage round the World
by a Company of Merchants, printed for Bettefworth,
1725 ; The Hijlory of Roxana j Memoirs of a Cavalier $
The Hifiory of Moll Flanders } a book intitled Religious
Courtjhip, which has undergone upwards of 20 edi¬
tions,; and the Life and Adventures of Robinfon Crufoe,
4U 2 ‘an
DEI7 [ 708 ] D E F
tier, fin admirable performance, of which there have been
editions without number, but concerning which there
is an anecdote that does the author of it no credit as
to the better part of a writer’s chara&er, honefty.
When captain Woods Rogers touched at the ifland
of Juan Fernandez, in the South Sea, he brought
away Alexander Selkirk, a Scots failor, who had
been left aflrore there, and had lived on that defolate
place above four years. When Selkirk came back
to England, he wrote a narrative of his adventures,
and put the papers into the hands of De Foe, to
digeft for publication f who ungeneroufly converted
the materials into the Hiftory of Robinfon Crufoe,
and returned Selkirk his papers again ! A fraud for
which, in a humane view, the diilinguilhed merit of
that romance can never atone. Daniel de Foe died at
Illington, in X731. All his produ&ions of the ro¬
mantic fpeeies, but efpecially the two laft mentioned,
are much in vogue amongil country readers; and, on
account of their moral and religious tendency, may
very probably in feme meafifie counteract the perni¬
cious eifedts produced by the too general circulation
of modern novels, thofe occasional vehicles of impiety
and infidelity.
DEFOLIATION, (from A, and folium a leaf); the
fail cf the leaves. A terra oppofed to froiultfcenluiy the
annual renovation of the leaves, produced by the un¬
folding of the buds in i'piing. See Frondescentia.
Mod plants in cold and temperate climates fhed their
leaves every year : this happens in autumn, and is ge¬
nerally announced by the flowering of the common
meadow faffron. The term is only applied to trees
and ihrubs; for herbs perifli down to the root every
year, lofing ftem, leaves, and all.
All plants do not drop their leaves at the fame time.
Among large trees, the afh and walnut, although lateft
in unfolding, are looneft divefted of them : the latter
feldom carries its leaves above five months.
On the oak and horn-beam, the leaves die and wi¬
ther as foor, as the colds commence ; but remain at¬
tached to the branches till they are puflied off by the
new ones, which unfold tkemfelves the following
fpring. Thefe trees are doubtlefs a kind of ever¬
greens : the leaves are probably deftroyed only by
cold; and perhaps would continue longer on the
plant, but for the force of the fpring-fap, joined to
the moifture.
In mild and dry feafons, the lilac, privet, yellow jef-
famine of the woods, and maple of Crete, preferve their
leaves green until fpring, and do not drop them till the
new leaves are beginning to appear. The fig-tree, and
many other trees that grow between the tropics, are
of this particular clafs of ever-greens. The trees in
Egypt, fays Do&or Haffelquift, caff their leaves in the
latter end of December and beginning of January,
having young leaves ready before all the old ones are
fallen off; and, to forward this operation of nature,
few of the trees have buds : the fycamore and willow,
indeed, have fame, but with few and quite loofe Jlipula
or feales. Nature did not imagine buds fo neceffary in
the fouthern as in the northern countries; this occa-
fions a great difference between them.
Laftly, lome trees and Ihrubs pieferve their leaves
conftantly through the whole year: and are not in the DeMatinn*
leall influenced by the clemency or inclemency of fea-  T”—
fons. Such are the firs, juniper, yew, cedar, cyprefs,
and many other trees, hence denominated ever-greens.
Thefe preferve their old leaves a long time after the
formation of the new, and do not drop them at
any determinate time. In general, the leaves of
ever-greens are harder, and leis fucculent, than thofe
which are renewed annually. The trees are gene¬
rally natives of warm climates; as the alaternufes of
France and Italy, the ever-green oak of Portugal and
Suabia.
Some herbaceous perennials, as the houfe-leeks and
navel-worts, enjoy the fame privilege with the ever¬
green trees, and refill the feverities of winter : fome
even can difpenfe with the earth for fome time ; being
replete with juices, which the leaves imbibe from the
humidity of the atmofphere, and which, in fuch plants,
are, of themfelves, fufficient for effecting the purpofes
of vegetation. It is for this reafon, that, unlei's in ex-
ceffive hot weather, gardeners are feldom wont to wa¬
ter fat fucculent plants, as the aloes, which rot when
they are moifteiied, if the fun does not quickly dry
them up.
The leaves of all the ever-green fhrubs and trees,
have a thin compaft flan or cover over tiitir furface j
as is eafily difeovered by macerating them in water, in
order to feparate the parenchyma, or pulp, from the
veffels of the leaves; which cannot be effected in any
of thefe ever-greens till a thin parchment-like cover is.
taken off. Thefe trees and ihrubs are found by ex¬
periment to perfptre but little, when compared with
others which ihed their leaves; and it is, perhaps,
principally owing to this clofe covering, as alfo to-
the fmall proportion of moiflure contained in their
veffcls, that they retain their verdure, and continue
through the winter on the trees. The nutritive juices
of thefe plants always abound, more or lefs, with an
oily quality, which fecures them from being injured
by fevere frofts ; fo that many of thefe ever-green trees
are adapted to grow in the coldeft parts of the habi¬
table world.
With refpeft to deciduous trees, the falling off o£
the leaves feems principally to depend on the tempera¬
ture of the atmofphere, which likewife ferves to haltea
or retard: the appearance in queltion. An ardent fun
contributes to haften the dropping of the leaves.
Hence in hot and dry fummers, the leaves of the lime-
tree and horfe-chefnut turn yellow about the firil o£
September; whilft in other years, the yellownefs does
not appear till the beginning of Oftober. Nothing,
however, contributes more to haften the fall of the
leaves, than immoderate cold or moift weather in au¬
tumn ; moderate droughts, on the other hand, ferve to
retard it. As a proof of this pofition, Mr Adanfou
relates, that in the year 1759, the leaves of the elm-
tree, which generally fall off about the 25 th of No¬
vember, continued iu verdure and vigour at Paris,
where the autumn was remarkably dry,, till the 10th of
the following month.
The following table, refpe&ing the mean times in
which different trees fhed there leaves, is founded upon
ohfervalions.
Goofe-
D E F
o&Defoliation Goofeberry-t'ree and bladder-"
f II fena,
Defurniity. "Walnut and afli,
-..v——v Almond-tree, horfe-chefnut,
and lime-tree,
Maple, liazle-nut, black pop¬
lar, and afpen-tree,
Birch, plane-tree, mountain-
ofier, falfe-acacia, pear, and
apple-tree,
Vine, mulberry, fig, fumac,
and angelica-tree.
Elm-tree and willow.
[ 7°9 1
D E F
S
; J2ot. Lift.
OAober ift.
  15th.
   20th.
 25 th.
November ift.
 10th.
  20th.
per, humanity, and cheerfulnefs, though the bodily Deformity,
form continues, it fhall give us no difguit. There are  *' '*,f
horrors raifed by fome objedls, which are only the ef-
fect of fear for ourfelves, or compaffion towards others,
when either reafon, or fonie foolilh afl'ociation of ideas,
makes us apprehend danger; and not the effeft of anv
thing in the form itfelf. For we find, that mod of
thofe objefts which excite horror at firft, when ex¬
perience or reafon has removed the fear, may become
the oceafion of pleafure.
The cafual conjunction of ideas gives us difguft,
where there is nothing difagreeable in the .form itfelf.
And this, in effedt, is the caufe of mod of our fanta-
dic averfions to the figures of divers animals, &c.
Thus ferpents of all kinds, and many infedts, really
beautiful enough, are beheld with averfion by many
Apricot and elder trees,
It deferves to be remarked, that an ever-green tree
grafted upon a deciduous, determines the latter to re¬
tain its leaves. This obfervation is confirmed by re- people, who have got fome accidental ideas of mif-
peated experiments; particularly by grafting the laurel, chief affociated to them. A fimilar reafoning is ap-
or cherry-bay, an evergreen, on the commo® cherry ; plied to our perception of moral beauty and deformity,
and the ilex, or ever- green oak, on the oak. Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue t
DEFORCEMENT, in law, the cading any one paffim.
out of his land, or with holding of lands and tenements But it is more jud to didinguiih between the fenti-
by force from the right owner.
Deforcement, in'Scots law, the- oppoiing or re-
fiding of the officers of the law in the execution of
their office. See Law, Nj clxxxvi. 15.
ments of delight or difgud, excited in us by beautiful
or deformed objects, which are effe&s of fome caufes,
and the natural and real qualities of the perceived ob¬
jects by which they are produced. There are objefts.
DEFORMITY, the want of that uniformity ne- fays an excellent writer, which have a natural aptitude
ceffary to conditute the beauty of an objeit. See to pleafe or offend, or between which and the contem-
plating mind there is a necedary congruity or incon-
Thefe are gruity ; and though the actual perception of the un-
Beauty.
Deformity is either natural or moral,
both referred by Mr Hutehefon to an internal fenfe ; derdanding, and confequent feeling of the heart, in
and our perceptions of them, as he iuppofes, arifes from
an original arbitrary drufture of our own minds, by
which certain obje&s, when obferved, are rendered the
occadons of certain fenfations and affections.
contemplating the adtions and affedtionsof moral agents,
may exid in very different degrees, on account of the
incidental obdrudtions arifmg from bodily indifpodtion,
mental prejudices and biaffes, and the aflbciation of
That many objedts give no pleafure to our fenfe is ideas; yet, to every rational mind properly difpofed,
obvious. Many are certainly void of beauty; but then, morally good adtions mud for ever be acceptable,
fays this author, there is no form which feems necef-. and can never of themfelves offend ; and morally evil
farily difagreeable of itfelf, when we dread no other adtions mud; for ever be difagreeable, and can never of
evil from it, and compare it with nothing better of the
kind. Many objedts are naturally difpleafing and dif-
tadeful to our external fenfes, as well as others pleafing
themfelves pleafe. What is right in adtions and cha¬
racters is beautiful and amiable, and gives pleafure ^
what is wrong is deformed and odious, and excites dif-
and agreeable; as fmells, tades, and fome feparate gud: right and pleafure, wrong and pain, are as didincb
founds : but with regard to our fenfe of beauty, no as caufe and effedt. It is no lefs abfurd to maintain,
compofition of objedts which give not unpleafant iimple that the perception of virtue is nothing'didind from the
ideas, feems politively unpleafant or painful of itfelf,
had we never obferved any thing better of the fame
kind.
Had there been a fpecies of the form which we now
denominate ugly or deformed, and had we never feen
reception of the pleafure refulting from it, than to infer,
with fome metaphyficians, that folidity, extendon, and
figure, are only particular modes of fenfation, becaufe
attended, whenever they are perceived, with fome fen¬
fations of fight or touch. Thus does this author diow.
expedted greater beauty, we diouid have received no that moral bea&ty and deformity are real qualities of
difgud from it; though the pleafure would not have certain adlions; in which coniids their aptitude to pleafe
been fo great in this form as in thofe we now admire, or difgud. With refpedl to natural beauty, he ob-
Our fenfe of beauty feems defigned to give us politive ferves, that uniformity amidd variety pleafes, becaufe
pleafure; but not podtive pain or difgud, any farther of the natures of variety and uniformity, which are
than what arifes from difappointment.
fuch, that whenever united, they are adapted to pleafe
There are indeed many faces which at fird view every free unbiaffed mind that difcerns them. He a_
are apt to raife diflike. But this is generally not from counts for the pleafure they afford, without referring
any pofitive deformity ; but either from want of ex- them to an arbitrary internal fenfe,, by the following
pedted beauty, or from the carrying fome natural in- circumdances that attend them. They are more eafily
dications of morally bad difpoiitions, which we all ac- comprehended by the mind: order and fymmetry give
quire a faculty of difcerning in countenances, airs, and things their dability and drength, and fubferviency to
gedures. That this is not occafioned by any form po- any valuable purpofe; regularity and order evidence
fitively difguding, appears hence, that if, upon long art and defign. Diforder and confudon, whence de-
acquaintance, we are fure of finding fweetnefs of tern- fortuity arifes, denote only the negation of regularity
au*J
B E F
Deformity, and order; or any arrangement and difpofition of
 things, which are not according to a law, rule, or
plan, and prove not defigii. Thefe are not pofitively
difpleafing ; except where we previoufly expected or¬
der, or where impotence or want of Ikill appear, and
the contriver has either failed of his defign or executed
it ill. ■
In the Fugitive Pieces, is preferved an excellent
effay on Bodily Deformity by the late William Hay,
Efq; who was himfelf what he defcribes, and‘who,
while he rallies his own figure with great pleafantry,
difcuffes the general fubjeft in a manner equally in-
flru&ive and agreeable. He confiders, i. The natu¬
ral confequences of bodily deformity; 2. How it affects
the outward circumftances; and, 3. What turn it
gives to the mind.
1. It is certain, that the human frame, being warp¬
ed and difproportioned, is leffened in ftrength and ac-
afHvity, and rendered lefs fit for its functions. Scar-
ron had invented an engine to take off his hat; “ and
I wifh (fays our author) I could invent one to buckle
my fhoe, or to take up a thing from the ground, which
1 can fcarce do without kneeling, for I can bend my
body no farther than it is bent by nature. For this
. reafon, when ladies drop a fan or glove, I am not the
firll to take it up ; and often reftrain my inclination to
•perform thofe little fervices, rather than expofe my
fpider-like ihape. And I hope it will ndit be conftrued
as pride, if I do not always rife from my feat when I
ought: for if it is low, I find fome trouble in it;
and my centre of gravity is fo ill placed, that I am
often like to fall back. Things hanging within the
reach of others are out of mine ; and what they can
execute with cafe, I want ftrength to perform. I
am in danger of being trampled upon or ftifled in a
crowd, where my back is a convenient lodgment for
the-elbow ef any tall perfon that is near. I can fee
nothing, and my whole employment is to guard my
perfon. I have forborne to attend his Majefty in the
houfe of peers fmce I was like to be fqueezed to death
there againft the wall. I would willingly come thither
when his majefty commands, but he is too gracious to
expe& impoffibilities. Befides, when I get in, I can
never have thfc pleafure of feeing on the throne one of
•the heft princes who ever fat on it. Thefe, and many
others, are the inconveniences continually attending a
figure like mine. They may appear grievous to per*
fons not ufed to them, but they grow eafier by habit;
and though they may a little difturb, they are not fuf*
ficient to deftroy the happinefs of life; of which, at
an average, I have enjoyed as great a (hare as moft
men. And perhaps one proof of it may be my writing
this Effay ; not intended as a complaint againft; Provi¬
dence for my lot, but as an innocent amufement to
myfelf and others.”
As to what effe& deformity may have on the health,
it appears natural to imagine, that as the inward parts
of the body muft in fome meafure comply with the
outward mould, fo the form of the latter being irregu¬
lar, the firft cannot be fo well placed and difpofed to
perform their functions; and that generally deformed
perfons would not be healthy or long-lived. But this
is a queftion heft determined by fafts; and in this cafe
the inftances are too few or unobferved, to draw a ge¬
neral conclufion from them: and health is more than
D E F
is commonly thought in a man’s own power, and the Deformity,
reward of temperance more than the effe& of conftitu- —y—J
tion; which makes it ftill-more difficult to pafs a judge¬
ment. JEfop could not be young when he died; and
might have lived longer, if he had not been murdered
at Delphi. The Prince of Orange fcarce paffed the
meridian of life, and the Duke of Luxemburg died
about the age of 67. The Lord Treafurer Burleigh
lived to 78 ; but his fon the Earl of Saliibury, who
died about 15 years after him, could not reach near
that age. It is faid that Mr Pope’s father was de¬
formed, and he lived to 75 ; whereas the fon died in
middle age, if he may be faid to die whofe works are
immortal. “ My father (adds our author) was not
deformed, but active, and my mother a celebrated
beauty ; and I, that am fo unlike them, have lived to
a greater age, and daily fee my acquaintance, of a
ftronger frame, quitting the ftage before me.”
But whether deformity, abftradledly confidered, be
really prejudicial to health, in its confequences ii ap¬
pears to be moft commonly an advantage. Deformed
perfons have a lefs fhare of ftrength than others, and
therefore fhould naturally be more careful to preferve
it; and as temperance is the great prefervative of
health, it may incline them to be more temperate.
Another great prefervative of health is moderate ex*
ercife, which few deformed perfons can want ftrength
to perform. As a deformed perfon is not formed for
violent exercife, he is lefs liable to fuch diforders as
are the natural confequence of it. He will alfo efcape
many accidents, to which men of athletic make, and
who glory in their ftrength, are always expofing them-
felves to make trial and proof of it. If he cannot carry
an ox, like Milo, he will not, like Milo, be hand¬
cuffed in the oak by attempting to rend it. He will
not be the man that ihall ride from London to York
in a day, or to Windfor in an hour, fur a wager ; or
that fhall be perpetually performing furpriiing long
journeys in a furpriiing ihort time, for no earthly bu-
finefs but the pleafure of relating them. Confcious of
his own weaknefs, he will be cautious of running into
places or occafions of danger. Nature, too, warns
deformed perfons to be careful not to offer fpch affronts
as may call them forth into the field of falfc honour,
where they cannot acquit themfelves well for want of
ftrength and agility ; and they are fecurer from fuch
affronts themfelves, fiftce others will confider the little
credit they will gain by compelling them to appear on
that fcene. On the whole, therefore, it may be con¬
cluded, that deformity is a proteftion to a man’s health
and perfon ; which (itrange as it may appear) are bet¬
ter defended by feeblenefs than ftrength.
2. The influence of bodily deformity on a man’s
fortune may next be confidered. Among the lower
clafs, he is cut off from many profeffions and employ¬
ments. He cannot be a foldier, he is under ftandard;
he cannot be a failor, he wants a&ivity to climb the
rigging; he cannot be a chairman or porter, he wants
ftrength to bear the burden. In higher lifer, he is ill
qualified for a lawyer, he can fcarce be feen over the
bar ; for a divine, he may drop from his haffock out
of fight in his pulpit. The improvement of his mind
is his proper province, and his bufinefs only fuch as
depends on ingenuity. If he cannot, be a dancing-
maiter to adjuft the heels, he may be a fchoolmafter to
4 . inftrudi
t 710 ]
><3 Dcf
I ‘ 
D E F [7
iwnity. inftruft the head: he cannot be a graceful aftor on
v*-" the ftage; but he may produce a good play : he would
appear ill as a herald in a proceffion ; but may pafs as
a merchant on the exchange : he cannot undergo the
fatigue of the campaign ; but he may advife the ope¬
rations of it: he is defigned by nature rather to fleep
on Parnaffus, than to defcend on the plains of Eolis : he
cannot be crowned at the Olympic games; but may
be the Pindar to celebrate them: he can acquire no
glory by the fword; but he may by the pen, and may
grow famous by only relating thofe exploits which are
beyond his power to imitate.
Lord Bacon (that extenfive and penetrating genius,
who pointed out every part of nature for examination),
in his Effay on Deformity, fays, “ that in their fupe-
riors it quencheth jealuufy towards them, as perfons
that they think they may at pleafure defpife; and it
layeth their competitors and. emulators afleep, as never
believing they (hould be in a pofiibility of advancement
till they fee them in pofiefiion.” But it is much to
be doubted whether this is not more than counterba¬
lanced by the contempt of the world, which it requires
no mean parts to conquer for if (as has been faid) a
good perfon is a letter of recommendation, deformity
muft be an obftru&ion in the way to favour:. , In this
refpeftj therefore, deformed perfons fet out in the
world to a difadvantage ; and they muft firft furmount
the prejudices of mankind before they can be upon a par
with others, and muft obtain by a courfe of behavi¬
our that regard which is paid to beauty at firft fight.
When this point is once gained, the tables are turned',
and then the game goes in their favour: for others,
fenfible of their injuftice to them, no fooner find them
better than they expefted, than they believe them
better than they are ; whereas in the beautiful perfon
they fometimes find themfelves impofed upon, and are
angry that they have worlhipped only a painted idol;
For (again take Lord Bacon’s words) “ neither is it
almoft feen, that very beautiful- perfons are otherwife
of great virtue: they prove accomplifti'ed, but not of
great fpirit; and ftudy rather behaviour than virtue.
Whereas-deformed perfons, if they be of-fpirit, will
free themfelves from fcorn, which muft be either by
virtue or malice ; and therefore let it not be marvelled
if they fometimes prove excellent perfons, as was Age-
filaus, Zanger the fon of Soloman, iEfop, Gafca pre-
fident of Peru ; and Socrates may likewife go amongft
them, with others.” Nay, he fays, “ in a great wit
deformity is an advantage to rifing.” And in another
part of his works, “ that they who by accident have
fome inevitable and indelible mark on their perfons or
fortunes, as deformed people, baftards, &'c. if they
want not virtue, generally prove fortunate.’*
Ofborn, in his .Hiftorica! Memoirs of Queen Eliza*
beth, informs us, that 4t file chofe the goodlieft per¬
fons for her houfehold fervants: but in her counfel-
lors did not put by fufficiency, though accompanied
with a crooked perfon ; as it chanced in a father and
a fon of the Cecils, both incomparable for prudence.”
It is well known the Queen would make the father
1 ] D E F
(Burleigh) fit in her prefence ; telling him, that Ihe did Deformity.
not ufe him for his legs, but his head. But the fon ——v—
(afterwards lord treafurer and Earl of Saliftmry) was
not fo civilly treated by the populace} and is an in-
ftance, not only that envy purfues a great man, but
that the higheft poll cannot redeem a deformed one
from contempt: it attends him like his lhadow, and
like that too- is ever reminding him of his ill figure,
which is often objecled for want of real crimes. For
the fame writer fays of the fame great man, “ that the
misfortunes accompanying him from his birth did not
a little add to that cloud of detradlion that fell upon
all that he faid or did ; a mul£t in nature, like an optic
fpeClacle, multiplying much in . the fight of the people
the apparitions of ilk” Nor was this contempt buried
with him: it. trampled on* his alhes, and infulted Iris
grave; as appears by an epitaph, which Ofborn cites,
as void of wit as it is full of feurrility ; in one line of
which there is an epithet, not fo elegant, as deferip-
tive of his perfon, viz. li Little Bofilve Robin, that"
was fo great.”
Such contempt in general, joined with the ridicule
of tlie vulgar, is another certain confequence of bodily
deformity ; for men naturally defpife what appears lefs
beautiful or ufeftd, and tlieir pride is gratified when
they fee fuoh foils to their own perfons. It is this
fenfe of fuperiority which is teftified by laughter in the
lower fort; while their betters, who know how little
any man whatfoever hath to boaft of, are reftrained by
good fenfe and good breeding from fuch an infult.
But it is not eafy to fay why one fpecies of deformity
fhould be more riduculous than another, or why the
mobfhould be more merry with a crooked man, than
with one that is deaf, lame, fquinting, or purblind. It
is a back in alto relievo that bears all the ridicule ; tho’
one would think a prominent belly a more reafonable
objeft of it, iince the laft is generally the effe6l of in¬
temperance and of a man’s own creation. . Socrates
was ugly, but not contemned ; and Philopoemen (a) of
very mean appearance, and though contemned on that
account, not ridiculed: for Montaigne fays, “ 111 fea¬
tures are but a fuperficial' ugli'nefs, and ; of little cer¬
tainty in the opinion of men ; but a deformity of
limbs is more fubftantial, and ftrikes deeper in.” As
it is more uncommon, it is more remarkable; and that
perhaps is the true reafon why it is more ridiculed by
the vulgar.
3. The laft confideratton on this fubjeft relates to
thofe pafiions and affeftions which moft naturally re-
fult from deformity. Lord Bacon obferves,- that ‘ de¬
formed perfons are commonly even with nature ; for
as nature hath done ill by them, fo do they by nature,
being for the moft part (as the feripture faith) void of
natural ajfettibnS But (fays Mr Hay) “ I can neither
find out this paflage in feripture, nor the reafon of ity
nor can I give my affent or negative to a proppfition, .
till I am well acquainted with the terms of it. If by
natural afftftion is here meant univerfal-benevolence,-.
and deformity neceffarily implies a want of it, a de¬
formed perfon mull .then be a complete monfter. But
however ■
(a) Coming to an inn, where he was expefted, before his attendants, the miftrefs of the houfe feeing a
plain perfon of very mean afpeft, ordered him to aflift in getting things ready for Philopoemen. His attend-'
ants finding him fo employed, he told them that he was then paying the tribute of his uglinefs. Pluidrch,
D E F [71
Deformity, however common the cafe may he, my own fenfations
inform me that it is not univerfaily true. If by natu¬
ral afifc&ion is meant a partial regard for individuals, I
believe the remark is judicious, and founded in hu¬
man nature. Deformed perfons are defpifed, ridiculed,
and ill-treated by others; are feldom favourites, and
commonly mod neglected by parents, guardians, and
relations; and therefore, as they are not indebted for
much fondnefs, it is no wonder if they repay but little.
It is the command of feripture, Not to Jet our affections
on things below ; and it is the voice of reafon, not to
overvalue what we mud foon part with ; therefore, to
be fo fond of others as not to be able to bear their ab*
fence, or to furvive them, is neither a religious nor mo¬
ral duty, but a childiih and womaniih weaknefs; and
I mud congratulate deformed perfons, who, by ex¬
ample, are early taught another leffon. And I will
now lay open my own heart to the reader, that he may
judge if Lord Bacon’s pofition is verified in me.
“ I hope it proceeds not from a malignity of heart;
but I never am much affe&ed with the common ac¬
cidents of life, whether they befall myfelf or others.
I am little moved wdien I hear of death, lofs, or mif-
fortune ; I think the cafe is common.
( Tfitus, e. meiio fortuity dulftrs accrue :)
Juv. Sat. xi:i.
And as it is always likely to happen, I am not fur-
prifed when it does. If I fee a perfou cry or beat his
bread on any fuch occafion, I cannot bear him com¬
pany ; but am not a Democritus to laurh at his folly.
I read of battles and fields covered with (lain ; of cities
dedroyed by fword, famine, pedilence, and earthquake;
I do not (hed a tear: I fuppofe it is, becaufe they are
the ufual dorms, to which the human fpecies are ex-
pofed, proceeding from the jud judgments of God, or
the midaken and falfe principles of rulers. I read of
perfecutions, tortures, murders, mafiacres ; my com¬
panion for the fufferers are great, but my tears are
dopped by refentment and indignation againd the con¬
trivers and perpetrators of fuch horrid adlions. But
there are many things that bring tears into my eyes
whether I will or no ; and when I reflect, I am often
at a lofs in fearching out the fecret fource from whence
they flow. What makes me W'eep (for w-eep I do)
when I read of virtue or innocence in didrefs; of a
good man helplefs andforfaken, unmoved by the great-
ed infults and cruelties, or courageoufly fupporting
himfelf againd oppreffion in the article of death ? I
fuppofe it is, to fee vice triumphant, and virtue fo ill
rewarded in this life. May I judge by myfelf, I
fliould imagine that few fincere Chridians could read
the fufferings of their Saviour, or Englifhmen thofe of a
Cranmer, Ridley, or Latimer, without tears; the fird
dying to edabliih his religion, the lad to refeue it from
corruption. When I read of Regains returning to tor¬
ment, and John of France to imprifonment, againd the
perfuafion of friends, to keep faith with their enemies,
I weep to think there is fcarce another indance of fuch
exalted virtue. Thofe who often hear me read, know
that my voice changes, and my eyes are full, when I
meet with a generous and her oic faying, a&ion, orcha-
rafter, efpecially of perfons whofe example or command
may influence mankind. I weep when I hear a Titus
fay, that he had lod the day in which he did no good ;
when Adrian tells his enemy, that he had efcaped by
N° 98,
2 ] D E F
his being emperor; or Louis XII. that- he is not to Deformity,
revenge the affront of the duke of Orleans. Thefe are ',,““
the fird indances that happen to occur to me : I might
recolletd many, too many to infert in this elfay; yet
all are but few, compared to indances of cruelty and
revenge: perhaps I am concerned that they are fo
rare ; perhaps too I inwardly grieve that I an not in
a fituation to do the like. I am entertained, but not
moved, when I read Voltaire’s Hidory of Charles XII.;
but I melt into tears on reading Hanway’s chara&er
of his antagonid Peter the Great. The fird is a dory
of a madman ; the other of a father, friend, and bene¬
factor of his people ; whofe character (as the author
obferves in the conclufion of it) will command the ad¬
miration of all fucceeding generations ; and I fuppofe
I lament, that God is pleafed to advance to royalty fo
few fuch indruments of good to mankind.
Again : “ I am uneafy when I fee a dog, a horfe,
or any other animal ill treated : for I confider them
as endued w:th quick fenfe, and no contemptible
(hare of reafon ; and that God gave man dominion
over them, not to play the tyrant, but to be a good
prince, and promote the happinefs of his fubje&s.
But I am much more uneafy at any cruelty to my
own fpecies ; and heartily wi(h Procrudes difcipli-
ned in his own bed, and Phalaris in his bull. A
man bruifed all over in a boxing match, or cut to
pieces in fighting a piize, is a (hocking fpeftacle; and
I think I could with lets horror fee a thoufand fall in
battle, than human nature thus depreciated and difgra-
ced. Violence, when exerted in wantonnefs or paf-
fion, is brutality ; and can be termed bravery only
when it is fanftioned by judice and necefiity.
“ I have been in a fituation to fee not a little of the
pomp and vanity, as well as of the neceffity and mifery,
of mankind : but the lad only affedt me ; and if, as a
magidrate, I am ever guilcy of partiality, it is in fa¬
vour of the poor. When I am at church among my
poor but honed neighbours in the country; and fee
them ferious in performing the ceremonies preferibed;
tears fometimes deal down my cheek, on reflecting,
that they are doing and hearing many things they do
not underfland, w'hile thofe who underfland them
better negleCt them : that they, who labour and live
hard, are more thankful to heaven than thofe who fare
luxurioufly on the fruits of their labour ; and are keep¬
ing and repeating the fourth commandment at the very
inliant the otheis are breaking it.
“ Thefe are fome of the fenfations I feel; which T
have freely and fairly difclofed, that the reader may
judge, how far I am an inftance of a deformed perfon
wanting natural affeflion. And I am a good fubjeCl of
fpeculation; becaufe all in me is nature : for to own the
truth, I have taken but little pains (though I ought to
have taken a great deal), to correCI my natural defeCts.
“ Lord Bacon’s next pofition is, ‘ That deformed
perfons are extremely bold : fird in their own defence,
as being expofed to fcorn ; but in procefs of time by a
general habit.’ This, probably, is fo among the infe¬
rior fort, who are in the way of continual infults : for
a return of abufe is a natural weapon of felf-defence,
and in fome meafure judified by the law of retaliation s
To upbraid a man with a perfonal defeCt, which he
cannot help, is alfo an immoral aCt ; and he who does
it, has reafon to expeCt no better quarter than to hear
5 of‘
D E F [ 713 ] D E F
ictT''efbrmity. of fa’ which it was in his own power not to commit.
    1 But ] .nd this obfervation far from being verified in
myfeh : an unbecoming bafiifulnefs has been the con-
fequen, e of my ill figure, and of the worfe manage¬
ment of me in my childhood. I am always uneafy,
when any one looks ftedfaftly on fo bad a pi&ure ; and
cannot look with a proper confidence in the face of
another. I have ever reproached myfelf with this
weaknefs, but am not able to correft it. And it may
be a difadvantage to a man in the opinion of thofe he
converfes with ; for though true modefty is amiable,
the falfe is liable to mifconftruftion : and when a man
is out of countenance for no reafon, it may be imagi¬
ned, that he has fome bad reafon for being fo. In
point of aflurance, I am indeed a perfeft riddle to my¬
felf ; for I, who feel a relu&ance in croffing a draw¬
ing room, or in opening my mouth in private com¬
pany before perfons with whom I am not well acquaint¬
ed, find little in delivering my fentiments in public,
and expofing my difcourfe, often as trifling as my per-
fon, to the ears of a thoufand. From what caufe this
proceeds, I know not: it may be partly from hopes of
wiping off any ill impreffions from my perfon by my
difcourfe, partly from a fenfe of doing my duty, and
partly from a fecurity in public affemblies from any
grofs perfonal refleftions.
“ Lord Bacon compares the cafe of deformed per¬
fons to that of eunuchs ; ‘ in whom kings were wont
to put great trufl as good fpies and whifperers; for
they that are envious towards all, are more obnoxious
and officious towards one.’ But, with fubmiffion to
fo good a judge of human nature, I own I can difcover
no uncommon qualification in them for fpies; and
very few motives to envy peculiar to themfelves. Spies
fubmit to that bafe and ungenerous office, either for
the fake of interefl or power : if for intereft, it is to
gratify their covetoufnefs ; if for power, their ambi¬
tion or revenge ; which paffions are not confined to
the eunuch or deformed, but indifcriminately feize all
clafles of men. Envy too may prompt a man to mean
adtions, in order to bring down the perfon envied to
his own level; but if it is on account of fuperiority of
fortune, it will operate alike on men of all fhapes.
Eunuchs have but one peculiar motive to envy': but
that (as Lord Bacon exprefles it) makes them envious
towaids all; becaufe it is for a pleafure which all but
themfelves may enjoy. Deformed perfons are de¬
prived only of beauty and ftrength, and therefore
thofe alone are to be deemed the extraordinary mo¬
tives to their envy; for they can no more be beautiful
or ftrong than eunuchs be fuccefsful lovers. As to
myfelf, whatever fparks of envy might be in my con-
ftitution, they are now entirely extinguifhed ; for, by
frequent and ferious refle&ion, I have long been con¬
vinced of the fmall value of moil things which men
value the moil.
“ There is another paffion to which deformed per-
Vol. V. Part II.
(a) Hie fe prxeipitem tefto dedit: ille.flagellis
Ad mortem csefus : fugiens hie decidit acrem
Praedonum in turbam: dedit hie pro corpore nummos:
Hunc perminxerunt calones : quinetiam illud
fons feem to be more expofed than to envy; which {3 Deformity,
jealoufy : for being confcious that they are lefs amia- v—
ble than others, they may naturally fufpeft that they
are lefs beloved. I have the happinefs to fpeak this
from conjedlure, and not from experience ; for it was
my lot, many years ago, to marry a young lady, very
piouily educated, and of a very diftinguiihed family,
and whofe virtues are an honour to her family and her
fex : fo that I had never any trial of my temper, and ^
can only guefs at it by emotions I have felt in my
younger days ; when ladies have been more liberal of
their fmiles to thofe whom I thought in every refpedl,
but perfon, my inferiors.”
The moil ufeful inference from all this to a deform¬
ed perfon is, to be upon his guard againft thofe frail¬
ties to which he is more particularly expofed ; and to
be careful, that the outward frame do not diftort the
foul. Orandum ejl (fays Juvenal), ut Jit mens Jana in
corporefano; “ Let us pray for a found mind in a healthy
body :” and every deformed perfon ffiould add this pe¬
tition, ut fit mens reda in corpore curvo, for “ an upright
mind in a crooked one.” And let him frequently ap¬
ply to himfelf this article of felf-examination, Lenior
et melior Jst accedente Jene8a ? “ As age approaches, do
your temper and morals improve ?” It is a duty pecu¬
liarly incumbent; for if beauty adds grace to virtue
itfelf, vice mull be doubly hideous in deformity.
Ridicule and contempt are a certain confequence of
deformity ; and therefore what a perfon cannot avoid,
he fhould learn not to regard. He Ihould bear it like
a man ; forgive it as a Chriftian ; and confider it as a
philofopher. And his triumph will be complete, if he
can exceed others in pleafantry on himfelf. Wit will
give over when it fees itfelf outdone ; and fo will ma¬
lice when it finds it has no effect: And if a man’s be¬
haviour afford no caufe of contempt, it will fall upon
thofe who condemn him without caufe.
Inftead of repining, therefore, a deformed perfon
ought to be thankful to Providence for giving him
fuch a guard to his virtue and repofe. Thoufands are
daily ruined by a handfome perfon ; for beauty is a
flower that every one wants to gather in its bloom,
and fpares no pains or llratagem to reach it. All the
poetical ftories concerning it have their moral. A
Helen occafions war and confufion ; the Hyacinths
and Ganymedes are feized on for Catamites ; the En-
dymions and Adonifes for gallants ; Narciffus can ad¬
mire nobody but himfelf, and grows old before he is
cured of that paffion. Who is a llranger to the llory
of Lucretia killing herfelf for her violated chaftity ?
or of Virginia killed by her father to preferve it ? In
thofe circumftances, fays Juvenal, Ihe might wifh to
change perfons with Rutila ; the only lady we know
among the ancients celebrated for a hump-back. The
handfomeft. men are chofen for eunuchs and gallants ;
and when they are catched in exercifing the laft func¬
tion, both (a) Horace and Juvenal inform you of the
4 X penalties
Accidit, ut cuidam teftes caudamque falacem
Demeteret ferrum Hor. Sat. ii. 1. i.
 Quofdam moechos et mugilis intrat. Juu. ib.
D E F C 714 ] DEG
Deformity, penalties and indignities they undergo. Silius (b)
* was converted by the infatiable Meffalina into a huf-
band ; and Sporus, by the monfter Nero, into a wife.
The laft mentioned poet (hows, that praying for beau¬
ty is praying for a curfe; and (c) rerfius refufes to
join in fuch a prayer: And has not the deformed per-
fon reafon to thank his liars, which have placed him
more out of dangej* than even virtue could ? for that
could not guard a Jofeph, an (d) Hippolytus, a Bel-
lerophon, and others, againlt the revenge of flighted
love.
Another great advantage of deformity is, that it
tends to the improvement of the mind. A man that
cannot fhine in his perfon, will have recourfe to his
underllanding; and attempt to adofn that part of
him, which alone is capable of ornament. When his
ambition prompts him to begin, with Cowely, to alk
himfelf this quellion,
What fhall I do to be for ever known,
And make the age to come my own ?
on looking about him, he will find many avenues to
the temple of fame barred againll him ; but fome are
flill open through that of virtue ; and thofe, if he has
a right ambition, he will moft probably attempt to
pafs. The more a man is inattive in his perfon, the
more his mind will be at work ; and the time which
others fpend m aftion, he will pafs in ftudy and con¬
templation : by thefe he may acquire wifdom; and by
wifdom, fame. The name of Socrates is as much
founded as thofe of Alexander and Caefar; and is re¬
corded in much fairer chara&ers. He gained renown
by wifdom and goodnefs; they by tyranny and op-
preflion : he by inftrufting, they by deftroying, man¬
kind : and happy it is, that their evil deeds were con¬
fined to their lives; while he contiaues to inftrudt us
to this day. A deformed perfon will naturally con-
flder where his ftrength and his foible lie : and as he
is well acquainted with the laft, he will eafily find out
the firft; and muftknow, that (if it is any where) it is
not, like Samfdn’s, in the hair; but muft be in the
lining of the head. He will fay to himfelf, “ I am
weak in perfon : unable to ferve my country in the
field, I can acquire no military glory ; but I may,
like Socrates, acquire reputation by wifdom and pro¬
bity ; let me therefore be wife and honeft. My figure
is very bad ; and I fhould appear but ill as an orator
either in the pulpit or at the bar: let me therefore pafs
my time in my ftudy, either in reading what may im¬
prove myfelf, or in writing what may entertain or in-
ftruft others. I have not the ftrength of Hercules, nor
can I rid the world of fo many monfters; but perhaps
I may get rid of fome that infeft myfelf. If I cannot
draw out Cacus from his den, I may pluck the villain
from my own bread. I cannot cleanfe the liable of
Augeas : but I may cleanfe my own jheart from filth
and impurity: I may demolilh the hydra of vices
within me; and fhould be careful too, that while Deformity
I lop off one, I do not fuffer more to grow up in II
its Head. Let me be ferviceable in any way that I can: Degrada-I
and if I am fo, it may, in fome meafure, be owing ^ '
to my deformity ; which at leaft ftiould be a reftraint
on my condufil, left my conduct make me more de¬
formed.”
Few perfons have a houfe entirely to their mind;
or the apartments in it difpofed as they could wifli.
And there is no deformed perfon, who does not wilh
that his foul had a better habitation ; which is fome-
times not lodged according to its quality. Lord
Clarendon fays of Sir Charles Cavehdijh (brother to
the marquis of Newcaftle), that he was a man of the
nobleft and largeft mind, though of the leaft and moft
inconvenient body that lived. And every body knows,
that the late prince of Orange had many amiable qua¬
lities. Therefore, in juftice to fuch perfons, we muft
fuppofe that they did not repine that their tenement^
were not in a more regular ftyle of architecture. And
let every deformed perfon comfort himfelf with re-
flefting, that though his foul hath not the moft conve¬
nient and beautiful a'partment, yet that it is habitable ;
that the accommodation will ferve as an inn upon the
rodd ; that he is but tenant for life, or (more properly)
at will; and that, while he remains in it, he is in a
ftate to be envied by the deaf, the dumb, the lame,
and the blind.
DEFOSSION, (Defossio), the punifhment of bu¬
rying alive, infliCled among the Romans on veftal vir¬
gins guilty of incontiuency. It is alfo a cuftom among
the Hungarians to infliCt this punifhment on women
convifted of adultery. Heretics were alfo punifhed in
this manner. See BvKriNG~Alive.
DEGENERATION, or Degenerating, in ge¬
neral, denotes the growing worfe, or lofing fome va¬
luable qualities whereof a thing was formerly poffeffed.
Some naturalifts have been of opinion, that things are
capable of degenerating into quite a diftinCt fpecies;
but this is a mere chimera. All that happens in the
degeneration of a plant, for inftance, is the lofing its
ufual beauty, colour, fmell, &c. a circumftance entirely
owing to its being planted in an improper foil, clir
mate, &c.
DEGLUTITION, the aftion of fwallowing. See
Anatomy, n° 104.
DEGRADATION, in our law-books called dip
gradation and depojition, the aCl of depriving or {trip¬
ping a perfon for ever of a dignity or degree of ho¬
nour, and taking away the title, badge, and privileges
thereof.
The degradations of a peer, a prieft, a knight, a
gentleman, an officer, &c. are performed with divers
ceremonies. That which anciently obtained in degra¬
ding a perfon from his nobility is very curious. It
was praCtifed in the time of Francis I. upon Captain
Fangel,
(B)  Optimus hie et formofiffimus idem
Gentis Patricias rapitur mifer extinguendus
Meffalinae oculis. Jnv. Sat. x.
(c) Hunc optent generum Rex et Regina : puellse
Hunc rapiant: quicquid calcaverit hie, rofa fiat:
Aft ego nutrici npn mando vota j negato
Jupiter hsec ill! Perf. Sat. ii.
(d)   -Quid prpfuit olim
Hippolyto grave propofitum ? Quid Bellerophonti
Erubuit nempe fisec, feu faftidita repulfa :
Nec Sthenoboea minus quam Creffa e'xcanduit, et fe
Coucuffere ambae.——  Juv' ^a't. x*.
DEG C 715 ] D E J
Degrada- Fangel, who had in a cowardly manner given up Fon-
don. tarabta, whereof he was governor. On this occafion,
w””~v 20 or 30 cavaliers, without blemilh or reproach, were
afiembled ; before whom the gentleman was accufed
of treafon and breach of faith by a king at arms. Two
fcaffolds were eredled; the one for the judges, he¬
ralds, and purfuivants ; and the other for the guilty
cavalier, who was armed at all points, and his (hield
placed on a (take before him, reverfed with the point
upwards. On one fide afMed 12 priells in furplices,
who fung the vigils of the dead. At the clofe of each
pfalm they made a paufe, during which the officers of
arms dripped the condemned of fome piece of his ar¬
mour, beginning with the helmet, and proceeding
thus till he was quite difarmed ; which done, they
broke his fhield in three pieces with a hammer. Then
the king at arms emptied a bafon of hot water on the
criminal’s head ; and the judges, putting on mourning
habits, went to the church. This done, the degraded
was drawn from off the fcaffold with a rope tied under
his arm pits, laid on a bier, and covered with mortu¬
ary clothes; the prieft Tinging fome of the prayers for
the dead ; and then he was delivered to the civil judge
and the executioner of juftice.
For a more domeftic inftance : Sir Andrew Harcla,
earl of Carlifle, being attainted and convifted of trea¬
fon, 18 Edw. II. coram rege ; after judgment was pro¬
nounced on him, his fword was broken over his head,
and his fpurs hewn off his heels; Sir Anthony Lucy
the judge faying to him, “ Andrew, now thou art no
knight, but a knave.” By flat. 13 Car. II. William
Lord Monfon, Sir Henry Mildmay, and others, were
degraded from all titles of honour, dignities, and pre¬
eminences, and prohibited to bear or ufe the title of
lord, knight, efquire, or gentleman, or any coat of
arms, for ever afterwards. It has been maintained
that the king may degrade a peer ; but it appears from
■ later authorities, that he cannot be degraded but by
a£t of parliament.
As to ecclefiallics, we have an inftance of degrada¬
tion before condemnation to death, in the eighth cen¬
tury, at Conftantinople. It is in the perfon of the
patriarch Conftantine, whom Conftantine Copronymus
caufed to be executed. He was made to afcend the
ambo; and the patriarch Nicetas fent fome of his bi-
fhops to ftrip him of the pallium, and anathematized
him : then they made him go out of the church back¬
wards.
But we have a much later inftance in our own hifto-
ry : When Cranmer, archbilhop of Canterbury, was
•degraded by order of Queen Mary, they drefled him
in epffcopal Tobes, made only of canvas, put the mitre
-on his head and the paftoral ftaff in his hand ; and in
this attire fhowed him to the people. Which done,
they ftripped him again piece by piece. At prefent
they do not ftand fo much on the ceremony of degra¬
dation in order to the putting a prieft to death ; by
reafon of the delays and difficulties that it would oc¬
cafion. Pope Boniface pronounced that fix biffiops
were required to degrade a prieft ; but the difficulty
of affembling fo many biffiops rendered the puniffiment
frequently imprafticable. In England, a prieft, after ha¬
ving been delivered to his ordinary, if he cannot purge
himfelf of the dime laid at his-door, his gown and
other robes are ftripped over his ears by the common
hangman ; by which he is declared divefted of his or- Degrada.
ders. tion
It is decided, however, that degradation does not n ^ •
efface the prieftly character. Degradation only feems . LJ^“ira,l
to differ from depofition in a few ignominious ceremo¬
nies which cuftom has added thereto. Accordingly,
in the bufinefs of Arnoul archbiffiop of Rheims, fen-
tenced in the council of Orleans in 991, it was deli¬
berated what form they ffiould follow in the depofition ;
whether that of the canons, that is, fimple depofition ;
or that of cuftom, viz. degradation. And it was declared,
that he ffiould furrender the ring, paftoral ftaff, and
pallium ; but that his robes ffiould not be torn off. In
effed, the canons prefcribe no more than a mere read¬
ing of the fentence. It is the reft, therefore, added
thereto by cuftom, viz. the ftripping off the ornaments
and the tearing the pontifical veftments, that properly
conftitutes degradation.
Degradation, in painting, expreffes the leffening
the appearance of diftant objeds in a landfcape, in the
fame manner as they would appear to an eye placed at
that diftance from them.
DEGREE, in geometry, a divifion of a circle, in¬
cluding a three hundred and fixtieth part .of its circum¬
ference.
Degree of Latitude. See Latitude.
Degree of Longitude. See Longitude.
A degree of the meridian on the furface of the globe
is varioufly determined by various obfervers. Mr Pi-
cart meafured a degree in the latitude of 490 21', and
found it equal to 57060 French toifes. But the French
mathematicians, who have lately examined Mr Picart’s
operations, affure us, that the degree in that latitude
is 57183 toifes. Our countryman, Mr Norwood, mea¬
fured the diftance between London and York, and found
it 905751 Engliffi feet; and finding the difference of
latitudes 23 28', determined the quantity of one de¬
gree to be 367196 Engliffi feet, or 69 Engliffi miles
and 288 yards. Mr Maupertuis meafured a degree in
Lapland, in the latitude of 66° 20', and found it
57438 toifes. A degree was likewife meafured at the
equator by other French mathematicians, and found
to contain 56767.8 toifes. Whence it appears, that
the earth is not a fphere, but an oblate fpheroid.
Degree, in the civil and canon law, denotes an
interval in’ kinffiip, by which proximity and remoteneft
of blood are computed. See Consanguinity and
Descent.
Degrees, in mufic, are the little intervals whereof
the concords or harmonical intervals are compofed.
Degree, in univerfities, denotes a quality conferred
on the ftudents or members thereof, as a teftimony of
their proficiency in the arts or fciences, and intitling
them to certain privileges.
DEJANIRA, in fabulous hiftory, daughter of Oe-
neus king of iEtolia, and wife to Hercules. The cen¬
taur Neffus endeavouring 10 ravifh her, was fiain by
Hercules with a poifoned arrow. Neffus, when dy¬
ing, gave his bloody ffiirt to Dejanira ; affuring her,
that it was a foveteign remedy to cure her huffiand if
ever he proved unfaithful. Some time after, Dejanira
thinking ffie had reafon to fufpeft his fidelity, fent him
the ffiirc; which he had no fooner ppt on» than he
was feized with the moft excruciating torments. Be¬
ing unable to fupport his pains, he retired to mount
DEI C 716 ] DEI
Dejeflion Oeta, and cre&ing a pile of wood fet fire to it, and
II threw himfelf into the flames; upon which Dejanira
, Deifm. billed herfelf in defpair.
V-,J DEJECTION, in medicine, the aft of voiding the
excrements by the anus. See Anatomy, n° 93.
DEIFICATION, in antiquity. See Apotheosis.
DEIPHON, in fabulous hiftory, a brother of Trip-
tolemus fon of Celeus and Metanira. When Ceres
travelled over the world, fhe flopped at his father’s
court and undertook to nurfe him and bring him up.
To reward the hofpitality of Celeus, the goddefs be¬
gan to make his fon immortal, and every evening flie
placed him on burning coals to purify him from what¬
ever mortal particles he ftill poffefled. The uncommon
growth of Deiphon aftonifhed Metanira, who wiflied
to fee what Ceres did to make him fo vigorous. She
was frightened to fee her fon on burning coals ; and
the Ihrieks that ftie uttered diflurbed the myfterious
operations of the goddefs, and Deiphon perifhed in
the flames.
DEISCAL, in the ancient Britifii cuftoms, the
name of a ceremony originally ufed in the druidical
worihip, and retained in many places down to a very
late period as a civil ceremony towards perfons of par¬
ticular diftinftion. The temples of the ancient Bri¬
tons were all circular ; and the druids, in performing
the public offices of their religion, never neglefted to
make three turns round the altar, accompanied by all
the worfhippers. This praftice was fo habitual to the
ancient'Britons, that it continued in fome places many
ages after the druids and their religion were both de-
ftroyed. In the Scottifh ifles, the vulgar never
come to the ancient facrificing and fire-hallowing cairns,
but they walk three times round them, from eall to
weft, according to the courfe of the fun. This fanfti-
fied tour, or round by the fouth, is called deifcal, from
deas or defs, “ the right-hand,” and foil or ful, “ the
fun the right-hand being ever next the heap or
cairn. In the fame ifles it is the cuftom and falhion
of the people to teftify their refpeft for their chief¬
tains, the proprietors of their feveral ifles, and other
perfons of diftinftion, by performing the deifcal round
them in the fame manner. A gentleman giving an
account of his reception in one of the weftern iflands,
of which he was proprietor, defcribes the ceremony
of the deifcal in this manner: “ One of the natives
would needs cxprefs his high efteem for my perfon,
by making a turn round about me fun-ways, and at
the fame time bleffing me, and w'ifhing me all happi-
nefs. But I bid him let alone that piece of homage,
telling him I was fenfible of his good meaning towards
me. But this poor man was very much difappointed,
as were alfo his neighbours ; for they doubted not but
this ancient ceremony would have been very acceptable
to me ; and one of them told me that this was a thing
due to my charafter from them, as to their chief and
patron ; and that they could not, and would not, fail
to perform it ”
DEISM, the doftrine or belief^rf the deifts. De¬
ifm, from ©'•?> God, may properly' be ufed to denote
natural religion, as comprehending thofe truths which
have a real foundation in reafon and nature ; and in
this fenfe it is fo far from being oppofite to Chriftiani-
ty, that it is one great defign of the gofpel to illu-
ftrate and enforce it. Thus fome of the deiftical wri¬
ters have affefted to ufe it. But deifm more precifely
fignifies that fyftem of religion, relating both to doc¬
trine and praftice, which every man is to difcover for
himfelf by the mere force of natural reafon, independ¬
ent of all revelation, and exclufive of it; and this re¬
ligion Dr Tindal and others pretend is fo perfeft, as
to be incapable of receiving any addition or improve¬
ment even from divine revelation.
DEISTS, a clafs of people, known alfo dnder the
denomination of Free-thinkers, whofe diftinguifhing
charafter it is, not to profefs any particular form or
fyftem of religion ; but only to acknowledge the ex-
iftence of a God, and to follow the light and law of
nature, rejefting revelation, and oppofing Chrilti-
anity.
This name feems to have been firft affumed as the
denomination of a party about the middle of the 16th
century, by fome gentlemen in France and Italy, who
were defirous of thus difguifing their oppofltion to
Chriftianity by a more honourable appellation than
that of atheifts. Viret, an eminent reformer, men¬
tions certain perfons in his epiftle dedicatory prefixed
to the fecond tome of his Injlruflion Chretienne, publifh-
ed in 1563, who called themfelves by a new name,
that of Deijls. Thefe, he tells us, profefled to believe
in God, but ffiowed no regard to Jefus Chriit, and
confidered the doftrine of the apoftles and evangelifts
as fables and dreams. He adds, that they laughed at
all religion, though they outwardly conformed to the
religion of thofe with whom they lived, or whom they
wifhed to pleafe, or feared to offend. Some, he ob-
ferves, profeffed to believe the immortality of the foul;
others denied both this doftrine and that of provi-
dende. Many of them were confidered as perfons of
acute and fubtil genius, and took pains in diffeminating
their notions.
The deifts hold, that, confidering the multiplicity
of religions, the numerous pretences to revelation,
and the precarious arguments generally advanced in
■proof thereof, the beft and fureft way' is to return to
the fimplicity of nature and the belief of one God ;
which is the only truth agreed to by all nations. They
complain, that the freedom of thinking and reafoning
is oppreffed under the yoke of religion ; and that the
minds of men are ridden and tyrannized by the necef-
fity impofed on them of believing inconceivable my-
fteries; and contend that nothing ffiould be required
to be affented to or believed but what their reafon
clearly conceives.
The diftinguiftiing charafter of modern deifts is, that
they rejeft all revealed religion, and difcard all pre¬
tences to it as the effefts of impofture or enthufiafm.
They profefs a regard for natural religion, though they
are far from being agreed in their notions concerning
it. They are claffed by fome of their own writers in¬
to mortal and immortal deifts : the latter acknowledg¬
ing a future ftate; and the former denying it, or re-
prefenting it as very uncertain.
Dr Clarke diftinguilhes four forts of deifts. 1. Thofe
who pretend to believe the exiftence of an eternal, in¬
finite, independent, intelligent Being, who made the
world, without concerning himfelf in the government
of it. 2. Thofe who believe the being and natural
providence
DEI [ 717 1 DEL
De'fts. providence of God, but deny the difference of aftions
’ » as morally good or evil, refolving it into the arbitrary
conftitution of human laws; and therefore they fup-
pofe that God takes no notice of them. With refpeft
to both thefe claffes, he obfevves that their opinions
can confiilently terminate in nothing but downright
atheifm. 3. Thofe who having right apprehenfions
concerning the nature, attributes, and all-governing
providence of God, feem alfo to have fome notion of
his moral perfe&ions ; though they confider them as
tranfcendent, and fuch in nature and degree, that we
can form no true judgment, nor argue with any cer¬
tainty concerning them : but they deny the immorta¬
lity of human fouls; alleging that men perifh at death,
and that the prefent life is the whole of human exift-
ence. 4. Thofe who believe the exiftence, perfeftions,
and providence of God; the obligations of natural re¬
ligion, and a flate of future retribution, on the evi¬
dence of the light of nature, without a divine revela¬
tion : fuch as thefe, he fays, are the only true deifls ;
but their principles, he apprehends, fhould lead them
to embrace Chriftianity; and therefore he concludes
that there is now no confiftent fcheme of deifm in the
world.
The firfl: deiftical writer of any note that appeared
in this country was Herbert baron of Cherbury. He
lived and wrote in the lait century. His book De Ve-
ritate was firft publifhed at Paris in 1624. This, to¬
gether with his book De Caitjis Errorum, and his trea-
iife De Religione Laid, were afterwards publifhed in
-London. His celebrated work De Religione Gentilium
was publilhed at Amfterdam in 1663 in 4to, and in
1700 in 8vo, and an Englifh tranflation of it was pub¬
lilhed at London in 1705. As he was one of the firft
that formed deifm into'a fyftem, and afierted the fuf-
-ficiency, univerfality, and abfolute perfection, of na¬
tural religion, with a view to difcard all extraordinary
revelation as ufelefs and needlefs, we Ihall fubjoin the
five fundamental articles of this univerfal religion.
They are thefe : 1. That there is one fupreme God.
2. That he is chiefly to be worlhipped. 3. That piety
and virtue are the principal part of his worfliip. 4.
That we muft repent of our fins ; and if we do fo,
God will pardon them. 5. That there are rewards for
good men and punilhments for bad men, both here
and hereafter. Our own age has produced a number
of advocates in the fame caufe ; and however they
may have differed among themfelves, they have been
agreed in their attempts of invalidating the evidence
and authority of divine revelation. We might men¬
tion Hobbes, Blount, Toland, Collins, Woolfton, Tin-"
dal, Morgan, Chubb, Lord Bolingbroke, Hume, See.
Some have alfo added Lord Shaftcfbury to the num¬
ber.
But the friends of Chriftianity have no reafon to re¬
gret the free and unreferved difcuffion which their re¬
ligion has undergone. Objections have been ftated
and urged in their full force, and as fully anfwered ;
■argument and raillery have been repelled ; and the
controverfy between Chriilians and deifts has called
forth a great number of excellent writers, who have
illuflrated both the doctrines and evidence of Chrifti¬
anity in a manner that will ever reflect honour on their
names, and be of ■ lafting fervice to the caufe of genu¬
ine religion and the btft interefts of mankind.
DEITY, Godhead; a common appellation given to Deity,
God; and alfo by the poets to the heathen gods and Delawarc-
goddeffes. v ■ *
DELAWARE, a province of North America, fi-
tuated on a river of the fame name.
The Dutch, under the pretended purchafe made by
Henry Hudfon, took poffeffion of the lands on both
fides the river Delaware ; and as early as the year
1623 built a fort at the place which has fince been
called Gloucejler. In 1627, by the influence of William
Ufeling, a refpe&able merchant in Sweden, a colony
of Swedes and Finns came over, furnifhed with all the:
neceffaries for beginning a new fettlement, and land¬
ed at Cape Henlopen ; at which time the Dutch had
wholly quitted the country. The Dutch, however,
returned in 1630, and built a fort at Lewiftown, by
them named Hoarkill. The year following the Swedes
built a fort near Wilmington, which they called Chrif-
tein or Chrijliana. Here alfo they laid out a fmall
town, which was afterwards demolifhed by the Dutch.
The fame year they eredted a fort higher up the ri¬
ver, upon Tenecum ifland, which they called New
Goitenburgh ; they alfo about the fame time built forts
at Chefter, Elfinburgh, and other places. John Prinz
then governed the Swedes, who, in 1654, deputed
his fon-in-law, John Papgoia, and returned to Sweden.
Papgoia foon followed his father-in-law to his native
country, and John Ryfing fucceeded to the govern¬
ment. In 1655, the Dutch under the command of
Peter Stuyvefant, arrived in Delaware river, from
New Amfterdam (New York), in feven veffels, with 6
or 700 men. They difpoffeffed the Swedes of their
forts on the river, and carried the officers and princi¬
pal inhabitants prifoners to New Amfterdam, and from
thence to Holland. The common people fubmitted to
the conquerors and remained in the country. On the
firft of Oftober 1664, Sir Robert Carr obtained the
fubmiffion of the Swedes on Delaware river. Four
years after, Col. Nicoils, governor of New York, with
his council, on the 21ft of April, appointed a fcout.
and five other perfons to affift Capt. Carr in the go¬
vernment of the country. In 1672, the town of New-
caftle was incorporated by the government of New
York, to be governed by a bailiff and fix alliftants;
after the firft year, the four oldeft were to leave their
office and four others to be chofen. The bailiff was
prelident, with a double vote ; the conftable was cho¬
fen by the bench. They had power to try caufes not
exceeding L. 10, without appeal. The office of fcout
was converted into that of fheriff, who had jurifdic-
tion in the corporation and along the river, and was
annually chofen. They were to have a free trade,
without being obliged to make entry at New York,
as had formerly been the practice. Wampum was at
this time the principal currency of the country. Go¬
vernor Lovelace of New York, by proclamation, or¬
dered that four white grains and three black ones
ftiould pafs for the value of a ftiver or penny. This
proclamation was publifhed at Albany, Efopus, De¬
laware, Long Ifland, and the parts adjacent. In 1674,
CharlesII. by a fecond patent,dated June 29th, granted
to his brother duke of York all that country called by
the Dutch New Netherlands, of which the three coun¬
ties of Nevvcaille, Kent, and Sufiex were a part. In
1683, the duke of York, by deed dated Auguft 24th,
DEL [7
•Delaware, {bid to William Penn the town of Newcaftle, with the
v“—v diftrift of 12 miles round the fame ; and by another
deed of the fame date, granted to him the remainder
of the territory, which, till the revolution, was called
the Three Lower Counties. Thefe three counties were
confidered as a part of Pennfylvania in matters of go¬
vernment. The fame governor prefided over both : but
the affembly and courts of judicature were different;
different as to their conftituent members, but in form
nearly the fame. At the late revolution they became
■ a diftinft territory, called
The Delaware State. This ftate is bounded on the
north by the territorial line which divides it from
Pennfylvaniay on the eaft, by Delaware river and Bay;
•on the fouth, by a due eaft and weft line, from Cape
TIenlopen, in lat. 38. .30. to the middle of the penin-
fula ; and on the weft by Maryland. The climate is in
many parts unhealthy. The land is generally low and
flat, which occafions the waters to ttagnate, and the
confequence is, the inhabitants are fubjedt to intermit-
tents.
The Delaware ftate is divided into three counties,
viz. Newcaftle, Kent, and Suffex ; the chief towns of
which are, Wilmington and Newcaftle, Dover, Mil¬
ford, and Lewifton.
Three rivers, the Choptank, Nanticok, and Poco*
moke, have their fources in this ftate, and are navi¬
gable for veffels of 50 or 60 tons, 20 or 30 miles into
the country. They all run a weftwardly courfe into
Chefapeak Bay. The fouth part of the ftate is a low
flat country, and a confiderable portion of it lies in fo-
reft. What is under cultivation is chiefly barren, ex¬
cept in Indian corn, of which it produces fine crops.
In fome places rye and flax may be raifed, but wheat
•is a foreigner in thefe parts. Where nature is deficient
in one refource, fire is generally bountiful in another.
This is verified in the tall thick forefts of pines which
are manufadfured into boards, and exported in large
-quantities into every fea-port in the three adjoining
liates.—As you proceed noi'th, the foil is more fertile,
and produces wheat in laige’quantities, which is the
ftaple commodity of the ftate. They raife all the o-
ther kinds of grain common to Pennfylvania. The
{late has n® mountain in it, except Thunder Hill, in
the weftern part of Newcaftle county, and is general¬
ly level, except fome fmall parts, which are ftony and
•uneven. The trade of this ftate, which is inconfider-
able, is carried on principally with Philadelphia, in
Boats and lhallops. The articles exported are princi¬
pally wheat, corn, lumber, and hay.
There are, in this ftate, 21 Prelbyterian congrega¬
tions, belonging to the fynod of Philadelphia; feven
Epifcopal churches; fix congregations of Baptifts,
-containing about 218 fouls; four congregations of the
people called Quakers ; befides a Swedilh church at
Wilmington, which is one of the oldeft churches in
the United States, and a number of Methodifts. All
thefe denominations have free toleration by the con-
ftitution, and live together in harmony.
In the convention held at Philadelphia, in the fum-
merof 1787, the inhabitants of Delaware were reckon¬
ed at 37,000, which is about 26 for every fquare mile.
There is no obvious charaCleriftical difference between
the inhabitants of this ftate and the Pennfylvanians.
See Pennsylvania.
18 ]
DEL
Under the prefent conftitution, the legiftature is Delaware,
divided into two diftiinft. branches, which together are
ttyled The General AJfemhly of Delaware. One branch,
called the Houfe of AJj'embly, confifts of feven reprefen-
tatives from each of the three counties, chofen annu¬
ally by the freeholders. The other branch, called the
Council, confifts of nine members, three for a county,
who muft be more than 25 years of age, chofen like-
wife by the freeholders. A rotation of members is
eftabliftied by difplacing one member for a county at
the end of every year. All money bills muft origi¬
nate in the houfe of affembly, but they may be alter*
ed, amended, or rejected, by the legiflative council. A
prefident or chief magiftrate is chofen by the joint bal¬
lot of both houfes, and continues in office three years-;
at the expiration of which period, he is ineligible the
three fucceeding years. If his office becomes vacant
during the recefs of the legiflature, or he is unable to
attend to bufinefs, the fpeaker of the legiflattive coun¬
cil is vice-prefident for the time ; and in his abfence,
the powers of the prefident devolve upon the fpeaker
of the affembly. A privy council, confifting of four
members, two from each houfe, chofen by ballot, is
conftituted to affift the chief magiftrate in the admi-
niftration of the government. The three juftices of
the fupreme court, a judge of admiralty, and four
juftices of the common pleas and orphans courts, are
appointed by the joint ballot of the prefident and ge¬
neral affembly, and commiffioned by the prefident to
hold their offices during good behaviour. The prefix
dent and privy council appoint the feeretary, the at¬
torney general, regifters for the probate of wills, regi-
fters in chancery, clerks of the common pleas, and or¬
phans courts, and the clerks of the peace, who hold
their offices during, five years, unlefs fooner removed
for mal-conduft. The houfe of affembly name 24 per-
fons in each county for juftices of peace, from which
number the prefident, with the advice of his council,
appoints and commiflions twelve, w'ho ferve for feven
years, unlefs fooner difmiffed for mal-adminiftratidn.
The members of the legiflative and privy councils are
juftices of the peace for the whole ftate.—The courts
of common pleas and orphans courts have power to
hold chancery courts in certain cafes. The clerk of
the fupreme court is appointed by the chief juftice,
and the recorders of deeds, by the juftices of the com¬
mon pleas, for five years, unlefs fooner difmiffed. AH
the military and marine officers are appointed by the
general affembly. The court of appeals confifts of fe¬
ven perfons; the prefident, who is a member, and pre-
fides by virtue of his office, and fix others, three to
be chofen by the'legiflative council and three by the
houfe of affembly. To this court appeals lie from
the fupreme court, in all matters of law and equity.
The judges hold their office during good behaviour.
The juftiees of the feveral courts, the members of
the privy council, fecretary, truftees of the loan of¬
fice, clerks of the common pleas, and all perfons con¬
cerned in army or navy contracts, are ineligible to ei¬
ther houfe of affembly. Every member, before taking
his feat, muft take the oath (of allegiance, and fub-
fcribe a religious teft, declaring his belief in God the
Father, in Jefus Chrift, and the Holy Ghoft; and in
the infpiration of the Scriptures.
The houfe of affembly have the privilege of im¬
peaching
del t yrp f DEL
Ddipu p-flclniig; delinquent officers of gocmiment; and im- Francis Hals, in whole fghool he praaifed to paint
Delen Peachments are to be profecuted by the attorney ge- thofe particular fubjecls which were moft efteemed by
ne.ral» or other Perf°n appointed by the affembly, and that mafter, fuch as portraits and converfations; and
tried before the legiflative council. The punirtiment by that means he acquired the /kill to deiign figures
may extend to temporary or perpetual difability to with a great deal of fpirit and cone&nefs. Rut his
. hold offices under government, or to fuch other penal- predominant inclination direfted him to paint arehi-
ties as the laws fhall direft. tefture and perfpe&ive ; and thofe he ftudied with fo
There is, in Delaware, no eftabhfhment of one re- much care, as to make his works admired and co-
Kgious fe<a in preference to another; nor can any veted through the Low Countries. His fubje&s were,,
preacher or clergyman, while in his paftoral employ- the infid.es of churches, filled with-figured; grand tern-
ment, hold any civil office in the ftate. pies; magnificent faloons and galleries, with people
DELEGATE, in a general fenfe, a deputy or com- affembled at concerts of mufic, feaiting, or dancing,.
miffioner- ^ b°fe fubjedtsj he finiflied highly : hrs architedlure
• Delegates, commiffioners appointed by the king, was in a noble tafte ; and the figures were well defign*
under the great feal, to hear and determine appeals ed, as well as grouped with a great deal of judgment,
from the ecclefiaftical court. Several authors mention.the performances of this maf- -
Court of Delegates, the. great court of appeal in ter with large commendation, for the goodnefs of his.
all ecclefiaftical caufes. Thefe delegates are appointed invention, and the neatnefs of his-handling,
by the king’s commiffion under his great feal, and if- DELETERIOUS, an appellation given to things .
fuing out of chancery, to reprefent his royal perfon, of a.deitrmftive or poifonous nature. See Poison. &
and hear all appeals to him made by virtue of the fta- DELFT, a town of the united provinces, and 'capiV
tute 25 Henry VIII. c. 19. This commiffion is ufual- tal of Delftland in Holland. It is a pretty large place,,
ly filled with lords fpiritual and temporal, judges of very clean and well built, with canals in the ftreets^.'
the courts at Weftminfter, and doctors of the civil planted on each fide with trees. The.public buildings^ '
law. Appeals to Rome were always looked upon by efpecially the town-houfe, are very magnificent. Here
the Engliffi nation, even in the times of Popery, with are two< churclies : in one is the tomb of the prince of.
an evil eye, as being contrary to the liberty of the fub- Orange,, who was aflaffinated ; and in the other, that *
je<ft, the honour of the crown, and the independence of of admiral Tromp. It has a fine arfenal, well furniffi-
the whole realm; and were firft introduced in very ed; is about two miles in circumference, andisde--
turbulent times, in the 16th year of king Stephen fended againft inundations by three dams or dikes..
(A.D. 1151), at the fame period (Sir Henry Spel- Here is made a prodigious quantity of fine earthen
man obferves) that the civil and canon laws were firft ware called delft-ware; but the town .has no other
imported into England. But in a few years after, to trade. It is pleafantly fituated among the meadows
obviate this growing practice, the conftitutions made on the river Shie, in E. Long. 4. 13. N. Lat. 32. 6.
at Clarendon, 11 Hen. H. on account of the difturb- Delft-Wart, a kind of pottery of baked earth] co--
ances railed by archbilhop Becket and other zealots of vered with an enamel or white, glazing, .which gives it
the holy fee, exprefsly declare, that appeals in caufes the appearance and neatnefs of porcelain Some kinds
ecclefiaftical ought to He from the archdeacon to the of this enamelled pottery differ much from others ei-
diocefan ; from the diocefan to the archbilhop of the ther in their fuftaining fudden heat without breaking
province ;^and from the archbilhop to the king ; and or in the beauty and regularity of their forms, of their,
are not to proceed any farther without fpecial licenfe enamel, and of the painting with, which they are or-
from the crown. But the unhappy advantage that was- namented. In general, the fine and beautiful enamel-,
given in the reign of king John, and his fon Hen. IIL led potteries, which approach the neareft to porcelain
to the encroaching power of the Pope, who was ever in external appearance, are at the fame time thofe
vigilant to improve all opportunities of, extending his which leaft relift a brifk fire. Again, thofe which
jiirifdiaion to Britain, at length rivetted the cullom fuftain a fudden,heat,, are coarfe, and refemble com-
of appealing to Rome in caufes ecclefiafticai fo ftrong- men pottery.
ly, that it never could be thoroughly broken off, till- The bafis of .this pottery is clay, which is to be
the grand rupture happened in the reign of Hen. VIII; mixed, when too fat, with fuch a quantity of fand, that
when all the jurifdiaion ufurped by tire Pope in mat- the earth Ihall preferve enough of its duaility to be
ters ecclefiaftical was reftored to the crown, to which worked, moulded, and turned ealily ; and yet that its
it originally belonged: fo that the ftatute 25 Hen. VIII. fatnefs lhall be fufficiently taken from it, that it may
was but declaratory of the ancient law of the realm, not crack or ftirink too much in drying or in baking.
But in cafe the king himfelf be patty in any of thefe Veffels formed of this earth muff be dried very gently
fuits, the appeal does not then lie to him in chancery, to avoid cracking. They are then to be placed in a
which would be abfurd; but, by the 24 Henry Vfll. furnace to receive a flight baking, which is only meant
r. 12. to all the bifhops of the realm, affembled in the to giveahem a certain confiftence or hardnefs. And
upper houfe of convocation-. laftiy, they are to be covered with, an enamel or glazing ;
DELEGATION, a commiffibn extraordinary gi- which is done, by putting upon the veffels thus prepa-
ven by a judge to. take cognifance of and determine red, tire enamel, which has been ground very fine, and
fome caufe which ordinarily does not come before him. diluted with water. '
Delegation, in Scots law. See Law, n°clxxvii. 8. As veffels on which the enamel is applied are but.
DELEN (Dirk Van), an eminent painter of ar- ffightly baked, they readily imbibe the water in which ^
chitedure and perfpective, was born at Heufden, the enamel is fufpended, and a layer of this enamel ad-
but in .what year is not known. He was a difciple of here* to their furface ; thefe veffets may then be painted .
2 with 1
DEL [ 720 ] DEL
Delft. w[th colours compofed of metallic calces, mixed and
^ “ ground with a fufible glafs. When they are become
perfeftly dry, they are to be placed in the furnace, in¬
cluded in cafes of baked earth called feggars, and ex¬
posed to a heat capable of fufing uniformly the enamel
which covers them.—This heat given to fufe the ena¬
mel being much flronger than that which was applied
at firft to give fome confiftence to the ware, is alfo the
heat neceflary to complete the baking of it. The fur¬
nace and the colours ufed for painting this ware, are the
fame as thofe employed for Porcelain. The glazing,
which is nothing but white enamel, ought to be fo
opaque as not to fhow the ware under it. There are
many receipts for making thefe enamels : but all of
them are compofed of fand or flints, vitrifying falts,
Cl'm, LIB calx of lead, and calx of tin ; and the fand muft be per-
feftly vitrified, fo as to form a glafs confiderably fuiible.
Somewhat lefs than an equal part of alkaline fait, or
twice its weight of calx of lead, is requifite to effedl
fuch vitrifications of fand. The calx of tin is not in¬
tended to be vitrified, but to give a white opaque colour
to the mafs; and one part of it is to be added to three
or four parts of all the other ingredients taken together.
From thefe general principles, various enamels may be
made to fuit the different kinds of earths. To make the
enamel, lead and tin are calcined together with a flrong
lire ; and the fand is alfo to be made into a fritt with
the falts or afhes. The whole is then to be well mix¬
ed and ground together. This matter is then to be
placed under the furnace, where it is melted and vitri¬
fied during the baking of the ware. It is next to be
ground in a mill, and applied as above direfted.
The preparation of the white enamel is a very eflen-
tial article in making delft-ware, and one in which ma¬
ny artifts fail. M. Bofc. d’Antic, in a Memoir con¬
cerning this kind of ware, publifhed in the Mem. des
Scavans Etrang. tom. 6. recommends the following
proportions. An hundred pounds of calx of lead are
to be mixed with about a feventh part of that quantity
of calx of tin for common delft-ware, or a fourth part
of calx of tin for the fineft kind ; an hundred, or an
hundred and ten, pounds of fine fand ; and about twen¬
ty or thirty pounds of fea-falt.—Concerning the earth
of which the ware is made, he obferves, that pure clay
is not a proper material when ufed alone. Different
kinds of earths mixed together are found to fucceed
better. Pieces of ware made of clay alone, are found
to require too much time to dry; and they crack, and
lofe their form, unlefs they are made exceedingly thick.
An addition of marie diminifhes the contradiion of the
clay ; renders it lefs compacl; and allows the water to
efcape, without altering the form of the ware in dry¬
ing. It affords alfo a better ground for the enamel;
which appears more gloffy and white than when laid
on clay alone.—The kinds of clay which are chiefly
ufed in the compofition of delft-ware, are the blue and
green. A mixture of blue clay and marie would not
be fufficiently folid, and would be apt to fcale, unlefs
it were expofed to a fire more intenfe than what is
commonly ufed for the burning of delft-ware. To
give a greater folidity, fome red clay is added ; which,
on account of its ferruginous matter, pofleffes the re¬
quifite binding quality. The proportions of thefe in¬
gredients vary in different works, according to the dif-
N° 98.
ferent qualities of the earths employed. Three parts Delia
of blue clay, two parts of red clay, and five parts .1
of marie, form the compofition ufed in feveral manufac- j
tories. M. d’Antic thinks, that the beft delft-ware ^ P.
might be made of equal parts of pure clay and pure
calcareous earth ; but this compofition would require
that the fire fhould be continued twice as long as it
generally is.
DELIA, in antiquity, a feftival celebrated every
fifth year in the ifland of Delos, in honour of Apollo.
It was firft inflituted by Thefeus, who at his return
from Crete placed a ftatue there, which he had recei¬
ved from Ariadne. At the celebration they crowned
the flatue of the goddefs with garlands, appointed a
choir of mufic, and exhibited horfe-races. They af¬
terwards led a dance, in which they imitated by their
motions the various windings of the Cretan labyrinth,
from which Thefeus had extricated himfelf by Ariad¬
ne’s afliftance.—There was another feffival of the
fame name yearly celebrated by the Athenians in De¬
los. It alfo was inflituted by Thefeus, who, when he
was going to Crete, made a vow, that if he returned
vi&orious he would yearly vifit in a folemn manner
the temple of Delos. The perfons employed in this
annual procefiion were called Dellajlx and Tbeori. The
Ihip, the fame which carried Thefeus, and had been
carefully preferved by the Athenians, was called Theo-
ria and Delias. When the (hip was ready for the voy¬
age, the prieft of Apollo folemnly adorned the Hern
with garlands, and an univerfal luttration was made all
over the city. The Theori were crowned with lau¬
rels, and before them proceeded men armed with axes,
in commemoration of Thefeus, who had cleared the
way from Trcezen to Athens, and delivered the coun¬
try from robbers. When the (hip arrived at Delos,
they offered folemn facrifices to the god of the ifland,
and celebrated a feftival to his honour. After this
they retired to their (hip and failed back to Athens,
where all the people of the city ran in crowds to meet
them. Every appearance of feftivity prevailed at their
approach, and the citizens opened their doors and
proftrated themfelves before the Deliaftse as they walk¬
ed in proceffion. During this feftival it was unlawful
to put to death any malefa&or, and on that account
the life of Socrates was prolonged for thirty days.
Delia, a furname of Diana, becaufe (he was born
in Delos.
DELIAC, Deliacus, among the ancients, denoted
a poulterer, or a perfon who fold fowls, fatted capons,
&c. The traders in this way were called Deliaci; the
people of the ifle of Delos firft pra&ifed this occupa¬
tion. They alfo fold eggs, as appears from Cicero, in
his Academic Queftions, lib. iv. Pliny, lib. x. cap. 30.
and Columella, lib. viii. cap. 8. likewife mention the
Deliaci.
DELIBAMENTA, in antiquity, a libation to the
infernal gods, always offered by pouring downwards. SttLibatM
Jus DELIBERANDI. See Law, N°dxxx. 23.
DELIBERATIVE, an appellation given to a kind
or branch of rhetoric, ethployed in proving a thing, or
convincing an affembly thereof, in order to perfuade
them to put it in execution.
To have a deliberative voice in the affembly, is
when a perfon has a right to give his advice and his
vote
DEL r 721 ] DEL
EeIi<St vote tHercin. In councils, the bifliops have delibera- to the external objects, but are produced by the change
I'! tive voices ; thofe beneath them have only confultative induced on the common fenfory, the patient is laid to'
h irwm- voices. be delirious. See Medicine-/8(£w.
DELICT, In Scots law, fignifies fuch fmall offences DELIVERY, or Child-birth. See Midwifery.
or breaches of the peace as are punifhable only by fine DELLI, or Delhi, a kingdom and city of the
or fhort imprifonment. Mogul’s empire, in Afia. The city is one of the ca»
DELIMA, in botany : A genus of the monogy- pitals of the empire. The road between it and Agra%
nia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants; the other capital, is that famous alley or walk planted
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which with trees by Jehin Ghir, and 150 leagues in length,
the order is doubtful. There is no corolla ; the calyx Each half league is marked with a kind of turret; and
is five-leaved, with a two-feeded berry. at every ftage there are little farays or caravanferas for
DELINQUENT, a guilty perfon, or one who has the benefit of travellers. The road, though pretty
committed fome fault or offence for which he is pu- good, has many inconveniences. It is not only fre-
nifliable. See Britain, n° 97. quented by wild beads, but by robbers. The latter
DELIQUESCENCE, in chemiftry, fignifies the are fo dexterous at calling a noofe about a man’s neck,
property which certain bodies have of attraftiag moi- that they never fail, if within reach, to feize and ftranglc
flure from the air, and becoming liquid thereby. This him. They gain their point likewife by means of
property is never found but in faline fubdances, or handfome women ; who, feigning great diftrefs, and
matters containing them. It is caufed by the great being taken up behind the unwary traveller, choak him
affinity which thefe fubdances have with water. The with the fame fnare.—The capital confidsof three ci-
more fimple theyr are, according to Mr Macquer, the ties, built near one another. The firft, now quite de-
more they incline to deliquefcence. Hence, acids, and droyed, is faid to have had 52 gates; and to have been
certain alkalies, which are the mod fimple, are alfo the the refidence of king Porus, conquered by Alexander
mod deliquefeent falts. Mineral acids are fo deliquef- the Great. The fecond, which is aid) in ruins, was
cent, that they drongly imbibe moidure from the air, demolifhed by Shah Jehan, to build Jehan-abad with
even though they are already mixed with a fufficient the materials. This makes the third city, and joins
quantity of water to be fluid. For this purpofe, it is the ruins of the fecond. This city flands in an open
fiifficient that they be concentrated only to a certain plain country, on the river Jamna, which rifes in this
degree. — Many neutral falts are deliquefeent, chiefly province. It is encompaffed with walls, except to-
thofe whofe bafes are not faline fubdances. Salts wards the river. Thefe are of brick, flanked with
formed by the vitriolic acid, with fixed or volatile al- round towers ; but without a ditch, and terraced be-
kalies, earths, or mod metallic fubdances, are not de- hind, four or five feet thick. The circumference of
liquefeent; although this acid is the dronged of all, the walls may be about nine miles. The fortrefs, which
and, when difengaged', attradls the moidure of the air is a mile and an half in circuit, has good walls'and
mod powerfully. round towers, and ditches full of water, faced with
Though the immediate caufe of deliquefcence is the done. It is furrounded wi[h fine gardens, and in it is
attraftion of the moidure of the air, as we have already the Mogul’s palace. SeelNDpSTAN. E. Long. 79. 25.
obferved; yet it remains to be fliown why fome falts N. Lat. 28. 20.
attradl this moidure powerfully, and others, though DELMENHORST, a drong town of Germany,
feemingly equally fimple, do not attract it at all. The in the circle of Wedphalia, and county of Oldenburgh,
vegetable alkali, for indance, attrafts moidure' power- belonging to Denmark; feated on the river Delm near
fully; the mineral alkali, though to appearance equally the Wefer. E. Long. 8.37. N. Lat. 53. 10.
fimple, does not attract it at all. The acid of tartar DELOS, an ifland of the Archipelago, very famous
by itfelf does not attradl the moidure of the air ; but in ancient hidory. Originally it is faid to have been
if mixed with borax, which has a little attradliou for a floating ifland, but afterwards it became fixed and
moidure, the mixture is exceedingly deliquefeenr.— immoveable. It was held facred on account of its be-
Some theories have been fuggeded, in order to account ing the‘birth-place of Apollo and Diana.—Anciently
for thefe and other fimilar fails ; but we are as yet too this ifland was governed by its own kings. Virgil
little acquainted with the nature of the atmofphere, mentions one AniuS reigning here in the time of the
and the relation its condituent parts have to thofe of Trojan war. He was, according to that poet, both
terredrial fubdances, to determine any thing with cer- king and high-pried of Apollo, and entertained iEneas
tainty on this head. with great kindnefs. The Perfians allowed the De-
DELIQUIUM, or Dei r$ujvM Animi (from Jclin- lians to enjoy their ancient liberties, after they had re-
quQ, “ I fwoon”), a fwooning or fainting away; call- duced the red of the Grecian iflands. In after ages,
ed alfo fyncope, lipothymia, lipopfyehia, eclyjis, and of- the Athenians made themfelves maders of it; and held
phyxia. it till they were driven out by Mithridates the Great,
Deliquium (from deliquefco, “to be difiblved”), who plundered the nch temple of Apollo, and obliged
in chemidry, is the diflblution or melting of a fait or the Delians to fide with him. Mithridates was in his
-ealx by fufpending it in a mold cellar. turn driven out by the Romans, who granted the inha-
Salt of tartar, or any fixed alkali, fet in a cellar or bitants many privileges, and exempted them from all
other cool moid place, and in an open veflel, refolves forts of taxes. At prefent it is quite abandoned; the
or runs into a kind of liquor called by the chemids lands being covered with ruins and rubbifh, in fuch a
oil of tartar per deliquium. manner as to be quite incapable of cultivation. The
DELIRIUM (from deliro, “ to rave or talk idly”), inhabitants of Mycone hold it now, and pay but ten
When the ideas excited in the mind do not correfpond crowns land-tax to the Grand Signior for an ifland
Von. V. Part II. 4Y which
O't'Irery
DEL [72
Delos, which was once one of the richeft in the world.—Strabo
•““v——' an{i Callimachus tell us that the ifland of Delos was
watered by the river Inapus: but Pliny calls it only a
fpring ; and adds, that its waters fwelled and abated
, at the fame time with thofe of the Nile. At prefent
there is no river in the ifland, but one of the nobleft
fprings in-the world ; being twelve paces in diameter,
and inclofed partly by rocks and partly by a wall.
Mount Cynthus, whence Apollo had the furname of
Cynthius, is by Strabo placed near the city, and faid to
be fo high, that the whole' ifland was covered by its
fhadow; but our modern travellers fpeak of it as an
hill of a very moderate height. It is but one block
of granate of the ordinary fort, cut on that fide which
faced the city into regular fteps, and inclofed on both
fides by a wall. On the top of the mountain aie ftill
to be feen the remains of a ftately building, with a
mofaic pavement, many broken pillars, and other va¬
luable monuments of antiquity. From an infcription
difcovered there fome time ago, and which mentions a
vow made to Serapis, Ifis, and Anubis, fome have con-
je&ured, that on this hill flood a temple dedicated to
thefe Egyptian deities, though no where mentioned in
hiflory.—The city of Delos, as is manifefl from the
magnificent ruins ftill extant, took up that fpacious
plain reaching from one coafl to the other. It was
well peopled, and the richefl city in the Archipelago,
efpecially after the deflruftion of Corinth ; merchants
flocking thither from all parts, both in regard of the
immunity they enjoyed there, and of the convenient fi-
tuation of the place between Europe and Afia. Strabo
calls it one of the moil frequented empories in the
world; and Piny tells us, that all the commodities of
Europe and Afia were fold, purchafed, or exchanged,
there. It contained many noble and ftately buildings;
as,, the temples of Apollo, Diana, and Eatona v the
porticoes of Philip of Macedon, and Dionyiius Euty-
ches; a gymnafium; an oval bafon made at an im-
menfe expenfe, for the reprefentation of fea-fights;
and a inoft magnificent theatre. The temple of Apollo
was, according to Plutarch, begun by Eryfir.hton the
fon of Cecrops; but afterwards enlarged and embel-
lifhed at the common charges of all the Hates of Greece.
Plutarch tells us, that it was one of the molt ftately
buildings in the univerfe; and fpeaks of an altar in
it, which, in his opinion, deferved a place among the
wonders of the world. It was built with the horns of
various animals, fo artificially adapted to one another,
that they hanged together without any cement. This
altar is faid to have been a perfect cube; and the dou¬
bling it was a famous mathematical problem among the
ancients. This went under the name of Problema
'Deliacum; and is faid to have been propofed by the
oracle, for the purpofe of freeing the country from a
plague. The diftemper was to ceafe when the pro¬
blem was folved. —The trunk of the famous ftatue of
Apollo, metioned by Strabo and Pliny, is ftill an ob-
jedt of great admiration to travellers. It is without
head, feet, arms, or legs ; but from the parts that are
yet remaining, it plainly appears, that the ancients did
not exaggerate when they commended it as a wonder
of art. It was of a gigantic fize, though cut out of a
Angle block of marble; the fhoulders being fix feet
broad, and the thighs nine feet round. At a fmall
diftance from this ftatue lies, atnongft confufed. heaps
2 1 DEL
of broken columns, architraves, bafes, chapiters, &c. 'Debs,
a fquare piece of marble i-yl- feet long, ten feet nine DelPhl-
inches broad, and two feet three inches thick; which *
undoubtedly ferved as a pedeftal for this coloffus. It
bears in very fair chara&ers this infcription in Greek,
“ The Naxians to Apollo.” Plutarch tells us, in the
life of Nicias, that he caufed to be fet up, near the
temple of Delos, an huge palm-tree of brafs, which be.
confecrated to Apollo; and adds, that a violent ftorm
of wind threw down this tree on a coloffian ftatue raifed
by the inhabitants of Naxos. R^und the temple were
magnificent porticoes built at tljie charge of various
princes, as appears from infcriptfons which are ftill ve¬
ry plain. The names of Philipicing of Macedon, DLr
onyfius Eutyches, Mithridates^uergetes, Mithridates
Eupator, kings of Pontus, andrNicomedes king of Bir
thynia, are found on feveral pedeftals.—To this temple
the inhabitants of the neighbouring iflands fent yearly
a company of virgins to celebrate, with dancing, the.
feftival of Apollo and his filler Diana, and to make
offerings in the name of their refpe£tive cities.
So very facred was the ifland of Delos held by .the
ancients, that no hoftilities were pradlifed here, even
by the nations that were at war with one another,
when they happened to meet in this place. Of this
Livy gives an inftance. He tells us, that fome Ro¬
man deputies being obliged to put in at Delos, in their
voyage to Syria and Egypt, found the galleys of Per-
feus king of Macedon, and thofe of Eumenes king of
Pergamus, anchored in the fame harbour, though thefe
two princes were then making war upon one another,
r—Hence this ifland was a general afylum, and the pro-
tedlion extended to all kinds of living creatures; for
this reafon it abounded with hares, no dogs being fuf-
fered to enter it. No dead body was fuffered to be
buriedin it, nor was any woman fuffered to lie-in there;
all dying perfons, and women ready to be delivered,
were carried over to the neighbouring ifland of Rhe-
neea.
DELPHI, (anc. geog.), a town of Phocis fituated
on the fouth-weft extremity of mount Parnaffus. It was
famous for a temple and oracle of that god, of which
the following was faid to be the origin: A number of
goats that were feeding on mount Parnaffus came near
a place which had a deep and long perforation. The
fteam which iffued from the hole feemed to infpire the
goats, and they played and frilked about in fuch an
uncommon manner, that the goat-herd was tempted to
lean on the hole, and fee what myfteriesthe place con¬
tained. He was immediately feized with a fit of en-
thufiafm, his expreffions were wild and extravagant,
and paffed for prophecies. This circumftance was foon
known about the country, ami many experienced the
fame enthufiaftic infpiration. The place was revered;
a temple was foon after ercfted in honour of Apollo ;
and a city built, which became the chief and moil il-
luftrious in Phocis. The influence of its god has con¬
trolled the councils of flates, directed the courfe of ar¬
mies, and decided the fate of kingdoms. The ancient
hiftory of Greece is full of his energy, and an early
regifter of his authority. The circumjacent cities
were the ftewards and guardians of the god. Their
deputies compofed the famous Amphi&yonic affem-
bly,,which once guided Greece.
The temple of Apollo, it is related, was at firft a
kind
DEL [ 723 ] DEL
Bj Delphi, kind of cottage covered with boughs of laurel; but he
w. *=*=-Y—~' was early provided with a better habitation. An edi¬
fice of ftone was erefted by Trophonius and Agame-
des, which fubfifted about 700 years, and was burned
■ . in the year 636 after the taking of Troy, and 548 be-
I fore Chrift. It is mentioned in the hymn to Apollo
afcribed to Homer. An opulent and illuftrious fa¬
mily, called Alcmaonida, which had fled from Athens
and the tyrant Hippias, contracted with the deputies
for the building of a new temple, and exceeded their
agreement. The front was raifed with Parian marble,
inftead of the ftone called Porus; which refembled it
in whitenefs, but was not fo heavy. A Corinthian
was the architect. The pediments were adorned with
Diana, and Latona, ^ad Apollo, andtheMufes; the
fetting of Phoebus or the fun ; with Bacchus, and the
women called Thyades. The architraves were deco¬
rated with golden armour ; bucklers fufpended by the
Athenians after the battle of Marathon, and ftiields
taken from the Gauls under Brennus. In the portico
were infcribed the celebrated maxims of the feven fages
of Greece. There was an image of Homer, and in
the cell was an altar of Neptune, with ftatues of the
Pates, and of Jupiter and Apollo, who were furnamed
Leaden of the Fates. Near the hearth before the al¬
tar, at which Neoptolemus the fon of Achilles was
flain by a prieft, flood the iron chair of Pindar. In
the fandtuary was an image of Apollo gilded. The
inclofure was of great extent, and filled with treafuries,
in which many cities had confecrated tenths of fpoil
taken in war, and with the public donations of renown¬
ed ftates in various ages. It was the grand repofitory
of ancient Greece, in which the labours of the fculptor
and ftatuary, gods, heroes, and illuftrious perfons, were
feen colle&ed and arranged; the inequalities of the
area or acclivity contributing to a full difplay of the
noble aflemblage.
The oracles were delivered by a prieftefs called Py-
thia, who received the prophetic influence in the fol¬
lowing manner. A lofty tripod, decked with laurel,
was placed over the aperture, whence the facred Va¬
pour ifliied. The prieftefs, after wafhing her body,
and efpeeially her hair, in the cold water of Caftalia,
mounted on it, to receive the divine effluvia. She
wore a crown of laurel, and fhook a facred tree, which
grew by. Sometimes (he chewed the leaves 5 and the
frenzy which followed may with probability be attri¬
buted to this ufage, and the gentler or more violent
fymptoms to the quantity taken. . In one inftance the
paroxyfm was fo,terrible, that the priefts and fup-
pliants ran away, and left her alone to expire, it was
believed of the god. Her part was unpleafant; but,
if Ihe declined afting, they dragged her by force to the
tripod. The habit of her order whs that of virgins.
The rules enjoined temperance and chaftity, and pro¬
hibited luxury in apparel. The feafon of enquiry was
in the fprihg, during the month Called Bufius; after
which Apollo Was fuppofed to vifit the altars of the
•Hyperboreans.
The city of Delphi arofe in the form of a theatre,
upon the winding declivity of Parnaflus, whole fanta-
ftic tops overfhadowed it, like a canopy, on the north,
while two immenfe rocks rendered-itinacceffible on the
eaft and weft, and the rugged and ftiapelefs mount
Cirphis defended it on the fotith. The foot of the
laft-named mountain was waflted by the rapid Pliftus, Delphi,
which difcharged itfelf into the fea at the diftance of —v—^
only a few leagues from the facred city. This inaccef-
fible and romantic fituation, from which the place
derived the name of Delphi (fignifying, as explained
in the fioR-Arics, fo!itary alone), was rendered ftill more
ftriking, by the innumerable echoes which multiplied
every found, and increafed the ignorant veneration of
vifitants for the god of the oracle. The artful mini-
fters of Apollo gradually collefted fuch objedts in the
groves and temple as were fitted to aftonifh the fenfes
of the admiring multitude. The fplendor of marble,
the magic of painting, the invaluable ftatues of gold
and filver, reprefented (to ufe the language of antiqui¬
ty) not the refemblance of any earthly habitation, but
rather exprefleicl the image of Olympus, adorned and
enlightened by the attual prefence of the gods.
The protection and fuperintendence of this precious
depolitory of riches and fuperftition belonged to the
Amphidtyons, as already noticed. But the inhabi¬
tants of Delphi, who, if we may ufe the expreflion,
were the original proprietors of the oracle, always con¬
tinued to direCt the religious ceremonies, and to con¬
duct the important bufinefs of prophecy. - It was their
province alone to determine at what time, and on what
occafion, the Pythia fhould mount the facred tripod,
to receive the prophetic fleams by which Ihe commu¬
nicated with Apollo. When overflowing with the
heavenly infpiration, (he uttered the confufed words,
or rather frantic founds, irregularly fuggefted by the
impulfe of the god; the Delphians collected thefe
founds, reduced them into order, animated them with
fenfe, and adorned them with harmony. The Pythia,
appointed and difmifled at pleafure, was a mere inftru-
ment in the hands of thofe artful minifters, whofe cha¬
racter became fo venerable and facred, that they were
finally regarded, not merely as attendants and wor-
ftiippers, but as the peculiar family of the god. Their
number was conflderable, and never exaCtly afcertain-
ed, fince all the principal inhabitants of Delphi,
claiming an immediate relation to Apollo, were inti-
tled to officiate in the rites of his fanCtuary ; and even
the inferior ranks belonging to that facred city were
continually employed in dances, feftivals, procefiions,
and in difplaying all the gay pageantry of an airy and
elegant fuperftition.
Delphi was conveniently fituated for the con¬
flux of votaries, lying in the centre of Greece, and,
as was then imagined, of the univerfe. It was cu-
ftomary for thofe who confulted the oracle to make
rich prefents to the god; his fe'rvants and priefts feaft-
ed on the numerous victims which were facrificed to
him ; and the rich magnificence of his temple had be¬
come proverbial even in the age of Homer. In after-
times, Crcefus, the wealthieft of monarchs, was par¬
ticularly munificent in his donations. This facred
repofitory of opulence was therefore often the ob-
jeCt of plunder. Neoptolemus Was flain, while facri-
ficing, on fufpicion of a defign of that kind. Xer¬
xes divided his army at Panopeus, and proceeded
with the main body through Boeotia into Attica,
while a party, keeping Parnaflus on the right, ad¬
vanced along Schifte to Delphi;.but was taken with
a panic when near Ilium, and fled. This monarch, it
is related, was as well apprifed of the contents of the
4Y 2 temple
DEL [ 724 1 DEL
Dj phi, teipple and the fumptuous offerings of Halyattcs and
Delphinia. Qrc£fu3 as 0f the effeAs which he had left behind in
his own palace. The divine hoard was feized by the
Phocenfians under Philomelas, and diflipated in a long
war with the Amphictyons. The Gauls experienced
a reception like that of the Persians, and rhanifefted
fimilar difmay and fuperftition. Sylla, wanting money
to pay his army, fent to borrow from the holy trea-
fury, and when his meffcnger would have frightened
him, by reporting a prodigy, that the found of a harp
had been heard from within the fan&uary, replied, it
was a fign that the god was happy to oblige him.
The trade of Apollo, after it had flourilhed for a
long period, was alfe&ed by the mal-pra&ices of fqme
concerned in the partner (hip, who were convi&ed of
bribery and corruption, and ruined the charaiSler of
their principal. The temple in the time of Strabo was
reduced to extreme poverty ; but the offerings which
remained were very numerous. Apollo was frlent,
except fome efforts at intervals to regain his loft credit.
Nero attempted to drive him, as it were by violence,
from the cavern ; killing men at the mouth and pol¬
luting it with blood 5 but he lingered on, and would
not entirely forfake it. Anfwers were reported as
given by him afterwards, but not without fufpicion of
forgery. An oracle of Apollo at another place inform¬
ed the confulters, that he fhould no more recover ut¬
terance at Delphi, but enjoined the continuance of the
accuftomed offerings.
The city of Delphi was free under the Romans. In
the time of Paufanias, who has particularly defcribed it,
there ftill remained an invaluable treafure of the of-
erings within the court of the temple. The number,
variety, and beauty of thefe were prodigious. The ftore
appeared inexhauftible; and the robbery of Nero, who
removed five hundred brazen images, was rather re-
gretted than perceived. The holy treafuries, though
empty, ferved as memorials of the piety and glory of
the cities which erefted them. The Athenian portico
preferved the beaks of (hips and the brazen (hields ;
trophies won in the Peloponnefian war. And a mul¬
titude of curiofities remained untouched.
Conftantine the Great, however, proved a more fatal '
enemy to Apollo and Delphi than either Sylla or Ne¬
ro. He removed the facred tripods to adorn the Hip¬
podrome of his new city; where thefe, with the A-
pollo, the ftatues of the Heliconian mufes, and the ce¬
lebrated Pan dedicated by the Greek cities after the
war with the Medes, were extant when Sozomen
wrote his hiftory. Afterwards Julian fent Oribafius
to reftore the temple; but he was admonifhed by an oracle
to reprefent to the emperor the deplorable condition of
the place. ‘ Tell him the well-built court is fallen to
the ground. Phoebus has not a cottage, nor the pro¬
phetic laurel, nor the fpeaking fountain (Caffotis);
and even the beautiful water is extinft.’ See Delphos.
DELPHINIA, in antiquity, feafts which the in¬
habitants of Egina celebrated in honour of Apollo,
furnamed Delphinius, fo called, as it is pretended, be-
eaufe he affumed the form of a dolphin to conduft Ca-
ftalius and his colony from the ifle of Crete to the Si¬
nus Crijfaus Delphinium, »ne of the courts of judica¬
ture of the Athenians; fo called from the proximity
©f the plage, where they held their aflemblies, to the
Jempie of Apollo Delphinius,.
DELPHINIUM, DOLPHIN-FLOWER, or LARX- Delphi- <
spur: A genus of the trigynia order, belonging to 1
the polyandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural* *
method ranking under the 26th order, Multifiliquse.
There is no calyx ; the petals are five ; the nettanum
bifid, and horned behind ; the filiquae three or one.
There are feven fpecies ; four are cultivated in gar¬
dens. Two of thefe are annual, and two perennial.
They are herbaceous plants of upright growth, riling
from 18 inches to four feet in height, garnilhed with
finely divided leaves, and terminated by long fpikes
of pentapetalous flowers of blue, red, white, or violet
colours.— One fpecies, the confolida, is found wild in
feveral'parts of Britain, and grows in corn-fields. Ac¬
cording to Mr Withering, the exptefied juice of the
petals, with a little alum, makes a good blue ink.
The feeds are acrid and poifonous. When cultivated,
the bloffoms often become double. Sheep and goats
eat this plant; horfes are not fond of it; cows and
fwine refufe it.—The firft mentioned fpecies makes a
very fine appearance in gardens, and is ealily propaga¬
ted by feeds; being fo hardy, that it thrives in any
foil or fituation.
DELPHINUS, or dolphin ; a genus of fifties
belonging to the order of Cete. There are three fpe¬
cies.
1. The delphinus, or dolphin. Hiftorians and phi-
lofophers feem to have contended who ftiould invent
moft fables concerning this filh. It was confecrated
to the gods, was celebrated in the earlieft time for
its fondnefs of the human race, was honoured with the
title of the facred fjh, and diftinguilhed by thofe of
boy-loving and philanthropijl. It gave rife to a long
train of inventions, proofs of the credulity and igno¬
rance of the times. Ariftotle fleers the cleareft of all
the ancients from thefe fables, and gives in general a
faithful hiftory of this animal; but the elder Pliny,
./Elian, and others, feem to preferve no bounds in their
belief of the tales related of this filh’s attachment to
mankind. Scarce an accident could happen at fea,
but the dolphin offered himfelf to convey to fhore the
unfortunate. Arion the mufician, when flung into
the ocean by the pirates, is received and faved by this
benevolent filh.
Irak (fde majus') tergo Dclpbinca recurvo,
Se memorunt onerc Juppofu ffe novo.
Ille fedens citharamque tenens,pretiumque vebendi
Cuntat, et aquoreas carmine mulcet aquas.
Ovid. Fajii, lib. ii. 1,3.
But (paft belier) a dolphin’s arched back
Preferved Aram fr< m his deftined wrack ;
Secure he fits, and with harmonious ttrains
Requites his bearer for his friendly pains.
We are at a lofs to account for the origin of thofe
fables, fince it does not appear that the dolphin fhows
a greater attachment to mankind than the reft of the
cetaceous tribe. We know that at prefent the appear¬
ance of this filh, and the porpoffe, are far from being
efteemed favourable omens by the feamen; for their
boundings, fprings, and frolics, in the water, are held
to be fure figns of an approaching gale.
It is from their leaps out of that element, that they
affume a temporary form that is not natural to them ;
but which the old painters and fculptors have almoll
always given them. A dolphin is fcarce ever exhibi¬
ted by the ancients in a ftraight fliape, but almoft al-
3 ways
DEL C 725 ] DEL
3e>|>h;nuf. ways incurvated : fuch are thofe on the coin of Alex-
ander the Great, which is preferved by Belon, as well
as on feveral other pieces of antiquity. The poets
defcribe them much in the fame manner, and it is not
improbable but that the one had borrowed from the
other :
‘TumiJumque panda tranfilit dorfe mare
‘Tyrrhenus omni pifcit exjultat freto,
Agitatquegyros. Senec. Trag. Again.45O.
Upon the fwelling waves the dolphins fhoW
Their bending baAs; then, fwiftly darting, go.
And in a thoufand wreaths their bodies throw.
pjate The natural fhape of the dolphin* is almoft ftraight,
ITV. the back being very flightly incurvated, and the body
llender j the nofe is long, narrow, and pointed, not
much unlike the beak of fome birds, for which reafon
the French call it Voye de mer. It has in all 40 teeth;
21 in the upper jaw and 19 in the lower; a little a-
bove an inch long, conic at their upper end, fiiarp-
pointed, bending a little in. They are placed at
fmall ditlancesfrom each other; fo that when the mouth
is (hut, the teeth of both jaws lock into one another :
the fpout-hole is placed in the middle of the head; the
tail is femilunar ; the Ikin is fmooth, the colour of the
back and Tides dulky, the belly whitifh: it fwims with
great fwiftnefs; and its prey is fi(h. It was formerly rec¬
koned a great delicacy: Dr Caius fays, that one which
was taken in his time was thought a prefent worthy
the Duke.of Norfolk, who diftributed part of it among
his friends. It was roafted and dreffed with porpeffe
fauce, made of crumbs of fine wheat bread, mixed with
vinegar and fugar. This fpecies of dolphin mull not be
confounded with that to which feamen give the name;
the latter being quite another kind of filh, the cory-
phana hippuris of Linnseus, and the dorado of the Por-
tuguefe.
2. The phocsena, or porpefle. This fpecies is found
In vaft multitudes in all parts of the Britifh feas; but
in greateft numbers at the time when fijh of paflage ap¬
pear, fuch as mackerel, herrings, and falmon, which
they purfue up the bays with the fame eagernefs as a
dog does a hare. In fome places .they almoft; darken
the fea as they rife above water to take breath: but
porpeffes not only feek for prey near the furface, but
often defeend to the bottom in fcarch of fand-eels and
fea-worms, which they root out of the land with their
nofes in the fame manner as hogs do in the fields for
their food. Their bodies are very thick towards the
head, but grow flender towards the tail, forming the
figure of a cone. The nofe proje&s a little, is much
fiiorter than that of the dolphin, and is furnilhed with
very ftrong mufcles, which enables it the readier to turn
up the fand. In each jaw are 48 teeth, fmall, Iharp-
pointed, and a little moveable : like thofe of the dol¬
phin, they are fo placed as that the teeth of one jaw
locks into thofe of the other when clofed. The eyes
are fmall; the fpout-hole is on the top of the head ;
the tail femilunar. The colour of the porpdTe is ge¬
nerally black, and the belly whitifh ; but the^r lome-
times vary. In the river St Laurence there is a white
kind ; and Dr Borlafe, in his voyage to the Scilly
ifles, obferved a fmall fpecies of cetaceous fifh, which
Be calls thornbacls, from their broad and fharp fin on
the back. Some of thefe were brown, fome quite white,
ofehers fpotted : but whether they were only a variety
of this fifli, or whether they were fmall grampufes, Doqhimis,
which are alfo fpotted, we cannot determine. The    
porpefle is remarkable for the vaft quantity of the fat
or lard that furrounds the body, which yields a great
quantity of excellent oil: from this lard, or from their
rooting like fwine, they are called in many places fea~
hogs; the Germans call them mtrfchzoein; the Swedes
marfuin; and the Englifn porpejfe, from the Italian porco
pefee.—This'was once a royal difh, even fo late as’the
reign of Henry VIII. and from its magnitude muit
have held a very reipeftable ftation at the table ; for in
a houfehold book of that prince, extra&s of which are
publifhed in the third volume of the Archasologia, it is
ordered, that if a porpeffe fhould be too big fora horfe-
load, allowance fhould be made to the purveyor. This
fifh continued in vogue even in the reign of Elizabeth:
for Dr Caius, on mentioning a dolphin (that was taken
at Shoreham, and brought to Thomas Duke of Norfolk,,
who divided and fent it as a prefent to his friends) fays,
that it eat beft with porpefie fauce, which was made of
vinegar, crums of fine bread, and fugar.
3. The orca, or grampus, is found from the length
of 15 feet to that of 25. It is remarkably thick in
proportion to its length, one of 18 feet being in the
thickeft place to feet diameter. With reafon then did
Pliny call this “ an immenfe heap of fleih armed with
dreadful teeth.” It is extremely voracious; and will not
even fpare the porpeffe, a congenerous fifh. It is faid-
to be a great enemy to the whale, and that it will fa¬
tten on it like a dog on a bull, till the animal roars
with pain. The nofe is flat, and turns up at the end.
There are 30 teeth in each jaw: thofe before are blunt,
round, and flender ; the fartheft fharp and thick : be¬
tween each is a fpace adapted to receive the teeth of the
oppofite jaw when the mouth is clofed. The fpout-
hole is in the top of’ the neck. The colour of the
back is black, but on each fhoulder is a large white
fpot; the fides marbled with black and white; the belly
of a fnowy whitenefs. Thefe fifhes fometimes appear
on our coafts ; but are found in much greater numbers
off the North Cape in Norway, whence they are called
the North-Capers. Thefe and all other whales are ob¬
ferved to fwim againft the wind; and to be much di-
fturbed, and t,umble about with unufual violence, at the
approach of a ftorm.
4. The beluga, a fpecies called by the Germans
'wit-Jlfch, and by the Ruffians beluga; both fignifying
“ white fifh :” but to this the laft add morjlaia, or
“ of the fea,” by way of diftinguifhing it from a fpe¬
cies of fturgeon fo named. The head is fhort: no£b-
blunt: fpiracle fmall, of the form of a crefcent: eyes
very minute : mouth fmall: in each fide of each jaw
are nine teeth, fliort, and rather blunt; thofe of the
upper jaw are bent and hollowed, fitted to receive the
teeth of the lower jaw when the mouth is clofed: pec¬
toral fins nearly of an oval form: beneath the flcin may
be felt the bones of five fingers, which terminate at tiie
edge of the fin in five very fenfible proje&ions. This
brings it into the next of rank in the order of beings
with the Manati. The tail is divided into two lobes,
which lie horizontally, but do not fork, except a little
at their bafe. The body is oblong, and rather flender,.
tapering from the back (which is a little elevated) to .
the tail. It is quite deftitute of the dorfal fin. Its
length is from 12 to 18 feet. It makes great ufe of
^ its.
dandle)
DEL [ 726 ] DEL
its tail in fwimming; for it bends that part under it, as which the Pythia, and the poets who verfified her an- Delta
a lobfter does its tail, and works it with fuch force as fwers, were believed to derive a large {hare of their •Delul
to dart along with the rapidity of an arrow. It is infpiration, defcends through a cleft of Parnaffus; the
common in all the Ardtic feas ; and forms an article of rock on each fide high and deep, ending in two fum-
commerce, being taken on account of its blubber, mits; of w’hich one was called Hyampeia, and had be-
They are numerous in the Gulph of St Laurence, and neath it the facred portion of Autonous, a local hero
go with the tide as high as Quebec. There are filheries as diftinguifhed as Phylacus. From this precipice the
for them and the common porpeffe in that river. A Delphians threw down the famous iEfop. By the
conliderable quantity of oil is extrafted; and of their dream, within the cleft, are feen fmall broken dairs
{kirts is made a fort of Morocco leather, thin, yetdrong leading to a cavity in which is watdr, and once per*
enough to redd a mulket-ball. They are frequent in haps up to the top. Grooves have been cut, and the
the Dwina and the Oby; and go in fmall families from marks of tools are vifxble on the rock; but the current,
five to ten, and advance pretty far up the rivers in indead of fupplying a fountain, now pades over its
purfuit of filh. They are ufually. caught ip Pets, but native bed, and hadens down a coUrfe deep-worn to
are fometimes harpooned. They bring only one young join the Pleidus. Clofe by, at the foot of the eadern
at a time, which is duflty ; but grow white as they precipice, is a bafin with deps on the margin, once,
advance in age, the change fird commencing on the it is likely, the bath ufed by the Pythia. Above, in
belly. They are apt to follow boats, as if they were the fide of the mountain, is a petty church dedicated
tamed; and appear extremely beautiful, by reafon of to St John, within which are excavations refembling
their refplendent whitenefs. . niches, partly concealed from view by a tree.
Delphinus, in'adronomy, a condellation of the DELTA, is a part of Lower Egypt, which takes
northern hemifphere. up a confiderable fpace of ground between the branches
DELPHOS, a town, or rather village, of Turkyin of the Nile and the Mediterranean Sea: the ancients
Afia, in the province of Libadia ; occupying part of called it the IJle of Delta, becaufe it is in the fhape of
the fite of the ancient Delphi. See Delphi. a triangle, like the Greek letter of that name. It is
, A late traveller f informs us, that fome vediges of about 130 miles along the coad from Damietta to A-
x temples are vifible; and above them, in the mountain- lexandria, and 70 on the fides from the place where
fide, are fepulchres, niches with horizontal cavities for the Nile begins to divide itfelf. It is the mod plenti-
the body, fome covered with fiabs. Farther on is a ful country in all Egypt, and it rains more there than
niche cut in the rock with a feat, intended, it feems, in other parts, but the fertility' is chiefiy owing to the
for the accommodation of travellers wearied with the inundation of the river Nile. The principal towns on
rugged track and the long afeent. The monadery is the coad are Damietta, Rofetta, and Alexandria; but,
on the fite of the Gymnafium. Strong terrace walls within land, Menoufia, and Maala or Elmala.
and other traces of a large edifice remain The village DELTOIDES, in anatomy. See Anatomy, Table
is at a didance. Cadalia is on the right hand as you ef the Mufiles.
afeend to it, the water coming from on high and crof- DELUGE, an inundation or overflowing of the
fing the road ; a deep precipice, above which the earth, either wholly or in part, by water,
mountain dill rifes immenfely, Continuing on in that We have feveral deluges recorded in hidory; as that
direftion. The village Confids of a few poor cottages of Ogyges, which overflowed almod all Attica ; and
of Albanians covering the fite of the temple and oracle, that of Deucalion, which drowned all Theffaly in
Beneath it to the fouth is a church of St Elias, with Greece : but the mod memorable was that called the
areas, terrace Walls, arches, and vediges of the build- Univerfal Deluge or Noah’s Flood., which overflowed and
ings once within the court. The concavity of the dedroyed the whole earth ; and from which only Noah,
rock in this part gave to the fite the refemblance of a and thofe with him in the aik, efcaped.
theatre. Turning to the left hand, as it were toward . This flood makes one of the mod confiderable Era of ch<1
the extremity of one of the wings, you come again to epochas in chronology. Its hidory is given by Mofes,the deh
fepulchres hewn in the rock, and to a femicircular re- Gen. ch. vi. and vii. Its time is fixed, by the bed
cefs or niche with a feat as on the other fide. Higher chronologers, to the year from the creation 1656, an-
up than the village is the hollow of the Stadium, in fwering to the year before Chrid 2293. From this
which were fome feats and fcattered fragments. flood, the date of the world is divided into diluvian
Higher up, within the village, is a piece of ancient antediluvian. See Antediluvians.
•wall, concealed from view by a died, which it fup- Among the many tedimonies of the truth of this
ports. The done is brown, rough, and ordinary, part of the Mofaic hidofy, we may account the ge-
probably that of Parnafius. On the fouth fide are neral voice of mankind at all times, and in all parts of
many infcrjptions, with wide gaps between the letters, the world. The objections of the free-thinkers have^.^
which are negligently and faintly cut; all nearly of the indeed principally turned upon three points, viz. x. Theto tJhe fa
fame tenor, and very difficult to copy. They regider want of any direct hidory of that event by the profane
the purchafe <?f fiaves who had entrUitcd the price of writers of antiquity; 2. the apparent impofiibility of ac-
their freedom to the god ; containing the contraft be- counting for the quantity of water necefl'ary to overflow
tween Apollo and their owners, witnefled by his the whole earth to fuch a depth as it is find to have
prieds and by fome of the archons. This remnant been: and, 3. there appearing n’o neceffity for an unl-
feems to be part of the wall before Gaflbtis; as above verfal deluge, as the fame end might have been a.ccom-
it is dill a fountain, which fupplies the village with ex- plifhed by a partial one.
cellent water, it is likely from the ancient fource. I. The former of thefe objeftions has given rife to
The water of Cadalia in the neighbourhood, from feveral very elaborate treatHes, though all that has yet
4 been
DEL [ 727 ] DEL
jifoeliige. been done in this way has fcarcely been able to filence
the objectors. Mr Bryant, in his Syftem of Mythology,
has with great learning and confiderable fuccefs endea¬
voured to ihow, that the deluge was one of the prin-
J cipal, if not the only foundation of the Gentile wor-
fhip; that the firft of all their deities was Noah ; that
all nations of the world look up to him as their foun¬
der ; and that he, his fons, and the firft patriarchs,
1 are alluded to in moft if not all of the religious ceremo¬
nies not only of the ancient but of the modern hea¬
thens. In fhort, according to this author, the de¬
luge, fo far from being forgot, or obfcurely men¬
tioned by the heathen world, is in reality confpicu-
ous throughout every one of their acts of religious wor-
t , fr'P-
n yant’sac- The Egyptian Ofiris, according to him, was the fame
f mt of with Ham the fon of Noah, though the name was fome-
b : ancient times bellowed on Noah himfelf. That this is the cafe,
iSfoes. evjgent> hg thinks, from its being faid that he was
expofed in an ark, and afterwards reftored to day ;
I , that he planted the vine, taught mankind agriculture,
and inculcated upon them the maxims of religion and
juftice. Something of the fame kind is related of
Perfeus. He is reprefented by fome ancient hiilorians
as a great aftronomer, and well vei led in other fciences.
I After being conceived in a Ihower of gold, he was ex¬
pofed in an ark upon the waters, and is faid to have
had a renewal of life.—The hiftbry of Myrina the a-
mazon afford a kinds of abridgement and mixture of
I the hiftories of Ofiris and, Perfeus. Similar to thefe
1 is the hiftory of Hercules himfelf. But our author ob-
ferves, that under the titles of Ofiris, Perfeus, Myrina,
See. the ancients fpoke of the exploits of a whole na¬
tion, who were no other than the Cuthites or Cu-
ftrites, the defeendants of Culh the fon of Ham and
father of Nimrod. Thefe people fpread themfelves
into the moft remote corners of the globe; and hence
the heroes whom they reprefented are always fet forth
as conquering the whole world.—According to Dio¬
dorus Siculus, the Egyptian Ofiris was the fame with
the Dionyfus of the Greeks. He is faid to have been
twice born, and to have had two fathers and two mo¬
thers ; to have been wonderfully preferved in an ark ;
to have travelled all over the earthy taught the ufe of
the vine, to build,, plant, &c. The Indians claim
him as a native of their country, though fome allow,
that he came from the weft. Of Cronus and Allarte,
it is faid that they, went over the whole earth, dif-
pofing of the countries as they pleafed, and doing good,
wherever they came.. The fame is related of Oura-
nus, Themis, Apollo, &c. though all their exploits,
are faid to have been the effedls of conquelt, and
their benevolence enforced by the fword. In a fi-
milar manner he explains the hiftories of other he¬
roes of antiquity : and having thus, in the charac¬
ters and hiftory of the moft celebrated perfonages,
found traces of the hiftory of Noah and his family,
our author proceeds to inquire (into the memorials
of the deluge itfelf to be met with in the hiftory
4 or religious rites of the different nations of antiquity.
'tftimonies*4 We may reafonably fuppofe (fays he), that the par-
i the de- ticulars of this extraordinary event would be grate-
rerwith.6 commemorated by the patriarch himfelf, and
1 heathen tranfmitted to every branch of his family ; that they
uthors. were made the fubject of domeftic converfe, where
the hiftory was often renewed, and ever attended with Deluge,
a reverential awe and horror, efpecially in thofe who —v",J
had been witneffes to the calamity, and had experien¬
ced, the hand of Providence in their favour. In pro-
cefs of time, when there was a falling off from the
truth, we might farther expedl, that a perfon of fo
high a charadler as Noah, fo particularly diftinguilhed
by the Deity, could not fail of being reverenced by
his pofterity ; and, when idolatry prevailed, that he
would be one of the firft among the fons of men to
whom divine hocours would be paid. Laftly, we
might conclude, that thefe memorials would be inter¬
woven in the mythology of the Gentile world; and that
there would be continual alluftons to thefe ancient oc¬
currences in the rites and myfteries as they were prac-
tifed by the nations of the earth. In conformity to
thefe fuppofitions, I fhall endeavour to Ihow that thefe
things did happen ; that the hiftory of the deluge was
religioufly preferved in the firft ages ; that every cir-
cumftance of it is to be met with among the hiftorians
and mythologifts of different countries ; and traces of
it are to be found particularly in the facred rites of E-
gypt and of Greece.
“ It will appear from many circumftances in the Various
more ancient writers, that the great patriarch was titles by
highly reverenced by his pofterity They looked up which
to him as a perfon highly favoured by heaven; and ho-^"^11 w.^
rtoured him with many titles, each of which had a re-e^in^U
ference to fome particular part of his hiftory. They
ftyled him Prometheus, Deucalion, Atlas, T.heuth, Zuth,,
Xuthus, Inachus, Oftris. When there began to be a
tendency towards idolatry, and the adoration of the
fun was introduced by the pofterity of Ham, the title
of Helius, among others, was conferred upon him.
They called him alfo M»v and M«1'i which is the moon..
When colonies went abroad, many took to themfelves.
the title of Minyada and Minyx from him ; juft as o-
thers were denominated Achamenula, Auritte, Heliade,
from the fun. People of the former name are to be
found in Arabia and in other parts of the world. The
natives at Orchomenos were ftyled M'mya, as were
fome of the inhabitants of Theffaly. Noah was the
original Zeus and Dios.. He was the planter of the
vine, and inventor of fermented liquors: whence he.
was denominated Zeuth, which fignifies ferment, ren¬
dered Zeus by the Greeks. He was alfo called Dio-
nufus, interpreted by the Latins Bacchus, but very im¬
properly. Bacchus was Chus the grandfon of Noah ;,
as Ammon may in general be efteemed Ham, fo much
reverenced by the Egyptians.
“ Among the. people of the eaft, the true name of
the patriarch was preferved; they called him AWr,
Naus, and fometimes contracted Nous ; and many pla¬
ces of fanClity, as well as rivers, were denominated
from him. Anaxagoras, of Clazomenae had obtained,
fome knowledge of him in Egypt. By him the pa¬
triarch was denominated Noas or Nous ; and both he-
and his difciples were fenfible that this was a foreign
appellation; notwithftanding which he has afted as if
it had been a term of the Greek language. Eufebius
informs us, that the difciples of Anaxagoras fay, ‘ that.
Nous is by interpretation; the deity Dis or Dios;
and they likewife efteem Nous the fame as Prome-•
theus, becaufe he was the renewer of mankind, and.,
was faid to have falhioned them again,’ after they.
ha d.
DEL [ 728 ] DEL
.Dfftigf, j‘iad Leen in a manner extiiWd. After tliia, however, chief blefling; yet it was ever attended with myftical
}ie gives a folution of the ftory upon the fuppofition tears and lamentations. This was particularly ob-
tbat Nous is the fame with the Greek word the ferved at Coptos, where the principal deity was Ifis.
mind ; that ‘ the mind wtsPrometkeia ; and Prometheus An ancient writer imagines that the tears and lamen-
was faid to renew mankind, from new forming their tations of the people were to implore an inundation ;
minds, and leading them, by cultivation, from igno- and the tears of Ifis were fuppofed to make the river
ranee.’ fwell. But all this was certainly faid and done in me-
“ Suidas has preferved, from feme ancient author, morial of a former flood, of which they made the over-
a curious memorial of this wonderful perfonage, whom flowing of the Nile a type.
he affe&s to diftinguilh from Deucalion, and ftyles “ As the patriarch was by fome reprefented as a
Nannacus. According to him, this Nannacus was king called Naachus and Naitchus; fo by others he was
a perfon of great antiquity, and prior to the time of ftyled Inachusy and fuppofed to have reigned at Argos.
Deucalion. He is faid to have been a king, who, Hence Inachus was made a king of Greece; and
forefeeing the approaching deluge, collected every Phoroneus and Apis brought in fucedfion after him.
body together, and led them to a temple, where he But Inachus was not a name of Grecian original: it
offered up his prayers for them, accompanied with is mentioned by Eufebius, in his account of the
many tears. There is likewife a proverbial expreffion firlt ages, that there reigned in Egypt Telegonus, a
about Nannacus applied to people of grdat anti- prince of foreign extradlion, who was the fon of Qnes
quity. the fhepherd, and the feventh in defeent from Ina-
“Stephanus gives great light to this hiilory, and fup- chuus. And in the fame author we read, that a co-
plies many deficiencies. ‘The tradition is (fays he), that lony went forth from that country into Syria, where
there was one formerly named Annaeus, the extent of they founded the ancient city of Antioch: and that
whofe life was above 300 years. The people who were of they were conduced by Cafus and Belus, who were
'his neighbourhood and acquaintance had inquired of fons of Inachus. By Inachus is certainly meant
an oracle how long he was to live : and there was an Noah : and the hiftory relates to fome of the more
anfwer given, that when Annaeus died, all mankind early defeendants of the patriarch. His name has
•would be deftroyed. The Phrygians, upon this ac- been tendered very unlike itfelf, by having been
count, made great lamentations, from whence arofe lengthened with terminations, and likewife fafhioned
the proverb to syi A'Vv»xw xxavouiV the lamentation for according to the idiom of different languages. But
Annaeus, made ufe of for people or circumftances the circumftances of the hiftory are fo'precife and par-
highly calamitous. When the flood of Deucalion ticular, that we cannot mifs of the truth,
came, all mankind were deftroyed, according as the “ He feems in the eaft to have been called Noas,
oracle had foretold. Afterwards, when the furface of Noafis, Nufus, and Nus; and by the Greeks his name
the earth began to be again dry, Zeus ordered Prome- was compounded Dionufus. The Amonians, wherever
theus and Minerva to make images of clay in the form they came, founded cities to his honour: hence places
of men : and, when they were finifhed, he called the called Ah/a will often occur; and indeed a great ma-
winds, and made them breathe into each, and render ny of them are mentioned by ancient authors. Thefe,
them vital.’ though widely diftant, being fituated in countries far
From thefe hiftories Mr Bryant concludes as fol- removed, yet retained the fame original hiftories; and
lows: “ However the ftory may have been varied, were generally famous for the plantation of the vine,
the principal outlines plainly point out the perfon who Milled by this fimilarity of traditions, people in after
is alluded to in thefe hiftories. It is, I think, mani- times imagined that Dionufus muft neceflarily have
fell, that Annaeus, and Nannacus, and even Inacus, been where his hiftory occurred : and as it was the
relate to Noachus or Noah. And not only thefe, turn of the Greeks to place every thing to the account
and Pro0-"’ hut the hiftories of Deucalion and Prometheus have of conqueft, they made him a great conqueror, who
.met he us, a like reference to the patriarch ; in the 600th year, went over the face of the whole earth, and taught
the fame a'n(j not the 300th, of whofe life the waters pre- mankind the plantation of the vine. We are informed,
with Noah. vaiie(j Upon the earth. He was the father of man- that Dionufus went with an army over the face of the
kind, who were renewed in him. Hence he is repre- whole earth, and taught mankind, as he pafled along,
fented by another author, under the character ef the method of planting the vine, and how to prefs
Prometheus, as a great artiil, by whom men were out the juice, and receive it in proper veflels Though
formed anew, and were inftrufted in all that was the patriarch is reprefented under various titles, and
good. even thefe not always uniformly appropriated; yet
“ Noah was the original Cronus and Zeus ; though there will continually occur fuch peculiar circumftances
the latter is a title conferred fometimes upon his fon of his hiftory as will plainly point out the perfon re-
Ham. There is a very particular expreflion recorded ferred to. The perfon preferved is always mentioned
by Clemens of Alexandria, and attributed to Pytha- as preferved in an ark. He is deferibed as being in a
goras, who is faid to have called the fea the tear of ftate of darknefs, which is reprefented allegorically as
Cronus and there was a farther tradition concerning a ftate of death. He then obtains a new life, which
this perfon, that he drank, or fwallowed, up all his is called a fecond birth ; and is faid to have his youth
children. The tears of Ifis are reprefented as very renewed. He is, on this account, looked upon as the
myfterious. They are faid to have flowed whenever -firft-born of mankind; and both his antediluvian
the Nile began to rife, and to flood the country'. The and poftdiluvian ftates are commemorated, and fome-
-overflowing of that river was the great fource of af- times the intermediate ftate is alfo fpoken of. Diodo-
JSuence to the people, and they looked upon it as their rus calls him Deucalion; but deferibes the deluge as
in
Deluge.
Tnachus,
.
DEL [ 729 1 DEL
It Deluge, in a manner univerfal. ‘ In the deluge which hap- the archives of the Medes and Babylonians. This Deluge,
v—^ pened in the time of Deucalion, almoft all flefh died.’ writer fpeaks of Noah, whom he names Seifithrus, as a —y”—’
Apollodorus having mentioned Deucalion £y \aSvK.y.i, king; and fays, that the flood began upon the 15th
configned to the ark, takes notice, upon his quitting day of the month Defius : that during the prevalence
it, of his offering up an immediate facrifice to the of the waters, Seifithrus fent out birds, that he might
God who delivered him. As he was the father of all judge if the flood had returned : but that the birds,
mankind, the ancients have made him a perfon of not finding any refling place, returned to him again,
very extenfive rule; and fuppofed him to have been a This was repeated three times; when the birds were
king. Sometimes he is defcribed as a monarch of found to return with their feet flained with foil; by
the whole earth ; at other times he is reduced to a which he knew that the flood was abated. Upon this
petty king of Theffaly. He is mentioned by Hella- he quitted the ark, and was never more feen of men,
dias in this latter capacity ; who fpeaks of the de- being taken away by the gods from the earth. Ahy-
luge in his time, and of his building altars to the gods, denus concludes with a particular, in which the eaftern
Apollonius Rhodius fuppofes him to have been a na- writefs are unanimous; that the place of defcent from
tive of Greece, according to the common notion : the ark was in Armenia, and fpeaks of its remains be-
but notwithflanding his prejudices, he gives fo parti- ing preferved for a long time. Plutarch mentions the
cular a character of him, that the true hiflory cannot Noachic dove, and its being fent out of the ark. But
be miflaken. He makes him indeed the fon of Pro- the mofl particular hiflory of the deluge, and the near-
metheus, the fon of Japetus; but in thefe ancient my- eft of any to the account given by Mofes, is to be
thological accounts all genealogy muft be entirely dif- found in Lucian. He was a native of Samofata, a
regarded. Though this charafter be not precifely city of Comagene, upon the Euphrates, a part of
true, yet we may learn that the perfon reprefented was the world where memorials of the deluge were par-
, . the firft of men, through whom religious rites were ticularly preferved, and where a reference to that
renewed, cities built, and civil polity eftablifhed in the hiftory was continually kept up in the rites and worfhip
world : none of which circumftances are applicable to of the country. His knowledge therefore was obtain-
any king of Greece. We are affured by Philo, that ed from the Afiatic nations among whom he was born,
Deucalion was Noah ; and the Chaldeans likewife and not from his kinfmen the Helladians, who were far
mentioned him by the name of Xifuthrus, as we are inferior in the knowledge of ancient times. He de-
7 informed by Cedrenus. ' fcribes Noah under the name of Deucalion ; and fays,
I Deucalion « That Deucalion was unduly adjudged by the ‘ that the prefent race of mankind are different from
' •"'oved nol peopje 0f Theffaly to their country folely, may be thofe who firft exifted; for thofe of the antediluvian
g longed nT proved from his name occurring in different parts of world were all deftroyed. The prefent world is peopled
a Thcffaly. the world, and always accompanied with fome hiftory from the fong of Deucalion; having increafed to fo great
of the deluge. The natives of Syria laid the fame a number from one perfon. In refpedl to the former
claim to him. He was fuppofed to have founded the brood, they were -men of violence, and lawlefs in then-
temple at Hierapolis, where was a chafm through dealings. ( They- regarded not oaths, nor obferved
which the waters after the deluge were faid to have the rights of hofpi'cality, nor ftipwed mercy to thofe
retreated. He was likewife reported to have built who fued for it. On this account they were doom-
the temple of Jupiter at Athens; where there was a ed to deftrufticn: and fcfr this purpofe there was
'-javity of the fame nature, and a like tradition, that the a mighty eruption of waters from the earth, ac-
wateis of the flood paffed off through this aperture, tended with heavy ftiowers from above; fo that the
However groundlefs the notions may be of the waters rivers fwelled, and the fea overflowed, till the whole
having retreated through thefe paffages, yet they fhow earth was covered with a flood, and all flefii drowned,
what impreffions of this event were retained by the Deucalion alone was preferved to repeople the world.
Amonians, who introduced fome hiftory of it where- This mercy was Ihown to him on account of his piety
ever they came. As different nations fucceeded one and juftice. His prefervation was effeded in this man-
another in thefe parts, and time produced a mixture of net : He put all his family, both his fons and their
generations, they varied the hiftory, jind modelled it wives, into a vaft ark which he had provided, and he
according to their notions and traditions; yet the went into it himfelf. At the fame time animals of
ground-work was always true, and the event for a long every fpecies, boars, horfes, lions, ferpents, whatever
time univerfally commemorated Jofephus, who feems lived upon the face of the earth, followed him by pairs:
to have been a perfon of extenfive knowledge, and all which he received into the ark, and experienced
verfed in the hiftories of nations, fays, that this great no evil from them ; for there prevailed a wonderful
occurrence was to be met with in the writings of all harmony throughout, by the immediate influence of
perfons who treated of the firft ages. He mentions the Deity. Thus were they wafted with him as long
Berofus of Chaldea, Heronymus of Egypt, who wrote as the flood endured.’ After this he proceeds to
cencerning the antiquities of ^henicia; alfo Alnafeas, mention, that, upon the difappearing of the waters,
Abydenus, Melon, and Nicolaus Damafcenus, as Deucalion went forth from the ark, and raifed an altar
writers by whom it was recorded ; and adds, that It to God ; but he tranfpofes the fcene to Hierapolis in
' R was taken notice of by many others. Syria, where the natives pretended, as has been al-
kccountsof “ Among the eaftern nations, the traces of this ready mentioned, to have very particular memorials of
the flosd event are more vivid and determinate than thofe of the deluge. _ 9
among the Greece, and more conformable to the accounts of Mo- “ Moft of the authors who have tranfmitted to us Remains of
eaftetn na- peg> Eufebiu& has preferved a moft valuable extraft to thefe accm^ts, at the lame time inform us, that the
■ ' this purpofe from Abydenus ; which was taken from remains of fhe ark were to be feen in their days on one bLnWg
Von. V. Part II. 4 Z ^ of vifibk.
DEL
Deluge, of the mountains of Armenia. Abydenus particular-
"V'—*' ly fays, in confirmation of this opinion, that the people
of the country ufed to get fmall pieces of the wood,
which they carried about by way of amulet. And Be-
rofus mentions, that they icraped off the afphaltus with
which it was covered, andufedit as a charm. Some of
the fathers feem to infill on the certainty of the ark
being Hill remaining in their time. Theophilus fays
exprefsly, that the remains were to be feen . upon
the mountains of Aram, or Armenia. And Chryfo-
ftom appeals to it as to a thing well known. ‘ Do
not (fays he) thofe mountains of Armenia bear wit-
nefs to the truth ? thofe mountains where the ark firil
reded ? And are not the remains of it preferved 'there
i© even unto this day ?’
Boats or << There was a cuftom among the prieds of Amon,
riedVTpro- carrying a boat in procedion at particular feafons,
ceffion by in which was an oracular Ihrine held in great venera-
the Amo- tioni They were faid to have been 80 in number,
mans and an(j t0 f,ave carr;e(l the facred vedel about jud as they
ptians. were ,]jre£e(i by j-be impulfe of the Deity. This cu¬
ftom was likewifein ufe among the Egyptians; and bi-
ftiop Pocock has preferred three fpecimens of ancient
fculpture, wh% ein this ceremony is difplayed. They
are of wonderful antiquity, and were found by him in
Upper Egypt.
“ Part of the ceremony in mod of the ancient my-
fteries confided in carrying about a drip or boat; which
cudom, upon due examination, will be found to relate
to nothing elfe but Noah and the deluge. The drip of
Ids is well known, and the fedivity among the
Egyptians whenever it was carried in public. The
name of this, and of all the navicular dirines, was Ba¬
ris ; which is remarkable : for it was the very name of
the mountain, according to Nicolaus Damafcenus, on
which the ark of Noah reded, the fame as Ararat in
Armenia. He mentions, that there is a large mountain
in Armenia, which ftands above the country of the
Minyae, called Baris; to this it was faid that many
people betook themfelves in the time of the deluge,
and were faved; and there is a tradition of one perfon
in particular fioating in an ark, and arriving at the
fummit of the mountain. We may be affured then,
that the fhip of Ifis was a facred emblem ; in honour
©f which there was among the Egyptians an annual
fedival. It was in after times admitted among the
Romans, and fet down in their kalendar for the month
of March. The former, in their defcription of the
primary deities, have continually fome reference to a
ftiip or float. Hence we frequently read of
vaur'ixxovTff (failing gods). They oftentimes, llys Por¬
phyry, defcribe the fun in the charadter of a man fail¬
ing upon a float. And Plutarch obferves to the fame
purpofe, that they did not reprefent the fun and the moon
in chariots, but wafted about upon footing machines. In
doing which they did not refer to the luminaries, but
to a perfon reprefented under thofe titles. The fun, or
Orus, is likewife defcribed by Jamblichus as fitting up-
7l on the lotus, and failing in a vefiel.
"Wonderful “ It is faid of Sefoftris, that he conftrufted a fhip
Ihip ofSe which was 280 cubits in length. It was of cedar,
foftns ex- plated without with gold, and inlaid with filver ; and
* ' it was, when finifhed, dedicated to Ofiris at Thebes.
It is not credible that there fhould have bc#n*a fhip of
this fize, efpecially in an inland, diftricl, the moft re-
D E L
mote of any in Egypt. It was certainly a temple and
a fhrine. The former was framed upon this large
fcale; and it was the latter on which the gold and fil¬
ver were fo lavifhly expended. There is a remarkable
circumflance relating to the Argonautic expedition;
that the dragon flain by Jafon was of the fize of a
trireme ; by which mufl be meant, that it was of the
fhape of a fhip in general, for there were no triremes
at the time alluded to. And I have moreover fhown,
that all thefe dragons, as they have been reprefented by
the poets, were in reality temples, Dracontia; where,
among other rites, the worfhip of the ferpent was in-
ftituted. There is therefore reafon to think, that this
temple, as well as that of Sefoltris, was faihioned, in
refpedl to its fuperficial xontents, after the model of
a fhip ; and as to the latter, it was probably intended,
in its outlines, to be the exadl reprefentation of the
ark, in commemoration of which it was certainly built.
It was a temple facred to Ofiris at Theba ; or, to fay
the truth, it was itfelf called Theba; and both the
city, faid to be one of the mofl ancient in Egypt, as
well as the province, was undoubtedly denominated
from it. Now Theba was the name of the ark. It is
the very word made ufe of by the facred writer; fo
that we may, I think, be affured of the prototype
after which this temple was fafhioned. It is faid indeed
to have been only 280 cubits in length ; whereas the
ark of Noah was 300. But this is a variation of only
one-fifteenrfi in the whole: and as the ancient cubit
was not in all countries the fame, we may fuppofe that
this difparity arofe rather from the manner of mea-
furing than from any real difference in the extent of
the building. It was an idolatrous temple, faid to
have been built by Sefoftris in honour of Ofiris. I
have been repeatedly obliged to take notice of the ig¬
norance of the Greeks in refpedl to ancient titles,,
and have fhown their mifapplication of terms in many
inflances ; efpecially in their fuppofing temples to have
been erected by perfons to whom they were in reality
facred. Sefoftris was Ofiris; the feme as Dionufus.
Menes, and Noah. He is called Seifithrus by Abyde¬
nus ; Xixouthros by Berofus and Apollodorus; and 13
reprefented by them as a prince in whofe time the de¬
luge happened. He was called Zuth, Xuth, and Zeus ;
and had certainly divine honours paid him. I4
“ Paufanias gives a remarkable account of a temple Other em.
of Hercules at Eruthra in Ionia ; which he mentions blematical
as of the higfreft antiquity, and very like thofe ofr?Prefenta*
Egypt. The deity was reprefented upon a float, and p^'^J'^
wasfuppofed to have come thither in this manner from ^
Phenicia. Ariftides mentions, that at Smyrna, upon
the feaft called Dionyjia, a fhip ufed to be carried in
proceffion. The fame cuftom prevailed among the
Athenians at the Panathensea; when what was termed
the fecred fhip was borne with great reverence through
the city to the temple of Dameter at Eleufis. At.
Phakrus, near Athens, there were honours paid to alii
unknown hero, who was reprefented in the Hern of a
fhip. At Olympia, the moft fecred place in Greece,,
was a reprefentation of the like nature. It was .a*
building like the fore-part of a fhip, which flood fa¬
cing the end of the Hippodrornus ; and towards the
middle of it was an altar, upon which,, at the renewal
of each Olympiad, certain rites were performed.
“ I think it. is pretty plain that all thefe emblema-
£ ticaL
[ 73° 1
DEL [ 73* 1 DEL
tii-n of the
woui rrr
tical reprefentations, of which I have given fo many
inftances, related to the hillory of the deluge, and
the confervation of one family in the ark. This hi-
ftory was pretty recent when thefe works were exe¬
cuted in Egypt, and when the rites were firfl: eita-
blilhed; and there is reafon to think, that in early
times moft ftirines of the Mizraim were formed under
the refemblance of a (hip, in memory of this great
event. Nay, farther, both fhips and temples received
their names from thence ; being ftyled by the Greeks,
who borrowed largely from Egypt, Naur and and
mariners Navrai, Nauta, in reference to the patriarch,
who was varioufly ftyled Noas> Nous, and Noah.
“ However the Greeks may, in their myfteries^, have
fometimes introduced a (hip as a fymbol, yet in their
references to the deluge itfelf, and to the perfons pre-
ferved, they always fpeak of an ark. And though
they were apt to mention the fame perfon under va¬
rious titles, and by thefe means different people feem
to be made principals in the fame hiftory ; yet they
were fo far uniform in their account of this particular
event, that they made each of them to be expofed in
an ark. Thus it is faid of Deucalion, Perfeus, and
Dionufus, that they were expofed upon the waters in
a machine of this fabric. Adonis was hid in an ark
by Venus, and was fuppofed to have been in a ftate of
death for a year. Theocritus introduces a paftoral
perfonage named Comates, who was expofed in an ark
for the fame term, and wonderfully preferved. Of
Ofiris being expofed in an ark we have a very remark¬
able account in Plutarch ; who mentions, that it was
on account of Typhon, and that it happened on the
17th of the month Athyr, when the fun was in Scor¬
pio. This, in my judgment, was the precife time
when Noah entered the ark, and when the flood came,
which, in the Egyptian mythology, was called Ty¬
phon.
“ Typhon is one of thofe whofe ch a rafter has been
greatly confounded. This has arifen from two dif¬
ferent perfonages being included under one name, who
undoubtedly were diftinguilhed in the language of E-
gypt. Typhon was a compound of Tuph or Tupha-
Qn ; and fignified an high altar of the Deity. There
were feveral fuch in Egypt, upon which they offered
, human facrifites; and the cities which had thefe al¬
tars were ftyled Typhonian. But there was another
Typhon, who was very different from the former, how¬
ever by miftake blended with that charafter. By this
was fignified a mighty whirlwind and inundation : and
it oftentimes denoted the ocean ; and particularly the
ocean in a ferment. For, as Plutarch obferves, by
Typhon was underftood any thing violent and unruly.
It was a derivative from Tuph, like the former name ;
which Tuph feems here to have been the fame as the
Suph of the Hebrew s. By this they denoted a whirl-
v'ind ; but among the Egyptians it was taken in a
greater latitude, and fignified any thing boifterous,
particularly the fea. Plutarch fpeaks of it as denoting
the fea ; and fays likewife, that the fait of the fea
was called the foam of Typhon. It fignified alfo a
whirlwind, as we learn from Euripides, who expreffes
it Tuphos ; and the like is to be found in Hefychius,
who calls it a violent wind.
“ The hiftory of Typhon was taken from hiem-
glyphical deferiptions. In thefe the dove, oinas, W'as
reprefented as hovering over the mundane egg, which
was expofed to the fury of Typhon : For an egg,
containing in it the elenrents of life, was thought no
improper emblem of the ark, in which were preferved
the rudiments of the future world. Hence in the
Dionufiaca, and in other myfteries, one part of the
nofturnal ceremony confifted in the confecration of an
egg. By this, as we are informed by Porphyry, was
fignified the world. This w'orld was Noah and his fa¬
mily ; even all mankind, inclofed and preferved in the
ark.
“ In refpeft to Typhon, it muft be confeffed that
the hiftory given of him is attended with fome obfeu-
rity. The Grecians have comprehended feveral cha-
rafters under one term, which the Egyptians undoubt¬
edly diftinguiftied. The term was ufed for a title as
well as a name ; and feveral of thofe perfonages which
had a relation to the deluge were ftyled Typhonian or
Diluvian. All thefe the Grecians have included un¬
der one and the fame name Typhon. The real deity
by whom the deluge was brought upon the earth had
the appellation of Typhonian, by which was meant
Diluvii Deus (a). It is well known that the ark was
conftrufted by a divine commiffioa; in which, when
it was completed, God inclofed the patriarch and his
family. Hence it is faid, that Typhon made an ark
of curious workmanfhip, that he might difpofe of the
body of Ofiris. Into this Ofiris entered, and was flint
up by Typhon. All this relates to the Typhonian
deity who inclofed Noah, together with his family,
within the limits of an ark. The patriarch alfo, who
was thus interefted in the event, had the title of Ty¬
phonian. I have ftiown that the ark by the mytho-
logifts was fpoken of as the mother of mankind. The
ftay in the ark was looked upon as a ftate of death
and of regeneration. The paffage to life was through
the door of the ark, which was formed in its fide.
Through this the patriarch made his defeent; and at
this point was the commencement of time. This hi¬
ftory is obfeurely alluded to in the account of Typhon j
of whom it is faid, that without any regard to time
or place, he forced a paffage and burft into light ob¬
liquely through the fide of his mother. This return
to light was deferibed as a revival from the grave ; and
Plutarch accordingly mentions the return of Ofiris
from Hades, after he had been for a long feafon in¬
clofed in an ark and in a ftate of death. This re¬
newal of life was by the Egyptians efteemed a fecond
ftate of childhood. They accordingly, in their hie-
roglyphics, deferibed him as a boy, whom they placed
upon the lotos or water-lily, and called him Orus. He
was the fuppofed fon of Ilis ; but it has been ftiown
that Ifis, Rhea, Atargatis, were all emblems of the
ark, that receptacle which was ftyled the mother of
mankind. Orus is reprefented as undergoing from
the Titans all that Ofiris fuffered from Typhon ; and
the hiftory at bottom is the fame. Hence it is faid
4 Z 2 of
(a) “ Plutarch owns that the Egyptians in fome inftances efteemed Typhon to be no other than Helius the
chief deity ; and they were in the right, though he will not allow it.’*
DEL
[ 732 1
DEL
Deluge. oT Ifis, that fhe had the power of making people im- though now current among the Indians, is of great
■ mortal; and that when Ihe found her fon Orus, in the
midft of the waters, dead through the malice of the
Titans, fhe not onlvgave him a renewal of life, but
alfo conferred uponhim immortality.”
In this manner does our author decypher almoft all the
ancient fables of which no fatisfa&ory folution was ever
given before. He ihows that the primitive gods of E-
gypt, who were in number eight, were no other than the
eight perfons faved in the ark ; that almoft all the
antiquity, as we may learn from the account given or
this perfonage by Clemens Alexandrinus. ‘ There is
a call of Indians (fays he) who are difciples of Bou-
tas. T'his perfon, on account of his extraordinary
fan&ity, they look up to as a god.’ The name of Bou-
tas, Battus, and Bceotus, though apparently confer¬
red upon the patriarch, yet originally related £0 the
machine in which he was preferved. Of this fome.
traces may be found among the Greeks. One of'-the
heathen deities had one way or other a reference to Amonian names for the ark were Aren and Arene
Noah. He Ihows that he was charadlerifed under the
titles of Janus, Nereus, Proteus, Cannes, Dagon,
&c. See. and in fhort, that the deluge, fo far from be¬
ing unknown to the heathens, or forgot by them, was
in a manner the bafis of the whole of their worfhip.
He traces the hiftory of the raven and dove fent forth
by Noah in the cuftoms of various nations, not only
in the eait but the weft alfo. Of the numberlefs te-
ftimonies of the truth of this part of facred hiftory to
be met with among the weftern nations, however, we
j (hall feledf one more, which is an ancient coin ufually
Account of known by the name of the Apameati medal. “ The
the Apa- learned Falconerius (fays Mr Bryant) has a cu-
mean me- r;ous differtation upon a coin of Philip the Elder,
a‘ which was ftruck at Apamea (b), and contained
on its reverfe an epitome of this hiftory. The re-
verfe of moft Afiatic coins relate to the religion and
mythology of the places where they were ftruck. On
the reverfe of this coin is delineated a kind, of fquare
machine floating upon water. Through an opening
in it are feen two perfons, a man and a woman, as low
as the breaft ; and upon the head of the woman is a
veil. Over this ark is a triangular kind ef pediment,
on which there fits a dove ; and below it another,
which feems to flutter its wings, and hold in its mouth
a fmall branch of a tree. Before the machine is a
man following a woman, who by their attitude feem
to have juft quitted it, and to have got upon dry land.
Upon the ark itfelf, underneath the perfons there in-
clofed, is to be read in diftinft charafters, nxxe. The
' learned editor of this account fays, that it had fallen
to his lot to meet with three of thefe coins. They
and Boeotus is faid by Diodorus Siculus to have been
the fon of Neptune and Arne, which is a contraction
of arene the ark. The chief city, Boutus in Egypt,
where was the floating temple, fignified properly the
city of the float or ark. The Boeotians, who in the
Dionufiaca fo particularly commemorated the ark, were
fuppofed to be defeended from an imaginary perfonage,
Bceotus; and from him likewife their country was
thought to have received its name. But Bceotus was
merely a variation from Boutus, and Butus, the ark ;
which in ancient times was indifferently ftyled Theba,
Argus, Aren, Butus, and Bceotus. The term Cibo-
tus is a compound of the fame purport, and fignifies
both the temple of the ark and alfo a place' for ftiip-
ping.
“ All the myfteries of the Gentile world feem to have
been memorials of the deluge, and of the event which
immediately fucceeded. They confifted for the moft
part of a melancholy procefs; and were celebrated
by night in commemoration of the ftate of darknefs
in which the patriarch and his family had been invol*
ved. The firft thing at thofe awful meetings was to
offer an oath of fecrecy to all who were to be initiated:
after which they proceeded to the ceremonies. Thefe
began with a defeription of chaos: by which was fig¬
nified fome memorial of the deluge. Chaos was cer- i
tainly the fame as M®;, the great abyfs. Who, fays ^
Epiphanius, is fo ignorant as not to know, that Chaos Q^aos °r
and Buthos, the abyfs, are of the fame purport ?
“ The names of the deities in Japan and China, and
the form of them, as well as the mythology with which
they are attended, point out the country from whence.
-Explana-
were of brafs, and of the medallion fize. One of they originally came. In China the deity upon the
them he mentions to have feen in the cplletlion of the lotos in the midft of waters has been long a favourite
Duke of Tufcany ; the fecond in that of the Cardi¬
nal Ottohoni ;Nmd the third was the property of Au-
guftino Chigi, nephew to Pope Alexander VII.”
    Not content with thefe teftimonies, howfever, which
of the flood are to be met with in the weftern regions, or at leaft
in thofe not very far to the eaftward, our author ihows
that “ the fame mythology (of the Egyptians), and
the fame hieroglyphics, were carried as far as China
and Japan ; where they are to be found at this day.
The Indians have a perfon whom they call Buto or
Budo. This is the fame as Boutus of Egypt, Battus
of Cyrene, and Boeotus of Grence. The account gi¬
ven of him is fimilar to that of Typhon ; for it is faid
that he did not come to life in the ufual way, but
made himfelf a paffage through the fide of his mother;
which qiother is reprefented as a virgin. This hiftory,
Accounts
China and
Japan.
emblem, and was imported from the weft. The in-
figne of the dragon was from the fame quarter. The
Cuthites worftiipped Cham, the fun ; whofe name they,
varioufly compounded. In China moft things which
have any reference to fplendor and magnificence, feem
to be denominated from the fame objedt. Cham is.
faid, in the language of that country, to fignify any
thing fupreme. Cum is a fine building or palace, fimh
lar to Coma of the Amonians. Cum is jfclord or ma¬
iler ; Cham a feeptre. Laftly, by Cham is fignified a.
prieft, analogous to.the Chamanim and Chamenim of-
Cutha and Babylonia.. The country itfelf is by the.
Tartars called Ham. The cities Cham-ju, Campion,.
Compition, Cumdan, Chatnul, and many others of the
fame form, are manifeftly compounded of the facred.
term Cham. Cambalu, the name of the ancient me¬
tropolis,
(b) Our author had before fhown that the. ancient name of Apamea was Cibotus, one of the names of the
ark.
uge.
DEL f 733 1 DEL
tropolis, is the city of Cham-bal ; and Milton ftyles it
very properly Camoaul, feat of Cathaian Chan. By
this is meant the chief city of the Cuthean monarch ;
for Chan is a derivative of Cahen, a prince. It feems
fometimes in China and Japan to have been exprefl'ed
Quan and Quano.
“ Two temples are taken notice by Hamelton, near
Syrian in Pegu, which he reprefents as fo like in ftruc-
ture, that they feemed to be built on the fame model.
One of thefe was called Kiakiack, or the God of Gods
temple. The other is called the temple of Dagun ; and
the doors and windows of it are perpftually fhut, fo that
none can enter but the prielts. They will not tell of
what ihape the idol is, but only fay that it is not of a
human form. The former deity, Kiakiack, is repre-
fented as afleep, of a human Ihape, and 60 feet long ;
and when he awakes, the world is to be deftroyed. As
foon as Kiakiack has diffolved the frame and being of
this world, Dagui* will gather up the fragments, and
make a new one. I make no doubt but the true name
of the temple was lach-Iach, and dedicated to the
fame god as the Jachufi in Japan. Mr Wife takes no¬
tice of the Grecian exclamation to Dionufus, when the
terms lacche, 0 lacche, were repeated : and he fuppofes,
with great probability, that the Peguan name had a
reference to the fame deity. It is certain, that the
worfliip of Dionufus prevailed very early among the .
nations in the eaft. The Indians ufed to maintain,
that his rites firft: began among them. ProfeiTor Bay¬
er has Ihown, that traces of his worfhip are ftill to be
obferved among the Tamuli of Tranquebar. ‘ They
have a tradition (fays he), that there was once a gigan¬
tic perfon named Maidajhuren, who was born at Nifa-
dabura near the mountain Meru. He had the horns
of a hull, and drank wine and made war upon the gods.
He was attended by eight Pudam, who were gigantic
and mifchievous daemons, of the family^ of thofe Indian
Ihepherds called Kobalerd In this account we have
a manifeft reference to the hiftory of Dionufus, as
well as that of the Dionufians, by whom his rites were
introduced. And we may perceive, that it bears a
great refemblance to the accounts tranfmitted by the
Grecians. What are thefe Kobaler, who were de-
fcended from the ihepherds, but the fame as the Coba-
li of Greece, the uniform attendants upon Diorfufus ?
a fet of pricils whofe cruelty and chicanery rendered
them infamous. ‘ The Cobali (fays an ancient au¬
thor) were a fet of cruel daemons, who followed in
the retinue of Dionufus. It is a terra made ufe of for
knaves and cheats.’
“ As the deity, in tlft fecond temple of Syrian,
to which ftrangers were not admitted, was not of a hu¬
man form, and was called Dagun, we may eafily con¬
ceive the hidden character under which he was defcri-
bed. We may conclude, that it was no other than
that mixed figure of a man and a fifli, under which he
was of old worfhipped both in Paleftine and Syria.
He is expreffed under this fymbolical reprefentation in
many parts of India; and, by the Bramins is called
Wiftnou. or Vifhnou. Dagon and Viihnou have a like
reference. They equally reprefent the man of the fea.
called by Berofus Oannes ; whofe hiftory has been re-
verfed by the Indians. They fuppofe that he will re-
ftore the world, when it fhall be deftroyed by the chief
God.. But by Dagon is iignified the very perion thro’
whom the earth has been already reftored when it was
in a ftate of ruin ; and by whom mankind was renew- '
ed. Dagon and Noah I have ihown to be the fame
Viihnou is reprefented, like Dagon, under the mixed
figure of a man and a fiih, or rather of a man, a prince¬
ly figure, proceeding from a fiih. The name of this
diftrift, near which the temples above Hand, we find
to be called Syrian; juft as was named the region
where ftood the temples of Atargatus and Dagon. Sy-
rus, Syria, and Syrian, are all of the fame purport, and
fignify Cceleftis and Solaris, from Sehor, the fun.”
Our author next proceeds to defcribe fome of the
Indian temples or pagodas ; particularly thofe of Sal-
fette, Eliphanta, and another called Elora near Au-
rangeabad in the province of Balagate, which was vifit-
ed by Thevenot. That traveller relates, that “ upo»
making diligent inquiry among the natives about the
origin of thefe wonderful buildings, the conftant tra*
dition was, that all thefe pagodas, great and fmall, with
all their works and ornaments, were made giants ;
but in what age they could not tell.”
“ Many of thefe ancient ftrutlures (continues Mr
Bryant) have been attributed to Ramfcander, or Alex¬
ander the Great; but there is nothing among thefe
ftately edifices that in the leaft favours of Grecian
workmanihip ; nor had that monarch, nor any of the
princes after him, opportunity to perform works of
this nature. We have not the leaft. reafoi^ to think
that they ever poffeffed the country ; for they were
called off from their attention this way by feuds and
engagements nearer home. There is no tradition of
this country having been ever conquered except by the
fabulous armies of Hercules and Dionufus. What has
led people to think that thefe works were the operation
of Alexander, is the fimilitude of the name Ramtxander;
To this perfon they have fometimes been attributed j
but Ramtxander was a deity, the fuppofed fon of Bal;
and he is introduced among the perfonag.es who were
concerned in the incarnations of Viihnou.
“ The temple of Elora, and all the pagodas of
which r have made mention, muftbe of great antiquity,
as the natives cannot reach their era. They were un¬
doubtedly the work of the Indo-Cuthites, who came
fo early into thefe parts. And that thefe ftruftures
were formed by them, will appear from many circum-
ftances; but efpecially from works of the fame magni¬
ficence which were performed by them in other places.*
For fcarce any people could have effected fuch great
works, but a branch of that family which ere&ed the.
tower in Babylonia, the walls of Balbec,and the pyra¬
mids of Egypt.”
Having then defcribed a number of Eaft Indian
idols of furprifing magnitude,. ” the Babylonians and
Egyptians (fays he), and all of the fame great family,
ufed to take a pleafure in forming gigantic figures, and
exhibiting other reprefentations equally ttupendous.
Such were the coloffal ftatues at Thebes# and the
fphinx in the plains of Coiime. The ftatue eredted-
by Nebuchadnezzar in the plains of Dura,.was in
height threefcore Babyloniih cubits. It was proba¬
bly raifed in honour of Cham, the fun ; and perhaps it*
was alfo dedicated to the head of the Ghaldaic-family;
who was deified, and reverenced under that title.
Marcellinus takes notice of a ftatue of Apollo named
Cdmeus ; which, in the time of the emperor Verus, was
brought,*:
Deluge.
Deluge.
DEL L 734 1 DEL
brought from Seleucia to Rome. This related to the
fame deity as the preceding. We mayalfo infer, that
the temple at Kamju was eredted to Cham the fun,
whom the people worihipped under the name of Samo-
ntfu”
It is remarkable, that in Japan the priefts and no¬
bility have the title of Cami. The emperor QuebaCon-
dono, in a letter to the Portuguefe viceroy, 1585, tells
him, that Japan is the kingdom of Chamis ; whom,
•fays he, we hold to be the fame as Scin, the origin of
all things. By Scin is probably meant San, the fun ;
who was the fame as Cham, rendered here Chamis.
The laws of the country are fpoken of as the laws of
Chamis; and we are told by Ksempfer, that all the
gods were ftyled either Sin or Cami. The founder of
the empire is faid to have been Tenjio Dai Sin, or
“ Tenfio the god of light.” Near his temple was a
cavern religioufly viiited, upon account of his having
been once hid when no fun nor ftars appeared. He
was efteemed the fountain of day, and his temple was
called the temple of Naiku. Near this cavern was ano¬
ther temple, in which the canufi or priells fhowed an
image of the deity fitting upon a cow. It was called
Dainits No Ray, “ the great reprefentation of the fun.”
One of their principal gods is Jahufi, fimilar to the
lacchus of the Weft. Ksempfer fays, that he is the
Apollo of the Japanefe, and they defcribe him as the
Egyptians did Orus. His temple ftands in a town
called Minnoli: and Jakufi is here reprefented upon a
gilt tarate flower ; which is faid to be the nymphaa pa-
.lujlris maxima, or faba JEgyptiaca of Profper Alpinus.
One half of a large fcallop {hell is like a canopy placed
over him ; and his head is furrounded with a crown of
rays. They have alfo an .idol named Menippe, much
reverenced in different parts. Both thefe, continues
our author, relate to the fame perfon, vise,. Noah.
Ksempfer, an author of great credit, faw the temple
of Dabys, which he truly renders Dailod, at Jed© in
Japan. By Dai-Bod was meant the god Budha,
whofe religion was ftyled the Budfo, and which pre¬
vailed greatly upon the Indus and Ganges. Kaemp-
fer, from whom Mr Bryant takes this account, fays,
that the people of Siam reprefent him under the
form of a Moor, in a fitting pofture, and of a prodi¬
gious fize. His Ikin is black, and his hair curled
(probably woolly), and the images about him are of
the fame complexion. “ This god was fuppofed (fays
Mr Bryant) to have neither father nor mother. By
Budha we are certainly to underftand the idolatrous
fymbol called by fome nations Buddo; the fame as Ar¬
gus and Theba (names for the ark). In the mytholo¬
gy concerning it, we may fee a reference both to the
machine itfelf and to the perfon preferved in it. In
confequence of which we find this perfon alfo ftyled
Bod, Budha, and Buddo; and in the Weft Butus, Battus,
and Baotus. He was faid by the Indians not to have
been born in the ordinary way, but to have come to
light indiredtly through the fide of his mother. By
Clemens of Alexandria he is called Bouta: and in the
hiftory of this perfon, however varied, we may per¬
ceive a relation to the arkite deity of the fea, called
Pofeidon or Neptune; alfo to Arculus and Dionufus,
.ftyled B(totus and Tbebanus. Ksempfer has a curious
.hiftory of a deity of this fort called Abutto; whofe
temple ftood in the province of Bungo, upon the fea-
flrore, near the village of Toma. About a quarter of Dels
a German mile before you come to this village ftands ~ v
a famous temple of the god Abutto ; which is faid to
be very eminent for miraculoufly curing many invete¬
rate diftempers, as alfo for procuring a wind and good
paffage. For this reafon, failors and paffengers al¬
ways tie fome farthings to a piece of wood, and throw
it into the fea, as an offering to this Abutto, to obtain
a favourable wind. The fame deity, but under a
different name, was worfhipped in China. The Apis,
Mneuis, and Anubis of Egypt, have often been men¬
tioned and explained as well as the Minotaur of Crete.
The fame hieroglyphics occur in Japan; and we are
informed by Marco Polo, that the inhabitants worihip
idols of different ftiapes. Some have the head of an
ox, fome of a fwine, and others the head of a dog.
The moft common reprefentation in this country is
that of Godfo Ten Oo, or ‘ the ox-headed prince of
heaven.’
“ It has already been taken notice, that the ark was
reprefented under the fymbol of an egg, called the
mundane egg; which was expofed to the rage of Ty-
phon. It was alfo deferibed under the figure of
a lunette, and called Seelene, the moon. The perfon
by whom it was framed, and who through its means
was providentially preferved, occurs under the cha¬
racter of a fteer, and the machine itfelf under the
femblance of a cow or heifer. We have moreover
been told, that it was called Cibotus, which Clemens
of Alexandria calls Thebotha. Epiphanius mentions it
by the name of Idaal Baoth; and fays that, according
to an eaftern tradition, a perfon named Nun was pre¬
ferved in it. The horfe of Neptune was another em¬
blem, as was alfo the hippopotamus or river-horfe.
The people of Elis made ufe of the tortoife for the
fame purpofe, and reprefented Venus as refting upon
its back. Some traces of thefe hieroglyphics are to be
found in Japan, which were certainly carried thither by
the Indie Ethiopians..
“ From an account of a temple of Daiboth (probably
the fame with Daibod) at Meaco in Japan, we may
perceive, that the people there fpeak of the renewal
of the world at the deluge as the real creation, which
I have fliown to be a common miftake in the hiftories
of this event. And though the ftory is told with fome
variation, yet in all the circumftances of confequence
it accords very happily with the mythology of Egypt,
Syria, and Greece. It matters not how the emblems
have by length of time been mifinterpreted. We have
the mundane egg up.on the waters, and the concomi¬
tant fymbol of the moon ; and the egg at laft opened
by the affiftance of the facred fteer, upon which the
world iffues forth to this day.” The author proceeds
afterwards to mention the great veneration paid in
thefe parts to the ox and cow ; and fays, that nobody
dares injure them. One deity of-the Japanefe was
Canon, the reputed lord of the ocean. He was repre¬
fented in an ere£t pofture, crowned with a flower, and
coming out of the mouth of a filh. He is reprefented
in the fame manner by the natives of India, and named
Vijhnou and Macauter; and he is to be found in other
parts of the Eaft. Father Boufhet mentions a tradi¬
tion among the Indians concerning a flood in the days
of Viflinou which covered the whole earth. It is
moreover reported of him, that feeing the prevalence
afi Delnpe.
DEL [ 735 ] DEL
of the waters, he made a float; and being turned into accounts afford the fame hiflory as has been given Delude,
a fifh, he fleered it with his tail. This perfon, in the above. ' * " *'J
account of the Banians by Lord, is called •A/enim* / “ As the family of Noah confifled of eight perfons
which certainly fhould be exprefled Men-Now. It is incluflve, there have been writers who have placed,
faid that in the Shafter of this people, a like hiftory fome of them in fucceffion, and fuppofed that there
is given of the earth being overwhelmed by a deluge, were three or four perfons who reigned between Sin-
in which mankind perifhed ; but the world was after- Noo and Hoam. But Du Halde fays, that in the
wards renewed in two perfons called Menou and Cete- true hiftories of the country, the three firft monarchs
roupa. Vifhnbu is defciabed under many charafters, were Fohi, Chin-Nong, and Hoam, whom he ftyles*
which he is faid at times to have affumed. One of Hoang-Ti. To thefe, he fays, the arts and fciences
thefe, according to the bramins of Tanjour, was that owe their invention and progrefs. Thus we find,
of Rama Sami. This undoubtedly is the fame as Sama that thofe who were heads of families have been raifed
Rama of Babylonia, only reverfed: and it relates to to be princes ; and their names have been prefixed to
that great phenomenon the Iris; which was generally the lifts of kings, 'and their hiftory fuperadded to the
accompanied with the dove, and held in veneration by annals of the country. It is further obfervable, in the
the Semarim. accounts given of thofe fuppofed kings, that their term
“ As the hiftory of China is fuppofed to extend up- of life, for the firft five or fix generations, correfponds
wards to an amazing height, it may be worth while to with that of the patriarchs after the flood, and decrea-
confider the firft eras in the Chinefe annals, as they are fes much in the fame-proportion. jS
reprefented in the writings of Japan: for the Japanefe “ The hiftory of Japan is divided into three eras ; Hiftory
have preferved hiftories of China ; and by fuch a colla- which confift of gods, demigods, and mortals. The J3Pa0*
tion, I believe no fmall light may be obtained towards perfon whom the natives look upon to be the real
the difeovery of fome important truths. Hitherto it has founder of their monarchy is named in whofe
not been obferved that fuch a collation could be reign the Sintoo religion, the moft ancient of the
mac}e> country, was introduced. It was called Sin-sju and
“ In the hiftories of this country, the firft monarch Chami-mitfa; from Sin and Chami. the deities which
of China is named Foki; the fame whom the Chinefe were the objefts of worflrip. At this time it is faid
call Fohi, and place at the head of their lift. This that 600 foreign idols were brought into Japan. To
prince had, according to fome, the body, according to the Sintoo religion was afterwards added the Budfo, to¬
others the head, of a ferpent. If we may believe the gether with the worfhip of Armida. This deity they
Japanefe hiftorians, he began his reign above 21,000 commonly reprefented with the head of a dog, and
years before Chrift. The fecond Chinefe emperor was efteemed him the guardian of mankind. This re-
Sin-Noo, by the people of China called Sin Num; and ligion was more complicated than the former, and
many begin the chronology of the country with him. abounded with hieroglyphical reprefentations and my-
He is fuppofed to have lived about 3000 years before fterious rites. It is the fame which I have termed
Chrift; confequently there is an interval of near 18,000 the Arkite Idolatry, wherein the facred fleer and cow
years between the firft emperor and the fecond ; a cir- were venerated. The deity was reprefented upon
cumflance not to be credited. The third, who imme- the lotus and upon a tortoife, and oftentimes as
diately fucceeded Sin-Noo, was Hoam-Ti. In this proceeding from a fifh. In this alfo, under the cha-
account we may, I think, perceive, that the Chinefe rafter of Budha, we may trace innumerable memorials
have afted like the people of Greece and other re- of the ark, and of the perfon preferved in it. The
gions. The hiftories which were imported they have author above, having mentioned the eleventh emperor m
prefixed to the annals of their nation; and adopted inclufive from Syn Mu, tells us, that in his time thefe
the firft perfonages of antiquity, and made them mo- rites began. ‘ In his reign Budo, otherwife called
narchs in their own country. Whom can we fyppofe Kobotus, came over from the Indies to Japan ; and
Fohi, with the head of a ferpent, to have been, but brought with him, upon a white horfe, his religion
the great founder of all kingdoms, the father of man- and doftrines.’ We find here, that the ohjeft of wor*
kind ? They have placed him at an immenfe diftance, fhip is made the perfon who introduced it (a miftake
aot knowing his true era. And I think we maybe almoft univerfally prevalent),; otherwife, in this fliort.
afiured, that under the charafter of Sin Num and Sin- account, what a curious hiftory is unfolded!
Noo we have the hiftory of Noah; and Haam-Ti was “ The only people to whom we can have recourfe
bo other than Ham. According to Ksempfer, Sin- for any wTitten memorials conceniing thefe .things are
Noo was exaftly the fame charafter as Serapis of E- the inhabitants of India Proper. They were, we
gypt. ‘ He was an hufbandman, and taught mankind find, the perfons who introduced thefe hieroglyphics-
agriculture, and. thofe arts which relate to the imme- both in China and Japan. It will therefore.be worth ■
diate fupport of life. He alfo difeovered the virtues while to confider what they have tranfmitted concern—
of many plants; and he was reprefented with the head ing their religious opinions; as we may from hence -
of an ox, and fometimes only with two horns. Plis obtain ftill greater light towards explaining this fym—
pifture is held in high eftimation by the Chinefe;’ Well bolical worfhip. Every manifeftation of God’s good-
indeed might Kaempfer think, that in Sin-Noo he faw nefs to the, world was in the firft ages exprefled by are
the charafter of Serapis 5 for this perfonage.was no hieroglyphic; and the Deity was accordingly de-
other than Sar-Apis, the great father of mankind, the feribed under various forms, and in different atti-
fame as Men-Neuas of Egypt, the fame alfo as Dionu- tudes. Thefe at length were miflaken for real tranf—
fus and Ofiris. By Du Halde he is called Chin-Nong, figurations ; and Vifhnou was fuppofed to have ap—
and made the next monarch after Fohi. The Chinefe- peared in different fhapes, which were.ftyled incarna-
tmti.
DEL [ 73^ } DEL
Deluge, itons. In one of thefe he is reprefented under the was for fome time entirely covered. At laft, the wa- Deluge.
J figure before mentioned, of a princely perfon coming ters retreating within their proper bounds, the moun-
out of a fi(h. In another he appears with the head tain of Albordi in Ferakh-kand firft appeared ; which
of a boar, treading upon an evil demon, which feems the author compares to a tree, and fuppofes that all
to be the fame as the Typhon of the Egyptians. On other mountains proceeded from it. After this there
his head he fupports a lunettd, in which are feen cities, was a renewal of the world ; and the earth was reftored
towers, in ftiortj all that the world contains. In to its priftine ftate. The particular place where Or-
Ealdaeus we have a delineation and hiftory of this in-' mifda planted the germina from whence all things
carnation. Kircher varies a little in his reprefenta- were to fpring, was Ferakh-kand ; which feems to be
tion, yet gives him a fimilar figure of the Deity, and the land of Arach ; the country upon the Araxes in
ftyles him Vijhnou Barachatcr. By this I fhould think Armenia.”
was fignified Vilhnou, “ the offspring of the fifh.” Thus we. have given an ample fpecimen of this very
The bramins fay, that there was a time when the fer- ingenious author’s method of reafoning, and difcover-
pent with a thoufand heads withdrew itfelf, and would ing traces of the facred hiftory even in things which
not fupport the world, it was fo overburdened with have been thought leaft to relate to it. That the
fin. Upon this the earth funk in the great abyfs of Greeks and weftern nations had fome knowledge of
waters, and mankind and all that breathed periflied. the flood, has never been denied; and from what has
But Viftinou took upon himfelf the form above de- been already related, it appears that the fame has per-
fcribed, and diving to the bottom of the fea, lifted up vaded the remoteft regions of the eaft. The know-
the earth out of the. waters, and placed it, together ledge which thefe people have of the faH of man, and
with the ferpent of a thoufand heads, upon the back the evil confequences which enfued, cannot, according
19 of a tortoife. to our author, be the confequences of their intercourfe
Account of « jn the th]rd volume of M. Perron’s Zendavefta, with Chriftians; for their traditions afford neither any
;ony°and" t^iere an account given of the cofmogony of the traces of Chriftianity nor its founder. Whatever truths
given by fued. The fupreme Deity, called by him Orfnifda, rived from a more ancient fource. “ There are (fays
theParfees.is faid to have accompliflied the creation at fix dif- he) in every climate fome lhattered fragments of ori-
ferent intervals. He firft formed the heavens; at the ginal hiftory ; fome traces of a primitive and univerfal
fecond the waters^ at the third the earth. Next language: and thefe may he obferved in the names
in order were produced the trees and vegetables: in of deities, terms of worfhip, and titles of honour, which
the fifth place were formed birds and fifties, and the prevail among nations widely feparated, who for ages
wild inhabitants of the woods; and in the fixth and had no connexion. The like may be found in the
laft place, he created man. The man thus produced names of pagodas and temples; and of fundry other
is faid to have been an ox-like perfon, and is defcribed obje&s which will prefent themfelves to the traveller,
as confifting of a purely divine and a mortal part. Even America would contribute to this purpofe. The
For fome time after his creation he lived in great hap- more rude the monuments, the more ancient they may
pinefs; but at laft the world was corrupted by a das- pofiibly prove, and afford a greater light upon in-
mon named Ahriman. This dasmon had the bpldnefs quiry.”
to vifit heaven; whence he came down to the earth in The accounts hitherto met with in this continent, ^mer;can
the form of a ferpent, and introduced a fet of wicked indeed, are far from being equally authentic and fatis- accounts o.
beings, called karfe/lers. By him the firft ox-like per- factory with thofe hitherto treated of. In Acafta’s the deluge,
fonage, called Aboudad, was fo infedted that he died ; hiftory of the Indies, however, we are informed, that
after which Kaiomorts, probably the divine part, of the Mexicans make particular mention of a deluge in
which the ox was the reprefentative, died alfo. Out their country, by which all men were drowned. Ac-
• of the left arm of the deceafed proceeded a being call- cording to them, one Viracocha came out of the great
ed Gofchomun, who is faid to have raifed a cry louder lake Titicaca in their country. This perfon ftaid in
than the ftiout of 1000 men. After fome cbnverfation Tiaguanaco, where at this day are to be feen the ruins
between the fupreme Deity and Gofchoraun, it was of fome ancient and very ftrange buildings. From
determined to put Ahriman to flight, and to deftroy thence he came to Cufco, where mankind began to
all thofe wicked perfons he had introduced ; for there multiply. They {how alfo a fmall lake, where they
now feemed to be an univerfal oppofition to the Su- fay the fun hid himfelf; for which reafon they facri-
preme Deity Ormifda. At this feafon a fecond ox- fice largely to him, both men and • other animals.—
like perfonage is introduced by the name of Tafchter. Hennepin informs us, that fome of the favages are of
He is fpoken of both as a ftar and a fun. At the opinion, that a certain fpirit, called Otkon by the Iro-
fame time he is mentioned as a perfon upon earth quois, and Atahauta by thofe at the mouth of the ri-
under thi-ee forms. By Tafchter is certainly fignified verSt Laurence, is the Creator of the world; that
. De AJhter; the fame perfon whom the Greeks and MeJJbu repaired it after the deluge.» They fay, that
Syrians reprefented as a female, and called AJlarte. She this Meffou or Otkon, being a hunting one day, his
was defcribed horned, and fometimes with the head of dogs loft themfelves in a great lake, which thereupon
a bull; fuppofed to proceed from an egg; and they overflowing, covered the whole earth in a ftiort time,
efteemed her'the fame as Jiino and the moon. At and iwallowed up the world. According to Herrera,
laft it was thought proper to bring an univerfal inun- the people of Cuba knew that the heavens and the
dation over the face of the earth; that all impurity earth had been created: and faid they had much in¬
might be wafhed away : which being accomplilhed by formation concerning the flood; and that the world
’Tafchter, every living creature periflied, and the earth had been deltroyed by water, by three perfons, who
JN° 99. * J came
DEL [ 757 ] DEL
came three feveral ways. Gabriel de Cabrera was
told by a man of more than 70 years of age, that an
old man, knowing the deluge was to come, built a
great Ihip, and went into it with his family and a-
bundance of animals ; that he fent out a crow, which
did not at firft return, ftaying to feed on the carcafes
of dead animals, but afterwards came back with a
green branch. He is faid to have added other par¬
ticulars nearly confonant to the Mofaic. account, as
far as Noah’s fons covering him when drunk, and the
other fcoffing at it. The Indians, he faid, defcended
from the latter, and therefore had no clothes ;°but
*he Spaniards defcending from the former, had both
clothes and horfes.—The fame author likewife informs
us, that it was reported by the inhabitants of Caftilla
del Oro in Terra Firma, that when the univerfal de¬
luge happened, one man with his wife and children efca-
ped in a canoe, and that from them the world was peo¬
pled. The Peruvians, according to our author, like¬
wife affirmed, that they had received by tradition from
their anceftors, that, many years before there were
any incas or kings, when the country was very po¬
pulous, there happened a great flood; the fea break¬
ing out beyond its bounds, fo that the land was co¬
vered with water, and all the people periihed. To
this it is added by the Guancas, inhabiting the vale, of
Xaufea, and the natives of Chiquito in the province
of Callao, that fome perfons remained in the hollows
and caves of the ^higheil mountains, who again peo¬
pled the land. Others affirm, that all periihed in a
deluge, only fix perfons being faved in a float, from
whom defcended all the inhabitants of that country.
In Nieuhoff’s voyages to Braiil, we are informed, that
the moil barbarous of the Braiilians, inhabiting the in¬
land countries, fcarce knew any thing of religion or
an Almighty Being: they have fome knowledge re¬
maining of a general deluge ; it being their opinion
that the whole, race of mankind were extirpated by a
general deluge, except one man and his fiiler, who,
being with child before, they by degrees repcopled
the world. M. Thevet gives us the creed of the Bra-
filians in this matter more particularly. In the opinion
of thefe favages, the deluge was univerfal. They fay,
that Sommay, a Caribbee of great dignity, had two chil¬
dren named Tamendonare and Ariconte. Being of con¬
trary difpofitions, one delighting in peace and the other
in war and rapine, they mortally hated each other. One
day Ariconte, the warrior, brought an arm of an enemy
he had encountered to his brother, reproaching him
at the fame time with cowardice. The other retorted
by telling, that if he had b-jen poflefled of the valour
he .boafted, he would have brought his enemy entire.
Ariconte on this threw the arm againft the door of
his brdther’s houfe. At that inltant the whole village
was carried up into the Iky,- and Tamendonare flri-
king the ground with violence, a vaft ftream of water
ifiued out from it, and continued to flow in filch quan¬
tity, that in a fhort time it feemed to rife above the
clouds, and the earth was entirely covered. The two
brothers, feeing this, afcended the higheft mountains
of the country, and* with their wives got upon the
trees that grew upon them. By this deluge all man¬
kind, as well as all other animals* were drowned, ex¬
cept the two brothers above mentioned and their wives;
who having defcended when the flood abated, became
heads of two different nations,” &c,
VouV. Part. II.
To thefe American tellimonies we may add anothef Behlgs.
from the remote and uncivilized ifland of Otaheite. ' “  1
Dr Watfon f, in his difeourfe to the clergy, informs
us, that one of the navigators to the foutherU he1™'mCsfron^
fphere having allied fome of the inhabitants of that Oraheite
ifland concerning their origin, was anfwered, that ard the Halt
their fupreme God, a long time ago, being angry, n
dragged the earth through the fea, and their ifland Xii '
being broken off, was preferved. In the Fall Indies p. 208.
alfo we are informed by Dr Watfon that Sir William t
Jones, by whom a fociety for the advancement of A- P- a>l*
fiatic literature has been inflituted at Calcutta* has
difeovered, that in the oldeft mythological books of
that country, there is fuch an account of the deluge
as correfponds fufficiently with that of Mofes. ,j
II. The fa6! being thus eflablilhed by the univerfal Hypothefes
confent of mankind, that there was a general deluge concerning
which overflowed the whole world ; it remains next
to inquire, by what means it may reafonably be fup- the delude
pofed to have been accomplifhed. The hypothefes took place*
on this fubjeft have been principally the following. 23
1. It has been aflerted, that a quantity of water Suppofed
was created on purpofe, and at a proper time annihi-creation
lated, by divine power. This, however, befides its 1‘
being abfolutely without evidence, is diredly contrary water.
to the words of the facred writer whom the afferterp
of this hypothefis mean to defend. He exprefsly de¬
rives the waters of the flood from two fources; firft,
the fountains of the great deep, which he tells us were
all broken up ; and iecondly, the windows of heaven,
which he fays were opened : and fpeaking of the de-
-creafe of the waters, he fays, the fountains of the
deep and the windows of heaven were flopped, and the
waters returned continually from off the earth. Here
it is obvious, that Mofes - was fo far from having any
difficulty about the quantity of water, that he thought
the fources from whence it came were not exhaufted^
fince both of them required to be flopped by the fame
almighty hand who opened them, left the flood Ihould
increafe more than it actually did.
2. Dr Burnet, in his Telluris Theoria Sacra, endea-Theory of
vours to Ihow, that all the waters in the oqean are Dr Burnet,
not fufficient to cover the earth to the depth affigned
by Mofes. Suppofing the fea drained quite dry, and
all the clouds of the atmofphere diffolved into rain,
we fhould Hill, according to him, want much the
greateft part of the water of a deluge. To get clear'
of this difficulty, Dr Burnet and others have adopted
Defeartes’s theory. That philofophef will have the
antediluvian world to have been perfedlly round and
equal, without mountains or valleys. He accounts
for its formation -on mechanical principles, by fuppo-
fing it at firft in the condition of a thick turbid fluid
replete with divers heterogeneous matters ; which,
fubiiding by flow degrees, formed themfelves into dif¬
ferent concentric ftrata, or beds, by the laws of gravi¬
ty. Dr Burnet improves on this theory, by fuppofing
the primitive earth to have been no more than a fliell
or cruft invefting the furface of the water contained in
the ocean, and in the central abyfs which he and o-
thers fuppofe to exift in the bowels of the earth. * At * See Akffi
the time of the flood, this outward cruft, according
to-him, broke in a thoufand places; and confequent-
ly funk down among the water, which thus fpouted
up in vaft cataracts, and overflowed the whole furface.
He fuppofes alfo, that before the flood there was a
5 A perfc&
D E L [ 738
Deluge. perfeA coincidence of the equator with the ecliptic, 1
’ * and confequently that the antediluvian world enjoyed
a perpetual fpring ; but that the violence of the (hock
by which the outer cruft was broken, (hifted alfo the
pofition of the earth, and produced the prefent obli¬
quity of the ecliptic. This theory, it will be obfer-
ved, is equally arbitrary with the former. But it is,
befides, direiftly contrary to the words of Mofes, who
aflures us, that all the high hills were covered ; while
Dr Burnet affirms that there were then no hills in be-
25 inS-
Centre of 3. Other authors, fuppofmg a fufficient fund of wa-
flT^rth^ ter t^ie ab7fs or ^ea’ are on,y concerned for an ex-
fuppofed toPedIent t0 br’ng ^ forth : accordingly fome have re-
be lhifted. courfe to a ffiifting of the earth’s centre of gravity,
which, drawing after it the water out of its channel,
overwhelmed the feveral parts of the earth fucceffively.
Mr Whi- 4. The inquifitive Mr Whifton, in his New Theory
fton’s theo- 0J the Earth, ffiows, from feveral remarkable coinci-
^ dences, that a comet defcending in the plane of the
ecliptic, towards its perihelion, pafled juft before the
earth on the fir ft day of the deluge ; the confequences
whereof would be, firft, that this comet, when it came
below the moon, would raife a vaft and ftrong tide,
both in the fmall feas, which according to his hypo-
thefts were in the antediluvian earth (for he allows no
great ocean there as in ours), and alfo in the abyfs
which was under the upper cruft of the earth. And
this tide would rife and increafe all the time of the
approach of the comet towards the earth; and would
be at its greateft height when the comet was at its
leaft diftance from it. By the force of which tide,
as alfo by the attraftion of the comet, he judges, that
1 DEL
as an hypothefis; but, on further confideration, Mr Deluge.
Whifton thought he could aftually prove that a comet '
did at that time pafs very near the earth, and that it
was the fame which afterwards appeared in 1680. Af¬
ter this, he looked upon his theory no longer as an
hypothefis, but publiftied it in a particular traft, en
titled. The Caufe of the Deluge demonjlrated. But the
uncertainty of the comet’s return in 1758, and the
abfolute failure of that which ought to have appeared
in 1788 or 1789, muft certainly render Mr Whifton’s
calculations for fuch a length of time extremely dubious;
ancf the great fimilarity between the tails of comets
and ftreams of ele&ric matter renders his fuppofition of
their being aqueous vapours exceedingly improbable. ^
5. According to Mr de la Pryme, the antediluvian Theory of
world had an external fea as well as land, with moun- Mr de k
tains, rivers, &c. and the deluge was effefted by break- ^ryme*
ing the fubterraneous caverns, and pillars thereof, with
dreadful earthquakes, and caufing the fame to be for
the moft part, if not wholly, abforbed and fwallowed
up, and covered by the feas that we now haVe. Daft¬
ly, this earth of ours arofe out of the bottom of the
antediluvian fea; and in its room, juft as many iflands
are fwallowed down, and others thruft up in their ftead.
On this, as on all the other hypothefes, it may be re¬
marked, that it is quite arbitrary, and without the leaft
foundation from the words of Mofes. The facred hi-
ftorian fpeaks not one word of earthquakes, nay, from
the nature of the thing, we know it is impoffible that
the flood could have been occafioned by an earth¬
quake, and the ark preferved, without a miracle. It
is certain, that if a (hip finks at fea, the commotion
excited in the water by the defcent of fuch a large
the abyfs muft put on an elliptical figure, whofe fur- body, will fwallow up a fmall boat that happens to
face being confiderably larger than the former fpheri- come too near. If the pillars of the earth itfelf then
cal one, the outward cruft of the earth, incumbent on were broken, what muft the commotion have been,
the abyfs, muft accommodate itfelf to that figure, when the continents of Europe, Afia, and Africa, de-
which it could not do while it held folid, and conjoined fcended into the abyfs at once ? not to mention Ame-
together. He concludes, therefore, that it muft of ne- rica, which lying at fo great a diftance from Noah, he
ceffity be extended, and at laft broke by the violence might be fuppofed out of danger from that quarter,
of the faid tides and attraftion ; out of which the in- By what miracle was the little ark preferved amidft
eluded water iffuing, was a great means of the deluge:
this anfwering to what Mofes fpeaks of the “ foun¬
tains of the great deep being broke open.”—Again,
the fame comet, he Ihows, in its defcent towards the
fun, palled fo clofe by the body of the earth, as to in-
the tumult of thofe impetuous waves which muft have
rulhed in from all quarters? Befides, as the ark was
built not at fea, but on dry ground ; when the earth
on which it refted funk down, the ark muft have funk
along with it; and the waters falling in as it were over-
volve it in its atmofphere and tail for a confiderable head, muft have dalhed in pieces the ftrongeft veflel
time; and of confequence left a vaft quantity of its
vapours, both expanded and condenfed, on its furface ;
a great part of which being rarefied by the folar
heat, would be drawn up into the atmofphere, and
afterwards return in violent rains: and this he takes
to be what Mofes intimates by “ the windows of hea¬
ven being opened,” and particularly by the “ forty
days rain.” For as toThe following rain, which with
this made the whole time of raining 150 days, Mr
Whifton attributes it to the earth coming a fecond
time within the atmofphere of the comet as the comet
was on its return from the fun. Laftly, to remove
this vaft orb of waters again, he fuppofes a mighty
that can be imagined. Earthquakes, alfo, operate fud-
denly and violently ; whereas, according to the Mofaic
account, the flood came on gradually, and did not ar¬
rive at its height till fix weeks, or perhaps five months,
after it began. a8
6. Mr Hutchinfon and his followers prefent us with HutchinW
a theory of the deluge, which they pretend to derive nian theo-
from the word of God itfelf. This theory hath been ri%
particularly enlarged upon and illuftrated by Mr Cat-
cot, who in 1768 publifhed a volume on the fubjedf.
This gentleman afferts, that when the world was firft
created, at the time when it is faid to have been “ with¬
out form and void,” the terreftrial matter was then
wind to have arifen, which dried up fome, and forced tirely diflblved in the aqueous; fo that the whole
the reft into the abyfs through the clefts by which formed, as it were, a thick muddy water. The figure
it came up ; only a good quantity remained in the al- of this mafs was fpherical; and on the outfide of this
veus of the great ocean, now firft made, and in lefler fphere lay the grofs dark air. Within the fphere of
leas, lakes, &c. This theory was at firll only propofed earth.and water was an immenfe cavity, called by Mo-
fee
Another
theory.
DEL L 739 1 DEL
fcs the deep; and this internal cavity was filled with
air of a kind fimilar to that on the outfide. On the
creation of light, the internal air received elafticity
fufficient to burft out through the external covering of
earth and water. Upon this the water defcended,
filled up the void, and left the earth in a form fimilar
to what it hath at prefent. Thus, according to him,
the antediluvian world, as well as the prefent, con-
fifted of a vaft collection or nucleus of water, called the
great deep, or the abyfs; and over this the (hell of
earth perforated in many places; by which means the
waters of the ocean communicated with the abyfs.
The breaking'up of thefe fountains was occaiioned by
a miraculous preffure of the atmofphere, from the im¬
mediate action of the Deity himfelf. So violent was
this preffure, that the air defcended to where it had
been originally ; occupied the fpace of the abyfs ; and
drove out the waters over the whole face of the dry
land. But this account, fo far from being infallibly
certain, feems inconfiffent with the moll common ob-
fervations. No preffure, however violent, will caufe
water rife above its level, unlefs that preffure is unequal.
If, therefore;, the atmofphere entered into the fuppofed
abyfs, by a vehement preffure on the fuiface of the
ocean, that preffure mull only have been on one place,
or on a few places : and even though we fuppofe the
atmofphere to have been the agent made ufe of, it is
impofiible that it could have remained for any time
in the abyfs without a continued miracle; as the pref¬
fure of the water would immediately have forced it up
again through thofe holes which had afforded it a paf-
fage downwards.
The explication given from Hutchinfon by Mr Cat-
cot, of the “ windows of heaven,” is fomewhat ex¬
traordinary. According to him, thefe windows are
not in heaven, but in the bowels of the earth ; and
mean no more than the cracks and fiffures by which
the airs, as he calls them, found a paffage through
the {hell or covering of earth, which they utterly dif-
folved and reduced to its original Hate of fluidity. It
is, however, difficult to conceive'how the opening of
fuch windows as thefe could caufe a violent rain for 40
days and nights.
It is not to be fuppofed, that we can pretend to af-
certain any thing on the fubjeft more than others have
done. The following conje&ures, however, may be
offered on the manner in which the deluge might have
happened without any violence to the eftabliftied laws
of nature.
1. If we confider the quantity of water requifite for
the purpofe of the deluge, it will not appear fo very ex¬
traordinary as has been commonly reprefented. The
height of the higheft hills is thought not to be quite
four miles. It-will therefore be deemed a fufficient
allowance, when we fuppofe the waters of the deluge
to have been four miles deep on the furface of the
ground. Now it is certain, that water, or any other
matter, when fpread out at large upon the ground,
feems to occupy an immenfe fpace in comparifon of
what it does when contained in a cubical veffel, or
when packed together in a cubical form. Suppofe
we wanted to overflow a room 16 feet every way, or
containing 256 fquare feet, with water, to the height
of one foot, it may be nearly done by a cubical veffel
of fix feet filled with water. A cube of eight feet will
cover it too feet deep, and a cube of ten feet will very
nearly cover it four feet deep. It makes not the leaft
difference whether we fuppofe feet or miles to be co¬
vered. A cube of ten miles of water would very near¬
ly overflow 256 fquare miles of plain ground to the
height of four miles. But if we take into our account
the vaft number of eminences with v/hich the furface
of the earth abounds, the above-mentioned quantity of
water would do a great deal more. If, therefore, we
attempt to calculate the quantity of water fufficient to
deluge the earth, we mull make a very confiderable
allowance for the bulk of all the hills on its furface.
To confider this matter, however, in its utmoft lati¬
tude : The furface of the earth is fuppofed, by the
lateft computations, to contain 199,512,595 fquare
miles. To overflow this furface to the height of four
miles, is required a parallelepiped of water 16 miles
deep, and containing 49,878,148 fquare milqs of fur¬
face. Now, coniidering the immenfe thicknefs of the
globe of the earth, it can by no means be improbable,
that this whole quantity of water may be contained in
its howels, without the neceffity of any remarkable
abyfs or huge colledtion of water, fuch as moll of
our theorifts fuppofe to exift in the centre. It is cer¬
tain, that as far as the earth has been dug, it hath
been found not dry, but moift; nor have we the leaft
reafon to imagine, that it is not at leaft equally moift
all the way down to the centre. How moift it really
is cannot be known, nor the quantity of wqter requi¬
fite to impart to it "the degree of moifture it has; but
we are fure it muft be immenfe. The earth is com¬
puted to be near 8000 miles in diameter. The ocean
is of an unfathomable depth; but there is no reafon for
fuppofing it more than a few miles. To make all rea-
fonable allowances, however, we fhall fuppofe the
whole folid matter in the globe to be only equal to a
cube of 5000 miles ; and even on this fuppoiition we
{hall find, that all the waters of the deluge would
not be half fufficient to moiften it. The above men¬
tioned parallelopiped of water would indeed contain
798,050,368 cubic miles of that fluid; but the cube
of earth containing no lefs than an hundred and twenty-
five thoufand millions of cubic miles, it is evident that
the quantity aifigned for the deluge would fcarce be
known to moiften it. It could have indeed no more
effedl this way, than a Angle pound of water could have
upon 150 times its bulk of dry earth. We are per-
fuaded therefore, that any perfon who will try by ex¬
periment how much water a given quantity of earth
contains, and from that experiment will make calcula¬
tions with regard to the whole quantity of water con¬
tained in the bowels of the earth, mull be abundantly
fatisfied, that though all the water of the deluge had
been thence derived, the diminution of the general ftore
would, comparatively fpeaking, have been next to
nothing.
2. It was not from the bowels of the earth only
that the waters were difeharged, but alfofrom the air;
for we are affured by Mofes, that it rained 40 days
and 40 nights. This fource of the deluvian waters hath
been confidered as of fmall confequence by almoft every
one who hath treated on the fubjedt. The general opi¬
nion concerning this matter we {hall tranferibe from the
Univerfal Hiftory, Vol. I. where it is very fully exprefs-
ed. “ According to the obfervations made of the
5 & 2 quantity
DEL
Deluge.
[ 74° ]
DEL
quantity of water that falls in rain, the rains could not
' afford one ocean, nor half an ocean, and would be a
■very mconfiderable part of what was neceffary for a
deluge. If it rained 40 days and 40 nights throughout
the whole earth at once, it might be fuffieient to lay
all the lower grounds under water, but it would figni-
fy very little as to the overflowing of the mountains ;
fo that it has been faid, that if the deluge had been
made by rains only, there would have needed not
40 days, but 40 years, to have brought it to pafs.
And if we fuppofe the whole atmofphere condenfed in¬
to water, it would not all have been fufficient for this
efftft ; for it is certain that it could not have rifen
above 32 feet, the height to which ’water can beraifed
by the preffure of the atmofphere: for the weight of
the whole air, when condenfed into water, can be no
more than equal to its weight in its natural ftate, and
muft become no lefs than 800 times denfer ; for that
is the difference between the weight of the heavieft
air and that of water.”
On this fubjeft we muft obferve, that there is atvery
general miftake with regard to the air, fimilar to the
above-mentioned one regarding the earth. Becaufe the
earth below our feet appears to our fenfes firm and com-
paft, therefore the vaft quantity of water, contained
even in the moft folid parts of it, and wdiich will rea¬
dily appear on proper experiment, is overlooked, and
treated as a non-entity. In like manner, becaufe the
air does not always deluge with exceffive rains, it is
alfo imagined that it contains but very little water.
Becaufe the preffure of thef air is able to raife only
32 feet of water on the furface of the earth, it is
as indefinite, efpeeially as we know that by whatever Deluge.;
agent it is fufpended, that agent muft counteract the 1 11 «
force of gravity, otherwife the water would .immediate¬
ly defeend ; and while the force of gravity in any fub-
ftance is counteracted, that fubftance cannot appear to
us to gravitate at all.
3. The above confiderations render it prolable at lea ft,
that there is in nature a quantity of water fuffi'eient to
deluge the world, provided it was applied to the pur-
poie. We muft next confider whether there is any na¬
tural agent powerful enough toetfeftuate this purpofe.
We ftuill take the phrafes ufed by Mofes in their moft
obvious fenfe. The breaking up of the fountains of the
deep wc may reafonably fuppofe to have been the open¬
ing of all the paffages, whether fmall or great, through
which the fubterraneous waters poffibly could difeharge
tbemfelves on the furface of the earth. The opening of
the windows ■ of heaven we may alfo fuppofe to be the
pouring out the water contained in the atmofphere
thro’ thofe invifible paifages by which it enters in fuch a
manner as totally to elude every one of our fenfes, as
when water is abforbed by the air in evaporation. As
both thefe are faid to have been opened at the fame time,,
it feems from thence probable, that one natural agent
was employed to do both. i\row it is certain, that the
induftry of modern inquirers hath difeovered an agent'
unknown to the former ages, and whole influence is
fo great, that with regard to this world it may be
faid to have a kind of omnipotence. The agent we
mean is eleftricity. It is certain, that, by means of
it, immenfe quantities of water can be raifed to a great
height in the air. This is proved by the phenomena
therefore fuppofed we may know to what depth the of water-fpouts. Mr Forfter relates, that he happt
atmofphere could deluge the earth if it was to let fall
the whole water contained in it. But daily obferva-
tions fhow, that the preflure of the atmofphere hath
not the leaft connexion with the quantity of water it
Contains. Nay, if there is any connexion, the air
feems to be lighteft when it contains moft water. In
the courfe of a long fummer’s drought, for inftance,
the mercury in the barometer will ftand at 30 inches,
Or little more. If it does fo at the beginning of the
ed to fee one break very near him, and obferved a flafh
of lightning proceed from it at the moment of its
breaking. The conclufion from this is obvious. When
the ele&ric matter was difeharged from the water, it
could no longer be fupported by the atmofphere, but
immediately fell down. Though water-fpouts do not
often appear in this country, yet every one muft have
made an obfervation fomewhat fimilar to Mr Forfter’s..
In a violent ftorm of thunder and rain, after every fiafh
drought, it ought to afeend continually during the time of lightning or difeharge of eleftricity from the clouds,
the dry weather continues 5 becaufe the air is all the
while abforbing water in great quantity from the furface
©f the earth and fea. This, however, is known to be
contrary to fad. At fuch times the mercury does not
afeend, but remains ftationary ; and what is ftill more
extraordinary, when the drought is about to have an
end, the air, while it yet Contains the whole quantity
of water it abforbed, and hath not difeharged one fingle
drop, becomes fuddenly lighter, and the mercury will
perhaps fink an inch before any rain falls. The moft
furprifing phenomenon, however, is yet to come. Af¬
ter the atmofphere has been difeharging for a number
of days fucceffively a quantity of matter 800 times hea¬
vier than itfelf, inftead of being lightened by the dif¬
eharge, it becomes heavier, nay fpecifically heavier,
than it was before. It is alfo certain, that very dry
air, provided it is not at the fame; time very hot, is al¬
ways heavieft ; and the drieft air which we are ac¬
quainted with, namely Dr Prieftley’s dephlogifticated air,
isconfiderably heavier than the airwe commonly breathe.
For thefe reafons we think the quantity of water con¬
tained in the whole atmofphere ought to be confidered.
the rain pours down with increafed violence; thus fhow-
ing, that the cloud, having parted with fo much of its
eleCtricity, cannot longer be fupported in the form of
vapour, but muft defeend in rain. It is not indeed yet
difeovered that eleCtricity is the caufe of the fufpenfion
of water in the atmofphere ; but it is certain that eva¬
poration is promoted by electrifying the fluid to be
evaporated*. It may therefore be admitted as zpoffi- *sPe
bility, that the eleClric fluid contained in the air is the trhtiy and
agent by which it is enabled to fufpend the water ^'i'a/c'ra*
which rifes in vapour. If therefore the air is deprived
of the due proportion of this fluid, it is evident that rain
msdt fall in prodigious quantities.
Again, we are affured from the moft undeniable oh-
fervations, that eleCtricity is able to fwell up water on
the furface of the earth. This we can make it do even
in our trifling experiments ; and much more muft the
whole force of the fluid be fuppofed capable of doing it,
if applied to the waters of the ocean, or any others.
The agitation of the fea in earthquakes is a fufficient
proof of thisf. It is certain, that at thefe times there,. _ *
is a difeharge of a vaft quantity of eleCtric matter from “
the
DEL [ 741 7 DEL
jpeluge. the earth into the air 5 and as foon as this happens,
r—v——■ all becomes quiet on the furface of the earth.
From a multitude of obfervations it alfo appears, that
[ there is at all times- a pafiage of electric matter from
the atmofphere into the earth, and vice verfa from the
earth into the atmofphere. There is therefore no ab-
furdity in fuppofing the Deity to have influenced
the aftion of the natural powers in fuch a manner
I that for 40 days and nights the eledlric matter con¬
tained in the atmofphere ihould defcend into the bowels
of the earth ;—if indeed there is occaiion for fuppo-
I fing any fuch immediate influence at all, fince it is not
impoffible that there might have been, from fome na¬
tural caufe, a defcent of this matter from the atmo¬
fphere for that time. But by whatever caufe the de-
fcent was occahoned, the confequence would be, the
breaking up of the fountains of the deep, and the opening
the <wlnd(j<ws if heaven. The water contained in the
atmofphere being left without fuppart, would defcend
in impetuous rains r while the waters of the ocean,
tbofe from which fountains originate, and thofe con¬
tained in the folid earth itfelf, would rife from the very
centre, and meet the waters which defcended from
above. Thus the breaking up of the fountains of the
deep, and the opening the windows of heaven, would
accompany each other, as Mofes tells us they adlually
did ; for, according to him, both happened on the
fame day.
In this manner the flood would come on quietly
and gradually, without that violence to the globe which
Burnet, Whifton, and other theorifts, are obliged to
fuppofe. The abatement of the waters would enfue
on the afcent of the eleftric fluid to where it was be¬
fore. The atmofphere would then abforb the water
as formerly; that which had afcended through the
earth would again fubfide ; and thus every thing would
return to its priftine date.
III. Having thus fhown in what manner it is pofiible
that an univerfal deluge might take place by means of
the natural agents known to us at prefent, we (hall
next confider fome more of the evidences that fuch an
event actually did happen, and that the deluge was
univerfal. The proof here is fo flrong from the tra¬
ditions prevalent among altnofl every nation' on the
face of the earth, and which have been already fo
amply treated, that no farther objection could be
made to the Mofaic account, were it not that the
neceffity of Sir univerfal deluge is denied by fome, who
contend that all the deluges mentioned in hiflory or
recorded by tradition were only partial, and may be
accounted for horn the fwelling of rivers or other ac¬
cidental caufes. Many indeed, even of thofe who
profefs to believe the Mofaic account, have thought
that the deluge was not univerfal; or, though it
might be univerfal with refpedl to mankind, that it
was not fo with regaid to the earth itfelf. The learn-
Voflius’s ed Ifaac Voffius was of this opinion, though his rea-
fcheme of fons feem principally to have been that he could not
partial de- conceive how an univerfal deluge could happen. “ To
<re‘ effetft this (fays he) many miracles mud have concur¬
red ;.but God works, no miracles in vain. What need
was there to drown thofe lands where no men lived, or
are yet to be found ? ’Tis a foolifh thing to think that
mankind had multiplied fo much before the flood as to
kave overfpread all the earth. How flow and fluggifli
the firft men were in propagating their kind is evident Bclugc.
from hence, that Noah was but the ninth in a lineal* “J
defcent from Adam. They are quite wide of the
truth, therefore, who think mankind to have fpread
over all the earth in the days of Noah, who perhaps
at that time had not extended themfelves beyond the
borders of Syria and Mefopotamia: but no reafon
obligeth us to extend the inundation of the deluge be¬
yond thofe bounds which were inhabited ; yea, it is
altogether abfurd to aver, that the effedt of a punifh-
ment inflitfed upon mankind only, fhould extend to
thofe places where no men lived. Although we fliould
therefore believe that part of the earth only to have
been overflowed by the waters which we have men¬
tioned, apd which is not the hundredth part of the
terredrial globe, the deluge will neverthelefs be univer¬
fal, (ecumenical, fnice the dedruftion was univerfal, and
overwhelmed the whole habitable world.” 31
Another fcheme of a partial deluge is publifned by Coetio-
Mr Coetlogon in his Univerfal Hi dory of Arts and
Sciences, under the article Antediluvians. This ap- C eaiS’
pears to have been formed with a defign to accommo¬
date the belief of a deluge to the opinions of the free¬
thinkers, who deny the truth of the Mofatc accounts,
as he tells us that they are willing to allow it. Accord¬
ing to this author, the fird inhabitants of the earth be¬
ing placed at the conduence of two great rivers, the Eu¬
phrates and Tigris, thofe rivers may have overflowed
their banks all of a fudden, and furprifed the neighbour¬
ing inhabitants not yet accuflomed to fuch fort of vifits,
and drowned part of them (and if really defigned as a
punidrment), fuch as were more guilty. That fome of
the animals, particularly the mo»« flothful, and con-
fequently not fo apprehenfive of danger or fo ready
to take to flight to avoid it, might have been involved
in the fame calamity, as well as fome of the volatiles,
which being deprived of food by the earth’s being co¬
vered with water, might have peridred ; particularly
thofe who, by the too great weaknefs of their wings
to fuppoct their bodies, were not proper for a long
flight. As for others who had thefe advantages above
the red, they would no doubt take care of their own
prefervation by flying to thofe parts- of the earth which
their natural in din ft could fhow them free from the
inundation.
A third fcheme of a partial deluge is given by the Bifhnp Stil*
learned bifhop Stillingfleet in his Grigines Sacra.. “ ihngfleetV
cannot (fays he) fee any urgent necefilty from theIc e,nc‘
feripture to affert, that the dood did fpread itfelf all
over the furface of the earth. That all mankind
(thofe in the ark excepted) were dedroyed by it, is
mod certain according to the feriptures. When the
Lord faid, that he would dedroy man from the face
of the earth, it could not be any particular deluge of
fo fmall a country as Paledine, as fome have rjdicu-
loufly imagined; for we find an univerfal corruption
in the earth mentioned as the caufe; an univerfal;
threatening upon all men for this caufe; and after¬
wards an univerfal dedruftion expreded as the effeft
of this dood. So then it is evident, that the flood-
was univerfal with regard to mankind; but from
thence follows no neceflity at all of. aflerting the uni-
verfality of it as to the globe of the earth, unlefs it be
fufficiently proved that the whole earth was peopled -
before the flood,whichj.defpair 9! ever feeing proved:
-2 and-
DEL [ 742 ] DEL
ahd wliat reafon can there be to extend the flood be- determined, as no traveller of any credit pretends to Delu,
yond the occafion of it, which was the corruption of have afcended to its top ; but from the diftance at   
mankind ?—The only probability then of aflerting which it is feen, we can fcarce look upon it to be in-
the univerfality of the flood, as to the globe of the ferior to the moft celebrated mountains of the old
earth, is from the deftruftion of all living creatures, to- continent*. Sir John Chardin thinks that fome part * gee ^rA
gether with man. Now though men might not have of Caucafus is higher; and fuppofing each of thefe to rat,
fpread themfelves over the whole furface of the earth, be only a mile and an half in height, the fea all round
yet beafts and creeping things might, which were all. the globe muft have been raifed to the fame height;
deftroyed with the flood ; for it is faid, ‘ that all flelh and therefore all that could remain of dry ground as
died that moved upon the earth, both of fowl and of a flicker to animals of any kind, muft have been the un-
cattle, and of every creeping thing that creepeth inhabitable tops of fome high mountains fcattered at
upon the earth, and every man.’ To what end fhould immenfe diftances from one another. We may there-
there be not only a note of univerfality added, but fore with equal reafon fuppofe, that thefe were in
fuch a particular enumeration of the feveral kinds of like manner covered, and that no living creature
beafts, creeping things and fowls, if they were not all whatever could find flicker even for a moment: and
it is certainly more agreeable to the character of the
Deity to believe, that he would at once deftroy ani¬
mal life by fuffocation in water, rather than allow
numbers of them to colleft themfelves on the tops of
mountains to perifti with hunger' and cold. It is be-
deftroyed ? To this I anfwer ; I grant that, as far as
the flood extended, all thefe were deftroyed: but I
fee no reafon to extend the deftrudtion of thefe beyond
that compafs and fpace of the earth where men inha¬
bited, becaufe the puniftiment upon the beafts was occa-
fioned by, and could not but be concomitant with, the fides very improbable, that any creature, whether bird
deftruftion of man; but (the occafion of the deluge
being the fin of man, who was punifhed in the-beafts
that were deftroyed for his.fake, as well as in himfelf)
where the occafion was not, as where there were ani¬
mals and no men, there feems no neceflity of extend¬
ing the flood thither.—But to what end, will it there¬
fore be replied, did God command Noah, with fo
much care, to take all kinds of birds, beafts, and creep¬
ing things, into the ark with him, if all thofe living
creatures were not deftroyed by the flood ? I anfwer,
becaufe all thofe things were deftroyed wherever the
flood was. Suppofe then the whole continent^)! Afia
was peopled before the flood, which is as much as in
reafon we may fuppofe ; I fay, all the living creatures
in that continent were deftroyed; or if we may fup-
or beaft, could fuftain a continued rain of 40 days and
40 nights, even without fuppofing them to have been
abfolutely immerfed in water.
This confideration alone is fufficient to fhow, that
if there was a deluge at all, it muft have been univerfal
with regard to the world as well as the human race ;
and the poffibility of fuch a deluge by natural means
has already been evinced. Under the article Antedi¬
luvians it is Ihown, that, According to the moft mo¬
derate computations, the world muft have been vaftly
more full of people than at prefent. The leaft calcu¬
lation there made indeed feems incredible ; fince, ac¬
cording to it, the world muft have contained upwards
of 68,719 times as many inhabitants as are at prefent
to be met with in the empire of China, the moft po-
pofe it to have extended over our whole continent of pulous country in the world : but China bears a much
33 ,
A partial
deluge pro¬
ved to be
impoflible.
the ancient known world, what reafon would there
be, that in the oppofite part of the globe, which we fup¬
pofe to be unpeopled then, all the living creatures
fhould there be deftroyed, becaufe men had finned in
this ? and would there not have been on this fuppo-
fition a fufficient reafon to prefcrve living creatures in
the ark for future propagation,” &c. ?
Thus we have the ftrength of all the arguments
that have been offered in fupport of a partial deluge,
and which may all be fummed up in the three follow¬
ing articles, 1. The impoffibility, in a natural way,
of accounting for the quantity of water neceffary to
larger proportion to the habitable part of the world
than this. The violences exercifed by mankind upon
one another, have always been the means of thinning
their numbers, and preventing the earth from being
overftocked with inhabitants ; and the ftrong expref-
fion in Scripture, that the “ earth was filled with vio¬
lence,” Ihows that it muft have gone to an extraordi¬
nary height. But though this violence muft have un¬
doubtedly thinned the old world of its inhabitants, it
muft likewife have difperfed fome of them into diftant
regions. There is therefore no reafon for fuppofing,
that before the flood the human race were not .driven
overflow the whole World; 2. The fmall number of into the remoteft regions of the habitable world, or
mankind fuppofed at that time to have exifted on
the earth; and, 3. The inutility of an univerfal de¬
luge, when the divine purpofes could have been equal¬
ly well anfwered by a partial one. But to all this
■we mpy make one general anfwer, that a partial deluge
is in the nature of things impoffible. We cannot
that America was deftitute of inhabitants then more
than it is at prefent. At any rate, the fchemes of
Voffius and Coetlogon, who would confine the whole
race of mankind to a fmall part of Afia, muft' appear
evidently futile and erroneous in the higheft degree.
Some objeftions have been made to the do&rine of objeaioni
imagine that the waters could accumulate upon any an univerfal deluge from the ftate of the continent of from fome
country without going off to the fea, while the lat- America, and the number of animals peculiar to that fpecies of
' u- 1—1 ■'1- - —- — r- r- and other countries, which could not be fuppofed to.animals )?e*
travel to fuch a diftance either to or from the ark of'^J^n^
ter retained its ufual level; neither can we fuppofe
any part of the fea to remain above the level of the
reft. On the fuppofition of biffiop Stillingfleet there- Noah. On this fubjedl Biftiop Stillingfleet obferves, countries.
fore, that the deluge exended over the whole conti¬
nent of Afia, we know that it muft have covered the
high mountains of Ararat, on which the ark refted ;
Caucafus, Taurus, &c. The height of Ararat is in-
that the fuppolition of animals being propagated much
farther in the world than mankind before the flood,
feems very probable, “ becaufe the production of ani¬
mals is parallel in Genefis with that of fifties, and both
of
„ 36-
Countries
rendered
uninhabit¬
able by the
abundance
of brute
•features.
DEL [ 743 1   DEL
of them different from man. For God faith, Let port of life was fpoiled or deftroyed by them, nor was Deluge,
the waters bring forth every moving creature that hath it poflible for the inhabitants to prevent it. v ' J
life, viz. fifh and fowl: And accordingly it is faid, that The Ifle of France may be faid to be the kingdom
the waters brought forth abundantly every living crea- of rats. They come down from the mountains like
ture after their kind, and every fowl after his kind, an army, creep up the fteepeft rocks, march into the
Accordingly, in the produ&ion of beafts, we read, flat country, affemble in the marfhy grounds, and
* Let the earth bring forth the living creature after bring defolation every where, efpecially in the night,
his kind, cattle, and every creeping thing, and beaft Men can fearce fleep for them, and are obliged to roll
of the earth, after his kind : and it was fo.’ But in themfelves in fuck things as may beft fecure them from
the production of man it is faid, ‘ Let us make man their bitings. It was the fame in the Ifle of Bourbon,
in our image, and after our likenefs.’ From hence I which was as much infefted with them at firft, till it
obferve this difference between the formation of ani- became more fully peopled. “ We have good rea-
mals and of man, that in one God gave a prolific fon therefore (fays Mr Cockburn) to conclude, that
power to the earth and waters for the production of there was but one pair of animals created at firit, that
the feveral living creatures which came from them, fo they might not increafe too fall for mankind ; and
that the feminal principles of them were contained in though they would multiply much more, and increafe
the matter.out of which they were produced ; which faffer than men could do, they had room to fpread
was otherwife in man, who was made by a peculiar themfelves for a long time without much annoyance
hand of the great Creator himfelf, who thence, is faid to man; and as men increafed in number and extended
to have formed man out of the dull of the ground. their habitations, they w'oufd be able to drive them
“ If now this fuppofition be embraced, by it we further off, or defend themfelves from their depreda-
prefently clear ourfelves of many difficulties concern- tions.” The fame mode of reafoning is by our author
ing the propagation of animals in the world, and their made ufe of with regard to aquatic animals. The
confervation in the ark ; as how the unknown kind of multitude of thefe indeed, however great, could be no
ferpents in Brazil, the flow-bellied creature in the In- detriment to man who lived on land ; but if we con-
dies, and all thofe ftrange fpecies of animals feen in fider how large and numerous a fpawn fiflies caff at
the Weft Indies, ftiould either come into the ark of once, and in how fhort a time they multiply to im-
Noah, or be conveyed out of it into thofe countries menfe numbers, he thinks it reafonable to conclude,
which are divided by fo vaft an ocean on one fide, and that only one pair was created at once ; and that the
at leaft fo large a trail of land on the other. Befides, command to the waters to bring forth abundantly both
fome kind of animals cannot live out of the climate fifli and fowl, related only to the variety of fpecies, not
wherein they are; and there are many forts of animals to a number of each. 3y
difcovered in America and the adjoining iflands, which 3. Though at the reftoration of the world it was to Vah in*.
have left no remainders of themfelves in thefe parts of be repedpled by fix perfons inilead of two, and though
the world. And it feems very ftrange, that thefe ftiould fet the fame time animal food was given to man, yet cre£.tion,
propagate into thofe parts of the world from the place Noah was commanded only to take a Angle pair of
of the flood, and leave none at all of their number behind each of the animals, clean beafts, which are but a few in
them in thefe parts whence they were propagated.” number, only excepted. It is further obfervable, that
To this Mr Cockburn, in his treatife on the deluge, notwithftanding this fcanty fupply of animals, they
replies, 1. That as it pleafed God to create only one man had increafed fo much by the time of Nimrod, that it
and one woman at the beginning, and their pofterity then became neceflary to hunt and deftroy them ; and
were fufficient to ©verfpread the earth, it might well be Nimrod was celebrated for his courage and flcill
fuppofed to be furniftied with animals from an original in that neceflary employment. “ So numerous (adds
pair of each. 2. On the fuppofition of many pairs of he) were the animals befoie the flood, though but
brute animals having been created originally, they muft, two of a kind were created, that Dr Woodward, from
when the human race were few in number, have multi- the remains of that earth, as well the animal as vegetable
plied to fuch a degree as to render the world uninhabi- productions of it ftill preferved, concludes, that ‘ at
table. In confirmation of this, he informs us from the the time the deluge came, the earth was fo loaded
accounts of the Indian miflionaries, that in the kingdom with herbage, and fo thronged with animals, that fuch
of Champua in the Indies, the river called by the natives an expedient was even wanting to eafe it of the bur-
Tinacoreu, but by the Portuguefe Varella, goes up 80 den, and to make room for a new fucceflion of its pro¬
leagues into the country to a mountain called Monca- du&ions.”
lor, above which it is much broader, but not fo deep 4. Mr Cockburn is of opinion, that America muft Of the
by far; there being banks of fand in fome places, and have been peopled before the flood, as the old conti- peopling of
lands overflowed with water, where there are an infi- nent could not be fuppofed able to hold the number of
nite number of fowls that cover all the country ; info- inhabitants- tionofaniT
much, that by reafon of them the whole kingdom of 5. With regard to the main difficulty, viz. how mals to it..
Chintalcuhos had for 40 years been defolate, though the animals peculiar to different countries could travel
it was eight days journey in length; which, at 30 to fuch diftances to and from the ark, Mr Cockburn
miles a-day, Inade it 240 miles’long. After palling replies, that America, which Biflrojt Stillingfleet chief-
this country, another was met with more wild, and ly infills upon, has nothing peculiar to it, but what
full of great rocks; where there were a vaft number of may equally well be urged both with refpeft to Afia
animals yet worfe than the fowls, as elephants, rhino- and Africa; each of them having animals peculiar to
cerofes, lions, bears, buffaloes, and other beafts in fuch themfelves. It is alfo poflible, that there might for-
Biultitudes, that whatever men cultivated for the fup- merly be a more eafy communication between the.
3 Afiatic.
BEL [ 744 j DEL
JOetoge. AfiatSc.and Amefican continents than there is now.
’r—“ See the article America, n° ioi'—113.
Our author likewife ohferves, that though the ark
rcfted on mount Ararat, yet we are not told where it
was built, which might be far enough from the place
where it is commonly fuppofed ; _ fo that thofe animals
which are peculiar to America might not have fo far
to travel to the ark as is commonly imagined. This
argument, however, feems to be very inconclufive ;
for though we fliould fuppofe the ark to have been
conftru&ed in America itfelf, the animals of Mefopo-
tamia would have had as far to travel from thence to
America, as the American animals from their own
country to Mefopotamia, according to the common
opinion. But in whatever part of the earth Noah lived
and the ark was built, it was at God’s command that
the feveral kinds of animals came thither in order to
their prefervation ; and his command could bring
them from the fartheft parts of the earth during the
120 years that the world lay under condemnation.
Though after all, none of the animals might have very
far to travel to the ark ; for if only one pair of each
kind was created at firft, and all of thefe in or near
■one place, fince they were all brought before Adam,
and received names from him, there is no abfuYdity in
fuppofmg that fome of every kind might remain in the
country where they were firft. produced, from whence
Noah’s habitation might not be very diftant. Neither
can any objeftion be brought from the extinftion of
fome fpecies of animals in certain countries of the
world, fince they might have been hunted and de-
ftroyed either by the human race or by other creatures.
Thus it is faid, that there are now few or no deer in
Switzerland, though formeily- there were a great many
when it was full of woods. In Britain alfo there are
no wolves now to .be found, though the ifland was in-
fefted with them in former times.
Of the fub- ^n Gonfidering the fubjeft of the dcduge, among other
liftence of queftions which occur, one is, by what means were the
carnivorous ravenous animals, which feed only upon flefh, fup-
the'atk ^ Portef^ *n t^e ar^ ' ^'or t^*s ^ome authors have fup¬
pofed, that Noah, befides thofe animals whom he took
into the ark for prefervation, took likewife a great
'Humber.for (laughter. For this purpofe biftiop Wil¬
kins has allowed no fewer than 1825 fheep, though
he was of opinion, that there were no carnivorous
animals before the flood 5 and this latter opinion is
adopted by Mr Cockburn. The idea indeed of (laugh*
teiing a number of harmlefs animals to fatisfy a few
vile rapacious ones, and that too in a place defigned
for the common afyliVm of the animal creation, feems
inconfiftent with that fcheme of mercy difplayed in
the whole tranfaClion. It is by much the more pro¬
bable fuppe'frtion then, that though fome aninials had
been accuftomed to live on flefti in their natural
date, they could nevei t'helefs fubfift upon vegetable
food. This feems the more probable, as fome animals
naturally carnivorous, paiticularly dogs and cats, may
be fupported in their domeftic ftate by vegetable food
alone. If we extend this to the whole canine and fe¬
line genera, we (hall take in the moft of the beads of
prey ; as lions, tygers, leopards, panthers, wolves,
foxes, hyscnas, &c. Bears are well known fometimes
to feed on berries; fnakes will eat bread and milk; and
there is no reafon to fuppofe that even the moft car¬
nivorous birds could not be kept alive by grain or o* Deluge*
tber vegetable food. By thus excluding fuch a num- —v—
ber of ufelefs animals, a very coniiderable fpace will w 4° W
be allowed for the circulation of air in the ark, the
want of which feems to be the moft inexplicable dif- cu’ation of I
ficulty, if we may judge from the prefent conftitution air the fl
of things. It feems indeed to be certain, that no
qual number of animals could fublift for a twelvemonth cu ■
in an equal fpace fo clofely (hut up as they were.
The ark, it is true, contained near two millions of
cubic feet ; but coniidering the number of its in*
habitants, the great fpace neceflary for the food ■
with which they were to be fupplied, and the con¬
tinual pollution of the air by their dung and ftJth
as well as the effluvia from their bodies, there
feems little probability that even fuch a vaft bulk of
air could fuifice for any length of time. This diffi¬
culty will appear the greater, when we coniider that
any' ventilation was impoflible, as this could not have
been done without opening both the door and win¬
dow; and the former, we are certain, was not opened
until the time that the command was given to come
forth out of the ark. Neither is there the fmalleft
probability, that the opening of a (ingle window could
renew the air in fuch a manner as to make it (it for
breathing throughout the whole extent of the ark.
In this particular therefore, we muft have recoude to
the immediate interpofition of Divine power, and iup-
pofe that the air was miraculoufly preferved of a fuf-
ficient degree of purity, as the garments of the lirae-
lites were preferved from turning old, and their feet
from being affe&ed by the journey through the defert
in which they wandered fo long.—Many other quef¬
tions concerning the economy of the ark might be
propofed; as, how they fupplied themfelves whii wa¬
ter t in what manner they could ufe (ire for the dref-
fing of their victuals? &c. But as eveiy anfwer to thefe
mult be founded wholly upon conjecture, and none
can pretend that there was a natural impofiibiiity of
effecting any of thefe things, we forbear to in hit far¬
ther upon them. The cafe, however, is very diffe¬
rent .with refpeCt to the air neceffary for iuftaining a-
nimal life: for here there is a plain impoffibility in a
natural way ; nay, we may even doubt whether the
general rnals of atmofphere, after being deprived of its
eleCtric matter, or otherwife altered in iuch a manner
as to let fall fueft. a quantity of the water it contain¬
ed, was lit for the (upport of animal life; fo that a
miracle would have been'neceffary at any rate. To
this indeed it may be replied, that on (uch;a fuppo-
(ition, men and other animals 'would liave been de-
ftroyed, not by the flood, but by the vitiated air they
breathed. But, as has been already hinted, it is im¬
probable that any living creature could relift the vio¬
lent rain which took place, and which would foon
drive the birds from their (helter, as the water s begin¬
ning to overflow the ground would foon expel the hu¬
man race from their houfes ; and it would not be till
the end of tire 40 days and 40 nights that the air
could be at its word Itate, long before which time all
animal life would be extinCl. J
We (hall conclude this article with confidering fome Changds -’fl
of the alterations which are fuppofed to have taken which have
place in the world in confequence of the deluge. One
of thefe is the much greater quantity of water on the qUfnCe ©f
prefent the deluge.
DEL [ 745 1 DEL
prefent than on the old world. Dr Kell has indeed
endeavoured to prove, that the prefent extent of the
furface of the waters is neceffary to raife fuch a quan¬
tity of vapours as may fupply the furface of the earth
with rain and with fprings. In anfwer to this, it is
faid, that it may jultly be queftioned whether all fprings
are derived from the vapours raifed by the fun’s heat?
and, 2 Whether the primitive earth Hood in need of
fuch a quantity of rain to render it fertile as the pre¬
fent ? Dr Woodward gives the following reafon for
fuppofing the antediluvian feas to have been nearly of
the fame extent with thofe at prefent, viz. that “ the
fpoils of the' fea, the (hells and other marine bodies,
are left in fuch prodigious numbers, and in heaps upon
heaps in the earth, befides thofe which have long lince
perifhed, that they could not have been left in fuch
quantities had not the feas occupied much the fame
fpace as they do now.” This argument, however, is
thought by Mr Cockburn to be alfo inconclufive :
“ For (fays he) I. Animal food, whether fifh or fieih,
was not ufed by- mankind before the deluge : but,
2. Suppofe it had, yet for the firft 500 years the num¬
ber of mankind was but fmall, and likely at a great
diftance from the fea ; fo that the increafe of all kinds
of fi(h during fo long a time muft have been prodigi¬
ous. We need not be furprifed, then, at the immenfe
quantities of the exuviae of marine animals left on the
earth by the deluge. But the reafon he brings to
prove that the feveral continents of the world were
encompaffed by feas as they are now, viz. that as
there are different forts of fiflies in the different feas
of the world, fo the exuviae of the fame kind are ge¬
nerally found upon contiguous lands, does not always
hold, fince there are fome (hells found in the continent
which are flrangers to the parts of the fea contermi¬
nous to thefe continents. That the feas in the pre¬
fent earth are vaflly more extended, and confequently
the dry land fo much lefs in proportion, may likewife
be infewed from the great multitude of iflands that
lie near the fhores of the greater continents, if it be
true what fome allege, that they are parts broken off
by the deluge from the main land, which before that
reached to and beyond them. And though iflands are
thought to be rarely found in the great ocean, yet
there have of late been found in the midft of the In¬
dian ocean vaft clufters of iflands, &c.”
To all this it may be replied, That the Mofaic
account fays nothing of the extent of the feas ei¬
ther before or after the flood ; but Amply tells us,
that the waters were poured out upon the furface of
the earth from the windows of heaven and the foun¬
tains of the deep, and that as the flood decreafed the
waters returned from off the face of the earth. If part
of them returned, we have not the leaft reafon to fup-
pofe that the whole did not do fo likewife. That the
fifh, as well as land animals, were more numerous in
the antediluvian world than now when fuch quantities
are deflroyed by mankind, is very probable, as we fee
-they abound to this day in uninhabited places. This
may account for the aftonifhing quantities of their
exuviae to be met with in many different parts of the
earth ; but from the formation of iflands nothing can
be concluded concerning the antediluvian world. The
late difcoveries have fhown that many iflands have a
volcanic origin ; others are formed by -the growth of
Vol. V. Part II.
coral; fome by an accumulation of fea-weeds and other
matters floating on the furface of the ocean, and de¬
tained upon fand-banks or funk rocks ; while not a
few of thofe near the great continents owe their origin
to the quantities of mud brought down by the great
rivers which empty themfelves into the ocean. Au¬
thentic hiftory fcarce affords an inflance of an ifland
formed by the breaking off a piece from the conti¬
nent, though it does many of iflands being joined t»
continents by fome one or other of the caufes juft
mentioned.
The inferior fertility of the earth after the deluge is
much infilled upon by the fame author, for the follow¬
ing reafons : “ 1. The grant of animal food to Noah and
his pofterity ; which he thinks is an indication of great¬
er barrennefs in the ground than formerly. 2. Our
Saviour compares the days of Noah with thofe of
Dot; and as the country about Sodom is faid to have
been exceedingly fertile like the garden of the Lord,
he is of opinion that the antediluvian world muft have
been very fertile alfo. 3. As (according to Dr Wood¬
ward) the firft earth brought forth all manner of
plants of itfelf without any labour or culture of man,
and even before there was a man to till the ground,
we may reafonably fuppofe that the exterior ftratum
or furface of the earth confifted of fuch terreftrial
matter as was fit for thefe produdlions; that is, of
a rich light mould, affording plentifully matter for
vegetation. Now, though God was pleafed, upon
man’s tranfgreffion, to withdraw in part his benedic¬
tion from the earth ; yet the earth itfelf was untouch¬
ed till the deluge, the fame furface of rich mould was
ftill upon it, and brought forth plentifully, efpecially
when man’s culture for corn was added. But the
inundation of waters at the deluge greatly altered the
conftitution of the earth itfelf: it mixed and confound¬
ed this upper ftratum of vegetative earth with other
terreftrial matter not fit for vegetation, with fand, gra¬
vel, ftones, and all kinds of mineral matter, which muft
needs render the earth in general much lefs fertile than
before, and which made the. plough neceffary to dig
up the proper vegetative mould and bring it to the
furface, and alfo manure or compoft to increafe and
enrich it; neither of which before the flood it needed.
4. There is a moral reafon why the earth after the
flood fhould be lefs fertile than before. The luxu¬
riant productions of the firft earth, after man’s nature
became corrupted, and to deviate more and more from
righteoufnefs, ferved only to excite and foment his
luffs, and to minifter plentiful fuel to his vices and
luxury. To cut off, therefore, fuch occafion of fin
and wickednefs, Gad, in great mercy to men, retrench¬
ed the earth in its former fertility, thereby obliging
them to labour and diligence, and employing moft of
their time to procure their neceffary fubfiftence, which
the earth by diligent culture will ftill afford, but not
that luxuriant abundance it did before the flood. If
we take a furvey of the different regions and countries
of the world, we fhall find this to be the truth of the
cafe. Some places, both in Afia and America,, are
as it were a paradife in refpedt of the reft, to fhow
us perhaps what was and would have been the ftate of
the earth had not man finrted; but far the greateft
part is nothing to he compared to thefe, and evidently
(hows that effed which the fins of men !^id upon the
5 B earth
DEL [ 746 ] DEL
Deluge, earth itfelf. In a word, if we take a furvey of the
* whole, it cannot be thought that the firft blefling was
reftored to the earth after the flood, er that it came
©ut of the hands of its maker in the ftate it is at pre
fent, fince fo great a part of it bears ftill the marks of
the curfe laid upon it.”
Notwithftanding all that is here alleged, the extra¬
ordinary fertility of the ancient earth- muft ftill ap¬
pear very problematical, if we confider all circumftan-
ces. For,
x. Even at the creation, when the earth was at its
utmoft perfe&ion, we cannot fuppofe that every part
of it produced fpontaneoufly like the garden of Eden.
On the contrary, we are told that this garden was
planted by the Lord God, and that Adam was put into
it to drefs it and to keep it. It appears, therefore, that
even in the Paradifaical ftate the earth would not have
produced food for man without culture ; for as God
planted the firft garden, there can be no doubt that
had man continued in his ftate of innocence and mul¬
tiplied, he muft have planted other gardens when it be¬
came neceflary. After the fall, the fertility of the
earth was exprefsly removed, and that not in a flight
degree ; but if we can judge from the prefent ftate of
things, it muft have become extremely wild and bar¬
ren. Thus, when it is faid, “ Thorns alfo and thiftles
fhall it bring" forth to thee;” we may judge of the
flate of the foil from that which we fee bringing forth
thorns and thiftles at this day. Every one knows that
an abundant crop of thefe weeds indicates poor ground,
which will require a great deal of cultivation to bring
it into order. Nay, that we may be fure that the cul¬
tivation of the earth was at this time no eafy matter,
it is likewife faid, “ In forrow lhalt thou eat of it all
the days of thy life.” Hence it would appear, that
the antediluvian earth, inftead of being more fertile,
was much more barren than at prefent. That the la¬
bour of cultivating the ground at that time was alfo
fo great as to be almoft intolerable, is evident from the"
fpeech of Lamech on the birth of Noah : “ This
fame (fays he) (hall comfort us concerning our work
and toil of our hands, concerning the ground which
thfe Lord hath curfed.”
2. There is a very evident natural reafon why the
antediluvian world (hould have been more barren than
the prefent, and why the deluge fhould have removed
that barrennefs. Under the article Antediluvians,
n° 19, it is hinted, that the purity of the air at that
time was a principal caufe of the longevity of the hu¬
man race. If this was really the cafe, which is very
probable, we muft fuppofe the atmofphere to have
then contained a greater quantity of dephlogifticated air
than it does at prefent; for late experiments have put
it beyond doubt, that from this the fupport of animal
life is immediately derived. But this kind of air,
however favourable to animal life, is found to be very
unfavourable to vegetation ; and therefore, in propor¬
tion to its abundance in the antediluvian atmofphere,
the animals would be healthy, and the vegetables weak,
puny, and fickly. But the deluge, by overflowing the '
earth for a whole year, deftroyed every animal and ve¬
getable, and confequently induced a vaft putrefaftion
all over the globe ; the confequence of which was the
produftion of an immenfe quantity of what is called
jphlogijlicated ait'. This mixing with the pure atmo¬
fphere, vitiated it to fuch a degree as to make it lefs DeI«s»eJ
friendly to animal life, but more fo to vegetation. ’ 
Hence the prefent world muft naturally be more fer¬
tile than the former ; and not only on this account,
but by reafon of its being manured by the ftagnation
of the waters upon its furface for a twelvemonth, and
the immenfe quantity of animal matter left by them, i;
the ground, ’inftead of being leflened in its fertility as
Dr Woodward fuppofes, muft have been reftored, as
far as we can judge, to the very ftate it was in at its
original formation.
3. That this was really the cafe appears probable from
what the Deity faid to Noah after offering up his facri-
fice. “ I will not (fayshe) curfe the ground any more
for man’s fake.” Now this was plainly intimating that
the earth was reftored to its primitive fertility, and
that he would no more take it away ; for when he did
fo to the primitive world it was in thefe words, “ Cur¬
fed is the ground for thy fake.” That the curfe here
alluded to was really the depriving the earth of its
fertility, and not the overflowing the earth with water,
is evident; becaufe, after declaring that he would no
more curfe the ground for man’s fake, he adds, “ Nei¬
ther will I again fmite every living thing as I have
done.”
4. The moral reafons afligned why the prefent
world Ihould be lefs fertile than the former, feem
to be inconclufive. However barren we may reckon
the earth juft now, it is certain that it produces,
or might produce, much more than would fuffice for
all its inhabitants. The difficulties which mankind
undergo are not at all owing to the barrennefs of
the earth ; but to their own condudf, or their oppref-
fion of one another. Neither does it clearly appear
that animal food is really in any degree cheaper than
vegetable, but rather the contrary ; fo that whatever
was the reafon of this grant after the flood, we can- ~ |
not fairly afcribe it to a forefight of the future bar¬
rennefs of the earth. «
Another queftion which naturally occurs on the
fubjeft of th£ deluge is, Whether there was any rain
before it or not ? The argument againft the exiftence
of rain before the flood is obvioufly derived from the
rainbow being made a fymbol of the divine favour im¬
mediately after. It is certain, indeed, that unlefs we
fuppofe the nature of light or of water to have been
different before this event from what it was afterwards,
there is a natural impoffibility of the refraction of the
fun’s light being prevented from fliowing the appear¬
ance of a rainbow whenever the fun and. cloud were
in a certain pofition with regard to one another. It
appears improbable, to thofe who take this fide of the
queftion, that the Deity Ihould inftitute any thing as
an emblem of his difpleafure being turned away, when-
the fame emblem had been feen perhaps a very fhort
time before the cataftrophe happened. On the other
hand it is replied, that there is no abfurdity in fuppo-
fing this to have been the cafe : for though the rain¬
bow exifted before the deluge, yet it never was ap¬
pointed to be the fymbol of this particular event, viz.
the reconciliation of the Deity ; and the impoffibility
of vegetables being fupplied with a fufficient quantity
of moifture without rain is likewife urged as a decifive
argument. Still, however, it appears, that even ve¬
getation may fubfift, and that in its utmoft per-
feclionj
DEM [ 747 ] DEM
feftion, without rain : for we are informed, that by a fleet of 250 /hips to Athens, and reftored the Athe- Demetriu*.
means of a mift the ground was originally watered, nians to liberty, by freeing them from the power of
and vegetables fupplied with moifture, before there Caflander and Ptolemy, and expelling the garrifon,
was any rain ; and if this was the cafe at one time, which was ftationed there under Demetrius Phalereus.
it might have been at any other, or at any number of After this fuccefsful expedition, he befieged and took
times we can fuppofe. Indeed, as matters ftand at Munychia, and defeated Caflander at Thermopyke.
prefent, this would undoubtedly be a very fcanty fup- His reception at Athens after thefe victories was at-
ply ; and perhaps fo it was in the antediluvian world : tended with the greateft fervility, and the Athenians
and thus the want of rain might have been one caufe were not afhamed to raife altars to him as to a god, and
of that barrennefs in the antediluvian world which we confult his oracles. This uncommon fucce/s raifed
have already mentioned as probable, and which Mr the jealoufy of the fucceflbrs of Alexander and Seleu-
Bryant mentions as the opinion of all the ancient my- cus Caflander, and Lyfimachus united to deftroy An-
tigonus and his fon. Their hollile armies met at
Ipfus, 299 years before the Auguftan age. Antigo-
nus was killed in the battle; and Demetrius, after a
fevere lofs, retired to Ephefus. His ill fuccefs raifed
him many enemies ; and the Athenians, who had late¬
ly adored him as a god, refufed to admit him into their
city. He foon after ravaged the territory of Lyli-
machus, and reconciled himfelf to Seleucus, to whom
thologifts.
For particular deluges, or overflowings of various
parts of the earth by water, fee the article Inunda-
DEMADES, a famous Athenian, who, from be¬
ing a mariner, became a great orator, and appeafed
Philip by his eloquence, after the famous viftory over
the Athenians at Cheronea, in the 338th year B. C.
DEMAIN, or Demesne, in its common accepta- he gave his daughter Stratonice in marriage. Athens
tion, is ufed for the lands round a manor-houfe, occu¬
pied by the lord.
Demain, or Demefne, in law, is commonly under-
ftood to be the lord’s chief manor-place, with the
lands thereto belonging, which he and his anceftors
have, time out of mind, kept in their own manual oc¬
cupation.
DEMAND, in its popular fenfe, denotes a calling
for or requiring one’s due.
Demand, in law, has a more fpecial fignification,
as contradiftinguifhed from plaint: for all civil adtions
are purfued either by demands or plaints ; according
to which the purfuer is called either demandant or
plaintiff: viz. in real actions, demandant; and in per-
fonal adtions, plaintiff. See Plaintiff.
There are two kinds of demands .■ the one in deed.
now laboured under tyranny, and Demetrius relieved it
and pardoned the inhabitants. The lofs of hispolfeflions
in Afia recalled him from Greece, and he eftabliflied
himfelf on the throne of Macedonia by the murder
of Alexander the fon of Caflander. Here he was con¬
tinually at war with the neighbouring ftates, and the
fuperior power of his adverfaries obliged him to leave
Macedonia, after he had fat on the throne for feven
years. He pafled into Afia, and attacked fome of the
provinces of Lyfimachus with various fuccefs ; but fa¬
mine and pellilence deftroyed the greatcft part of his
army, and he retired to the court of Seleucus for
fupport and afliftance. He met with a kind recep¬
tion : but hoftilities were foon begun; and after he
had gained fome advantages over his fon-in-law, De¬
metrius was totally forfaken by his troops in the field
de faSo, as in every precipe : the other in lanxjy de jure; of battle, and became an eafy prey to the enemy,
fuch is entry in land, diftrefs for rent, &c. Though he was kept in confinement by his fon-in-
DEMEMBRATION, in Scots law. See Law, law, yet he maintained himfelf like a prince, and
N° clxxxvi. 17. pafled his time in hunting and in every laborious ex-
DEMEMBRE, in heraldry, is faid of difmembered ercife. His fon Antigonus offered Seleucus all his pof-
animals, or thofe with their limbs cut off. feflions, and even his perfon, to procure his father’s li-
DEMESNE. See Demain. berty; but all proved unavailing, and Demetrius died
Demesne lands. See Revenue, n° 5. in the 54th year of his age, after a confinement of
■ DEMETiE (anc. geog.), a people of Britain, three years, 286 years before Chrift. His remains
confidered as a branch of the Silures, occupying that were given to Antigonus, and honoured with a fplen-
inner corner formed by the Briftol Channel and the did funeral pomp at Corinth, and thence conveyed to
Irifh Sea. Demetrias. His poflerity remained in pofieffion of
DEMETRIA, a feftival in honour of Ceres, called the Macedonian throne till the age of Perfeus, who
by the Greeks Demeter. It was then cuftomary for was conquered by the Romans. Demetrius has ren-
the votaries of the goddefs to lafh themfelves with dered himfelf famous for his fondnefs of diflipation
whips made with the bark of trees. The Athenians when among the diflblute, and for his love of virtue
bad a folemnity of the fame name in honour of Deme¬
trius Poliorcetes.
DEMETRIOWITZ, a city of the duchy of Smo-
lenfko, in. the Ruffian empire, fituated upon the river
Ugra, in E. Long. 37. o. N. Lat. 53. 20.
DEMETRIUS, a fon of Antigonus and Strato-
and military glory in the field of battle. He has been
commended as a great warrior; and his ingenious in¬
ventions, his warlike engines, and ftupendous machine#
in his war with the Rhodians, juftify his claims to
that chara&er. He has been blamed for his voluptu¬
ous indulgences; and his biographer obferves that no
  • ... 1 , •
nice, furnamed Poliorcetes, “ Deftroyer of towns.” At Grecian prince had more wives and concubines than
the age of 22, he was fent by his father againft Ptolemy, Poliorcetes. His obedience and reverence to his fa-
who invaded Syria. He was defeated near Gaza; ther has been juftly admired ; and it has been obfer-
but he foon repaired his lofs by a victory over one of ved, that Antigonus ordered the ambafladors of a
the generals of the enemy. He afterwards failed with foreign prince, particularly to remark the cordiali-
5 B 2 ty
DEM
Demetrius, ty an(j friendfhip which fubfifted between him and his
Demetrius, furnamed Gcnatas, fucceeded his fa¬
ther Antigonus on the throne ©f Macedonia. He reign¬
ed 12 years, and was fucceeded by his fon Philip.
Demetrius, a fon of Philip, king of Macedonia,
delivered as an hoftage to the Romans. His modefty
delivered his father from a heavy accufation laid be¬
fore the Roman fenate. When he returned to Mace¬
donia, he was falfely accufed by his brother Perfeus,
who was jealous of his popularity, and his father too
creduloufly confented to his death.
Demetrius I. furnamed Soter or Savior, was fon of
Seleucus Philopator the fon of Antiochus the Great,
king of Syria. His father gave him as a hoftage to
the Romans. After the death of Seleucus, Antio¬
chus Epiphanes, the deceafed monarch’s brother,
ufurped the kingdom of Syria, and fucceeded by his
fon Antiochus Eupator. This ufurpation difpleafed
Demetrius, who was detained at Rome. He procured
his liberty on pretence of going to hunt, and fled to
Syria, where the troops received him as their lawful
fovereign. He put to death Eupator and Lyiias, and
eftabliftied himfelf on his throne by cruelty and op-
preflion. Alexander Bala, the fon of Antiochus Epi¬
phanes, laid claims upon the crown of Syria, and de¬
feated Demetrius in a battle, 250 years before Chrift.
Demetrius II. furnamed Nicanor, or Conqueror,
was fon of Soter, to whom he fucceeded by the af-
fiftance of Ptolemy Philometor. He married Cleopa¬
tra, the daughter of Ptolemy, who was before the wife
of the expelled monarch Alexander Bala. Demetrius
gave himfelf up to luxury and voluptuoufnefs, and fuf-
fered his kingdom to be governed by his favourites.
At that time a pretended fon of Bala, called Diodorus
Tryphon, feized a part of Syria ; and Demetrius, to op-
pofe his antagonift, made an alliance with the Jews,
and marched into the eaft, where he was taken by the
Parthians. Phraates king of Parthia gave him his
daughter Rhodogyne in marriage ; and Cleopatra was
fo incenfed at this new conne&ion, that flie gave her-
felf up to Antiochus Sidetes her brother-in-law, and
married him. Sidetes was killed in a battle againft
the Parthians, and Demetrius regained the polfefiion
of his kingdom. His pride and oppreffion rendered
him odious; and his fubje&s allied a king of the houfe
of Scleucus from Ptolemy Phyfcon king of Egypt :
and Demetrius, unable to refill the power of his ene¬
mies, fled to Ptolemais, which was then in the hands
ol his wife Cleopatra. The gates were ftiut up againft
his approach by Cleopatra ; and he was killed by or¬
der of the governor of Tyre, whither he had fled for
protedtion, A. U. C. 627. He was fucceeded by
Alexander Zebina, whom Ptolemy had raifed to the
throne.
Demetrws Phalereus, a celebrated orator and peripa¬
tetic philofopher, was the fcholar of Theophraftus. He
acquired fo much authority at Athens, that he govern¬
ed the city for ten years; and ruled with fo much wif-
dom and virtue, that they fet up 36 ftatues in honour
of him. By the flanders of fome malicious perfons in
his abfence, he was, however, condemned to die ; and
his images were pulled down : which when Demetrius
heard, he faid, they could not pull down that virtue
for which tbofe images were fet up. He efcaped into
DEM
Egypt, and was protedled by Ptolemy Lagtis. This Demetris
king, it is faid, alked his advice concerning the fuccef- P i
fion of his children to the throne; viz. whether he
ought to prefer thofe he had by Euridice to Ptolemy *1
Philadelphus whom he had by Berenice ? and Demetrius
advifed him to leave his crown to the former. This
difpleafed Philadelphus fo much, that, his father being
dead, he banilhed Demetrius; who was afterwards kill¬
ed by the bite of an afp. Demetrius compofed more
works in profe and verfe than any other peripatetic of
his time ; and his writings confifted of poetry, hiftory,
politics, rhetoric, harangues, and embaffies. None of
them are extant except his rhetoric, which is ufually
printed among the Rhetores Seleffi.
Demetrius, a cynic philofopher, difciple of Apol¬
lonius Thyaneus, in the age of Caligula. The empe¬
ror wiflied to gain the philofopher to his intereft by a
large prefent; but Demetrius refufed it with indigna¬
tion, and faid, If Caligula willies to bribe me, let him
fend me his crown. Vefpafian was difpleafed with his
infolence, and banilhed him to an ifland. The cynic
derided the punilhment, and bitterly inveighed againft
the emperor. He died in a great old age ; and Se¬
neca obferves, that “ nature had brought him forth
to Ihow mankind that an exalted genius can live fecure-
ly without being corrupted by the vice of the furround¬
ing world.”
DEMI (formed from dimidium), a word ufed in
compofition with other words to fignify half.
DEMi-Attici, boroughs or larger villages of Attica.
The Athenian tribes were diftributed into Demi. Ho¬
mer, in his catalogue, diftinguilhes the Athenians by
the appellation Demos. And when Thefeus prevailed
on them to quit the country and fettle at Athens, they
ftill continued to frequent the Demi, and to perform
their feveral religious ceremonies there (Paufanias,
Livy).
Dfi.Mi-Culverin, a piece of ordnance ufually 41 inches
bore, 2700 pound weight, 10 feet long, and carrying
point blank 175 paces.
Demi- Culverin of the leaffze, is inches bore, 10
feet long, and 2000 pound weight. It carries a ball
of 4 inches diameter and of 9 pounds weight, and its
level range is 174 paces.
DEMi-Culverin of the largef fort, is 4J inches bore,
loj- feet long, and weighs 3000 pounds weight. It
carries a ball 4J inches diameter, weighing 12 pounds
11 ounces, point blank 178 paces.
Demi-God. See Hero.
DsMi-Gorge, in fortification, is that part of the poly¬
gon which remains after the flank is raifed, and goes
from the curtin to the angle of the polygon. It is half
of the vacant fpace or entrance into a baftion.
Demi-Quaver, a note in mufic, two of which are e-
qual to a quaver.
Demi-Semi-Quaver, in mufic, the fliorteft note, two
of them being equal to a femi-quaver-
DEMISE, in law, is applied to an eftate either in
fee-fimple, fee-tail, or for term of life or years ; and
fo it is commonly taken in many writs. The king’s
death is in law termed the demife of the king.
Demise, and Redemise, denote a conveyance
‘where there are mutual leafes made from one to ano¬
ther of the fame land, or fomething out of it.
DEMIURGE (from which denotes a public
fervant.
[ 748 ]
DEM [ 749 ] DEM
Democracy,and «f>0* 'work), in the mythology of the eaft-
Democri- ern philofophers, was one of the /eons employed by
i the fnpreme Deity .in the creation of the world. The
character they give him is a compound of Ihining qua¬
lities and infupportable arrogance; and his exceflive
luft of empire effaces his talents and virtues. He is
feprefented as claiming dominion over the new world
he has formed, as his fovereign right; and excluding
totally the fupreme Deity from all concernment in it,
he demands from mankind, for himfelf and his affo-
ciates, divine honours. *
DEMOCRACY, from Jxw®- people, and t0
command or govern; the fame with a popular govern¬
ment, wherein the fupreme power isdodged in the hands
of the people : fuch were Rome and Athens of old ;
but as to our modern Republics, Bafd only excepted,
their government comes nearer to ariftocracy than de¬
mocracy. See Law, n° 14.
DEMOCRITUS, one of the greateft philofophers
of antiquity, was born at Abdera, a town of Thrace,
about the Both Olympiad ; that is, about 460 years
before Chrift. His father, fays Valerius Maximus,
was able to entertain the army of Xerxes 5 and Dio¬
genes Laertius adds, upon the teftimony of Herodotus,
that the king, in requital, prefented him with fome
Magi and Chaldeans. From thefe Magi and Chalde¬
ans Democritus received the firft part of his education ;
and from them, whilft yet a boy, he learned theology
and aflronomy. He next applied to Leucippus, and '
learned from him the fyftem of atoms and a vacuum.
His father dying, the three fons, for fo many there were,
divided the eftate. Democritus made choice of that
part which confided in money, as being, though the
lead fiiare, the mod convenient for travelling; and it
is faid, that his portion amounted to above 100 talents,
which is near 20,0001. Sterling. His extraordinary;
inclination for the fciences and for knowledge, induced
him to travel into all parts of the world where he hoped
to find learned men. He went.to vifit the prieds of
Egypt, from whom he learned geometry ; he confulted
the Chaldeans and the Perfian philofophers ; and it is
faid, that he penetrated even into India and Ethiopia,
to confer with the Gymnofophifts.. In thefe travels
he waded his fubdance; after which, at his return, he
was obliged to be maintained by his brother; and if
he had not given proofs of the greateft uuderftandingj
and thereby procured to himfelf the higheft honours,
and the ftrongeft intereft of his country, he would have
incurred the penalty of that law which denied the in¬
terment in the family-fepulchre to thofe who had fpent
their patrimony. After his return from travelling, he
lived at Abdera, and governed there in a mod; abfolute
manner, by virtue of his confummate wifdonv. The
magiftrates of that city made him a prefent of 5C0 ta¬
lents, and erefted ftatues to him even in his lifetime :
but being naturally more inclined ' to contemplation
than delighted with public honours and employments,
he withdrew into folitude and Retirement. Democri¬
tus inceffantly laughed at human life, as a continued
farce, which made the inhabitants of Abdera think he
was mad; on which they fent for Hippocrates to cure
him: but that celebrated phyfician having difeourfed
with the philofopher, told the Abderians, that he had
a great veneration for Democritus ; and that, in his
opinion, thofe who efteemed themfelves the moft heal¬
thy were the moft diftempered. Democritus died, ac- Demon-
cording to Diogenes Laertius, in the 361ft year before
the Chriftian era, aged 109. It is faid that he put
out his eyes, in order that he might meditate more henes.
profoundly on philofophical fubjefts ; but this has 1——y '
little probability. He was the author of many books,
which are loft ; and from thefe Epicurus borrowed his
philofophy.
DEMONSTRABLE, a term ufed in the fchools
to fignify that a thing may be clearly proved. Thus,
it is demonftrable, that the three angles of a triangle
are equal to two right ones.
DEMONS f RATION, in logic, a feries of fyllo-
gifms, all whofe premiffes are either definitions, felf-
evident truths, or propofitions already eftablilhed. See
Logic.
. DEMONSTRATIVE, in grammar* a term given
to fuch pronouns as ferve to indicate or point out a
thing. Of this number are hie, h<ec, hoc, among the
Latins; and this, that, thefe, thofe, in Englilh.-
DEMOSTHENES, the famous Athenian orator, .
was born at Athens 381 B. C. Ha loft his father at
feven years of age ; and was placed under the condudt
of guardians, who robbed him of his fubftance, and ne¬
glected his education. Demofthenes repaired this lofs
by his love of eloquence and his extraordinary abilities.
He became the difciple of Ifasus and Plato, and ap¬
plied himfelf to ftudy the orations of Ifocrates. At
the age of 17 he gave an early proof of his eloquence
and abilities againft his guardians, from whom he ob¬
tained the retributions-of the greateft part of his eftate.
His riling talents were, however, impeded by various
natural defedts. But thefe were at laft conquered by
dint of refolution and unwearied attention. He de¬
claimed by the fea-lhore, that he might be ufed to the
noife of a tumultuous affembly; and with pebbles in
his mouth, that he might corrett a deleft in his fpeech.
He praftifed at home with a naked fword hanging
over his ftioulder, that he might check an ungraceful
motion to which he was fubjeft. He alfo confined
himfelf in a fubterraneous cave, to devote himfelf more
clofely to ftudious purfuits ; and to eradicate all curi-
oiity of appearing ip public, he fhaved one half of his
head. In this folitary retirement, by the help of a
glimmering lamp, he compofed the greateft part of his
orations, which have ever been the admiration of every
age; though his contemporaries and rivals inveighed
againft them, and obferved that they fmelt of oil. His
abilities as an orator raifed him to conlequence at A-
thens, and he was foon placed at the head of govern¬
ment. In this public capacity he roufed his country¬
men from their indolence, and animated, them againft
the encroachment of Philip of Macedonia. In the
battle of Cherontea, Demofthenes betrayed his pufilla-
nimity, and faved his life by flight. After the death
of Philip, he declared himfelf warmly againft his fon
and fucceffor Alexander; and when the Macedonians
demanded of the Athenians their orators, Demofthenes
reminded his coimtrymen of the fable of the ftieep
which delivered their dogs to the wolves. By the
prevalence of party, however, he was forced to retire
from Athens; and in his bani/hment, which he paffed
at Troezen and uEgina, he lived with more effemi¬
nacy than true heroifm. When Antipater made war
againft Greece after thedeath of Alexander, Demoft-
heaes -
DEM [7
Demoft- henes was publicly recalled from his exile, and a galley
he"“- was fent to fetch him from iEgina. His return was
* attended with much fplendor, and all the citizens
crowded at the Piraeus to fee him'land. His triumph
and popularity were fhort. Antipater and Craterus
were near Athens, and demanded all the orators to be
delivered up into their hands. Demofthenes fled to
the temple of Neptune in Calauria ; and when he faw
that all hopes of fafety were vanilhed, he took a dofe
of poifon, which he always carried in a quill, and ex¬
pired oh the day that the Thefmophoria were celebra¬
ted, 322 years before Chrift. The Athenians railed a
brazen llatue to Hs honour, with an infcription tranf-
lated into this diftich :
Si tibi par menti robur, Fir magne, fuiffet,
Grtccia non Maccdo fuccubuijfet hero.
Demollhenes has been defervedly called the prince
tf orators. Indeed no orator had ever a finer field
than Demofthenes in his Olynthiacs and Philippics,
which are his capital orations; and undoubtedly to
the greatnefs of the fubjeft, and to that integrity and
public fpirit which breathe in them, they owe a large
portion of their merit. The fubjedl is, to excite
the indignation of his countrymen againft Philip of
Macedon, the public enemy of the liberties of Greece;
and to guard them againft the treacherous meafures
by which that crafty tyrant endeavoured to lull them
into a negle& of their danger. To attain this
end, we fee him ufe every proper means to ani¬
mate a people diftinguiflied by juftice, humanity, and
valour; but in many inftances become corrupt and-
'degenerate. He boldly accufes them of venality, in¬
dolence, and indifference to the public good; while,
at the fame time, he reminds them of their for¬
mer glory, and of their prefent refources. His con¬
temporary orators, who were bribed by Philip, and
who perfuaded the people to peace, he openly re¬
proaches as traitors to their country. He not only
prompts to vigorous meafures, but teaches how they
are to be carried into execution. His orations are
ftrongly animated, and full of the impetuofity and ar¬
dour of public fpirit. His compofition is not diftin-
guilhed by ornament and fplendor. It is an energy
of thought, peculiarly his own, which forms his cha-
rafter, and raifes him above his fpecies. He feems
not to attend to words, but to things. We forget
the orator, and think of the fubjeft. He has no pa¬
rade and oftentation, no ftudied introdu&ions : but is
like a man full of his fubjett; who, after preparing his
■audience by a fentence or two for the reception of
plain truths, enters dire&ly on bufinefs.
The llyle of Demofthenes is ftrong and concife;
though fometimes, it muft be confeffed, harlh and
* abrupt. His words are highly exprefiive, and his ar¬
rangement firm and manly. Negligent of leffer graces,
he feems to have aimed at that fublime which lies in
fentiment. Hfs a&ion and pronunciation are faid to
have been uncommonly vehement and ardent; which,
from the manner of his writings, we Ihould readily
believe. His charafter appears to have been of the
auftere rather than of the gentle kind. He is always
grave, ferious, pafiionate; never degrading himfelf,
nor attempting any thing like pleafantry. If his
admirable eloquence be in any refpeft faulty, it is
ithat he fometimes hordes on the hard and dry. He
50 ] DEM
may be thought to want fmoothnefs and grace; which Demofl-
is attributed to his imitating too clofely the manner of henn*’J
Thucydides, who was his great model for ftyle, and DemJ1‘cr»
whofe hiftory he is faid to have tranfcribed eight times v |
with his own hand. . But thefe defedls are more than
atoned for by that mafterly force of mafculine elo¬
quence, which, as it overpowered all who heard it,
cannot in the prefent day be read without emotion.
CiCEROcalls him a perfect model, and fuch as he him¬
felf wiftied to be. Thefe two great princes of eloquence
have been often compared together; but the judgment
hefitates to which to give the preference. The Arch-
biihop of Cambray, however, feems to have ftated their
merits with great juftice and perfpicuity in his Reflec¬
tions on Rhetoric and Poetry. The paffage, tranfla-
ted, is as follows. “ I do not hefitate to declare, that
I think Demofthenes fuperior to Cicero. I am per¬
fuaded no one can admire Cicero more than I do. He
adorns whatever he attempts. He does honour to
language. He difpofes of words in a manner peculiar
to himfelf. His ftyle has great variety of character.
Whenever-he pleafes, he is even concife and vehement;
for inftance, againft . Catiline, againft Verres, againft
Antony. But ornament is too viiible in his writings.
His art is wonderful, but it is perceived. When the
orator is providing for the fafety of the republic, he
forgets not himfelf, nor permits others to forget him.
Demofthenes feems to efcape frem himfelf, and to fee
nothing but his country. He ‘ feeks not elegance of
exprefiion ; unfought for he poffeffes it. He is fupe¬
rior,to admiration. He makes ufe of language, as a
modeft man does of drefs, only to cover him. He
thunders, he lightens. He is a torrent which carries
every thing before it. We cannot criticife, becaufe
we are not ourfelves. His fubjeft enchains our atten¬
tion, and makes us forget his language. We lofe him
from our fight: Philip alone occupies our minds. I
am delighted with both thefe orators; but I confefs
that I am lefs affe&ed by the infinite art and magnifi¬
cent eloquence of Cicero, than by the rapid fimplicity
of Demofthenes.”
DEMPSTER (Thomas), a very learned man, but j
of a fingulaf charadler. He was born in Scotland, but
we do not find in what year. He went over to France
for the fake of embracing the catholic religion, and
taught claflical learning at Paris about the beginning
of the 17th century. Tho’ his bufinefs was to teach
fchool; yet he was as ready to draw his fword, and as
quarrelfome as if he had been a duellift by profelfion:
and it is faid, that there fcarce paffed a day but he had
fomething or other of this kind upon his hands. This
fpirit and turn of temper drew him into many fcrapes;
and one in particular, which obliged him to quit the
country. Grangier, principal of the college of Beau¬
vais at Paris, being obliged to take a journey, appoint¬
ed Dempfter his fubftitute. Dempfter caufed whip a
fcholar, in full fchool, for challenging one of his fel¬
lows to fight a duel. The fcholar, to revenge this af¬
front, brought three gentlemen'of his relations, who
were of the king’s life-guards, into the college. Demp¬
fter made the whole college take arms ; hamftrung the
three life-guard-mens horfes before the college gate;
and put himfelf into fuch a pofture of defence, that
the three fparks were forced to a Ik for quarter. He
gave them their lives j but* imprifoned them, and did .
not
DEN L 75* 1 DEN
Itempfter not releafe them for fome days. They fought another
DeJbi h way to revenSe themfelves: they caufed an informa-
i _lg ' tion to be made of the life and moral behaviour of
Dempfter, and got fome witnefles to be heard again It
him. Upon this he went over to England, where he
found refuge ; but did not make any long flay. He
went abroad again, and read lectures upon polite learn¬
ing in feveral univerfities ; in that of Nifmes particu¬
larly, where he difputed for a profeffor’s chair, and ob¬
tained it. He went to Bologna, and was profeifor
there for the remainder of his life; and was then alfo
admitted a member of the Academy della Rotte. He
died there in September 1625, leaving behind him fe¬
veral learned works; as Commentaries on Rofirm de An-
tiquitatibus Romanorum, and upon Claudian, &e. ; four
books of EpHtles; feveral dramatic pieces, and other
poems; fome books of law; an Apparatus to the Hi-
llory of Scotland ; a Martyrology of Scotland; and a
Lift of the Scottilh Writers.
Dempster of Courty the name formerly given in Scot¬
land to the common executioner or hangman.
DEMS.TER, or Deemster. See Deemster.
DEMULCENTS, among phyficians, medicines
good againft acrimonious humours. Such are the roots
of marfh-mallows, of white lilies, of liquorice, and of
viper-grafs, the five emollient herbs, &c.
DEMURRAGE, in commerce, an allowance made
to the mafter of a fhip by the merchants, for flaying in
a port longer than the time firft appointed for his de¬
parture.
DEMURRER, in law, a flop put to any aftion
upon fome point of difficulty which muft be determined
by the court, before any further proceedings can be
had in the fuit.
DEN, a fyllable which, added to the names of places,
fhows them to be fituated in valleys or near woods; as
Tenterden.
DENARIUS, in Roman antiquity, the chief filver
coin among the Romans, worth in our money about
fevenpence three farthings. As a weight, it was the
ieventh part of a Roman ounce.
Denarius is alfo ufed in our law-books for an
Englifh penny.
DENBIGHSHIRE, a county of Wales, bounded
on the fouth by Merioneth and Montgomery (hires,
on the north by Flintfiiire and the Irifh Sea, on the
weft by Caernarvon and part of Merionethfhire. It is
about 40 miles long and 21 broad. The air is whole-
fome, but (harp; the county being pretty hilly, and the
fnow lying long on the tops of the mountains. The foil
in general is barren ; but the vale of Clwyd, fo called
from its being watered by that river, is a very fertile
pleafant fpot, of great extent, and well inhabited. The
chief commodities are black cattle, fheep, and goats,
rye, called here amelcorn, and lead-ore. The county
fends two members to parliament, vi%. a knight for the
fhire, and a burgefs for Denbigh the capital.
Denbigh, the capital town of Denbighihire in N.
Wales. It is feated on the fide of a rocky hill, on a
branch of the river Clwyd, and was formerly a place
of great ftrength, with an impregnable caftle, now de-
molifhed. It is pretty large, well built, and inhabited
by tanners and glovers, and gives the title of Earl to
the noble family of Fielding. W. Long. 3. 30. N.
iat. 53. 15.
DENDERMOND, a handfome and ftrong town Dender-
of the Auftrian Netherlands, in Flanders, with a ftrong mc,ncl
citadel. It was taken by the allies in 1706, and by Dendrome*
the French in 1745. It is furrounded by marfhes and ter.
fine meadows, which the inhabitants can lay under wa-  y—J
ter when they pleafe. It is feated at the confluence of
the rivers Dender and Schelde. E. Long. 4. 3. N.
Lat. 51. 3.
DENDRACHATES, in natural hiftory, the name
ufed by the ancients for an extremely elegant and
beautiful fpecies of agate, the ground of which is
whitifli, variegated with veins of a brighter white.
Thefe veins are beautifully difpofed in 3 number of va¬
rious figures; but generally in many concentric irregu¬
lar circles, drawn round one or more points. It is
common alfo, in various parts of thisftone, to find very
beautiful delineations of trees, mofles, fea-plants, and
the like, fo elegantly exprefled, that many have erro-
neoufly taken them for real plants included in the fub-
ftance of the ftone; whence the name dendrachates*
DENDRANATOMY, a term ufed by fome for a
defcription of the various parts of trees; as root,, trunk,,
branch, bark, wood, pith, flower, fruit, &c. See
Plants, Vegetation, &c.
DENDROMETER (from a tree, and^?^
/ meafure), an inftrnment lately invented by Meffrs
Duncombe and Whittel,. for which they obtained &
patent, fo called from its ufe in meafuring trees. This pjafe
inftrument confifts of a femicircle A, divided into two CLXV,
quadrants, and graduated from the middle ; upon the
diameter B there hangs a plummet L for fixing the
inftrument in a vertical pofition ; there is alfo a chord
D parallel to the diameter, and a radius E, pafiing at
right angles through the diameter and chord. From
a point on the radius hangs an altimeter C, between
the chord and diameter, to which is fixed a fmall femi¬
circle G, and a fcrew, to confine it in any pofition.
The altimeter, which is contrived to form the fame
angle with the radius of the inftrument as the tree
forms with the horizon, is divided from its centre both
ways into forty equal parts; and thefe parts are again
fubdivided into halves and quarters. Upon the fmall
femicircle G, on which is accounted the quantity of
the angle made by the altimeter and, radius, are ex¬
prefled degrees from 60 to 120, being 30 on each qua¬
drant. The radius is.numbered with the fame fcale
of divifions as the altimeter. There is alfo a nonius
to the fmall femicircle, which fhows the quantity of
an angle to every five minutes. On. the back of the
inftrument the flock M of the Aiding piece is confined
to the axis N, which moves, concentrically parallel to’
the elevation index F on the oppofite fide, to which it
is fixed. This index is numbered by a fcale of equal
divifions with the altimeter and radius: at the end of
the index is a nonius, by which the angles of elevation
above, or p£ depreffion below,, the horizon, meafured
upon the femicircle of the inftrument, are determined
to every five minutes. There is alfo a. groove in the
radius, that Aides acrofs the axis by means of a fcrew
I, working between the chord and f m circle of the
inftrument; and this fcrew is turned by the key O,
Upon the flock M is a- Aiding piece P, that always
adls at right angles with the altimeter, by means of a
groove in the latter. To the fhank of the Hiding
piece is affixed a moveable limb which forms the
5 fame.
DEN [ 752 1 DEN
Derdrome-fame angle with the altimeter as the bough forms
^ tcr- with the body or trunk of the tree. This limb may
1'' v be of any-convenient length, divided into equal parts
of the fame fcale with all the foregoing divifions. At
the extremity of the fixed axis, on a centre, an index
vrith telefcopic fights, works horizontally upon the
moveable limb of the Hiding piece. Upon this hori¬
zontal index R may be fixed a fmall quadrant T, de-
feribed with any convenient radius from the centre on
which the index moves, and divided into 90 degrees,
beginning at a right line drawn from the centre at
right angles with the fiducial edge of the faid index ;
and upon: the extremity of the axis is a nonius, where¬
by to determine the quantity of an angle upon the
quadrant every five minutes. There are alfo two fmall
circular arches S, S, ferving to keep the fights in a
parallel pofition, each containing an equal number of
degrees. Upon thefe arches is meafured the angle,
ftibtending a fide equal to the difference of the alti¬
tudes of the obferved objefts above the p'ane of the
horizon, and whofe bafe is the neareft diflance between
the perpendiculars in which thefe objefts are fitua-
ted. The dendrometer is fitted to a theodolite, and
may be ufed either with or without it as occafion re¬
quires.
The principal ufe of this inftrument is for meafunng
the length and diameter of any tree, perpendicular or
oblique, to an horizontal plane, or in any fituation of
the plane on which it refts, or of any figure, whether
regular or irregular, and alfo the length and diameter
of the boughs, by mere infpe&ion ; and the inventors
of it have calculated tables, annexed to their account
of the inftrument itfelf, by the help of which the quan¬
tity of timber in a tree is obtained without calculation,
or the ufe of the Aiding rule. The inftrument is rec¬
tified by fetting it in a perpendicular pofition, by means
of the plummet, and ferewing it to the ftaff; then the
altimeter is placed in the exaft pofition of the tree, whe¬
ther perpendicular, reclining, or'inchning, and fcreW-
ed faft. If the tree Hands on level ground, the hori¬
zontal diftance from the tree to the axis of the inftru¬
ment is meafured with a tape-line, and the radius is
moved with the key till that diftance be cut upon it
by the infide of the diameter : but if the ground be
flanting, the diftance from the tree to the inftrument
is meafured, and the elevation index is moved till the
point of the tree, from which the diftance was meafured
is feen through the fights, and there ferewed faft ; and
the radius is moved backwards or forwards with the
key till this diftance is cut upon the elevation index
by the perpendicular line of the altimeter; and the ho¬
rizontal line will be marked upon the radius by the
infide of the diameter. In order to obtain the length
of the tree, the elevation index is firft moved down¬
wards, till the bottom of the tree cut by the hori¬
zontal wires is obferved through the lights, and the
feet and inches marked by the index upon the alti¬
meter below the point of fight or horizontal line
are noted down: then the index is m<)ved upwards
till the part to which you would meafure, cut by the
horizontal wires, is feen, and the feet and inches
marked on the altimeter above the point of fight are
noted: thefe two quantities added together give the
exaft length of the tree, which is inferted in a field-
book. For the girth of the tree, the circumference
N° 99. 4
in that part where the horizonal diftance was taken, Dcndrome-
is meafured with the tape-line; and a fixth part of
this circumference is added to the diftance on the ra- j,hor;a.
dius, which was before cut by the infide of the diame-—y——^
ter, becaufe the tape-line, in taking the diftance, c?n-
not be applied to the centre of the body of the tree ;
then the elevation index is lowered to that part of the
tree, of which the diameter is to be taken and ferewed
faft. Set the moveable limb of the Aiding piece
quite ftraight, and the edge of the horizontal index
upon the firft divifion of it. Turn the whole inftru¬
ment about to the left hand till you fee through
the fights the left fide of the tree cut exactly by
the perpendicular wires; then the inftrument be¬
ing fixed, move the fights only upon the Aiding
piece, till you fee the right fide of the tree cut alfo by
the perpendicular wires; and you will find the true
diameter marked by the horizontal index upon the
Aiding piece, which is to be entered in a diftinft co¬
lumn of the field-book.
For the boughs : let the diftance on the radius be
now reduced to its former quantity, and the elevation
index moved upwards till the bough is feen through
the ficdits and ferewed faft. Set the moveable part of
the Aiding piece in a pofition parallel to the bough,
and the edge of the horizontal index on the firft divi¬
fion of it. Turn the whole inftrument about till you
fee through the fights the fiioot of the bough clofe
to the trunk cut by the perpendicular wires; then
move the fights till you fee the other end of the bough
cut by the faid wires, and note the feet and inches
marked by the horizontal index on the moveable limb
of the Aiding piece, which will give the true length of
the bough to be inferted in the field-book. And the
girth of the bough may be obtained by directing the
fights to that part of it whofe girth is defined ; then
by moving the elevation index downwards till you fee
the under fide of the bough cut by the horizontal
w-ires, and there noting the feet and inches marked by
the faid index on the altimeter; after which, let the
elevation index be moved upwards till the upper fide
of the bough cut by the horizontal wires is feen ; the
feet and inches marked upon the altimeter are to be
noted as before. The former quantity fubtra&ed from
the latter will give the true diameter of the bough,
which is entered in the field-book. The true folidity
both of the body of the tree and of the boughs may be
found from' the diameter and lengths in tables calcula¬
ted for this purpofe.
The dendrometer, fitted to a theodolite, may be
applied to mealuring the heights and diftances of ob-
jefts, accefiible or inacceffible, whether fituated in
planes parallel or oblique to the plane in which the
inftrument is placed. It may be alfo ufed for taking
all angles, whether vertical, horizontal, or oblique, in
any pofition of the planes in which they are formed ;
and thus for facilitating the praftical operations of en¬
gineering, land furveying, levelling, mining, &c. and
for performing the various cafes of plane trigonometry
without calculation ; of which the inventors have fub-
joined to their account of this inftcument many ex¬
amples.
DENDRQPHORIA, dn antiquity, the carrying
of boughs or branches of trees; a religious ceremony
fo called, becaufe certain priefts called from thence
dendrophori.
den. [ 753 1 DEN
eneb detulrophorl, tree-bearers, marched In proceffion, carry- the duchy of Saxe-Lawenburg towards the fouth-eaft; Denmark,
II ing the branches of trees in their hands in honour of extending from 54. 4©. to 58. 20. N. Lat. ——v—
ii 14ark. fome god, as Bacchus, Cybele, Sylvanus, &c. The The origin of the name Denmark is very uncertain. Na *
" College of the dendrophori is often mentioned in an- The moft probable conjecture concerning it is that offence
cient marbles; and we frequently fee in bafib relievos Saxo-Grammaticus, the moft ancient and belt l^anifh derived,
the bacchanals reprefented as men carrying little fhrubs hiftorian. He derives it from Dan the fon of Humble^
or branches of trees. the firft king, and Mark, or Marc, fignifying a coun-
DENEB, an Arabic term fignifying tall, ufed by try in feveral dialedts of the Teutonic ; according to
aftronomers to denote feveral fixed ftars. Thus, deneb which etymology, the word Denmark fignifies the
elect, fignifies the bright ftar in the lion’s tail. Deneb land, or country, of Dan.—This Dan is thought to Dan the
tidigege, that in thefwan’s tail, &c. have lived about 1038 years before the Chriftian era. Grit king.
DENHAM (Sir John), an eminent Englifli poet, Almoft all hiftorians agree that he was the fon of
the only fon of Sir John Denham, chief baron of the Humble, a native of Zealand. His poffefiiOns and irt-
Cxchequer in Ireland, and one of the lords commiffidn- fluence were very confiderablc, not only iq Zealand*
ers there, was born in Dublin in 1615; but his father, but in the iflands of Langland and Mona. It was his
in 1617, being made a baron of the exchequer in courage, however, and drill in the art of war, that in-
England, he received his education in that country, duted the inhabitants of Denmark to choofe him for
In his youth he followed gaming more than any their king. He was called to the affiftance of the Jut*
thing elfe ; but, in 1641, publiflied a tragedy called landers upon an irruption of the Saxons into their ter-
the Sophy, which was much admired by the beft ritories, and promifed the fovereignty of the country-
judges; and, in 1643, wrote his famous poem called' if he drove out the enemy. On this he immediately
Cooper’s Hill; which Mr Dryden pronounces will ever railed an army, gained a complete vidlory over the
be the ftandard of good Writing for majefty of ftyle. Saxons, and obliged them to leave the country; and he
Denham was fent ambaffador from Charles II. to the was accordingly eledted king. 2
king of Poland ; and at the Refloration was made In fuch early ages as thefe, we are not to look for Hiftory of
furveyor-general of his majefty’s buildings, and crea- any authentic hiftory either of this or any other king-‘1Vs^ountry
ted knight of the Bath. On obtaining this poll, he is dom. The hiftory of Denmark, for a great number of ^au °usfor
faid to have renounced his poetry for more important ages after the reign of Dan, is filled with fabulous ex- many
ftudies; though he afterward Wrote a fine copy of ploits of heroes, encounters with giants, dragons, &c.
verfes on the death of Cowley. He died at his office One of their kings named Frotlm, who reigned about
in Whitehall in 1668 ; and his works have been often 761 years before Chrift, is faid to have conquered all
fince printed. Britain, Slefwiek, Ruffia, Pomerania, Holftein, &c. an
DENIER, a fmall French copper-coin, of which afiertion which cannot eafily be credited, confidering
twelve make a fol. the difficulty which fucceeding warriors, even the
There were two kinds of deniers, the one tournois, greateft in the woHd, found to fubdue the inhabitants
the other parifis, whereof the latter was worth a fourth of thofe countries.— It is certain, however, that an-
part more than the formeh ciently the kingdom of Denmark made a much more
DENIZEN, in law, an alien made a fubjeft by the confpicuous figuqethan it does atprefent. The Danes
king’s letters-patent; otherwife called donaifon, becaufe appear to have had a very confiderable naval force al-
“ his legitimation proceeds ex donatione regis, from the moft from the foundation of their empire ; and the
king’s gift.” conquefts they undoubtedly made in our ifiand are cer-
A denizen is in a kind of' middle ftate between an tain proofs of their valour,
alien and a natural born fubjedt, and partakes of both The natural enemies of the Danes Were the Swedes,
of them. He may take lands by purchafe or devife, Norwegians, and Saxons; efpecially the firft. With
which an alien may not; but cannot take by inheri- one or other of thefe nations almoft perpetual war was
tance ; for his parent, through whom he muft claim, carried on. The kingdom was alfo often rent by civil
being an alien, had no inheritable blood, and therefore diflenfions; which the neighbouring monarchs did not
could convey none to the fon ; and, upon a like de- fail to take advantage of, in order to reduce the king-
fttl of blood, the iffue of a denizen born before deni- dom of Denmark under their fubjedlion. As neither
zation, cannot inherit to him; but his ifiue born after party, however, generally came off with advantage,
may. A denizen is not excufed from paying the the hiftory of thefe wars affords nothing interefting or
alien’s duty, and fome other mercantile burdens. And entertaining.— One of the greateft of the Danilh mo¬
no denizen can be of the privy, council, or either houfe narchs was Valdemar /. who obtained the throne in Valdemarl.
of parliament, or have any office of trUft civil or mili- 1157; having defeated and killed his competitor Swen, a great mo*
tary, or be capaple of any grant of lands, &c. from after a ten years civil war. He maintained a long war«arch.
the'Crown. with the Vandals, whofe power he at laft entirely
DENMARK, one of the moft ancient monarchies broke, and reduced undEr his fubjeftion the ifiand of
in Europe, comprehending the peninfula of Jutland, Rugen. Pie alfo proved victorious over the Norwe-
andthe ifiands of Zealand, Tuneh, &c. But Denmark, gians, fo that their king and queen came in perfon to
properly fo called, is only that part of Scandinavia fubmit to him. In 1165, he alfo laid the foundations
which formerly went by the name of Cimbrica Cher- of the city of Dantzic : which, though it hath fince
fOnefus, and now is called Jutland. Including Hoi- become a place of fuch confequence, confifted at firft
ftein, it is bounded by the fea called the Categate on the only of a few poor filhermens huts; but the privileges
north ; by the Baltic on the eaft; by the river Elbe, and immunities conferred upon it by this monarch,
which feparates it from Bremen, on thefouth; and by f@on proved-the means of its becoming a flourifhing-
Vol, V. Part II. 5C city;
DEN
[ 754 1
DEN
Denmp’-k c;ty.—In 1169, he entirely fubdued the Courlandcrs;
and, foon after, was invefted with the duchy of Hol-
ftein, by the emperor Frederic Barbaroffa. He is faid
notwithftanding all his power. Henry earl of Swerin, Denmatk,||
otherwife called Henry Palatine, a German prince, ha-
ving been deprived of part of his dominions by Valde- Valdemari
to have been poifonedbya quack medicine, given with mar, furprifed and carrried off the king himfelf, and taken pa-1
a defign to recover him from a diftemper with which
; he was feized in 1182.
r of In the year 1195, Canute, Valdemar’s fucceffor,
Denmark caufed a mu Her to be made of all the men fit to bear arms
kept him clofe prifoner for three years. The condi- fouer.
tions on which he at laft obtained his liberty were very ^
hard. He was obliged to pay a prodigious fum of Releafed ofl
money; to relinquifh Holftein, Swerin, Hamburgh.conditionoM
^ {n his dominions ; and ordered each province to fit out and all his pofleffions on the other fide of the Elbe y
its proportion of (hipping, every way equipped, and
ready for afition. The whole force of Denmark, at
that time, confided of 670 fhips of war, befides the
fquadrons fapplied by vafials, tributary dates, and al¬
lies. The number of the land-forces is not mentioned.
In the reign of this prince, the Dan*fh dominions were
enlarged by the entire conqued of Stromar; the di-
ftrifts of Lubec and Hamburgh, formerly known by
the name of Nordalbingia, but now included under the
and ladly, lolemnly to fwear that he would maintain tc
this compulfive contraft, and never take any meafures
to punifh Henry or his affociates. This treaty was
figned on the 25th of March 1226.
Befides thefe territories which the Danifh monarck
had been obliged to cede by treaty, many tributary
princes took the opportunity of his captivity to re¬
cover their liberty ; and among the red, the inhabitants
of Lubec revolted, and entered into alliance r
general name of Holjlein. He died in 1203, and was Albert duke of Saxony againd Valdemar. The latter,
fucceeded by Valdemar II. who proved a very great however, was not of a difpofition to fubmit tamely to
and warlike prince. In t 211, he founded the city of fuch treatment. He obtained a difpenfation from the He breaks
Stralfund, oppofite to the Ifle of Rugen. The fame Pope to break his engagments with Henry, and im-*he
year his queen died in child-bed ; and in memory of mediately entered Holdein at the head of a numerous
6 her he built the cadle of Droningholm, that name im-
Expedition porting the In 1218, he undertook an
*f Valde- expedition againit the Livonians, having received ad-
army. Here he was met by feveral German princes,
at the head of a very numerous army ; and a defperate,
engagement enfued. Valdemar at firft had the advan-
gainft the v‘ce t^at afiifted by the Lithuanians, Mufcovites, tage ; but being w'ounded in the eye, his troops were
Livonians. and other barbarous nations, had driven from their ha¬
bitations all thofe in their neighbourhood who had em¬
braced Chriilianity, and taken an oath of allegiance
1 to the crown of Denmark. Fitting out a powerful
fleet, therefore, he immediately fet fail for that coun¬
try ; but his troops were no fooner landed, than they
were feized with a panic at the fight of fuch a power¬
ful army of favages as were afiembled to oppofe them.
The king himfelf was difmayed at the unufual fpe&acle
of a whole army clothed in fkins, and refembling beafts
more than human creatures. Encouraged, however,
by the bifhops who attended him, he ventured an en¬
gagement, and overthrew the barbarians with incre¬
dible flaughter. This vidory was gained near the fortrefs of April 1242
at laft defeated with great daughter. It doth not ap¬
pear that ever the king of Denmark was able to re¬
venge himfelf of his enemies, or to recover the domi¬
nions he had loft. So far from this, he was obliged, in
1228, to cede Lavvenberg to the duke of Saxony, who
had already feized on Ratzburg and Molna. Soon
after this, his eldeft fon Valdemar was accidentally kil¬
led as he was hunting, and his two other fons married
the daughters of his two greateft enemies. Abel, the
third fon, married the daughter of Adolphus duke of
Holftein ; and Eric, the fecond, married the, duke of
Saxony’s daughter. Thefe misfortunes are fuppofed to
have haftened his death, which happened in the month
7 . of Valdemar, which received its name on that account.
I « How potent and flourifhing the kingdom of Den-
On the death of Valdemar, the kingdom was di-Civil war
vided between the two young princes ; and between between his
kingdom. mark was at this time, appears from an eftimate of them a war commenced the very next year. A peace
the revenues of the tributary provinces, thofe countries
conquered by Valdemar, and the Handing forces of the
whole kingdom. This account was copied by Ponta-
was concluded the year following, and war renewed
the year after ; but how long it continued, we are not
informed. In 1250, Eric paid a vifit to his brother
nus from Witfeld a writer, of thofe days, who had it Abel, intreating his mediation between him and the
from a regifter kept by Valdemar’s fteward. From princes of Holftein, with whom he was then at v
the provinces were daily fent in 24 lafts of oats,.24 lafts Abel received him, in appearance, with great kindnefs.
of rye, and half that quantity of wheat, 13 talents of and promifed that his utmoft endeavours to procure a
cheefe and butter, and i^ne of honey ; 24 oxen, 300
fheep, 200 hogs; and 600 marks of coined money.
This was the certain revenue: but to this was added
near an equal fum from adventitious circumftances ;
fuch as fines, forfeitures, taxes on law-fuits and plead¬
ings, with a variety of other contingencies; the whole
amounting to upwards of 100,000 marks a-day, or
23,730,0001. per annum ; a fum in thofe days almoft
reconciliation* fhould not be wanting ; but in the mean
time, laid a plan for having him murdered at fea : this
was effe&ed, and Abel became mafter of the whole
kingdom.
The new king did not long enjoy the fovereignty Kingdom
he had fo wickedly obtained. He was tormented by
his own confcience ; efpecially when he found among
his brother’s papers, one by which he was left heir to petty ty-
iacredible.—With this revenue were kept for conftant the whole kingdom on the deceafe of Eric, and many
iervice 1400 great and fmall fhips for the king’s ufe,
each of which at a medium carried 121 foldiers; ma¬
king the whole of the {landing forces, befides garrifons,
canfift of 169,400 fighting men.
In 1223,. a very great misfortune befel Valdemar,
kind exprefiions with regard to himfelf. He was at
laft killed in a battle with his own fubje&s in 1252*
on account of fome taxes he intended to impofe.
From this time to the year 1333, the kingdom of
Denmark gradually declined. Ufurpers eftablifhed
themfelves-
DiftrefTed
flate of the
ingdom.
DEN [ 755 1 DEN
tKemfelves in different provinces ; while the kings of efteemed for his courage, public fpirit, and prudence, Denmark.
Sweden did not fail to avail themfelves of the diftrac- beheld with forrow the condition to which Denmark L-—v—
ted Hate of the Danifh affairs. In 1333, died Chrif- was reduced. He had long meditated a variety of^^^
topherll. who pofTeffed only the cities of Scanderburg proje&s for its relief, and at lafl imagined things werejjorevj re_
in Jutland and Neoburg in Fionia, with fome few in fuch a fituation that the whole depended on his Angle covers the
other inconfiderable places, of all the hereditary do- arm. Young Valdemar, Chriftopher’s fon, had a num-liberty of
minions of Denmark. Halland, Holbec, Calemburg, ber of adherents in the kingdom ; his moft dangerous Jutlan'1’
and Samfoe, were held by Canute Porfrus; Schonen, enemy was Gerhard ; and could he be removed, the
Lyftre, and Bleking, by the king of Sweden, to whom Jutlanders would at leaft be free from an oppreffor,
they had been lately fold : John carl of Wagria had and might choofe Valdemar, or any other they thought
the jurifdi&ions of Zealand, Falftre, Laaland, and Fe- proper, for their fovereign. Collefting a body of cho-
merin ; Gerhard, of Jutland and Fionia; and Lawrence fen horfe, therefore, he marched in the night to Ran-
Jonea, of Lang-landand Arras. derfhufen, where Gerhard had fixed his head quarters;
After the death of Chriftopher, an interregnum of and having forced open the tyrant’s quarters, imme-
feven years enfued.—The firft attempt for the fove- diately put him to death. He then fled with the ut-
reignty was made by Otho, fecond fon to the late king, moft expedition ; but was purfued and overtaken by a
who laid a fcheme for driving Gerhard out of Jutland ; party of the enemy’s horfe, through which he forced
but not being able to accompliftr it, he was taken pri- his way and efcaped. Gerhard’s fons hearing of his
foner, and clofely confined by Gerhard.—The king of death, retired into Holftein from whence they had
Sweden next wrote to Pope Benedidt XIII. befeech- come ; leaving the army, compofed chiefly of Hol¬
ing his Holinefs to confirm to him the provinces of fteiners, to be cut in pieces by the enraged peafants,
Schonen and others which he poflefled ; and to allow who fell upon them from every quarter,
him to fubdue the reft of the kingdom,.which was now Still, however, the Holfteiners kept pofleflion of the
ufurped and rendered miferable by a fet of petty citadels and fortified places, from whence Nicholas re¬
princes, who knew not how to govern. To influence folved to diflodge them. He accordingly raifed a
him the more powerfully, lie alfo promifed to hold body of forces; attacked and took Landen, a caftle
this kingdom of the Pope; and to pay him the ufual fituated on the river Scheme : After which he laid
tax collefted by the church. This requeft, however, fiege to Albeg ; but the garrifon making an obflinate
was refufed. Vaidemar of Slefwic, nephew to Ger- defence, he turned the fiege into a blockade, by which
hard, then afpired to the fovereignty. He had for- they were foon reduced to great extremity. The go-
merly been ele&ed king; but had given' over all vernor fent an exprefs to the fons of Gerhard, ac-
thoughts of enjoying the fovereignty, on account of quainting them with the impoflibility of his holding
the fuperior influence of Chriftopher; but now refumed • out more than a few days, without being relieved,
his ambitious views at the intligation of his uncle. This determined them to march to the relief of fo im-
Several of the nobility alfo caft: their eyes on young portant a place. They came up with Nicholas juft as He is kill-
Valdemar Chriftopher’s fon, now at the emperor’s the governor was readj to furrender, but were defeat-ed.
court. But while each of thefe princes were laying ed ; though Nicholas was unfortunately killed in the
fchemes to aggrandife themfelves, the unhappy Danes engagement.
were diftrefled by exorbitant taxes, famine, and pefti- Jutland having thus regained its liberty, the reft of
lence ; the two laft in confequence of the former. The the kingdom followed its example. Zealand firft o-
peafants neglefted to cultivate the lands, which they penly declared itfelf. Here Henry, Gerhard’s fon,
held on a very precarious tenure ; the confequence of maintained feveral garrifons ; and refolved to defend
this was poverty and an unwholefome diet; and this, his pofieflions iff fpite of all the power of the inhabi-
co-operating with the peculiar difpofition of the air, tants. For this purpofe he drew together an army ;
produced a plague, which deftroyed more than half but, in the mean time, a tumult arofe among the pea-
the inhabitants of the country. The poor dropped fants on account of a Danifh nobleman flain by the
down dead on the ftreets with difeafe and hunger, and Holfteiners. By this the people were at laft fo irri-
the gentry themfelves were reduced to a ftate of wretch- tated, that falling upon the Holfteiners fword in hand,
ednefs; yet, though the whole kingdom was evidently they killed 300 of them, drove the reft out of the
on the verge of ruin, ambitious projerfts employed the ifland, and chofe Valdemar, Chriftopher’s fon, for their
great, as if every thing had been in the moll profound fovereign.
tranquillity. The Danes now refumed their courage ; the lands
In the midft of thefe grievous calamities, Gerhard, were cultivated, the famine and peftilence ceafed, and 1(J
fovereign of Jutland, propofed to his nephew Valdemar the kingdom began to flourifh as formerly. Matters Margaret
an exchange of territories, which he believed would continued in a profperous way. till 1387, when Mar-unites the
prove favourable to the defigns of the latter on the garet mounted the throne. She raifed the kingdom to
crown. A treaty for this purpofe was adtually drawn its higheft pitch of glory, as partly by her addrefs, and ’
up and figned ; but the inhabitants, notwithftanding partly by hereditary right, fhe formed the union ofandNor-
their diftrefled fituation, fo highly refented their being Calmar, by which Are was acknowledged fovereign of way.
difpofed of like cattle, from one mafter to another, that Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. She held her dig-
they refufed to pay the ufual taxes. Gerhard refolved nity with fuch firmnefs and courage, that fhe was juft-
to compel them; and therefore led 10,000 men, whom ly ftyled the S'emiramis of the North. Her fucceflbrs
he had levied in Germany', into the heart of the pro- being deftitute of her great qualifications, the union of
vince. Providence, however, now raifed up an enemy Calmar fell to nothing : but Norway ftill continued
to this tyrant. One Nicholas Norevi, a man greatly annexed to Denmark. About the year 1448, the
5 C 2 crown
DEN [ 756 ] DEN
^Denmark, crown of Denmark fell to Chriftian - count of Olden*
* " * burg, from whom the prefent royal family of Denmark
is defcended ; and, in 1536, the Proteftant religion
was eftablifhed in Denmark by that .wife and politic
prince Chriftian III.
Chriftian IV. of Denmark, in 1629, was chofen for
the head of the Proteftant league formed againft the
houfe of Auftria : but, though brave in his own per-
fon, he was in danger of lofing his dominions ; when
he was fucceeded in that command by the famous Gu-
flavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. The Dutch ha¬
ving obliged Chriftian, who died in 1648, to lower
the duties of the Sound, his fon Frederic III. con-
fented to accept of an annuity of 150,000 florins for
the whole. The Dutch, after this, perfuaded him to
declare war againft Charles Gullavus king of Sweden,
which had almoft coft him his crown in 1657. Charles
ftormed the fortrefs of Fredericftadt; and in the luc-
ceeding winter, he marched his army over the ice to
the ifland of Funen, where he furprifed the" Danifti
troops, took Odenfee and Nyburg, and marched over
the Great Belt to befiege Copenhagen itfelf. Crom¬
well, the Englifti ufurper, interpofed: and Frederic de¬
fended his capital with great magnanimity till the
17 peace of Rofchild; by which Frederic ceded the pro-
Severalpro-vinces of Halland, Bleking, and Sconia, the ifland of
^*"ces ce_ Bornholm, Bahus, and Drontheim,-in Norway, to the
dei/0 We* Swedes. Frederic fought to elude thofe fevere terms;
but Charles took Cronenburg, and once more befieged
Copenhagen by fea and land. The fteady intrepid con-
du£t of Frederic under thefe misfortunes endeared
him to his fubje&s ; and the citizens of Copenhagen
made an admirable defence, till a Dutch fleet arrived
in the Baltic, aud beat the Swedilh fleet. The for¬
tune of war was now entirely changed in favour of Fre¬
deric, who fhowed on every occafion great abilities,
both civil and military : and having forced Charles to
raife the fiege of Copenhagen, might have carried the
war intp Sweden, had not the Englifti fleet, under
Montague, appeared in the Baltic. This enabled
Charles to befiege Copenhagen a third time : but
France and England offering their mediation, a peace
was concluded in that capital ; by which the ifland of
Bornholm returned to the Danes; but the ifland of
Rugen, Bleking, Halland, and Schonen, remained
- with the Swedes.
Remark- The year 1660 affords us an example of a revolu-
able revo- tion almoft unequalled in the annals of hiftory, viz.
' lution, by that of a free, people refigning their liberty into the
which the hands of their fovereign, and of their own accord, and
without the leaft compulfion, rendering him defpotic.
lute. This was occafioned by the great chara&er which Fre¬
deric had acquired by his prudent and valiant conduA
when Copenhagen was befieged by the king of Swe¬
den ; and at that time he had alfo taken care to ingra¬
tiate himfelf with the commonalty,, by . obliging the
nobility to allow them fome immunities which they
did not enjoy before; allowing them alfo, by a fpecial
ediff, to poffefs lands, and enjoy all the privileges of
nobility. After the conclufion of the treaty with
Sweden, a diet was fummoned at Copenhagen, to take
into confideration the ftate of the kingdom, which was
now very much exhaufted, both by reafon of the debts
in which it was involved and by the calamities of war.
This diftteffed ftate of affairs was, by the commons, at¬
tributed to the nobility; who, on the other hand, took Denmark,
no care to conciliate the affections of the inferior claf-
fee, but rather increafed the difeontents by their arro¬
gance. They had even the imprudence to remonftrate
.againft the immunities above mentioned, which had
been granted by the king during the fiege. In confe-
quence of this the deputies of the commons and clergy
united againft them; and being joined by the citizens
of Copenhagen, formed a very confiderable party. On
bringing forward in theaff-mbly the fums neceffaryfor .
the national exigencies, a general excife was propofed
by the nobles on every article of confumpt; and to
which they themfelves were willing to fubmit, though,
by an exprefs law, their order was to be exempted
from all taxes. This offer was accompanied with a re-
monftrance to the king ; in which, they endeavoured not
only to reclaim many obfulete privileges, but to add
frefh immunities, and introduce many other regula,
tions, all of them tending to diminifh the royal prero¬
gative, and check the rifing influence of the common*
and clergy. This propofal occafioned great, difputes
in the diet; and the two inferior orders Infifted that
they would not admit of any tax which fhould not be
levied equally upon all ranks, without referve or reftric-
tion. The nobles not only refufed to comply with thia
propofal, but even to be fubjeCl to the tax for more
than three years; pretending that all taxes whatever
were infringements on their privileges. By way of
compenfation, however, they propofed new duties up¬
on leather and ftamped paper, and at laft offered to pay
a poll-tax for their peafants. This exchange feemed
at firft to be agreeable to the two inferior eftates; but
they fuddenly altered their mind, and demanded that
the fiefs and domains, which the nobles had hitherto,
poffeffed exclufively, and at a very moderate rent,
fhould be let to the’higheil bidder.
Such a propofal appeared to the nobles to be to the
laft degree unreafonable. They faid it was an infraction
of their deareft privileges; as, by the 46th article of'
the coronation oath taken by Frederic, the poffeffion
of the royal fiefs was guaranteed to their order; but,
in the heat of difpute, one of the chief fenators having
imprudently thrown out fome reproachful expreffions
againft the commons, a general ferment enfued, and
the affembly was broken up in corifufion. This gave
occafion to the interpofition of the king’s friends; and
an idea of rendering the crown hereditary, and enlar¬
ging the royal prerogative, began to be fuggefted as
the proper method of humbling the nobility. This
was fii;ft broached by the bifhop of Zealand, at whofe
houfe a numerous meeting was held on the 6th of Oc¬
tober 1660, where the fcheme was fully laid open and
approved ; an aft for rendering the crown hereditary
drawn up ; and the beft method of publicly producing
it taken into confideration. All this time the king
feemed quite inaftive, nor could he be prevailed upon
to take any part in an affair which fo nearly concerned
him. But this indolence was abundantly compenfated
by the alertnefs and diligence of the queen ; between
whom and the heads of the party matters were foon
concerted. On the morning of the 8th of Qftober,
therefore, the bifliop of Zealand having obtained the
confent and fignature of the ecclefiaftical deputies, de¬
livered it to Naufen burgomafter of Copenhagen and
fpeaker of the commons. The latter, in a moft pejr-
fuafive
DEN [ 757 ] DEN
maflenmark. fuafiVe fpeech, expatiated upon the wretched ftate of brought their defign to perfeftion, and he could re- Denmark.
—“~v ' the kingdom, the oppreffive power of the nobles, and ceive their voluntary fubmiffion with all due fplemnity.  V "f,
the virtues of the king; concluding with an exhorta- On departure of the commons from the place where
tion to the commons, to fubfcribe the a£E as the only they had been conferring with the nobles, the latter
means of faving their country. . had been fo diftradfed and confufed, that they broke
The exhortations of the fpeaker had fuoh an effedt up without coming to any refolution, defigning, howi
upon the affembly, that they fubfcribed it without a ever, to decide the matter finally at their meeting on
{ingle difient; the nobles being all the while in perfedl the afternoon of the following day. But while they
fecurity, and entirely ignorant of the tranfadfion. Next were thus wavering and irrefolute, the court and the-
day it was prefented to the king by the biftiop and popular party took the neceflarymeafures to force them
Naufen ; and as they were returning from the palace, to a concurrence. This was effedtually done by an
they met the fenator who had already given offence order to {hut the gates ; for by this they were fo much
to the commons. With him they had a violent al- difpirited that they inftantly difpatched. deputies to the
tercation, and were threatened with imprifonment for court, with a meffage that they were ready to concur
prefuming to approach the king without acquainting with the commons, and fubfcribe to all the conditions
the order of nobles. This threat was now altogether of the royal pleafure.
nugatory. The nobles having got fome intelligence ^ Nothing now remained but to ratify the tranfadfion
of what was going forward, had juft affembled in order with all proper folemnity. Accordingly, on the 16th<
1 to confider of what was to be done, when the deputies of Odtober, the eftates annulled, in the moft folemn
I of the two other eftates entered, and informed them of manner, the capitulation or charter figned by the king
their proceedings, and delivered to them the propofal on his acceffion to the throne; abfolved him from all
for rendering the crown hereditary. By this declara- his engagements; and cancelled all the limitations im-
tion the nobles were thrown into the utmoft confterna- pofed upon his fovereignty. The whole was concluded-
1 tion; but judging it improper to put a negative on the by the ceremony of doing homage, taking the new
propofal at prefent, they endeavoured to gain time, oath with great ceremony; after which a new form of
and replied, that though they willingly gave their af- government was promulgated under the title of The
fent to the declaration, yet that, as it was a matter of Royal Law of Denmark.
great confequence, it deferved the ihoft feiious dif- Frederic was fucceeded,in 1670,byhisfonChriftianV.
cuffion. Naufen, however, replied, that the other who obliged the Duke of Holftein Gottorp to renounce
eftates had already taken their refolution ; that they all the advantages he had gained by the treaty of Rof-
{vould lofe no time in debate ; and that if the nobles child. He then recovered a numberof places in Schonen
would not concur with them, they would immediate- but his army was defeated in the bloody battle of Lundea
| ly repair to the palace by themfelves, where they had by Charles XI. of Sweden; This defeat did not put an
not the.leaft doubt that the king would gracioufly ac- end to the war; which Chriftian obftinately continued,
eept their proffer. till he was defeated entirely at the battle of Land-
In the mean time the nobles had privately difpatch- fcroon ;. and he had almoft exhaufted his dominions in
ed a meflage to the king, intimating, that they were his military operations, till he was in a manner aban-
willing to render the crown hereditary in the male line doned by all his allies, and forced to fign a treaty on
8 of his ilfue, provided it was done with all the ufualfor- the terms prefcribed by France, in 1679. Chriftian,.
malities. But this propofal did not prove agreeable to however, did not defift from his military attempts; and
his majefty, unlefs they would confirm the right of fuc- at laft he became the ally and fubfidiary of Louis XIV..
ceffion in the female line alfo. He added, however* who was then threatening Europe with chains. Chri-
with great appearance of moderation, that he by no ftian^ after a vaft variety of treating and fighting with
means wiftied to prefcribe rules for their conduft; they the Holfteiners, Hamburghers, and other notthern
were to follow the diAates of their own judgment; but powers, died in 1699. He was fucceeded by Frede—
as for his part, he would owe every, thing to their free ric IV. who, like his predecefibrs, maintained his pre-
confent. While the nobles were waiting for this an- tenfions upon Holftein ; and probably muft have be-
fwer, the other deputies, perceiving, that they wifhed come mailer of that duchy, had not the Englifh and
to keep the matter in fufpence, loft all patience, and Dutch fleets raifed the fiege of Tonningetf; while the
repaired in folemn proceffion to the court; where, be- young king of Sweden, CharlesXII. who was no more
ing admitted into the royal prefence, the matter was than 16 years of age, landed within eight miles of Co¬
opened by the bifltop of Zealand. He addrefled his penhagen, to aflift his brother-in-law the Duke of Hdl-
majefty on the refolution taken by the clergy and com- ftein. Charles probably would have made himfelf ina-
mons, offering in their name to render the crown he- fter of Copenhagen, had not his Danilh majefty agreed
reditaty, and to inveft him with abfolute authority; to the peace of Travendahl, which was entirely in the
adding, that they were ready to facrifice their lives in Duke’s favour. By another treaty concluded with the
the defence of an eftabliflimentfo falutary to their coun- States-General, Frederic obliged himfelf to furnifhi
try. His majefty thanked them for their favourable a body of troops, who were to be paid by the confe--
intentions ; but mentioned the concurrence of the derates; and who afterwards did great fervice againft
nobles as a neceffary condition;. though he had no the French, '
doubt of this' when they fhould have time to accom- Notwithftanding thispeace, Frederic was perpetual-Perpetual
pany the declaration with all the neceffary formalities ; ly engaged in wars with the Swedes; and while Charleswith --
he affured them of his proteftion, promifed a redrefs of was an exile at Bender, he marched through Holftein
all grievances, and difmiffed them with an exhortation into Swedifh Pomerania; and in the year 1712, into
to continue their fittings until they ftiould have Bremen, and took the city of Stade. His troops,
2. however,,
DEN
Denmark, however, were totally defeated by the Swedes at Ga-
delbufch, who laid his favourite city of Altena in alhes.
Frederic revenged himfelf, by feizing great part of the
ducal Holftein, and forcing the Swedifn general, count
Steinbock, to furrender himfelf prifoner, with all his
troops. In the year 1716, the fuccefles of Frederic
were fo great, by taking Tonningen and Stralfund,by
driving the Swedes out of Norway, and reducing Wif-
mar and Pomerania, that his allies began to fufpedt he
was aiming at the fovereignty of all Scandinavia. Up¬
on the return of Charles of Sweden from his exile, he
renewed the war againft Denmark with a rnoft. em¬
bittered fpirit ; but on the death of that prince, who
was killed at the fiege of Fredericlhal, Frederic durft
not refufe the offer of his Britannic majefly’s mediation
between him and the crown of Sweden; in confequence
of which, a peace was concluded at Stockholm, which
left him in pofTeffion of the duchy of Slefwic. Fre¬
deric died in the year 1730, after having, two years
before, feen his capital reduced to afhes by an acci¬
dental fire. His fon and fucceffor, Chriltian Frede¬
ric, made no other ufe ofihis power, and the advanta¬
ges with which he mounted the throne, than to cul¬
tivate peace with all his neighbours, and to promote the
:happinefs of his fubjefts, whom he eafed of many op-
premve taxes.
In 1734, after guaranteeing the Pragmatic Sanc¬
tion, Chriftian fent 6000 men to the affittance of the
emperor, during the difpute of the fucceffion to the
crown of Poland. Though he was pacific, yet he was
jealous of his rights, efpecially over Hamburgh. He
obliged the Hamburghers to call in the mediation of
Pruffia, to abolifh their bank, to admit the coin of
-Denmark as current, and to pay him a million of fil-
ver marks. He had, two years after, viz. 1738, a
difpute with his Britannic majefty about the little
lordfhip of Steinhorft, which had been mortgaged to
the latter by the Duke of Holitein Lawenburg, and
which Chriftian faid belonged to him. Some blood
ao was fpilt during the conteft ; in which Chriftian, it is
An advan- thought, never was in earneft. It brought on, how-
trfar0U\vitheVer’ 3 treaty’ ’n wbich he availed himfelf of his Bri-
GreatBrl- tann‘c niajefty’s predileftion for his German domi-
.tain. nions ; for he agreed to pay Chriftian a fubfidy of
70,000 1. Sterling a-year, on condition of keeping in
readinefs 7000 troops for the proportion of Hanover :
this was a gainful bargain for Denmark. And two
years after, he feized fome Dutch ftrips for trading
without his leave to Iceland: but the difference was
made up by the mediation of Swedc-n. Chriftian had
fo great a party jn that kingdom, that it was general¬
ly thought he would revive the union of Calmar, by
procuring his fon to be declared fucceffor to his then
Swedifh majefty. Some fteps for that purpofe were
certainly taken : but whatever Chriftian’s views might
have been, the defign was fruftrated by the jeafoufy
of other powers, who could not bear the thoughts of
•feeing all Scandinavia fubjedt to one family. Chriftian
died in 1746, with the charadter of being the father
of his people.
His fon and fucceffor, FredericV. had, in 1743,
married the princefs Louifa, daughter to his Britannic
majefty. He improved upon his father’s plan for the
Jaappinefs of his people ; but took no concern, ex-
D E N
cept that of a mediator, in the German war. For it Denmark, j
was by his intervention that the treaty of Clofter-fe-k ——y'
ven was concluded between his royal highnefs the late
duke of Cumberland and the French general Riche¬
lieu. Upon the death of his firft queen, who was mo¬
ther to his prefent Danifh majefty, he married a daugh¬
ter of the duke of Brunfwic Wolfenbuttel; and died
in 1766.
He was fucceeded by his fon Chriftian VII. his pre¬
fent Danilh majefty, who married the princefs Caro- a:f |
lina Matilda of England. But this alliance proved ex- Intrigues 9
tremely unfortunate, which is generally afcribed to of the 1
the intrigues of the queen dowager, mother-in-law to dowager
the prefent king. She is reprefented as ambitious, ®une”'^or"H
artful, and defigning ; and as one who wifhed to have the young ||
fet afide the king himfelf in favour of her own fon Fre- q een.
deric. On the arrival of the young queen, however, {he
received her with much apparent affe&ion, telling her
the faults of herlhufband, and at the fame time promifing
to affift her on all occafions in reclaiming him from his
vicious courfes. Thus, under pretence of kindnefs
and friendlhip, fhe fowed the feeds of diffention betwixt
the royal pair before the unfortunate princefs had the
leaft fufpicion of her danger; and while the un¬
thinking queen revealed to the dowager all her |
fecrets, the latter is faid to have placed fpies about
the king to keep him conftantly engaged in riot and
debauchery, to which he was at any rate too much
inclined. At laft it was contrived to throw a miftrefs in
his way, whom he was advifed to keep in his palace.
—It was impoffible that any woman could pafs fuch
a piece of conduft unnoticed ; however, in this affair,
the queen dowager behaved with her ufual duplicity.
In the abfence of the king fhe pretended great refent-
ment againft him, and even advifed the queen not to
live with him ; but as foon as he returned, when his
confort reproached him, though in a gentle manner,
with his conduft, fhe not only took his part, but in¬
filled that it was prefumptuous in a queen of Den¬
mark to pretend to diredl her hufband’s condudl. Not-
withftanding this incendiary behaviour, the queen was
in a fhort time reconciled to her hufband, and lived
on very good terms with him until fhe again excited
the jealoufy of the dowager by affuming to herfelf the
direction of that part of the public affairs which the
dowager had been accuftomed to look upon as her '
own privilege. For fome time it feemed to be difficult
for her to form any effedtual plan of revenge, as the
king had difplaced feveral of her friends who had for
fome time had a (hare in the adminiftration. Two
new favourites, Brandt and Struenfee, had now appear¬
ed ; and as thefe paid great court to the queen, the
dowager took occafion to infinuate not only that the
queen was harbouring improper defigns with regard
to the government, but that fhe had an intrigue with
Struenfee. The new minifters indeed behaved impru¬
dently, in attempting to make a reformation in feve¬
ral of the departments of the ftate at once, inftead of
waiting patiently until an opportunity fhould offer ;
and in thefe precipitate fchemes they were certainly
fupported by the queen. Thefe inftances of want of
circumfpe&ion in the minifters, were reprefented by the
dowager and her party to be a fettled fcheme to make
an alteration in the government; and a defign was even
fpoken
C 758 ]
DEN [ 759 3 DEN
i»"3tnmark fpoken of to fuperfede the king as being incapable of go-
v^—v—- verning, to declare the queen regent during the minority
of her fon, and to make Struenfee prime minifter.
Thus a very formidable oppofition was formed a-
gainil Brandt and Smienfee; and as the latter had made
feme innovations in the military department as well as
the civil, fome of the principal officers, who were the
creatures of the dowager, reprefented him as defign-
ing to overthrow the whole fyftem of government.
When matters w;ere brought to a proper bearing, it
was at laft refblved to furprife the king in the middle
of the night, and force him inflantly to fign an order
which was to be ready prepared, for committing the
obnoxious ptrfons to feparate prifons, accufe them of
high treafon in general, and particularly with a defign
to dethrone or poifon the king. If this could not be
properly authenticated, it was determined^ to fuborn
witneffes to confirm the report of a criminal corre-
fpondence between the queen and count Struenfee.
This defign was executed on the night of the 16th of
January 1772, when a malked ball was given at the
court of Denmark. The queen, after having danced
moft part of the night with count Struenfee, retired to
her chamber about two in the morning. About four
the fame morning, prince Frederic got up, and went
with the queen dowager to the king’s bed-chamber,
accompained by general Eichlledt and count Rantzau.
Having ordered the king’s valet de chambre to awake
him, they informed his majefty that the queen, with
count Strueufee, his brother, and Brandt one of the
new minifters, were at that moment bufy in draw¬
ing up an adh of renunciation of the crown, which
they would immediately after compel him to fign ; and
therefore there was a neceffity for him to give an order
for their arreftment. The king is faidto have hefitated for
fome time, and inclined to refufe this fcandalous requifi-
tion; but at length, through importunity, and,according
to fome accounts, beingeven threatened into compliance,
he confented to what they required. Count Rantzau
was difpatched, at that untimely hour, into the queen’s
apartments, and immediately executed the orders of
the king. The unfortunate princefs was conveyed in
one of the king’s coaches to the caftleof Cronenburgh,
together with the infant princefs, attended by Lady
Moftyn, and efcorted by a party of dragoons. Stru¬
enfee and Brandt were feized in their beds and impri-
foned, as well as feveral other members of the new ad-
miniftration, to the number of 18. The queen dowager
and her adherents feemed to affiime the government en¬
tirely into their own hands,and a total change took place
in the departments of adminiftration. The prince royal,
fon of queen Matilda, then in the fifth yearof his age, was
put under the care of a lady of quality, who was appoint¬
ed governefs, under the fuperintendency of the queen
dowager. Struenfee and Brandt were put in irons,
and very feverely treated r they underwent long and fre-
42 quent examinations; and Struenfee at laii confefTed that
Execution he had a crimiral intercourfe with the queen. Both their
Struenfee heads were {truck off on the 28th of April; but many
and Brandt, of their partifans were fet at liberty. The confeffion
of Struenfee is by many, and indeed with no fmall de¬
gree of probability, fuppofed to have been extorted by
fear of the torture, and to have no foundation in truth ;
but as no means were ufed by the courtof Britain toclear
up the queen’s character, the affair muff undoubtedly
wear a fufpicious afpeft. At laft, however, his Bri- Denmark,
taf.nic majefty interfered fo far as to fend a fmall fqua- —^y~,w
dron of (hips to convoy the unhappy princefs to Ger¬
many. Here the city of Zell was appointed for her refi-
dence; and in this place fhe died of a malignant fever on
the 10th of May 1 775, aged 23 years and 10 months.
The inhuman treatment of this princefs did not
long prove advantageous to the queen dowager and her 43
party: A new revolution took place in April 1784, Change in
when the queen dowager’s friends were removed, a tire admini-
new council was formed under the aufpices of the prince Ura lon*
royal, and no inftrument deemed authentic unlefs figned
by the king, and counterfigned by the prince. Since that
time, the king, whofromthe beginning of hisadminiftra-
tion {bowed a great degree of incapacity, has been en¬
tirely laid afide from public •bufinefs, and has no /hare
in the government. The Danes are at prefent engaged
on the fide of Ruffia in her war with the Turks, the
immediate opponent of Denmark being Sweden. ^
The kingdom of Denmark at prefent is divided into Divilion of
fix grand diftri&s or provinces; viz. I. Denmark pro-thekingr
perly fo called, comprehending the ifiands of Zealand, dom.
Funen, Langland, Laaland, Falftria, Mona, Samfoe,
Arroe, Bornholm, Anhonlt, Leffaw, and that part
of the continent called North Jutland. 2. The duchy
of Slefwick, or South Jutland. 3. The duchy of Hol-
ftein. 4. The earldoms of Oldenburg and Delmenhorft,
5. The kingdom of Norway; and 6. Iceland, with
the iflands lying in the Northern Seas ; for a particu¬
lar defeription of which fee thefe articles.
The language of Denmark is a dialed! of the Teu-Language
tonic, and bears a ftrong affinity to the Norwegian religion,
tongue; but is difagreeable to ftrangers, on account of &c-
the drawling tone with which it is pronounced. They
have borrowed many words from the German ; and,
indeed, the high Dutch is ufed in common dil’courfe
by the court, the,gentry, and the burghers. The bet¬
ter fort likewife underftand French, and fpeak it flu¬
ently. The Lutheran dodlrine is univerfally embraced
through all Denmark, Sweden, and Norway ; fo that
there is not another fedt in thefe kingdoms. Denmark
is divided into fix diocefes, one in Zealand, one in Fu¬
nen, and four in Jutland: but the biffiops are, proper¬
ly fpeaking, no other than fuperintendants, orprtmi
inter pares. They have no cathedrals, ecclefiaftical
courts, or temporalities. Their bufinefs is to infpedt
xthe dodfrine and morals of the inferior clergy. The re¬
venue of the biffiop of Copenhagen amounts to about
2000 rixdollars; and this is the richeft benefice in the-
Icingdom. The clergy are wholly dependant on the
government. They never intermeddle, nor are em¬
ployed 01 confulted in civil affairs. They, neverthe-
lefs, have acquired great influence, and eredled a fort:
of fpiritual tyranny over the minds of the common
people, by whom they are much revered. They are,
generally fpeaking, men of exemplary lives, and fome
erudition. Their churches are kept more clean, and :
better adorned, than thofe of England: the people are
great loveis of mufic, and their organifts commonly ■
entertain the congregation for half an hour before or
after fervice. The ftate of literature is very lowin'
Denmark. There is, indeed, an univerfity at Copen¬
hagen; but meanly endowed, and very ill fupplied with ■
mailers. Tafte and the belles lettres are utterly un¬
known in this country, which yet has produced fome'
menr
DEN [ ?6o ] DEN
Iknmark. men oF great eminence in mathematics and medicine; the province: but the final appeal lies to the court of ttcnmark,
^ fuch as Tycho Brahe, Borrichius, and the Bartholines. High-right in Copenhagen, where the king prefides in
■Crovern- conftitution of Denmark was heretofore of the perfon, afiifted by the prime nobility. The judges of
iKent. free Gothic original. The convention of the eftates, the two other courts are appointed by his majefty’s
even including the reprefentatives of the boors or pea- letters patent, to fit and determine caufes durante be- t
fants, eledted a king for his perfonal virtues, having tte placlto. Thefe are punishable for any mifdemean-
ftill a regard to the fon of their late monarch, whom, ours of which they may be guilty ; and when convi&ed
however, they made no fcruple of fetting afide, if they of having pafied an unjufl fentence, they are condemned
■deemed him unworthy of the royal dignity. They to make reparation to the injured'party. Their falaries
■enadted laws; conferred the great offices of ftate ; de- are very inconfiderable, and paid out of the king’s trea*-
bated all affairs relating to commerce, peace, war, and fury, from the fines of delinquents, befides a finall gra-
slliances; and occafionally gave their confent to the tuity from the plaintiff and defendant when fentence is
impofition of neceffary taxes. The king was no other paffed. Such is the peculiar privilege enjoyed by the
than chief magiftrate, generaliffimo, and as it were city of Copenhagen, that caufes appealed from the By¬
prime minifter to his people. His bufinefs was to fee foglids court, infiead of palling through the provincial
juftice adminiflered impartially; to command the army court, are tried by the burgomafter and common-coun- .1
in time of war ; to encourage induftry, religion, arts, cil; from whence they proceed immediately to the
and fciences; and to watch over the interefts of his higheft court as the laft refource. Affairs relating to
lubjedls. * the revenue are determined in the rent-chamber of Den- ■ |
In 1660, however, the conftitution was new model- mark, which is analogous to our court of exchequer. , |
led, as has been already related, and which was to the To another tribunal, compofed of feme members from
following purport. “The hereditary kings of Den- this rent-chamber, from the admiralty, and college of Ji
mark and Norway fhould be in effeft, and ought to be commerce, merchants appeal for redrefs, when their
efteemed by their fiibjedts, the only fupreme head up- commodities are feized for non-payment of duties. All
on earth ; they {hall be above all human laws, and fhall difputes relating to the fea are determined by the court
acknowledge, in all ecclefiaftical and civil affairs, no of admiralty, conftituted of commiffioners appointed
higher power than God alon£. The king fhall enjoy the for thefe purpofes. The chancellary may be more
right of making and interpreting the laws, of abroga- properly termed a fecretary’s office. It confifts of
ting, adding to, and difpenfing with them. He may clerks, who write and iffue all the king’s decrees and
alfo annul all the laws which either he or his predecef- citations, tranferibe papers, and, according to the di- * 1
fors fhall have made, excepting this royal law, which reftions they receive, make draughts of treaties and
mu ft remain irrevocable, and be confidered as the fun* alliances with other nations. The government of Den-
damental law of the ftate. He has the power of decla- mark is very commendable for the excellent policy it
ring war, making peace, impofing taxes, and levying maintains. Juftice is executed upon criminals with
contributions of all forts,” &c. &c. 1 great feverity; and fuch regulations are eftablifhed as
Then follow the regulations for the order of fuccef- effe&ually prevent thofe outrages that are daily com-
fion, the regency in cafe of minority, the majority of mitted in other countries. No man prefumes to wag
the king, the maintenance of the royal family ; and, his tongue againft the government, far lefs to hatch
after having enumerated all the poffible prerogatives fchemes of treafon. All the fubjefts are, or feem to
of regal uncircumfcribed authority, as if fufficient h-ad be, attached to their fovereign by.the ties of affe&ion.
not yet been laid down, it is added in the 26th article: Robbery on the high-way, Burglary, coining or clip-
“ All that we have hitherto faid of power and emi- ping, are crimes feldom or never heard of in Den-
nence, and fovereignty, and if there is any thing fur- mark. The capital crimes ufually committed are theft
ther which has not been exprefsly fpecified, (hall all be and manflaughter. Such offenders are beheaded very
comprifed in the following words : “ The king of dextetoufly with one ftroke of a fword. The execu-
Denmark and Norway {hall be the hereditary monarch, tioner, though infamous, is commonly rich; becaufe,
and endued with the higheft authority ; infomuch, over and above the fun&ions of his office, he is em-
that all that can be faid and written to the advantage ployed in other fcandalous occupations, which no o-
of a Chriftian, hereditary, and abfolute king, {hall be ther perfon will undertake. He, by means of his un¬
extended under the moft favourable interpretation to derftrapper, called the pracher^, empties all the jakes,
the hereditary king or queen of Denmark and Nor- and removes from houfes, ftables, or ftreets, dead dogs,
^ way,” &c. &c. horfes, &c. which no other Dane will vouchfafe to
jLaws, &c. The laws of Denmark are fo concife, that the whole touch on any confideratiort whatfoever. :
body is contained in one quarto volume, written in the The Daniffi nobility and gentry are all included in Slaviih coft»
language of the country. Every man may plead his the term and formerly there were no diftinc-^10^^
own caufe, without employing either counfel orattor- tions of title : but within thefe 60 or 70 years, f°mew
ney : but there are a few advocates for the benefit of few favourites have been dignified with the titles of
thofe who cannot or will not fpeak ih their own de* and baron. Thefe, and thefe only, enjoy the privilege
fence. The proceedings are fo fummary, that a fuit of difpoiing of their eftates by will; though, others
may be carried through all the courts, and finally de- may make particular difpofitions, provided they have
cided, in 13 months. There are three courts in Den- fufficient intereftto procure the king’s approbation and
mark, and an appeal lies from the inferior to the fupe- fignature. The nobleffe of Denmark formerly lived at
rior tribunal. The lowed of thefe is, in cities and their own feats with great magnificence ; and at the
towns, denominated the Byfoglids Court; and in the conventions of eftates met the king with numerous
country, the Herredsfougds. Caufts may be appealed and fuperb retinues: but fince he became abfolute, they
from this to the Landflagy or general head court for arc fo impoveriftred by exorbitant taxes, that they can
N° 99. hardly
DEN
C ?6r ]
DEN
Denmark, hardly procure fubfiftence; and, for the moft part, live
obfcurely in fome corner of their ruined country pa¬
laces, unlefs they have intereft enough to procure fome
employment at court. They no longer inherit the fpi-
rit and virtues of their anceftors; but are become fer-
and all their attendants when the king makes a pro- Denmark,
grefs through the country, or removes his refidence
from one palace to another. On fuch occafions the
neighbouring boors are fummoned to affemble with
their cattle and carriages, and not only to live at their
vile, indolent, oftentatious, extravagant, and oppref- own expence, but to bear every fpecies of outrage from
five.
Their general charafter is a ftrange compofition of
pride and meannefs, inlolence and poverty. If any gen¬
tleman can find a purchafer for his eftate, the king, by
the Daniih law, has a right to one third of the pur-
chafe-money : but the lands are fo burdened with im-
pofitions that there would be no danger of an aliena¬
tion, even tho’ this reftridion was not in force. Nay,
fome gentlemen in the Ifiand of Zealand have aftually
offered to make a furrender to the king of large trafts
of very fertile land in the Illand of Zealand, if his ma-
the meaneft lacquies of thofe who attend his majeffy.
The warlike fpirit of the Danes no longer fubfifts: the
common people are mean-fpirited, fufpicious, and de¬
ceitful ; nor have they that talent for mechanics fo re¬
markable in fome northern nations. While the pea-
fants are employed in their labour without doors, the
women are occupied at home in fpinning yarn for linen,
which is here made in great perfe&ion.
In Denmark, all perfons of any rank above the vul-j^. .
gar drefs in the French tafte, and affed finery; the 16 ** ^
winter-drefs of the ladies is peculiar to the country.
jelly would be pleafed to accept of them in place of very neat, warm, and becoming. The common people
the impofitions laid on them. The reafon of this is,  ’-_ui . ._j • , ..
becaufe, by the law of Denmark, if any eftate is bur-
are likewife remarkably neat, and pride themfelves1 ii
different changes of linen. They are very little addid-
dened beyond what it can bear, the owner mull make ed to jollity and diverfion : their whole amufements
up the deficiency out of his other ellates, if he has any.
Hence the king generally refufes fuch offers; and fome
gentlemen have been tranfported with joy when they
heard that his majelly had been “ gracioufly pleafed to
accept their whole dVates.’*
confill in running at the goofe on Shrove Tuefday,
and in winter in being drawn in lleds upon the ice.
They alfo fealt and make merry at weddings and fune¬
rals. With refped to marriage, the man and woman
frequently cohabit together on contrad long before the
This opptelfion of the nobles by the king produces ceremony is performed. The nobility and gentry pique
in them a like difpofition to opprefs the commons; and themfelves on fumptuous burials and monuments for the
the confequence of all this is, that there is no part of dead : the corpfe is very often kept in a vault, or in
the world where extravagance and diffipation reigns to  ' ’ r ’ . • • >-
'fuch a degree. The courtiers maintain fplendid equi¬
pages, wear fine clothes, drink a vail quantity of French
wine, and indulge themfelves with eating to excefs.
Such as derive money froth their employments, inllead
of purchafing land in Denmark, remit their calh to the
the chancel of a church, for feveral years, before an op¬
portunity offers of celebrating the funeral.
The taverns in this country are poorly fupplied;
and he who diets in them mult be contented to eat in
a public room, unlefs he will condefcend to pay an ex¬
travagant price for a private apartment. The metro-
banks of Hamburgh and Amllerdam. The merchants polis is but indifferently furnilhed with game. The
and burghers tread in the Heps of their fuperiors: they wild-ducks and plover are hardly eatable; but the hares
fpend all their gains in luxury and pleafure, afraid of are good, and the markets fometimes produce tolerable
incurring the fufpicion of affluence, and being ftripped —'—u _ - . . , , , .
by taxation. The peafant, or boor, follows the fashe
example. No fooner has he earned a rix-dollar than he
makes hafte to expend it in brandy, left it Ihould fall
into the hands of his oppreflive landlord. This lower and falads in perfedlion.
roebuck. Their fea-filh are not to be commended ; but
the rivers produce plenty of delicious carp, perch, and
craw-filh. The gardens of the gentry are well provi¬
ded with melons, grapes, peaches, and all forts of greens
clafs of people are as abfolute flaves as the negroes in
the Weft Indies, and fubfift upon much harder fare.
The value of eftates is not computed by the number of
acres, but by the flock of boors, who, like the timber,
are reckoned a parcel of the freehold ; and nothing can
be more wretched than the ftate of thefe boors. They
feed upon ftock-fifh, failed meats, and other coarfe diet:
there is not the leaft piece of furniture of any value in
their houfes, except feather-beds, of which there is
great plenty in Denmark; and which are ufed not only
as beds to lie on but as blankets for covering. After
the boor has toiled, like a Have to raife the king’s taxes,
be muft pay the overplus of his toil to his needy land¬
lord. Should he improve his ground and repair his
The army of Denmark is compofed, i. of the troops
of Denmark and Holftein ; and, 2. of Norway.
The forces of Denmark and Holftein are divided Armv°of
into regulars and national or militia. Thefe forces Denmark,
(the foot and horfe guards excepted who are all regu¬
lars) are not feparated, as in our army, into diftinft
regiments, but are formed in the following manner:
Before the late augmentation, every regiment of in¬
fantry, when complete, confifted of 26 officers and
1632 privates, divided into ten companies of fufileers
and two of grenadiers. Of thefe 1632 privates, 480,
who are chiefly foreigners enlifted in Germany, are
regulars. The remaining 1152 are the national militia,
or peafantswho refide upon the eftates of their landhold-
farm-houfe, his cruel mafter will immediately tranfplant ers, each eftatefurnilhing a certain number in proportion
him to a barren farm and a naked habitation, that he to its value. Thefe national troops are occafionally ex¬
may let the improved ground to another tenant at a ercifed in fmall corps upon Sundays and holidays ; and
higher price. The peafants likewife fuftain a great deal are embodied once every year for about 17 days in
of damage and violence from the licentious foldiers that their refpe&ive diftri<fts. By a late addition of ten
are quartered in their houfes. They are moreover obli- men to each company, a regiment of infantry is in-
ged to furnifh horfes and waggons for the royal family creafed to 1778, including officers. The expence of
Vol.V. PartIL 5 D each-
DEN f 762 ] DEN
Denmark. each regiment, which before amounted to L.6000,
y—^ has been raifed by the late augmentation to L. 8000.
The cavalry is upon the fame footing ; each regiment
confiding of 17 officers, including ferjeants and coi-
porals, and 565 privates, divided into five fquadrons.
Of thefe about 260 are regular and the remainder na¬
tional troops. The regiments of foot and horfe guards
are regulars; the former is compofed of 2 1 officers
and 465 men, in five companies ; and the latter of 7
officers and 154 men, in two fquadrons.
The forces of Norway are all national troops or
militia, excepting the two regiments of Sundenfield
and Nordenfield ; and as the peafants of that kingdom
are free, the forces are levied in a different manner
from thofe of Denmark. Norway is divided into a
certain number of diftri&s, each whereof furnifhes a
foldier. All the peafants are, upon their birth, re-
giftered for the militia ; and the firft on the lift fup-
plies the vacancy for the diftrift to which he belongs.
After having ferved from 1 o to 14 years they are ad¬
mitted among the invalids ; and when they have at¬
tained the feniority of that corps receive their difmif-
fion. Thefe troops are not continually under arms ;
but are only occafionally exercifed like the national
forces of Denmark. A fixed ftipend is affigned to
the officers, nearly equal to that of the officers in the
regulars ; but the common foldiers do not receive any
pay* except when they are in actual fervice, or perform-,
ing their annual manoeuvres. The Academy of Land
Cadets, inftituted by Frederic IV. fupplies the army
with officers. According to this foundation, 74 ca¬
dets are inftrufted in the military fciences at the ex¬
pence of tfte king. The whole amount of the Danifh
troops is computed at 60,900.
From their infular lituation the Danes have always
excelled as a maritime people. In the earlier ages,
when piracy was an honourable profeffion, they were
a race of pirates, and ifi'ued from the Baltic to the
conquefts of England and Normandy. And though,
fince the improvement of navigation by the invention
of the compafs, other nations have rifen to a greater
degree of naval eminence, ftill, however, the Danes,
as they inhabit a clufter of iflands, and poffefs a large
traft of fea-coaft, are well verfed in maritime affairs,
and are certainly the moft numerous, as well as the
moft experienced, failors of the north.
The greateft part of the Daniffi navy is ftationed in
the harbour of Copenhagen, which lies within the for¬
tifications : the depth of water being only 20 feet,
the {hips have not their lower tier of guns on board,
but take them in when they get out of port. Befide
Ikrge magazines, each veffel has a feparate ftorehoufe
on the water’s edge, oppofite to- which fire is moored
when in harbour, and may by this means be inftantly
equipped. The number of regiftered feamenare near
40,000, and are divided into two claffes; the firft com-
prifes thofe inhabiting the coafts, who are allowed to
engage in the fervice of merchant-ftiips trading to any
part of the world. Each receives 8 s. annually from
the crown as long as he fends a certificate of his be¬
ing alive ; but is fubjeft to a recal in cafe of war.
The fecond comprehends the fixed failors, who are
conftantly in the employ of the crown, and amount
W about 4000, ranged under four divifions, or 40
companies : they are ftationed at Copenhagen for the Denmark,
ordinary fervice of the navy, and work in the dock- Denni«..
yard. Each of them, when not at fea, receives 8s.
per month, befide a fufficient quantity of flour and
other provifions ; every two years a complete fuit of
clothes; and every year breeches, ftockings, fnoes,
and a cap. Some of them are lodged in barracks.
When they fail, their pay is augmented to 20s. per
month. The marine artillery confifts of 800-men, in
four divifions.
The whole navy confifts of 38 {hips of the line, in-
eluding 9 of 50 guns and one of 44, and 20 frigates ;
but if we except thofe which are condemned, and thofe
which are allotted only for parade, we cannot eftimate
that in 1779 ^ie fleet confuted of more than 25 {hip?
of the line and 15 frigates fit for fervice ; a number,
however, fully adequate to the fituation of Denmark ;
and if we include the excellence of the failors, it mull
be efteemed as complete a navy as any in the north. , -
The revenue of his Daniffi majefty arifes from taxes
laid on his own fubjedts ; from the duties paid by fo-.
reigriers, from his own eftate, crown-lands, and son*
fifeations. The taxes are altogether arbitrary, and
therefore fluctuating ; but they are always grievous to
the fubjedt. They commonly coufift of cuftoms or toll,
for export and import; of excife upon the confump-
tion of wine, fait, tobacco, and all kinds of provifions ;
of taxes upon marriages, paper, brewing, grinding, and
the exercife of different profeffions ; of impofitions on
land, poll-money, ground-rent for all houfes in Co¬
penhagen and elfewhere ; of money raifed for main¬
taining fortifications, and for a portion to the king’s
daughter when Ihe happens to be married : but this
feldom exceeds 100,000 rixdollars. One confiderable
article in the revenue is the toll paid by foreign Ihips
that pafs through the Sound, or Ore-Sound (the ftrait
between Schonen and Zealand), into the Baltic. This
was originally no other than a fmall contribution, which,
trading nations agreed to make for maintaining lights
at certain places, to diredt their courfe through the paf-
fage in dark and ttormy weather. At the fame time
thefe trading nations agreed, that every {hip fhould pafs
this way and pay its {hare of the expence, rather than
ufe the Great Belt, which is the other paffage, but un¬
provided with any fuch conveniency. In procefs of
time the Danes converted this voluntary contribution
into an exorbitant toll, and even exadted arbitrary fums,
in proportion to the weaknefsof the nation whole {hips
they vifited. Thefe exadtions fometimes involved them
in quarrels with their neighbours, and the toll was re¬
gulated in repeated treaties.
DENNIS, or St Dennis, a famous town of the
Ifle of France,’with a Benedidtine abbey, wherein are
the tombs of the kings of France, with a confiderable
treafure. E. Long. 2. 26. N. Lat. 48. 56.
Dennis (John), the celebrated critic, was the fon
of a reputable tradefman in London, and born in the
year 1657. He received the firft branches of education
at the great fchool in Harrow on the Hill, where he
commenced acquaintance and intimacy with many
young noblemen and gentlemen, who afterwards made
confiderable figures in public affairs, whereby he laid
the foundation of a very ftrong and extenfive intereft,
which might,, but for his own fault, have been of infi-
DEN [ 763 1 DEN
<1 Dennis nite ufe to him in future life. From Harrow he went
to Caius-college Cambridge ; where, after his propel*
ftanding, he took the degree of bachelor of arts. When
he quitted the univerfity, he made the tour of Europe ;
in the courfe of which he conceived fuch a deteilation
for defpotifm, as confirmed him ftill more in thofe
Whig principles which he had from his infancy im¬
bibed.
On his return to England he became early acquainted
with Dryden, Wycherly, Congreve, and Southerne ;
whofe converfation infpiring him with a paffion for
poetry, and a contempt for every attainment that had
not fomething of the belles lettres, diverted him from
the acquifition of any profitable art, or the exercife of
any profeffio«. This, to a man who had not an inde¬
pendent income, was undoubtedly a misfortune : how¬
ever, his zeal for the Proteftant fucceffion having re¬
commended him to the patronage of the duke of Marl¬
borough, that nobleman procured him a place in the
cuftoms worth L. 120 per annum ; which he enjoyed for
feme years, till from profufenefs and want of eco¬
nomy, he was reduced to the necefiity of difpofing of
it to fatisfy fome very prelfing demands. By the ad¬
vice of Lord Halifax, however, he referved to himfelf,
in the fale of it, an annuity for a term of years ; which
term he outlived, and was, in the decline of his life,
reduced to extreme necefiity.
Mr Theo. Cibber relates an anecdote of him, which
we cannot avoid repeating, as it is not only highly cha-
radteviftic of the man whofe affairs we are now confi-
dering, but alfo a ftriking and melancholy inftance,
among thoufands, of the diftrefsful predicaments into
which men of genius and literary abilities are perhaps
apter than any others to plunge themfelves, by paying
too flight an attention to the common-concerns of life,
and their own moft important interefts. “ After that
he was worn out (fays that author) with age and po¬
verty, he refided within the verge of the court, to pre¬
vent danger from his creditors. One Saturday night
he happened to faunter to a public houfe, which in a
fliort time he difeovered to be without the verge. He
was fitting in an open drinking-room, when a man of
a fufpicious appearance happened to come in. There
was fomething about the man which denoted to Mr
Dennis that he was a bailiff. This ftruck him with
a panic; he was afraid his liberty was at an end1;
lie fat in the utmoft folicitude, but durft not offer to
ftir left he fliould be feized upon". After an hour or two
had paffed in this painful anxiety, at laft the clock
ftruck twelve ; when Mr Dennis, in an eeftafy, cried
out, addrefiing himfelf to the fufpedted perfon, “ Now,
Sir, bailiff or no bailiff, 1 don’t care a farthing for
you, you have no power now.” The man was afto-
nifhed at his behaviour; and when it was explained to
him, was fo much affronted with the fufpicion, that
had not Mr Dennis found his proteftion in. age, he
would probably have fmarted for his miftaken opinion.
A ftrong pi&ure of the effefts of fear and apprehen-
fion, in a temper naturally fo timorous and jealous as Mr
Dennis’s ; of which the following is a ftill more whimfi-
fcal inftance. In 1704 came out his favourite tragedy,
Liberty Ajferted; in which were fo many ftrokes on the
French nation, that he thought they were never to be
forgiven. He had worked himfelf into a perfuafion that
the king of France would infift on his being delivered Deimh.
upj before he would confent to a peace : and full of ——/—**«*
this idea of his own importance, when the congrefs wSs
held at Utrecht, he is faid to have waited on his pa¬
tron the duke of Marlborough, to defire that no fuch
article might be ftipulated. The duke told him he
really had no intcreft then with the miniftry ; but had
made no fuch proviiion for his own fecurity, though he
could not help thinking he had done the French as
much injury as Mr Dennis himfelf. Another ftory re¬
lating to this affair is, that being at a gentleman’s
houfe on the coaft of Suffex, and walking one day oA
the fea-ftiore, he faw a fhip failing, as he fancied, to¬
wards him: he inftantly fet out for London, in the
fancy that he was betrayed; and, congratulating him¬
felf on his efcape, gave out that his friend had decoyed
him down to his houfe, to furrender him up to the
French.
Mr Dennis, partly through a natural peevifhnefs
and petulance of temper, and partly perhaps for the
fake of procuring the means of fubfiftence, was conti¬
nually engaged in a paper-war with his cotemporarics,
whom he ever treated with the utmoft feverity : and,
though many of his obfervations were judicious, yet he
ufually conveyed them in language fo fcurrilous and
abufive, as deftroyed their intended effedl ; and as his
attacks were almoft always on perfons of fuperior abi¬
lities to himfelf, viz. Addifon, Steele, and Pope, their
replies ufually turned the popular opinion fo greatly
againft him, that, by irritating his tefty temper the
more, it rendered him a perpetual torment to himfelf;
till at length, after along life of vicifiitudes, difappoint-
ments, and turmoils, rendered wretched by indiferetion,
and hateful by malevolence, having outlived the rever-
fion of his eftate, and reduced to diftrefs, from which
his having been daily creating enemies had left him
fcarcely any hopes of relief, he was compelled to what
muft be the moft irkfeme fituation that can be conceived
in human life, the receiving obligations from thofe
whom he had been continually treating ill. In the very
clofe of his days, a play was afted for his benefit at
the little theatre in the Hay-market, procured through
the united interefts of Meflrs Thomfon, Mallet, and
Pope; the laft of whom, riotwithftanding the grofs man¬
ner in which Mr Dennis had on many occafions ufed
him, and the long warfare that had fubfifted between
them, interefted himfelf very warmly for him ; and
even wrote an occafional prologue to the play, which
was fpoken by Mr Cibber. Not long after this, viz.
on the 6th of January 1733, he died, being then in
the 77th year of his age.
Mr Dennis certainly was poflefied of much erudition,
and a confiderable (hare of genius. In profe, he is far
from a bad writer, where abufe or perfonal feurrility
does not mingle itfelf with his language. In verfe, he
is extremely unequal; his numbers being at fome times
fpirited and harmonious, and his fubjefts elevated and
judicious ; and at others, flat, harfh, and puerile.—
As a dramatic author, he certainly deferves not to
be held in any confideration. It was juftly faid of him
by a wit, that he was the moft complete inftru&or for
a dramatic poet, fince he could teach him to diftin-
guilh good plays by his precepts, and bad ones by his
examples.
5 D 2
DENO-
DEN [ 7
Denomi-na- DENOMINATION (from denomino, of dt and no-
' Ij11 men, “ a name a name impofed on any thing, ufu-
Dentatas. ally expreffing feme quality predominant therein,
—y'-— DENOMINATOR, in arithmetic, a term ufed in
fpeaking of fractions. See Arithmetic, n° 21.
DENSITY 0/Bodies, is that property direftly op-
pofite to rarity, whereby they contain fuch a quantity
of matter under fuch a bulk.
Accordingly, a body is faid to have double or triple
the denfity of another body, when, their bulk being
equal, the quantity of matter is in the one double or
triple the quantity of matter in the other.
Dst/sirr of the Air, is a property that has employ¬
ed the later philofophers, lince the difeovery of the
Torricellian experiment.
It is demonftrated, that in the fame veffel, or even
in veffels communicating with each other, at the fame
dillance from the centre, the air has every where the
fame denfity. The denfity of air, aeterh paribus, in-,
creates in proportion to the compreffing powers. Hence
the inferior air is denfer than the fuperior; the denfity,
however, of the lower air is not proportional to the
weight of the atmofphere on account of heat and cold,
and other caufes perhaps which make great alterations
in denfity and rarity. However, from the elafticity of
the air, its denfity mult be always different at different
heights from the earth’s furface ; for the lower parts
being preffed by the weight of thofe above, will be
made to accede nearer to each other, and the more fo
as the weight of the incumbent air is greater. Hence
the denfity of the air is greatefl at the earth’s furface,
and decreafes upwards in geometrical proportion to the
altitudes taken in arithmetical progreffion.
If the air be rendered denfer, the weight of bodies
in it is diminifhed; if rarer, increafed, becaufe bodies
lofe a greater part of their weight in denfer than in
rarer mediums. Hence, if the denfity of the air be
fenfibly altered, bodies equally heavy in a rarer air, if
their fpecific gravities be confiderably different, will
lofe their equilibrium in the denfer, and the fpecifically
heavier body will preponderate. See Pneumatics.
DENTALIUM, in natural hiftory, a fhell-fifh be¬
longing to the order of vermes teftacea. The fhellcon-
fifls of one tubulous ftraight valve, open at both ends.
There are eight fpecies, diftinguifhed by the angles,
ftrise, &c. of their fliells.
DENTARIA, tooth-wort, or Tooth-violet: A
genus of the filiquofa order, belonging to the tetrady-
namia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 39th order, Siliquofa. Thefiliqua parts
with a fpiing, and the valvules roll fpirally backwards;
the ftigma is emarginated ; the calyx elofing longitudi¬
nally. There are three fpecies, all of them hardy perenni,-
ajs; producing annualftalks 12 or 18 inches high,.adorn-
ed with many-lobed leaves, and fpikes of quadrUpeta-
lous cruciform flowers of a red or purple colour. They
delight, in fhady places ; and are propagated either by
feeds or parting the roots. The feeds may be fawn
in autumn or early in the fpring,. in a fhady border
of light earth ; and when the plants are three inches
high, they may be planted where they are ta remain.
The time for parting the roots ia in O&ober or No¬
vember, or early in the fpring.
DENTATUS (Curius), a renowned difinterefled
Roman general, whofe. virtues .render him. more me-
64 ] DEO
morable than even his great military reputation, flour Dentella
rifhed 272 years B. C. He was thrice conful; he 11
conquered the Samnites, Sabines, and Lucanians ; and Deodand.
gave each citizen 40 acres of land, allowing himfelf ' J
no more. The ambaffadors of the Samnites making
him a vifit, found him Boiling turnips in a pipking;
upon which they offered him gold to come over to
their intereft; but he told them, his defign was not to
grow rich, but to command thofe who were fo. He
defeated Pyrrhus near Tarentum, and received the ho¬
nour of a triumph.
DENTELLA, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. The calyx is a five-parted perianthium, with
fmall Tubulated leaves; the flamina five fliort fubu-
lated filaments; the antherse fmall; the pericarp!uin
a globular, bilocular capfule; the feeds egg-fhaped,
and very numerous.
DENTlLES, or dentils, in archite&ure, an or¬
nament in corniches bearing fome refemblance to teeth,
particularly ufed in the Ionic and Corinthian orders.
See Architecture.
DEN PIFRICE, in medicine, a remedy for the
teeth. There are various kinds ; generally made of
earthy fubftances finely pounded, and mixed with alum,
or fome other faline fubflances: but thefe are perni¬
cious, on account of their wearing away the enamel
of the teeth; but more efpecially by the feptic qua¬
lity with which thefe earthy fubftances are endowed.
On this account, a portion of Peruvian bark finely
pounded is now commonly added, which anfwers the
double purpofe of cleaning the teeth, and preferving
them afterwards from corruption.
DENTISCALPRA, in furgery, an inftrument for
fcouring yellow, livid, or black teeth ; to which being
applied near the gums, it ferapes off the foul morbid
cruft.
DENTITION, the breeding or cutting the teeth
in children. See (Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
DENUNCIATION, a folemn publication or pra-
mulgation of any thing.
All veffels, of enemies are lawful prizes, after de?
nunciation or proclamation of war. The defign of the
denunciation of excommunicated perfons is, that the
fentence may be the more fully executed by the per-
fon’s being more known..
Denunciation at the Horn, in Scots law. See Law,
Part III. N° clxvi. 14,
DENYS (the Little). See Dio-nysius.
DEOBSTRUENTS, in pharmacy, fuch medicinea
as open obftru&ions. See Detergent.
DEODAND, in our cuftoms, a thing given or for.
feited as it were to God,, for the pacification of hia
wrath in a cafe of mifadventure, whereby a Chriftian
foul comes to a violent end, without the fault of any
reafonable creature.
As, if a horfe ftrike his keeper and kill him : if a
man, in driving a cart, falls fpas .the cart-wheel runs
over him, and preffes him to death: if one by felling a
tree, and gives warning to the ftanders-by to look to
thetnfclves, yet a man is killed by the fall thereof:.in
the firft place, the horfe; in the fecond, the cart-wheel,
cart, and hpifes; and in the third, the tree, D(o dan-
dus, “ to be given to God,” that is, to the king, to be difr
tributed to the poor by his almoner, for expiation of-
D E P [ 765 1 D E P
ephleg- this dreadful event; though effected by irrational, nay,
ma!11' fenfelefs and dead creatures,
ephlogi-
icated Omnia qua movent ad mortem funt Deodanda.
Air. What moves to death, or kills him dead,
‘ Is and forfeited.
This law feems to be an imitation of that in Exodus,
chap. xxi. “ If an ox gore a man, or a woman, with
his horns, fo as they die; the ox (hall be ftontd to death,
and his flefh not be eat; fo lhall his owner be innocent.”
Fleta fays, the Deodand is to be fold, and the price
diftributed to the poor, for the foul of the king, his
anceftors, and all faithful people departed this life.
DE PHLEGM A 'TON, is an operation by which
the fuperabundant water of a body is taken from it ;
and it is principally effe&ed by evaporation or diftilla-
tion. Dephlegmation is alfo called concentration, par-,
ticularly when acids are the fubjedt. See Concen¬
tration.
DEPHLOGISTICATED, in chemiftry, anything
deprived of the phlogifton fuppofed to be contained in
it.
Dephlogisticated Air, an invifible elallic fluid,
of fomewhat greater fpecific gravity than that of the
common atmofphere, and capable of fupporting animal
life and flame for a much longer time than the air we
commonly breathe.
This fluid was firft difeovered by Dr Prieftley, and
a very fhort time after by Mr Scheele, who appears to
have been entirely unacquainted with what the Dodlor
had done. The methods of making it artificially are
enumerated under the article Aerology; here we
fhall make fome obfervations on the way in which
nature feems to acpomplifh the fame end. Under that
article, as well as that of Fixed and others, con-
ne&ed with them, it has been obferved, that this kind
of air becomes convertible into fixed air by the addi¬
tion of a certain proportion of phlogifion or charcoal;
and that thefe two ingredients may be again feparated
by certain means; the dephlogiftjcated air affuming its
proper Hate, and the charcoal its own native form, A
great number of experiments alfo are there related con¬
cerning the effects of vegetables in purifying tainted
air, and their emiffion of the dephlogifticated kind ;
which has been thought to indicate, that vegetation is
probably one of the methods by which nature fupplies
the great quantity of this fluid neceflary for the puc-
pofes of animal life. This was fuggefted by an expe¬
riment of Dr Prieftley , who had difeovered that pump-
water, on being expofed to the light of the fun,
foon began: to emit pure air; and that, after feme
days, a quantity of green matter accumulated on the
fides of the veflel. This was naturally fuppofed to
be of the vegetable kind, till Sir. Benjamin Thomfon
found it toconfift of a number of very minute animals.
Upon this difeovery he difputed the commonly re¬
ceived opinion, that vegetation is employed by nature
as a purifier of the atmofpherical air. He likewife
oppofed the, conclufion drawn from Dr Ingenhoufz’s
experiments, who had obferved that frefti leaves of
plants immerfed in water, and expofed to the light,
emitted a vaft quantity of dephlogifticated air. Sir
Benjamin juftly obferved, that a leaf certainly cea-
fed to vegetate after being feparated from the plant
on which it grew: and therefore the emiflion of
this kind of. air could by no means be aferibed to
4
vegetation : as a more decifive proof of which, he Dephlogr*
likewife urged, that leaves, after being entirely dead and fticatedAir.
withered, would notwithftanding emit dephlogiilica- * ~t-
ted air for a very confiderable time. Thus matters
feemed to be rendered doubtful; but by an attentive
obfervation of all circumftances relating to thefe ex¬
periments, we lhall find that confiderable light will be
thrown upon the fubjedt.
In the firft place, we are to confider that the light
of the fun, or at leaft a very ftrong light of fome kind,
is neceffary in all thefe produdlions of dephlogifticated
air ; for if the apparatus is fet in a very dark place,
little will be formed, and that of a bad quality. So
ignorant are we of the nature of this myfteiious fluid,
that fcarce any inquiry has been made into its mode of
operation in producing dephlogifticated air. By fome
the element of light has been fuppofed to be phlogifton
itfelf, or fome modification of it: but fince the difeo¬
very of the identity of phlogifton and charcoal, it is
probable that this opinion will not, be held by many.
One experiment, however, commonly brought in fa¬
vour of this fuppofition, deferves particular attention.
This is the property which light has of giving a black
colour to the calces of filver; a phenomenon fo remark¬
able, that it has been imagined an indubitable proof of
the identity of light and phlogifton. In like manner,
the pure and dephlogifticated fpirit of nitre is found
to be converted into the phlogifticated and fmoking
kind by expofure to the folar rays. The extenfive
diffufion of the fubftance called phlogiflon, however; is
now fo well known, that we may reafonably conclude,
that in thefe experiments it was contained in the in¬
gredients themfelves, and not in the light. Thus when
filver is precipitated by chalk, and the mafs turns black
on expofure to the fun’s rays, we are very fure that
the chalk contains phlogiiton ; and that there is an
attraifion between the metallic calx and this principle:
but we are by no means afeertained of.the nature of
light, as not being in any manner of way the fubjeft
of, our inveftigation. except, by obferving its. effefts.
As in all other cafes, therefore,, where light is con¬
cerned, we can only fay that fuch a tiling is the effect
of the operation of light,,and not the fubllanee of the
element made vifible,. or converted into., fome other
thing ; we have no reafon, in this cafe, to fay, that
the blackening of the metallic calx is any other than
an effedl of the light’s operation, and not the deten¬
tion of any part of its fubftance. This operation may be
eafily conceived to be the promoting of the union of the
phlogifton. and' calx, which we know that fight has a .
great tendency to do at any rate when we augment its-
action in fuch a. manner as to make it become Jire.
Tire tendency of fight, therefore, to promote an union
betwixt phlogifton and other fubftances,, will explain
this and many other experiments in, a very eafy man¬
ner. In the cafe of chalk and calx of filver, the ac¬
tion of. the fight enables the calx to attracl the phlo-
gifton of the chalk, and thus become black. If the
calx is not precipitated by chalk, but.by an. alkali,-it
muft be in contaift: either with air, water, or fome
other fluid.. All thefe undoubtedly contain phlogifton.
With regard to. air, it has not been denied that it is a
general receptacle of all the decayed and volatile parts
of vegetables and animals ; that it contains vaft quan¬
tities of inflammable air, which are couftantly emitted
horn.;
T> E !> [ 766 1 D E P
Depfilogl. from various parts of the earth; and, according to the
ihcated Air. Phlogiftiang, that fluid called phlogif kated air, which
W"'v~‘ ’ conftitutes the other part of the fluid we breathe, like-
wife contains a quantity of the lame matter. We are
mot to be furprifed therefore that, in the cafe of the
calx of filver, fome of thefe fubftances fiiould be ob¬
liged to part with a little of their phlogifton, fufficient
to blacken the metallic earth. In order to prove that
light and phlogifton are the fame, the experiment ought
to fucceed in a perfeft vacuum, of which there is no
probability ; though indeed it has never been tried
that we know of. In like manner, when fpirit of
nitre is rendered high coloured and fmoking by expo-
fure to the fun in a glafs, the phlogillon may come
either from the glafs itfelf, which is now found to con¬
tain phlogifton, or from the quantity of air which is
neceffary to be left in the glafs, in order to make the
experiment fucceed.
Thus we may rCafonably fuppofe the blackening of
the calx of filver, and the rendering clear fpirit of
nitre high-coloured, to proceed only from the fepara-
tiort of phlogifton by means of light, and its confe-
quent attra&ion by the calx or acid ; and in other
cafes, where any fimilar effedl is obferved by the ex-
pofure of bodies to that element, we are to fuppofe
that it is occafioned by the detachment of phlogifton
from one fubftance and its attachment to another. In
the cafe of the emifiion of dephlogifticated air by
means of light, therefore, we may, by reafoning analo¬
gically, conclude, that it is occafioned by the abforp-
tion of phlogifton by the fubftance which is faid to
emit the air.
Before this matter, however, can be determined ex¬
actly, we ought to be well acquainted with the com-
pofition of dephlogifticated air itfelf; and indeed, with¬
out this, it feems almoft in vain to fpeak upon the fub-
jt&. But, notwithftanding the labours and ingenuity
of modern, aerologifts, this point has not been in any
degree fettled. On examination, it is found to confift
of an invifible fluid which does not appear to gravi¬
tate, and which in all probability is no other than
elementary fire ; and of another fubftance equally in-
•vifible, but capable of attaching itfelf to certain bo¬
dies, particularly iron, and adding to its weight very
confiderably. On attempting to procure this fub-
ftance by itfelf, we find the attachment fo ftrong, that
no force of fire can feparate them. In attempting a
•decompofition by means of the ele&ric fpark, all that
has been yet done, even with the greateft power of
tleftricity excited by Van Marum’s new machine, is
to make it lofe fome part of its bulk, the remainder
appearing by the eudiometer to have undergone no
change. Dr Prieftley, in his fixth volume of Experi¬
ments on Air, acquiefces in the opinion fuggefted to
him by Mr Watt, that the air in queftion is nothing
elfe but one of the component parts of water united
with the element of heat. Allowing this to be juft,
and indeed there is no experiment hitherto publifhed
by which it can be contradifted, the natural method
of the produftion of dephlogifticated air from water may
be* eafily explained. This only requires us to fuppofe,
that the fubftances immerfed in the water, are by the
aftion of the fun’s light made to attraft part of the
phlogifton of the water ; in confequence of which the
dephlogifticated part of that element, inftantly being
volatilized by the light and heat of the fun (for heat
is neceffary for the produ&ion as well as light), affumesftl
the properties of dephlogifticated air. But why, it
may be alked, does water of itfelf emit dephlogiftica¬
ted air without any fubftance whatever immerfed in it ?
or, after certain fubftances have been immerfed in it,
by which this emiflion is promoted, why does the
produ&ion of air flop with regard to any particular
fubftance, and any determined quantity of water ?
Thus; it may be faid, if any quantity of water, fuppofe
a pint, yields one inch of cubic air by the immerfion of
a certain fubftance into it, why does not this fubftance
attradf from it all the phlogifton it is capable of ab-
forbing ? Inftead of this, the water appears, by the co¬
lour it acquires, to be more phlogifticated than before;
and the fubftance immerfed, by being put into frefti
water, will immediately occafion the emiflion of new
quantities of air, and this for feveral times running.
But to this it may be replied, that though the fub¬
ftance immerfed attra&s the phlogifton of the water,
the latter will part with it only to a certain degree ;
and it is well known, that when two fubltances are uni¬
ted to the point of faturation by chemical attra&ion, the
abftra&ion of a part of one of them will increafe the
attraction betwixt the. remainder to a great degree.
Though the fubftance immerfed in the fluid, there¬
fore, has originally a greater attraCIion for the phlogi¬
fton of the water than the dephlogifticated part of
the element itfelf; yet as the one gradually augments,
and the other diminiihes, a balance foon takes place.
With regard to the green colour generally affumed by
the water after^ fuch experiments, it molt probably
proceeds from an accumulation of fome terreftrial par¬
ticles partly fupplied by the immerfed fubftance, or
perhaps from a difpofition to generate the green mat¬
ter obferved by Dr Prieftley. That the fubftance
immerfed in the water does really part with fome par¬
ticles, is evident, becaufe the water fmells of it, as when
raw filk is made ufe of; nor can we fuppofe that any
vegetable or animal fubftance, fuch as are found to be
alone fit for thefe experiments, can endure a long ma¬
ceration in water without parting with a confiderable
quantity of their component parts. Indeed, under the
article Charcoal, it is Ihown that this body, though
now allowed to be pure phlogifton, or the next thing
to it, has the power of feparating other phlogiftic
matter, probably fuch as is more impure, from different
fubflances. Hence its property of whitening tartar,
purifying malt fpirits, &c. It is not unreafonable,
therefore, to fuppofe, that a dead leaf, though a very
phlogiftic fubftance, may have the power of attra&ing
more phlogifton from the water, and thus allowing
part of that element to be changed into dephlogiftica¬
ted air ; while, in lieu of the phlogifton attra&ed from
the water, it diffufes a certain portion of its own fub¬
ftance through the fluid, and thus gives it the colour
in queftion. With regard to the other difficulty, viz*
that water, when expofed to the folar rays, will emit
dephlogifticated air without any thing immerfed in it,
it may be accounted for from the eafe with which the
dephlogifticated part of the water is volatilized ; fo
that the attraftion of the other is not able to detain
it. This we find exemplified in feveral chemical expe¬
riments, as when a volatile alkali is joined with any of
the more fixed acids; for in thefe cafes the alkali,
D E P [ 767 1 D E P
Mpephlogl- notwithftand'ng the mutual attraftion betwixt it and
McatedAir. jjjg acidj w;n be made to fly off by a flrong heat.
*8 v On the fuppofition that dephlogifticated air is com-
pofed of elementary fire and one of the conftituent
parts of water, there is very little difficulty in ac¬
counting for the origin of the immenfe quantity ne-
cefiary to fupply the animal creation with it. Under
the article Damps, it has been fhown chat a vafl quan¬
tity of fixed air is continually elaborated in the
bowels of the earth. This is compofed entirely of
dephlogifticated air, compounded with a certain por¬
tion of phlogifton. Part of this fixed air muft be un¬
doubtedly evaporating conftantly from the furface, and
would as certainly infedl the lower parts of the at-
mofphere, were there not fome natural caufes for its
decompofition. One of thefe undoubtedly is the ab-
forption of the phlogiftic part by vegetables, which un-
Ider the article Agriculture is fhown to be their pro¬
per food. But when the phlogifton is abforbed, a
great quantity of dephlogifticated air is prepared, which
fupplies the deficiency occafioned by the refpiration of
animals. It muft likewife be obferved, that after the
dephlogifticated air has been fpoiled either by refpira¬
tion or the fupport of flame, it is not for that reafon
entirely deftroyed, but only converted into fixed air,
and confequently may again be purified as before.
It may be likewife reafonably fuppofed, that in cafes
where vegetation does not take place, and in fpring
before the plants begin to exert their vegetative
powers, and in autumn, or the beginning of winter,
when they decay, the vegetable foil itfelf may per¬
form this office: and indeed the circumitance of frefh
vegetable mold affording an agreeable fmell when turned
up, as is mentioned under the article Agriculture,
feems to be a confiderable confirmation of this.
The property which water has of abforbing fixed
air, and alfo phlogifton, may likewife induce us to
fuppofe that it a£b as a purifier not only of the com¬
mon atmofphere, but of that which iffues from the
earth 5 and hence fome waters, particularly that of
the ocean, are found to contain air of a purer kind than
that of the atmofphere.
As light, however, is an indifpenfable requifite in
all thefe cafes, a difficulty ftill remains concerning the
produ&ion of dephlogifticated air in winter, when the
light and heat are fo much diminilhtd. In this feafon,
indeed, it is probable that a quantity will be produced
greatly inferior to that which the fummer affords: but
here we may very reafonably have recourfe to the im¬
menfe magazine of the atmofphere itfelf; which, from
the mere circumftance of quantity, muft be much more
than fufficientto anfwer the expences of one i'eafon; efpe-
cially when we confider, that in fummer a fuperabun-
dant quantity is certainly produced. Add to this, that in
extreme cold, fixed air feems not only to be lefs noxi¬
ous than at other times, but even neceffaiy for the pre-
* See Fix- fervation of health *. We muft likewife confider, that
ed Air. during the winter feafon there will be a conftant flux
of the cold air of the northern and fouthern region's
towards the equator ; and this, however imperceptible
to the inhabitants, will keep up a conftant circulation
of atmofpherical fluid, fo that there cannot be any
ftagnation even in the calmeft weather and moft fe-
vere and long continued frofts.
Soon after Dr Piieftley began his experiments on
air, he found that the red colour of the blood depends DepfilogJ-
on the air; that by coming in contact with it, theAir
black venous blood became in a very fhort time of a p)£POfltion
beautiful florid colour; and that even the under fide ..-t - '/
of a clot of blood, by expefure to the air, will lofe its
difagreeable dark colour, and affume the fame with
that of blood newly drawn. Thefe effe&s are entirely
to be attributed to the dephlogifticated part: and his
theory of refpiration being a phlogiftic procefs, feems
to be fully confirmed by the difcovery of the compofi-
tion of fixed air. For, as fixed air is known to be
compofed of phlogifton and dephiogifticated air, we can¬
not fuppofe this phlogifton to be derived from any o-
ther fource than the lungs. The do&or in this theory
likewife obviates an objedtion that might naturally oc¬
cur, that the air has not immediate accefs to the blood
in the lungs, becaufe of the thin membranes of the vef*
fels which intervene. But, from iis experiments, it
appears that this is no obftacle. The ferum of blood
he finds to be capable of tranfmitting dephlogifticated
air, or at leaft of propagating this effedt through »
very confiderable thicknefs of its own fubftance, as
well as through bladders moiftened with it; a property
which does not belong to any other animal fluid.
As dephlogifticated air is now known to be the im¬
mediate fupport of animal life, it has naturally been fup-
pefed that it might anfwer valuable purpoles in medi¬
cine ; but the difficulty of procuring it in fufficient
quantity has hitherto prevented thefe hopes from be¬
ing realized, excepting only in cafes of drowning,
where it is faid to produce very great effedfs. With
regard to any method of preparing it, no farther dif¬
covery has been made than what is fuggefted under
the article Aerology.
DEPILATORY medicines, thofe applied in or¬
der to take off the hair: fuch are lime and orpiment
known to be, but which ought to be ufed with great
caution.
DEPONENT, in Latin grammar, a term applied
to verbs which have adtive fignifications, but paffive
terminations or conjugations, and want one of their-
participles paffive.
Deponent, in the law of Scotland,-a perfon who
makes a depofition. See DEPOsmoN.
DEPOPULATION, the adt of diminithing the
number of people in any country, whether by war or
bad politics.
DEPORTATION, a fort of banifhment ufed by
the Romans, whereby feme ifland or other place was
allotted to a criminal for the place of his abode, with
a prohibition not to ftir out of the fame on pain of
death.
DEPOSIT, among civilians, fomething that is com¬
mitted to the cuftody of a perfon, to be kept without
any reward, and to be returned again on demand.
DEPOSITARY, in law, a perfon intrufted as
keeper or guardian of a depofit.
DEPOSITION, in law, the teftimony given iu
court by a witnefs upon oath.
Deposition is alfo ufed for the fequeftering or
depriving a perfon of his dignity and office.
This depofition only differs from abdication, in that
the latter is fuppofed voluntary, and the adf of the dig¬
nitary, or officer himfelf; and the former of compul-
fion, being the aft of a fuperior power, whofe authe-
3 ' rity
D E P
C 768 ]
D E P
Depreca- rity extends thereto. Some fay the depofition, and the fame inftrument. The menfuration of depths being Depuratioo
tion fnmp tVip aVirlifatinn. nf kmcr Tames TT. eliieflv aimliei-! fn min^o Jc fli'll ll 'B
feme the abdication, of king James II.
Depofition does not differ from deprivation: we
_ fay indifferently, a depofedj or deprived bifhop, offi¬
cial, &c.
Depofition differs from fufpenfion, in that it abfo-
lutely and for ever ftrips or divefts a prieft, &c. of all
dignity, office, &c. whereas fufpenfion only prohibits,
or reftrains, the exercife thereof.
Depofition only differs from degradation, in that
the latter is more formal, and attended with more
circumftances, than the former; but in effedt and
fubftance they are the fame 5 thofe additional circum*
fiances being only matter of fhow, firft fet on foot out
of zeal and indignation, and kept up by cuftom, but
not warranted by the laws or canons. See Degra¬
dation.
DEPRECATION, in rhetoric, a figure whereby
the orator invokes the aid and affiftance of fome one;
or prays for fome great evil or punifhment to be-
fal him who fpeaks falfely, either himfelf or his ad-
verfary.
DEPRECATORY, or Deprecative,in theology,
a term applied to the manner of performing fome cere¬
monies in the form of prayer.
The form of abfolution is deprecative in the Greek
church, being conceived in thefe terms, May God ab~
folve you : whereas it is in the declarative form in the
Latin church, and in fome of the reformed churches,
I abfolve you.
DEPRESSION of the Pole. When aperfon fails
or travels towards the equator, he is faid to deprefs the
pole ; becaufe as many degrees as he approaches nearer
the equator, fo many degrees will the pole be nearer
the horizon. This phenomenon arifes from the fphe- feme community.
chiefly applied to mines, is Hill more precarious than il
the menfuration of heights, on account of the various DerIjlr'
kinds of vapours with which thefe fubterranean regions
are filled. But for a particular account of thefe dif¬
ficulties, with the bell methods of obviating them, fse
the articles Barometer and Mines.
Depth of q Squadron., or Battalion, is the number
of ipen in a file ; which in a fquadron is three, and in
a battalion generally fix. See Squadron, File, &c.
We fay, the battalion w'as drawn up fix deep; the
enemies horfe were drawn up five deep.
DEPURATION is the freeing of any fluid from
its heterogeneous tnatter or feculence. It is of three
kinds. 1. Decantation; which is performed by letting
the liquid to be depurated Hand for fome time in a
pretty deep veflel, till the grofs fediment has fallen to
the bottom ; after which the clear fluid is poured off.
2. Defpumation; which is performed by means of the
whites of eggs, or other vifeid matter, and is alfo call¬
ed clarification. 3. Filtration. See Chemistry,
n° 69.
DEPURATORY fever, a name given by Syden¬
ham to a feVer which prevailed much in the years 1661,
1662, 1663, and 1664. He called it depuratory, be¬
caufe he fuppofed that nature regulated all the fymp*
toms in fuch a manner, as to fit the febrile matter, pre¬
pared by proper concodtion, for expulfion in a certain
time, either by a copious fweat or a freer perfpira-
tion.
DEPUTATION, a miffio/i of fele& perfons out of
a company or body, to a prince or afiembly, to treat
of matters in their name.
DEPUTY, a perfon fent upon fome bufinefs by
rical figure of the earth.
DEPRESSOR, orDEPRiMENS, in anatomy,‘a name
applied to feVeral mufcles, becaufe they deprefs the parts
they are faftened to.
DEPRIVATION, in the common law, the a& of
Bereaving, divefting, or taking away a fpiritual pro-
Deputy is alfo one that exercifes an office in ano¬
ther’s right; and the forfeiture or mifdemeanour of
fuch deputy fhall caufe the perfon whom he reprefents
to lofe his office.
DEPUTATUS, among the ancients, a name ap¬
plied to perfons employed in making of aripour ; and
motion or dignity: as when a bilhop, vicar, prebend, likewife to brifle active people, whole bufinefs was to
or the like, is depofed or deprived of his preferment,
for fome matter, or fault, in fadt, or in law. See De-
position.
Deprivation is of two kinds; a leneficio, et ab
Deprivation a benefcio is, when for fome great
crime a minifter is wholly and for every deprived of his
living or preferment: which differs from fufpenfion,
- in that the latter is only temporary.
Deprivation ab officio, is when a miniffer is for
ever deprived of his order: wdiich is the fame, in reali¬
ty, with what we otherwife call depofition and degrada¬
tion; and is ufually for fome heinous crime deferring
death, and is performed by the biffiop in a folemn
manner. See Degradation.
DEPTFORD, a town three miles ea'ft of London,
on the fouthem banks of the Thames; chiefly confi-
derable for its fine docks for building fhips, and the
king’s yard. E. Long. O. 4. N. Lat. 51. 30.
DEPTH, the meafure of any thing from the furface
downwards.
Meafuring of Depths by the Barometer, depends on
the fame principles on which heights are meafured by
N° 100.
take care of the wounded in engagements, and carry
them off the field.
DER, a iyllable frequently prefixed to the names of
places in England. It is faid to fignify that fuch were
formerly places where wild beafts herded together, fo
called from the Saxon deop, fera, unlefs the fituation
was near fome river.
DERBEND, a ftrong town of Afia, in Perfia, faid
to have been founded by Alexander the Great. The
walls are built with ffones as hard as marble ; and near
it are the remains of a wall which reached from the
Cafpian to the Black Sea. It is feated near the Caf-
pian Sea, at the foot of Mount Caucafus. E. Long.
50. o. N. Lat. 42. 8.
DERBY, the capital of a county of the fame name
in England. It is thought to have received its name
from being formerly a park or fhelter for deer; and
wdiat makes thisfuppofition more probable is, that the
arms of the town confift of a buck couchant in a park.
It is very ancient, having been a royal borough in the
time of Edward the Confeffor. At prefent it is a neat
town, very populous, and fends two members to par¬
liament. In digging for foundations of houfes, hu¬
man
D E R [ 7<59 ] D E R
rbyfhire man bones of a monftrous fize have fometimes been
II found. The trade confifts in wool, corn, malt, and
cr^ 1 3’ ale, of which confiderable quantities are fent to Lon-
1don. Here alfo is that curious machine for throwing
filk, the model of which Sir Thomas Lombe, at the
hazard of his life, brought from Italy. Before
that time, the Englifh merchants ufed to purchafe
thrown filks of the Italians for ready money. But by
the help of this wonderful machine, one hand-mill will
twift as much fdk as 50 people could do without it. It
works 73,726 yards of filk every time the water-wheel
goes round, which is thrice’ in a minute. The houfe
in which it is contained is five or fix ftories high, and
half a quarter of a mile in length. When Sir Thomas’s
patent expired in 1732, the parliament were fo fenfible
of the value and importance of the machine, that they
granted him a further recompence of 14,000!. for the
hazard and expence he had incurred in introducing and
ere&ing it, upon condition he ftrould allow an exaft
model of it to be taken. This model is depofited in
the Tower of London, in order to prevent fo curious
and important an art from being loll. The town of
Derby is watered by a river and a brook ; the latter
of which has nine bridges over it, the former only
one. . Derby gives title of Earl to the noble family of
Stanley, being the fecond earldom in England.
W. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 52. 57.
DERBY-shire, a county of England, bounded on
the eaft by Nottingham-fhire, and a part of Leicefter-
ftiire, which laft bounds it alfp on the fouth. On the
weft it’is bounded by Stafford-fhire, and part of Che-
fhire ; and on the north by Yorkshire. It is near 40
miles in length from fouth to north; about 30 in
breadth on the north fide, but on the fouth no more
than fix.—The air is pleafant and healthful, efpecially
on the eaft fide; but on the weft, about the peak, it
is {harper and more fubjeft to wind and rain. The
foil is very different in different parts of the country.
In the eaft and fouth parts it is very fruitful in all
kinds of grain ; but in the weft, beyond the Derwent,
it is barren and mountainous, producing nothing but a
little oats. There is, however, plenty of grafs in the
valleys, which affords pafture to a great number of
Iheep. This part of the country is called the Peaky
from a Saxon word fignifying an eminence. Its
mountains are very bleak, high, and barren ; but ex¬
tremely profitable to the inhabitants. They yield
great quantities of the beft lead, antimony, iron,
fcythe-ftoues, grind-ftones, marble, alabafter, a coarfe
fort of cryftal, azure, fpar, and pit-coal. In thefe
mountains are two remarkable caverns, named Pool’s
Hole, and Elden-Hole; for a defcription of which, fee
thefe articles.
DEREHAM, a town of Norfolk in England, fitu-
ated in E. Long. 1. o. N. Lat. 52. 40. It is prettjr
large, and the market is noted for woollen yarn.
DERELICTS, (from de, and rellnquo, “Heave”),
in the civil law, are fuch goods as are wilfully thrown
away, or relinquiftied by the owner.
Derelict is alfo applied to fuch lands as the fea
receding from leaves dry, and fit for cultivation. If
they are left by a gradual recefs of the fea, they are
adjudged to belong to the owner of the adjoining
lands ; but when an ifland is formed in the'fea, or a
Vol. V. Part II.
large quantity of new land appears, fuch derelict lands Derhent
belong to the king. 11
DERHAM (Do&or William), a very celebrated Dermeftes-,
Englifti philofopher and divine, born in 1657. In
1682, he was prefented to the vicarage of Wargrave
in Berkfliire; and, in 1689, to the valuable reftory of
Upminfter in Effex ; which latter lying at a conveni¬
ent diftance from London, afforded him an opportu¬
nity of converfing and correfponding with the greateft
virtuofos of the nation. Applying himfelf there with
great eagernefs to natural and experimental philofo-
phy, he foon became a diftinguiftied member of the
Royal Society, whole Philofophical Tranfa&ions con¬
tain a great variety of curious and valuable pieces, the
fruits of his laudable induftry. In his younger years
he pfublilhed his Artificial Clockmaker, which has been
often printed: and in 1711, 1712, and 1714, he
preached thofe fermons at Boyle’s lefture which he
afterward digefted under the well-known titles of Phy-
Jico-Theology and AJlro-Tbeologyt and enriched with
valuable notes and copper-plates. The laft thing he
publiftied of his own compofition was Chri/lo-Theology,
. a demonftration of the divine authority of the Chriftian
religion, being the fubftance of a fermon preached at
Bath in 1729. This great good man, after fpending
his life in the moft agreeable as well as improving ftu-
dy of nature, died at Upminfter in 1735; and, be-
fide many other works, left a valuable colledfion of cu-
riofities, particularly fpecimens of birds and infedts
of this ifland.—It may be neceffary juft to obferve,
that Dr Derham was very well ikilled in medical
as well as in phyfical knowledge ; and was conftantty
a phyfician to the bodies as well as the fouls of his
parilhioners.
DERIVATION, in medicine, is when a humour
which cannot conveniently be evacuated at the part af-
fefted, is attra&ed from thence, and difcharged elfe-
where; thus, a blifter is applied to the neck to draw
away the humour from the eyes.
Derivation, in grammar, the affinity one word has
with another, by having been originally formed from
it. See Derivative.
DERIVATIVE, in grammar, a word which takes
its origin from another word, called its prhnitive.—
Such is the word derivative itfelf, which takes its ori¬
gin from the primitive rivus, a rivulet or chan¬
nel, out of which lefler ftreams are drawn ; and thus
manhood, deity, lawyer. See. are derived from man, deus,
law, &c.
DERMESTES, in zoology, a genus of infefts be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera. The antennae are
clavated, with three of the joints thicker than the reft;
the bread is convex; and the head is infle&ed below
the bread. The fpecies are pretty numerous.
1. The lardarius is of an oblong form and of a dim
black colour, ealily diftinguiftiable by a light brown
ftripe that occupies tranfverfely almoft the anterior half
of the elytra. That colour depends on Imall grey hairs
fituated on that part. The ftripe is irregular at its
edges, and interfe&ed through the middle by a fmali
tranfverfal ftreak of black fpots, three in number on
each of the elytra, the middlemoft of which is fome-
what lower than the reft, which gives the black ftreak
a ferpentine form. Its larva that is oblong, fomewhat
5 E hairy.
D E R L 77° 1 D E R
Dermefles hairy, and divided into fegments alternately dark and
Dertofa co^oure^» gnaws and deftroys preparations of a-
. nimals preferved in collections, and even feeds upon
the infers; it isalfo to be found in old bacon. 2. The
domefticus varies greatly in fize and colour, fome be¬
ing found of a dark brown, others of a much lighter
hue. The form of it is oblong, almoft cylindrical. The
elytra are ftriated, the thorax is thick and rather gib¬
bous. This little animal, when touched, draws in its
head under its thorax and its feet beneath its abdo¬
men, remaining fo motionlefs that one would think it
dead. This is, the fame infe& which makes in wooden
furniture thofe little round holes that reduce it to pow¬
der. 3; The violaceus is a beautiful little infeft: its
elytra are of a deep violet blue. The thorax is cover¬
ed with greenifh hairs, the legs are black. The whole
animal being of a glittering brilliancy renders it a plea-
fing objeft. The larva, as well as the perfed infeft,
inhabits the bodies of dead animals. 4. The fumatus
is of a light brown, except the eyes, which are black.
It is however fometimes more or lefs deep. The tho¬
rax is margined, and the infeft has the whole carriage
of a fcarabasus; but its antennae have the charaCler of
thofe of the dermeftae. This little creature is found
in dung. It alfo frequently finds its way into houfes.
5. The ferrugineus is the largeft of the genus ; its co¬
lour is a nifty iron, having many oblong, velvety,
black fpots upon the elytra, which gives the infect a
gloomy, yet elegant appearance. The antennas differ
from the preceding fpecies; the three lalt articulations
being confiderably longer, thicker, and not perfolia-
ted.
There are 25 other fpecies, diftinguifhed by their
colour.—Many varieties of this genus, as well as the
larvae, are to be met with in dried fkins, bark of trees,
wood, feeds, flowers; the carcafes of dead animals, &c.
—The lardarius, fo deftruftive to birds, infefts, and
other fubje&s of natural hiftory preferved in cabinets,
is to be killed by arfenic.
DERNIER ressort. See Ressort.
DEROGATION, an aft contrary to a preceding
one, and which annuls, deftroys, and revokes it, either
in whole or in part.
DEROGATORY, a claufe importing derogation.
A derogatory claufe in a teftament, is a certain fen-
tence, cipher, or fecret charafter, which the teftator
inferts in his will, and of which he referves the know¬
ledge to himfelf alone, adding a condition, that no will
he may make hereafter is to be reckoned valid, if this
derogatory claufe is not inferted exprefsly and word
for word. It is a precaution invented by lawyers a-
gainft latter-wills extorted by violence, or obtained by
fuggeftion.
DERP, a town of Livonia, and capital of a palati¬
nate of the fame name, with a bifliop’s fee, and an uni-
verfity. It is fubjeft to the Ruflians, and lies near the
river Ambeck. E. Long. 31 • 55. N. Lat. 30.40.
DERTONA, Derton, oeDerthon (anc. geog.},
a colony of the Cifpadana; called Julia Augujta, on in-
feriptions and coins; midway between Genoa and Pla¬
centia, and fituated to the eaft of the Tanarus in Li¬
guria. Now Tortona, a city of Milan. E.Long. 9. 12.
N. Lat. 45.
DERTOSA, (anc. geog.); the capital of the IJer-
•Caones, in Tarraconenfis* or the Hither Spain: amu-
mcipum and colony ; furnamed Julia Ilergavonia (Coin.) Demntia,
Dertofani, the people. Now Tortofa, in Catalonia, D«vis.
on the Ebro. E.Long. 15. N. Lat. 40. 45.  v—*
DERVEN ITO, (anc. geog.) ; a river of the Bri-
gantes in Britain. Now the Darwent, in the eaft of
Yorkftiire, falling into the Oufe. Alfo a town of the
Brigantes on the fame river. Now called Juldby, fe-
ven miles from York, to the north-eafl: (Camden).
DERVIS, or Dervich, a name given to a fort of
monks among the Turks, who lead a very auftere life*
and profefs extreme poverty ; though they are allowed
to marry. The word is originally Perfian, rr'TTT, fig-
nifying a “beggar,” or perfon who has nothing: and
becaufe the religious, and particularly the followers of
Mevelava, profefs not to poffefs any thing, they call
both the religious in general, and the Mevelavites in
particular, Dervifes or Derviches.
The dervifes, called alio Mevelavites, are a Maho¬
metan order of religious; the chief or founder where¬
of was one Mevelava. They are now very numerous.
Their chief monaftery is that near Cogna in Natolia,
where the general makes his refidence, and where ali
the aflemblies of the order are held; the other houfes
being all dependent on this, by a privilege granted to
this monaftery under Ottoman I.
The dervifes affeft a great deal of modefty, patience,
humility, and charity. They always go bare-legged
and open-breafted, and frequently burn themfelves with
hot irons, to inure themfelves to patience. They al¬
ways faft on Wednefdays, eating nothing on thofe
days till after fun-fet. Tuefdays and Fridays they
hold meetings, at which the fuperior of the houfe pre-
fides. One of them plays all the while on a flute, and
the reft dance, turning their bodies round and round
with the greateft fwiftnefs imaginable. Long cuftom
to this exercife from their youth has brought them to
fuch a habitude, that it does not difeompofe them at
all. This praftice they obferve with great ftriftnefs,
in memory of Mevdava their patriarch’s turning mi-
raculoufly round, as they pretend, for the fpace of four
days, without any food or refrefhment; his companion
Hamfa playing all the while on the flute : after which
he fell into an eeftafy, and therein received wonderful
revelations for the eftablilhment of his order. They
believe the flute an inftrument confecrated by Jacob
and the fhepherds of the Old Teftament, becaufe they
fang the praifes of God upon them. They profefs po¬
verty, chaftity, and obedience, and really obferve them
while they remain dervifes; but if they choofe to go out
and marry, they are always allowed.
The generality of dervifes are mountebanks: fome
apply themfelves to legerdemain, poftures, &c. to a-
mufe the people; others give in to forcery and magic ::
but all of them, contrary to Mahomet’s precept, are
faid to drink wine, brandy, and other ftrong liquors,
to give them the degree of gaiety their order requires.
Befide their great faint Mevelava, there are particu¬
lar taints honoured in fome particular monafteries : as
Kiderele, greatly revered in the monafteries of Egypt,
and held by fome to be St George; and by others,
with more probability, the prophet Elias.
The dervifes are great travellers ; and, under pre¬
tence of preaching, and propagating their faith, are
continually pafling from one place to another: on which
account they have been frequently ufed as fpies.
There
D E S [ 771 ] D E S
faguliers There are alfo dervifes in Perfia, called in thatcoun-
•siefcant try dbdaht q. d. fervants of God. They lead a very
' ^ * , penurious, auttere life, and preach the Alcoran in the
ilreets, coffee-houfes, and wherever they can meet with
auditors. The Perfian dervifes retail little but fables
to the people, and are in the utmoft contempt among
the men of fenfe and letters.
There are in Egypt two or three kinds : thofe that
are in convents, are in a manner of the religious or¬
der, and live retired ; though there are of thefe fome
who travel and return again to their convents. Some
take this charafter, and yet live with their families,
and exercife their trades : of this kind are the dancing
dervifes at Damafcus, who go once or twice a week to
a little uninhabited convent, and perform their extra¬
ordinary exercifes; thefe alfo feem to be a good peo-
Iple: but there is a third fort of them who travel about
the country, and beg, or rather oblige people to give,
for whenever they found their horn fomething muft be
given them. The people of thefe orders, in Egypt,
wear an o&agonal badge, of a greenifh white alabafler,
at their girdles, and a high ftiff cap without any thing
round it.
DESAGULIERS (John Theophilus), who intro¬
duced the pra&ice of reading public le&ures in expe¬
rimental philofophy in the metropolis, and who made
feveral improvements in mechanics; was the fon of the
reverend John Defaguliers, a French proteftant refu¬
gee, and was born at Rochelle in 1683. His father
brought him to England an infant; and at a proper
age placed him at Chrift-church college, Oxford:
where he fucceeded Dr Keil in reading lectures on
experimental philofophy at Hart Hall. The magni¬
ficent duke of Chandos made Dr Defaguliers his
chaplain, and prefented him to the living of Edgware,
near his feat at Cannons; and he was afterward chap¬
lain to Frederic prince of Wales. He read leftures
with great fuccefs to the time of his death in 1749.
He communicated many curious papers printed in the
Philofophical Tranfadtions; publiihed a valuable.Cowr/e
of Experimental Philofophy, in 2 vols 410.; and gave an
edition of Gregory's Elements of Catoptrics and Dioptrics,
with an Appendix on refledthig telefcopes, 8vo. He
was a member of the Royal Society, and of feveral fo¬
reign academies.
DESART, a large extent of country entirely bar¬
ren, and producing nothing. In this fenfe fome are
fandy defarts; as thofe of Lop, Xamo, Arabia, and
feveral others in Afia ; in Africa, thofe of Libya and
Zara : others are ftony, as the defart of Pharan in A-
rabia Petrea.
The Desart, abfolutely fo called, is that part of
Arabia, fouth of the Holy Land, where the children
of Ifrael wandered forty years.
DESCANT, in mufic, the art of compofing in fe¬
veral parts. See Composition.
Defcant is three-fold, viz. plain, figurative, and
double.
Plain Descant is the ground-work and foundation
of all mufical compofitions, confifting altogether in the
orderly placing of many concords, anfwering to fimple
counterpoint. See Counterpoint.
Figurative or Florid Descant, is that part of an air
of mufic wherein fome difcords are concerned, as well,
though not fo much, as concords. This may be term¬
ed the ornamental and rhetorical part of mufic, in re- Defbant
gard that there are introduced all the varieties of It
points, fyncopes, diverfities of meafures, and whatever Defcent- .
is capable of adorning the compofition.
Descant Double, is when the parts are fo contrived,
that the treble, or any high part, may be made the
bafs; and, on the contrary, the bafs the treble.
DESCARTES. See Cartes. •
DESCENDANT. The iffueof a common parent,
in infinitum, are called his defcendants. See the article
Descent.
DESCENSION, in aftronomy, is either right or
oblique.
Right Descension, is an arch of the equino&ial, in¬
tercepted between the next equinoctial point and the
interfeftion of the meridian, palling through the centre
of the objeft, at its fetting, in a right fphere.
Oblique Descension, an arch of the equinoctial, inter¬
cepted between the next equinodtial point and the ho¬
rizon, palling through the centre of the objedt, at its
fetting, in an oblique fphere.
DESCENT, in general, is the tendency of a body
from a higher to a lower place ; thus all bodies, unlei's
otherwife determined by a force fuperior to their gra¬
vity, defcend towards the centre of the earth. Sec
Gravity and Mechanics.
Descent, or 'Hereditary SucceJJion, in law, is the
title whereby a man, on the death of his anceftor, ac¬
quires his ellate by right of reprefentation, as his heir
at law. An heir, therefore, is he upon whom the law
calls the ellate immediately on the death of the ancellor;
and an ellate fo defcending to the heir is in law called
the inheritance.
Defcent is either lineal or collateral. The former is
that conveyed down in a right line from the grandfather
to the father, and from the father to the fon, and from
the fon to the grandfon. The latter is that fpringing
out of the fide of the line or blood ; as from a man to
his brother, nephew, or the like.
The dodtrine of defcents, or law of inheritances in
fee-fimple, is a point of the highell importance: (Sec
the article Fee). All the rules relating to purchafes,
whereby the legal courfe of defcents is broken and al¬
tered, perpetually refer to this fettled law of inheritance,
as a datum or firll principle univerfally known, and upon
which their fubfequent limitations are to work. Thus
a gift in tail, or to a man and the heirs of his body, is
a limitation that cannot be perfedtly underllood with¬
out a previous knowledge of the law of defcents in fee-
fimple. One may well perceive, that this is an eftate
confined in its defcent to fuch heirs only of the donee
as have fprung or fhall fpring from his body; but who
thofe heirs are, whether all his children both male and
female, or the male only, and (among the males) whe¬
ther the eldell, youngell, or other fon alone, or all the
fons together, (hall be his heir; this is a point that we
muft refult back to the (landing law of defcents in fee-
fimple to be informed of.
And as this depends not a little on the nature of
kindred, and the feveral degrees of confanguinity, it
will be neceflary to refer the reader to the article Con¬
sanguinity, where the true notion of this kindred or
alliance in blood is particularly dated.
We (hall here exhibit a feries of rules or canons of
inheritance, with illullrations, according to which, by
5 E i the
D E S
, Defcent. the law of England, eftates are tranfmitted from the
"■-.(T"*—-1 anceftor to the heir.
i. “ Inheritances lhall lineally defcend to the iffue
of the perfon laft actually feifed in infinitum, but fhall
never lineally afcend.”
To underftand both this and the fubfequent rules, it
muft be obferved, that by law no inheritance can veft,
nor can any perfon be the aftuah complete heir of ano¬
ther, till the anceftor is previoufly dead. Nemo ejl ha¬
res viventis. Before that time, the perfon who is next
in the line of fucceflion is called an heir apparent or heir
prefumptive. Heirs apparent are fuch whofe right of
inheritance is indefeafible, provided they outlive the
anceftor; as the eldeft fon or his iffue, who muft, by
the courie of the common law, be heirs to the father
whenever he happens to die. Heirs prefumptive are
fuch, who, if the anceftor fliould die immediately, would
in the prefent circumftances of things be his heirs; but
whofe right of inheritance may be defeated by the con¬
tingency of fome nearer heir being born: as a brother
or nephew, whofe prefumptive fucceflion may be de-
ftroyed by the birth of a child: or a daughter, whofe
prefent hopes may be hereafter cut off by the birth of a
fon. Nay, even if the eftate hath defcended, by the
death of the owner, to fuch a brother, or nephew, or
daughter; in the former cafes, the eftate fliall be de-
yefted and taken away by the birth of a pofthumous
child; and, in the latter, it (hall alfo be totally divefted
by the birth of a pofthumous fon.
We muft alfo remember, that no perfon can be pro¬
perly fuch an anceftor as that an inheritance in lands
or tenements can be derived from him, unlefs he hath
had aftual feiiin of fuch lands, either by his own
entry, or by the poffeffion of his own or his anceftor’s
leffee for years, or by receiving rent from a leffee of
the freehold : or unlefs he hath what is equivalent to
corporal feifm in hereditaments that are incorporeal;
fuch as the receipt of rent, a prefentation to the church
in cafe of an advowfon, and the like. But he ftiall not
be accounted an anceftor who hath had only a bare
right or title to enter or be otherwife feifed. And
therefore all the cafes which will be’mentioned in the
preient article, are upon the fuppofition that the de-
ceafed (whofe inheritance is now claimed) was the laft
'Naslfl. perfon actually feifed thereof. For the law requires
Comment, notoriety of poffeffion, as evidence that the ance¬
ftor had that property in himfelf, which is now to be
tranfmitted to his heir. Which notoriety hath fucceed-
ed in the place of the ancient feodal inveftiture, where¬
by, while feuds were precarious, the vaffal on the dc-
fcent of lands was formerly admitted in the lord’s court
(as is ft ill the pradice in Scotland); and therefore re¬
ceived his feifin, in the nature of a renewal of his an¬
ceftor’s grant, in the prefence of the feodal peers : till
at length, when the right of fucceffion became indefea-
ftble, an entry on any part of the lands within the
county (which if difputed was afterwards to be tried
by thofe peers), or other notorious poffeffion, was ad¬
mitted as equivalent to the formal grant of feifin, and
made the tenant capable of tranfmitting his eftate by
defcent. The feifm therefore of any perfon, thus un-
derftood, makes him the root or ftock from which all
future inheritance by right of blood muft be derived ;
which is very briefly expreffed in this feftna fa-
citJHpkem.
D E S
When therefore a perfon dies lo feifed, the inheri- Defcent
tance firft goes to his iffue : as if there be Geoffrey,
John, and Matthew, grandfather, father, and fon ; and
John purchafes land, and dies; his fon Matthew ftiall
fucceed him as heir, and not the grandfather Geoffrey;
to whom the land ftiall never afcend, but lhall rather
efcheat to the lord.
2. “ The male iffue lhall be admitted before the fe¬
male.”—Thus fons lhall be admitted before daugh¬
ters ; or, as our male lawgivers have fomewhat un-
complaifantly expreffed it, the worthieft of blood lhall
be preferred. As if John Stiles hath two fons, Mat¬
thew and Gilbert, and two daughters, Margaret and
Charlotte, and dies; firft Matthew, and (in cafe of
his death without iffue) then Gilbert, lhall be admitted
to the fucceffion in preference to both the daughters.
3. “ Where there are two or more males in equal de¬
gree, the eldeft only lhall inherit; but the females all
together.”—As if a man hath two fons, Matthew and
Gilbert, and two daughters, Margaret and Charlotte,
and dies; Matthew his eldeft fon lhall alone fucceed
to his eftate, in exclufion of Gilbert the fecond fon and
both the daughters ; but if both the fons die with¬
out iffue before the father, the daughters Margaret
and Charlotte lhall both inherit the eftate as copar¬
ceners.
4. “ The lineal defcendants, in infinitum, of any
perfon deceafed, lhall reprefent their anceftor; that
is, lhall Hand in the fame place as the perfon himfelf
would have done had he been living.”—Thus the
child, grandchild, or great-grandchild (either male or
female), of the eldeft fon, fucceeds before the younger
fon, and fo in infinitum. And thefe reprefentatives
lhall take neither more nor lefs, but juft fo much as
their principals would have done. As if there be two
fillers, Margaret. and Charlottk ; and Margaret dies,
leaving fix daughters; and then John Stiles the father .
of the two filters dies without other iffue: thefe fix
daughters lhall take among them exactly the fame as
their mother Margaret would have done had the been
living; that is, a moiety of the lands of John Stiles
in coparcenary : fo that, upon partition made, if the
land be divided into twelve parts, thereof Charlotte
the furvivmg filler lhall have fix, and her fix nieces, the
daughters of Margaret, one a-piece.
5. “ On failure of lineal defendants, or iffue, of the
perfon laft feifed, the inheritance lhall defcend to the
blood of the firft purchafer ; fubjedt to the three pre¬
ceding rules.”—Thus, if Geoffrey Stiles purchafes
land, and it defends' to John Stiles his fon, and John
dies feifed thereof without iffue ; whoever fucceeds to
this inheritance muft be of the blood of Geoffrey the
firit purchafer of this family. The firft purchafer,
perquifitor, is lie who firft acquired the eftate to his fa¬
mily, whether the fame was transferred to him by fale,
or ^7 gift, or by any other method, except only that
of defcent.
6. “ The collateral heir of the perfon laft feifed muft.
be his next collateral kinfman of the whole blood.”
Firft, he muft be his next collateral kinfman either
perfonally or jure reprefentationis; which proximity is
reckoned according to die canonical degrees of con—
fanguinity: See Consanguinity. Therefore, the
brother being in the firft degree, he and his defend¬
ants lhall exclude the uncle and.his iffue, who is only.
[ 772 1
1 '
D E S [ 773 1 D E S
3<X Defcent. in the fecond.—Thus if John Stiles dies without iffue,
efl.a(;e defcend to Francis his brother, who is
lineally defcended from Geoffrejr Stiles his next imme¬
diate anceftor- or father. On failure of brethren or
fillers and their iffue, it lhall defcend to the uncle of
John Stiles, the lineal defcendant of his grandfather
George ; and fo on in infinitum.
But, fecondly, the heir need not be the neareft kinf-
man abfolutely, but only fub modo ; that is, he mull
be the nearell kinfman of the wbo/e blood: for if there
be a much nearer kinfman of the ba/f blood, a dillant
kinfman of the whole blood (hall be admitted, and the
other entirely excluded.—A kinfman of the whole blood
is he that is derived, not only from the fame anceftor,
but from the fame couple of anceftors. For as every
man’s own blood is compounded of the bloods of his
refpeftive anceftors, he only is properly of the whole
or entire blood with another who hath (fo far as the
diftance of degrees will permit) all the fame ingredients
in the compofition of his blood that the other hath.
Thus, the blood of John Stiles being compofed of thofe
of Geoffrey Stiles his father, and Lucy Baker his mo¬
ther, therefore his brother Francis, being defcended
from both the fame parents, hath entirely the fame
blood with John Stiles; or he is his brother of the
whole blood. But if, -after the death of Geoffrey, Lu¬
cy Baker the mother marries a fecond hufband, Lewis
Gay, and hath iffue by him : the blood of this iffue,
being compounded of the blood of Lucy Baker (it is
true) on the one part, but that of Lewis Gay (initead
of Geoffrey Stiles) on the other part, it hath therefore
only half the fame ingredients with that of John Stiles;
fo that he is only his brother of the half blood, and for
that reafon they /hall never inherit to each other. So
alfo, if the father has two fons, A and B, by different
venters or wives ; now thefe two brethren are not bre¬
thren of the whole blood, and therefore (hall never in¬
herit to each other, but the eftate ftiall rather efeheat to
the lord. Nay, even if the father dies, and his lands
defcend to his eldeft fon A, who enters thereon, and
dies feifed without iffue ; ftill B /hall not be heir to
this eftate, becaufe he is only of the half blood to A,
the perfon laft feifed : but had A died without entry,
then B might have inherited: not as heir to A his
half-brother, but as heir to their common father, who
was the perfon laft actually feifed.
The rule then, together with its illuftration, amounts
to this, That in order to keep the eftate of John Stiles
as nearly as poflible in the line of his purchafing an¬
ceftor, it muft defcend to the iffue of the neareft couple
of anceftors that have left defeendants behind them;
becaufe the defeendants of one anceftor only are not
fo likely to be in the line of that purchaling anceftor
as thofe who are defcended from two.
But here a difficulty arifes. In the fecond, tliird,
fourth, and every fuperior degree, every man has
many couples of anceftors, increaftng according to the
diftances in a geometrical progreflion upwards, the de¬
feendants of all which refpedlive couples are (repre-
fentatively) related to him in the fame degree. Thus,
in the fecond degree, the iffue of George and Cecilia
Stiles and of Andrew and Efther Baker, - the two
grandfires and grandmothers of John Stiles, are each
in the fame degree of propinquity; in the third degree,
the refpedlive iffues of Walter and Chriftian Stiles, of
Luke and Francis Kempe, of Herbert and Hannah Defcent.
Baker, and of James and Emma Thorpe, are (upon 1 v
the extindtion of the two inferior degrees) all e-
qually intitled to call themfelves the next kindred of
the whole blood to John Stiles. To which therefore
of thefe anceftors muft we firft refort in order to find
out defeendants to be preferably called to the inheri¬
tance ? In anfwer to this, and to avoid the confufion
and uncertainty that might arife between the feveral
Hocks wherein the purchafing anceftor may be fought
for, 
7. The feventh and laft rule or canon is, « That
in collateral inheritances the male flocks /hall be pre¬
ferred to the female (that is, kindred derived f^om the
blood of the male anceftors /hall be admitted before
thofe from the blood of the female) ;—unlefs where
the lands have in fadt defcended from a female.”—
Thus the relations en the father’s fide are admitted i/>
infinitum, before thofe on the mother’s fide are admitted
at all; and the relations of the father’s father, before
thofe of the father’s mother; andHo on.
For the original and progrefs of the above canons,
the reafons upon which they are founded, and their
agreement with the laws of other nations, the curious
reader may confult Bladfione’s Commentaries, Vol. II,
p. 208—237.
We /hall conclude with exemplifying the rules them¬
felves by a ftiort /ketch of the manner in which we mu/t
fearch for the heir of a perfon, as John Stiles, who dies
feifed of land which he acquired, and which therefore
he held as a feud of indefinite antiquity. See the Tails
of Descents on Plate CLVL
In the firft place fucceeds the eldeft fon, Matthew
Stiles, or his iffue, (n° 1.) :—if his line be* extimft,
then Gilbert Stiles and the other fons refpe&ively, in
order of birth, or their iffue, (n” 2.) in-default of
thefe, all the daughters together, Margaret and Char¬
lotte Stiles, or their iffue, (n° 3 )—On failure of the
defeendants of John Stiles himfelf, the iffue of GeoL
frey and Lucy Stiles, his parents, is called in: viz.
firft, Francis Stiles, the eldeft brother of the whole
blood, or his iffue, (n°4.):—then Oliver Stiles, and the
other whole brothers refpe&ively, in order of birth,
or their iffue, (nJy.):—then the fi/lers of the whole
blood all together, Bridget and Alice Stiles, or their
iffue, (n° 6.)—In defect of thefe, the iffue of George
and Cecilia Stiles, his father’s parents;. refpeCt being
ftill had to their age and fex, (n° 7.):—then the iffue
of Walter and Chriftian Stiles, the parents of his pa*
ternal grandfather, (n° 8.)then the iffue of Richard*
and Anne Stiles, the parents of his paternal grandfa*
ther’s'father, (n° 9.)- —and fo on in the paternal grand¬
father’s paternal line, or blood of Walter Stiles, in in*
finitum. In defeat of thefe, the iffue of William and Jane
Smith, the parents of his paternal grandfather’s mother,
( n’J 10.) : —and fo on an the paternal grandfather’s ma¬
ternal line, or blood of Chriftian Smith, in infinitum f.
till both the immediate bloods of George Stiles, the pa¬
ternal grand father,, are /pent. —Then we. muft refort to
the illue of Luke and Frances Kempe, the parents of
John Stiles?s paternal grandmother,. (nJ 11.) then
to the iffue of Thomas and Sarah Kempe, the parents
of his paternal grandmother’s father, (n° 12.) ;—and
fo on in the paternal grandmother’s paternal line, or
blood of Luke Kempe, in infinitum. In default of
\vhich3.
D E S L 774 1 D E S
Defcent wliich, we tnuft call in the iffue of Charles and Mary
_ .11 Holland, the parents of his paternal grandmother’s
■ e crter•. mother, (n° 13.): an<l on t^e paternal grand-
■■ mother’s maternal line, or blood of Frances Holland,
in injinitum; till both the immediate bloods of Cecilia
Kempe, the paternal grandmother,' arc alfo fpent.—
Whereby the paternal blood of John Stiles entirely
failing, recourfe mull then, and not before, be had to
his maternal relations; or the blood of the Bakers,
(n° 14, 15, 16.), Willis’s (n° 17.), Thorpe’s (n° 18,
19.), and White’s (n° 20.); in the fame regular fuc-
ceflive order as in the paternal line.
The Undent fhould bear in mind, that during this
whole procefs, John Stiles is the perfon fuppofed to
have been laft aftually feifed of the eftate. For if ever
it comes to veil in any other perfon, as heir to John
Stiles, a new order of fucceffion mull be obferved up¬
on the death of fuch heir; fince he, by his own feifin,
now becomes himfelf an anceftor, or JUpes, and mull
be put in the place of John Stiles. The figures there¬
fore denote the order in which the feveral clalfes would
fucceed to John Stiles, and not to each other ; and be¬
fore we fearch for an heir in any of the higher figures,
(as n°8.) we mull be firll allured that all the lower
clafles (from n0 x to 7.) were extindl at John Stiles’s
deceafe.
Descent, or Succejfion, in the law of Scotland. See
Law, Part III. FF clxxx. clxxxi.
Descent of the Crown. See Succession.
Descent of Dignities. A dignity differs from com-
maon inheritances, and goes not according to the rules
of the common lawi for it defcends to the half-blood ;
and there is no coparcenerlhip in it, but the cldell takes
the whole. The dignity of peerage is perfonal, an¬
nexed to the blood; and fo infeparable, that it cannot
be transferred to jny perfon, or furrendered even to the
crown: it can move neither forward nor backward,
but only downward to pollerity; and nothing but cor¬
ruption of blood, as if the ancellor be attainted of trea-
fon or felony, can hinder the defcent to the right heir.
Descent, in genealogy, the order or fucceffion of
defendants in a fine or family ; or their diftance from
a common progenitor; Thus we fay, one defcent, two
defcents, &c.
Descent, in heraldry, is ufedto exprefs the coming
down of any thing from above ; as, a lion en defcent is
a lion with his head towards the bafe points, and his
heels towards one of the corners of the chief, as if he
were leaping down from fome high place.
DESCHAMPS (Francis), a French poet, born in
Champagne, was the author of a tragedy intitled Cato
of Utica, and a hiltory of the French theatre. He
died at Paris in 1747.
DESCRIPTION, in literary compofition, is fuch
a ftrong and beautiful reprefentation of a thing, as
gives the reader a diftindt view and fatisfadlory notion
of it. See Narration and Defcription.
DESEADA, or Des.idee.ara, one of the Carib-
hee illands, fubjedl to France, lying ealtward of Gua-
daloupe.
DESERT, or Desart. See Desart.
DESERTER, in a military fenfe, a foldier who,
by running arway from his regiment or company, a-
bandons the fervice.
A deferter is, by the articks of war, punilhabk by
5
death ; which, after conviction, is executed upon him Defertioa
at the head of the regiment he formerly belonged to, M
with his crime written on his breaft. Defign.
DESElRTION, in law. See Law, N° clx. 24. ''",J
DESHABILLE, a French term, naturalized of
late. It properly fignifies a night-gown, and other
necelfaries, made ufe of in dreffing or undreffing. Mr
 is not to be fpoken with, he is yet in his defha-
bille, i. e. undreffed or in his night-gown. The word
is compounded of the privative de and s’haliller, “ to
drefs one’s felf.”
DESHACHE', in heraldry, is where a beaft has
its limbs feparated from its body, fo that they Hill re¬
main on the efcutcheon, with only a fmall feparation
from their natural places.
DESIDERATUM, is ufed to fignify the defirable
perfections in any art or fcience: thus, it is a defide-
ratum with the blackfmith, to render iron fufible by a
gentle heat, and yet preferve it hard enough for ordi¬
nary ufes; with the glafsman and looking-glafs ma¬
ker, to render glafs malleable ; with the clock-maker,
to bring pendulums to be ufeful where there are irre¬
gular motions, &c.
DESIGN, in a general fenfe, the plan, order, re¬
prefentation, or conllruCtion of a building, book, paint¬
ing, &c. See Architecture, Painting, Poetry,
Oratory, and HisVory.
Design, in the manufactories, expreffes the figures
wherewith the workman enriches his Huff or iilk, and
which he copies after fome painter or eminent
draughtfman, as in diaper, damalk, and other flowered
filk and tapeftry, and the like.
In undertaking of fuch kinds of figured fluffs, it is
neceffary, fays Monf. Sarary, that, before the firll
ftroke of the fliuttle, the whole defign be reprefented
on the threads of the warp, we do not mean in co¬
lours, but with an infinite number of little packthreads,
which, being difpofed fo as to raife the threads of the
warp, let the workmen fee, from time to time, what
kind of filk is to be put in the eye of the ftiuttle for
woof. This method of preparing the work is called
reading the defign, and reading thefgure, which is per¬
formed in the following manner ; A paper is provided,
confiderably bfoader than the fluff, and of a length
proportionate to what is intended to be reprefented
thereon. This they divide lengthwife, by as many black
lines as there are intended threads in the warp ; and
crofs thefe lines, by others’drawn breadth wife, which,
with the former, make little equal fquares ; on the pa¬
per thus fquared, the draughtfman defigns his figures,
and heightens them with colours as he fees fit. When
the defign is finifiied, a workman reads it, while ano¬
ther lays it on the limblot.
To read the defign, is to tell the perfon who ma¬
nages the loom, the number of fquares or threads com-
prifed in the fpace he is reading, intimating at the
fame time, whether it is ground or figure. To put what
is read on the fimblot, is to faften little firings to the
feveral packthreads, which are to raife the threads
named; and this they continue to do till the whole
defign is read.
Every piece being compofed of feveral repetitions of
the fame defign, when the whole defign is drawn, the
drawer, to re-begin the defign afrelh, has nothing to do
but to raife the little filings, with flip-knots, to the
top
D E S [ 775 ] D E S
Defign. top of the fimblot, which he had let down to the bot-
 v  tom: this he is to repeat as often as is neceflary till the
whole be manufactured.
The ribbon-weavers have likewife a defign, but far
m6re fimple than that now defcribed. It is drawn on
paper with lines and fquares, reprefenting the threads
of the warp and woof. But inftead of lines, whereof
the figures of the former confift, thefe are conftituted
of points only, or dots, placed in certain of the little
fquares formed by the interfe&ion of the lines. Thefe
points mark the threads of the warp that are to be rai¬
led, and the fpaces left blank denote the threads that
are to keep their fituation : the reft is managed as in
the former.
Design is alfo ufed, in painting, for the firft idea
of a large work, drawn roughly, and in little, with an
intention to be executed and finiihed in large.
In this fenfe, it is the fimple contour or outlines
of the figures intended to be reprefented, or the lines
that terminate and circumfcribe them: fuch defign is
fometimes drawn in crayons or ink, without any fha-
dow's at all; fometimes it is hatched, that is, the fha-
dows are expreffed by fenfible outlines, ufually drawn
acrofs each other with the pen, crayon, or graver.
Sometimes, again, the fhadows are done with the cray¬
on rubbed fo as that there do not appear any lines:
at other times, the grains or ftroke of the crayon ap¬
pear, as not being rubbed: fometimes the defign is
wafhed, that is, the fhadows are done with a pencil in
Indian ink, or fome other liquor ; and fometimes the
defign is coloured, that is, colours are laid on much
like thofe intended for the grand work.
Design, in mufic, is juftly defined by Rouffeau
to be the invention and the conduft of the fubjedf, the
difpofition of every part, and the general order of the
whole.
It is not fufficient to form beautiful airs, and a le-
•gitimate harmony ; all thefe muft be connefted by a
principal fubjeft, to which all the parts of the work
relate, and by which they become one. Thus unity
ought to prevail in the air, in the movement, in the
chara&er, in the harmony, and in the modulation. All
thefe muft indifpenfably relate to one common idea
which unites them. The greateft difficulty is, to recon¬
cile the obfervation of thofe precepts with an elegant
■variety, which, if not introduced, renders the whole
piece irkfome and monotonic. Without queftion, the
mufician, as well as the poet and the painter, may rifle
every thing in favour of this delightful variety ; if,
tinder the pretext of contrafting, they do not endea¬
vour to cheat us with falfe appearances, and inftead of
pieces juftly and happily planned, prefent us with a
Biufical minced meat, compofed of little abortive frag¬
ments, and of characters fo incompatible, that the whole
affembled forms a heterogeneous monfter.
Non uUplacidis coeant immitia^ non ut
Serpentes avibus giminentur^ tigrihiu ngnu
Tranflated thus:
But not that nature fhould revers’d appear;
Mix mild with fierce, and gentle with fevere;
Profane her law« to contradidtion’* height ;
Tygei s with lambs, with ferpents birds unite.
It is therefore in a diftribution formed with intel-
Egence and tafte, in a juft proportion between all the
parts, that the perfection of defign confifts; and it is
above all, in this point, that the immortal Pergolefo has Defigna*
fhown his judgment and his tafte, and has left fo far ‘‘U"
behind him all his competitors. His St ah at Mater,
his Orfeo, his Servh Padrona, are, in three different fpe- > -t '
cies of compofition, three mafterpieces of defign equal¬
ly perfeCt.
This idea of the general defign of a work is like¬
wife particularly applicable to every piece of which
it confifts; thus the compofer plans an air, a duett,
a chorus, &c. For this purpofe, after having invent¬
ed his fubjeCt, he diftributes it, according to the rules
of a legitimate modulation, into all the parts where it
ought to be perceived, in fuch a proportion, that its
impreffion may not be loft; on the minds of the audi¬
ence yet that it may never be reiterated in their ears,
without the graces of novelty. The compofer errs in
defigning who fuffers his fubjeCt to be forgot; he is
ftill more culpable who purfues it till it becomes trite
and tirefome.
DESIGNATION, the aCt of marking or indi¬
cating, and making a thing known. The defignatioti
of fuch an eftate is made by the tenants, hutments, and
boundings. Among the Romans, there were defigna-
tions of the confuls and other magiftrates, fome time
before their election.
DESIGNATOR, a Roman officer, who affigned
and marked each perfon his place and rank in public
ceremonies, ffiows, proceffions, &c. The word is
formed from the verb defignare, to defign.
The defignator was a kind of marfhal, or mafter of
the ceremonies, who regulated the feats, maroh, order,
&c. There were defignators at ftigeral folemnities,
and at the games, theatres, and fhows, who not only
affigned eveiy one his place, but alfo led him. to it; as
appears from the prologue to the Poenulus of Plautus*
Much of the fame nature were the agonotheta of the
Greeks.
DESIGNING, the art of delineating or drawing
the appearance of natural objeCt8, .by lines, on a plane.
To defign, according to the rules of mathematics,
makes the objeft of perfpeftive. See Perspective.
DESPORTES (Francis), a French painter of the
18th century, was born in Champagne in 1661. He
acquired great reputation, not only in France, but in.
England and Poland : he particularly excelled in ft iff
life. He was received into the academy of painting,
made pictures for the tapeftry of the Gobelins, and
died at Paris in 1743.
DESPOT, a term-fometimes ufed for an abfolute
prince : (fee the next article). The word, in itsfirft.
origin, fignified the fame with the Latin herut, and
the Englifh mafer : but in time it underwent the fame
fate on medals, as, among the Latins, Caefar did with re¬
gard to Auguftus;.BACi AF.rCanfweringtoAuguftus, and
aeChothC, dejpotes, to Ccsfar. See Caesar. Thus, Ni-
cephorus having ordered his fon Stauracius to be crown¬
ed, the fon, out of refpedt, would only take the name-
AECnoTHC, leaving to his father that of baCiaetCV
For it is to be noted, that it was juft about the time
that the emperors began to ceafe to ufe Latin inferip-
tions. This delicacy, howrever, did not lafl; long ; for
the following emperors preferred the quality of aeC-
itothC to that of baCiaeto, particularly Conftan-
tine, Michael Ducas, Nicephorus Botoniates, Roma*
ms Diogenes, the Comneni, and fome others. Im
imitation
D E S [ 776 ] D E T
D'fpot imitation of the princes, the princefles likevvife af-
Defultor ^umec^ t^ie t‘t^e °f aeChoina.
t e n tor', It was the emperor Alexius, furnamed the Angel,
that created the dignity of defpot, and made it the
firft after that of emperor, above that of Auguftus or
Sebaftocrator and Casfar. See August.
The defpots were ufually the emperors fons or fons-
in-law, and their colleagues or copartners in the empire,
as well as their prefumptive heirs. The defpots that
were fons of the emperors had more privileges and
authority than thofe that were only fons-in-law. Co¬
din. p. 38. defcribes the habit and ornaments of the
defpot. See the notes of father Goar on that author.
Under the fuccelfors of Conftantine the Great, the title
defpot of Sparta was given to the emperor’s fon or bro¬
ther, who. had the city of Sparta or Lacedemon by
way of apannege.
Despot" is at prefent a title of quality-given to
Wallachia, Servia, and fome of the neighbouring
countries.
DESPOTICAL, in general, denotes any thing
that is uncontrolled and abfolute ; but is particularly
ufed for an arbitrary government, where the power of
the prince is unlimited, and his will a law to his fub-
jefts : fuch are thofe of Turky, Perlia, and moll of
the eaftern governments ; and even thofe of Europe,
if we except the republics, our own, and of late the
French government.
DESPOUILLE, in heraldry, the whole cafe, Hein,
or Hough of a beaft, with the head, feet, tail, and all
appurtenances, fo that being filled and Huffed it looks
like the entire creature.
DESPREAUX. See Boileau.
DESSAW, a city of Upper Saxony, in Germany,
fituated on the river Elbe, 60 miles north-well of Dref-
den, and fubjeft to the prince of Anhalt Deffaw. E.
Long. 12. 40. N. Lat. 51. 50.
DESSERT, or Desert, a fervice of fruits and
fweetmeats, ufually ferved up lalt to table.
DESSICCATIVE, or Desiccative, in pharmacy,
an epithet applied to fuch topical medicines as dry up
.the humours flowing to a wound or ulcer.
DESTINIES, in mythology. See Parcae.
DESTINY, among philofophers and divines. See
Fate.
DESTRUCTION, in general, an alteration of any
thing from its natural Hate to one contrary to nature;
whereby it is deemed the fame with Corruption.
A chemical dellruftion, or corruption, is nothing
■but a refolution of the whole naturally mixt body into
its parts.
DESUDATION, in medicine, a profufe and inor¬
dinate fweat, fucceeded by an eruption of pullules,
called fudamina, or heat pimples.
DESULTOR, in antiquity, a vaulter or leaper,
who, leading one horfe by the bridle, and riding ano¬
ther, jumped from the back of one to the other, as the
cullom was after they had run feveral courfes or heats.
—This pradlice required great dexterity, being per¬
formed before the ufe of either faddles or llirrups.
The cullom was praftifed in the army when necellity
required it ; but chiefly amongll the Numidians, who
always carried with them two horfes at lealt for that
purpofe, changing them as they tired. The Greeks
and Romans borrowed the pradlice from them ; but
£>nly ufed it at races, games, &c. The Sarmata; were
]NTO I DP-
great mailers of this ejcercife, and the Huflars have Detach- j
Hill fome fmall remains of it. ’
DETACHMENT, in military affairs, a certain H i
number of foldiers drawn out from feveral regiments or •Uetrailc e,i
companies equally, to be employed as the general thinks
proper, whether on an attack, at a liege, or in parties
to fcour the country.
DETENTION (from, detineo “ I detain”), the pof-
fefiion or holding of lands, or the like, from fome
other claimant. The word is chiefly ufed in an ill
fenfe, for an unjull with-holding, &c.
DETENTS, in a clock, are thofe Hops which, by
being lifted up or let fall down, lock and unlock the
clock in linking.
Detent- Wheel, or Hoop-wheel, in a clock, that wheel
which has a hoop almoll round it, wherein there is a
vacancy, at which the clock locks.
DETERGENTS, in pharmacy, fuch medicines as
are not only foftening and adhefive, but alfo, by a pe¬
culiar aftivity, conjoined with a fuitable configuration
of parts, are apt to abrade and carry along with them,
fuch particles as they lay hold on in their paffage.
DETERIORATION, the impairing or render¬
ing any thing worfe: it is jull the reverfe of meliora¬
tion.
DETERMINATION, in mechanics, fignifiesmuch
the fame with the tendency or direftion of a body in
motion. See Mechanics.
Determination, among fchool-divines, is an a6lof
divine power, limiting the agency of fecond caufes, in
every inftance, to what the Deity predellinated con¬
cerning them. See Predestination.
DETERSIVES, the fame with Detergents.
DETINUE, in law, a writ or a6lion that lies againft
one who has got goods or other things delivered to him
to keep, and afterwards refufes to deliver them.—In
this adlion, the thing detained is generally to be re¬
covered, and not damages; but if one cannot recover
the thing itfelf, he lhall recover damages for the thing,
and alfo for the detainer. Detinue lies for any thing
certain and valuable, wherein one may have a property
or right; as for a horfe, cow, Iheep, hens, dogs, jew¬
els, plate, cloth, bags of money, facks of corn, &c. It
mull be laid fo certain, that the thing detained may he
known and recovered : and therefore, for money out of
a bag, or corn out of a fack, &c. it lies not ; for the
money or corn cannot in this cafe be known from other
money br corn ; fo that the party mull have an a&ion
on the cafe, &c. Yet detinue may be brought for
a piece of gold of the price of 22 s. though not for
22 s. in money.
DETONATION, in chemiftry, fignifies an explo-
fion with noife made by the fudden inflammation of
fome combultible body: Such are the explofions of
gun-powder, fulminating gold, and fulminating powder.
As nitre is the caufe of moll explofions, .the word de¬
tonation has been appropriated to the inflammation of
the acid of this fait with bodies containing phlogilton ;
and it is frequently given to thofe inflammations of
nitrous acid which are not accompanied with explolion.
Thus nitre is faid to detonate with fulphur, with coals,
with metals ; although in the ordinary method of ma¬
king thefe operations, that is, in open crucibles, and
with fmall quantities of detonating fubftances, the nitre
does not truly explode. See Nitre.
DETRANCHE, in heraldry, a line bend-wife,
pro-
DEV [ 777 ] DEV
Dettingen proceeding always from the dexter-fide, but not from
II the very angle diagonally athwart the Ihield.
PeucaHon-. DETTINGEN, a village of Germany, in the circle
’ of the Upper Rhine, and in the territory of Hanau.
Here the Aullrians and the Britilh, in June 1743,
were attacked by the French, who met with a repulfe ;
but as the allies were inferior in number, they could
not make the advantage of it they might otherwife
have done. E. Long. 8. 45. N. Lat. 50. 8.
DEV A, or D'-una (anc. geog.), a town of the
Comavii in Britain. Now Cbejler, on the Dee. W.
Long. 3. Lat. 53. IC.
DEUCALEDONIUS Oceanus, or (which comes
nearer the original pronunciation) Duacaledonius, fo
called from Duah Gael, the northern Highlanders: the
fea on the north-weft of Scotland.
DEUCALIOV, king of Theflaly. The flood faid
to have happened in his time (15006. C.), is fup-
pofed to have been only an inundation of that coun¬
try, occafioned by heavy rains, and an earthquake
that flopped the courfe of the river Peneus where it
ufually difeharged itfelf into the fea. On thefe cir-
cumftances the fable of Deucalion’s flood is founded.
—According to the fable, he was the fon of Prome¬
theus. He governed his people with equity ; but the
reft of mankind being extremely wicked,/ were de-
ilroyed by a flood, while Deucalion and Pyrrha his
queen faved themfelves by afeending mount Parnaffus.
When the waters were decreafed, they went and con-
fulted the oracle of Themis, on the means by which
the earth was to be repeopled ; when they were order¬
ed to veil their heads and faces, to unloofe their girdles,
mid throw behind their backs the bones of their great
mother. At this advice Pyrrha was feized with hor¬
ror : but Deucalion explained the myftery, by obfer-
ving, that their great mother mull mean the earth,
and her bones the ftones ; when taking them up, thofe
Deucalion threw over his head became men, and thofe
thrown by Pyrrha, women.
Some have fuppofed that Deucalion, whom the
Greeks have reprefented under a variety of charadters,
and concerning whom their poets have given many fa¬
bulous accounts, was the fame with the patriarch
Noah ; and that Deucalion’s flood in Theffaly, as well
as that of Ogyges in Attica, and of Prometheus in
Egypt, were the fame with that of Noah recorded in
feripture. Diodorus Siculus exprefsly fays, that in
the deluge which happened in the time of Deucalion
almoft all flefh died. Apollodorus having mentioned
Deucalion " ^ ■p'’1***, “ configned to an ark,” takes no¬
tice, upon his quitting it, of his offering up an imme¬
diate facrifice, “ to the God who delivered
him.” As he was the father of all mankind, the an¬
cients have given him great dignity and univerfal mo¬
narchy ; though fometimes he is reduced to a petty
king of Theffaly. Apollonius Rhodius makes him a
native of Greece, and the fon of Prometheus. We
may learn, however, from their confufed hiftory, that
the perfon reprefented was the fir ft of men, through
whom religious rites were renewed, cities built, and
civil polity eftablifhed in the world: none of which
circifmfi mces are applicable to any king of Greece.
Philo affures us, that the Grecians call the perfon
Deucalion, but the Chaldeans ftyle him Noe, in whofe
time there happened the great eruption of waters.
Vot. V. Part II.
But as Lucian has given us the moft particular hiftory Deuea'ion
of the deluge, and that which comes neareft to the Devi|'reur
account given by Mofes; and as he was a native of  v ^
Samofata, a city of Commagene upon the Euphrates, De Dea yy-
a part of the world where memorials of the deluge ria vol. ii.
were particularly preferred, and where an obvious re- P
ference to that hiftory may be obferved in the rites
and worfhip of the country, we fhall give the follow¬
ing extradft of what he fays on the fubjedl. Having
deferibed Noah under the name of Deucalion, he fays,
that the prefent race of mankind are different from
thofe who firft exifted ; for thofe of the antediluvian
world were all deftroyed. The prefent world is peo¬
pled from the fons of Deucalion ; having increafed to
fo great a number from one perfon. In refpedl to the
former brood, they were men of violence, and lawlefs
in their dealings. They regarded not oaths, nor ob¬
ferved the rites of hofpitality, nor fhowed mercy to
tbofe who fued for it. On this account they were
doomed to deftrudtion ; and for this purpofe there was
a mighty eruption.of waters from the earth, attended
with heavy /bowers fropx above; fo that the rivers
fwelled, and the fea overflowed, till the whole earth
was covered with a flood, and all fleflr drowned. Deu¬
calion alone was preferred to repeople the world. This
mercy was ftiown to him on account of his juftice and.
piety. His prefervation was effe&ed in this manner :
he put all his family, both his Ions and their wives,
<*into a vaft ark which he had provided, and he went
into it himfelf. At the fame time animals of every
fpecies, boars, hoffes, lions, ferpents, whatever lived
upon the face of the earth, followed him by pairs ;
all which he received into the ark, and experienced no
evil from them ; for there prevailed a wonderful har¬
mony throughout by the immediate influence of the
Deity. Thus were they wafted with him as long as
the flood endured. After this he proceeds to mention,
that upon the difappearing of the waters Deucalion
went forth from the ark and raifed an altar to God.
Dr Bryant produces a variety of monuments that
bear an obvious reference to the deluge in the Gentile
hiftory, belides this account of Deucalion and his
flood, Analyfis of Ancient Mythology, vol. ii. p.
193-25°.
DEVENSHRING. See Devonsheering.
DEVENTER, a large, ftrong, trading, and popu¬
lous town of the United Provinces in Overyffel, with
an univerfity. It is furrounded with ftrong walls,
flanked with feveral towers, and with ditches full of
water. It is ferted on the river Iffel, 55 miles eaft of
Amfterdam, and 42 weft of Benthem. E. Long. 5. 8.
N. Lat. 52. 18.
DEVEREUX (Robert), earl of Effex, the fon of
Walter Devereux, vifeount Hereford, was born at Ne-
therwood in Herefordfhire, in the year 1567. He
fucceeded to the title of earl of Effex at ten years of
age ; and about two years after, was fent, by his guar¬
dian lord Burleigh, to Trinity-college in Cambridge.
He took the degree of mafter of arts in 1582, and foon
after retired to his feat at Lampfie in South-Wales.
He did not however continue long in this retreat; for
we find him, in his feventeenth year, at the court of
queen Elizabeth, who immediately honoured him with
lingular marks of her favour. Authors feem very
unneccffarily perplexed,t;o account for this young earl’s
5 F gracious
DEV I 778 ] DEV
Devereux. gracious reception at the court of Elizabeth. The nours and employments, very clpfely applied them- Devereux.
reafons are obvious: he was her relation, the fon of one felves to bring about his fall. The firft great (hock he —v—
of her moft faithful fervants, the fon-in-law of her fa- received, in regard to the queen’s favour, arofe from a
vourite Leicefter, and a very handfome and accom- warm difpute between her majeity and himfelf, about
plifhed youth. Towards the end of (the following the choice of fome fit and able perfons to fuperintend
year) 1585, he attended the earl of Leicefter to Hoi- the affairs pf Ireland. The affair is related by Cam-
land ; and gave fignal proofs of his perfonal courage den; who tells us, that nobody was prefent but the
during the campaign of 1586, particularly at the battle lord admiral, Sir Robert Cecil fecretary, and Winde-
of Zutphen, where the gallant Sidney was mortally bank clerk of the feal. The queen looked upon Sir
wounded. On this occafion the earl of Leicefter con- William Knolls, uncle to Effex, as the moft proper
ferred on him the honour of knight banneret. perfon for that charge: Effex contended, that Sir
In the year 1587, Leicefter being appointed lord George Carew was a much fitter man for it. When
fteward of the houfehold, Effex fucceeded him in the the queen could not be perfuaded to approve his choice,
honourable poft of mafter of the horfe ; and the year he fo far forgot himfelf and his duty, as to turn his
following, when the queen affembled an army at Til- back upon her in a contemptuous manner; which in-
bury to oppofe the Spanifti invafion, Effex was made folence her majefty not being able to bear, gave him a
general of the horfe. From this time he was confidered box on the ear, and bid him go and be hanged. Effex,
as the happy favourite of the queen. And, if there like a blockhead, put his hand to his fword, and fwore
was any mark yet wanting to fix the people’s opinion revenge. Where was his gallantry on this occafion ?
in that refpeft, it was (hown by the queen’s conferring Could a ftroke from an angry woman tinge the honour
on him the honour of the garter. of a gallant foldier? This violent ftorm, however, fqon
We need not wonder, that fo quick an elevation, and fubfided : and they were again reconciled, at leaft ap-
to fo great a height, (hould affeft fo young a man as parently.
the earl of Effex; who (howed from henceforwards a The total redu&ion of Ireland being brought upon
very high fpirit, and often behaved petulantly enough the tapis foon after, the earl was pitched upon as the
to the queen herfelf, who yet did not love to be con- only man from whom it could be expelled. This was
trolled by her fubje&s. His eagernefs about this time an artful contrivance of his enemies, who hoped by this
to difpute her favour with Sir Charles Blunt, afterwards means to ruin him ; nor were their expectations dif-
lord Montjoy and earl of Devonftn're, coft him fome appointed. He declined this fatal preferment as long
blood ; for Sir Charles, thinking himfelf affronted by as he could: but, perceiving that he (hould have no
the earl, challenged him, and after a (hort difpute, quiet at home, he accepted it; and his commifiion for
wounded him in the knee. The queen, fo far from lord lieutenant paffed the great feal on the 12th of
being difpleafed with it, is faid to nave fworn a good March 1598. His enemies now began to infinuate,
round’ oath, that it was fit fomebody fhould take him that he had fought this command, for the fake of
down, otherwife there would be no ruling him. How- greater things which he then was meditating; but
ever, (he reconciled the rivals; who, to their honour, there is a letter of his to the queen, preferred in the
continued good friends as long as they lived. Harleian collections, which (hows, that he was fo far
The gallant Effex, however, was not fo entirely cap- from entering upon it with alacrity, that he looked
tivated with his fituation, as to become infenfible to the upon it rather as a baniflrment, and a place afligned him
allurements of military glory. In 1589, Sir John for a retreat from his fovereign’s difpleafure, than a
Norris and Sir Francis Drake having failed on an ex- potent government bellowed upon him by her favour.
pedition againft Spain, our young favourite, without “ er" tL~ ^   ~:-j jo:„i.r 
the permiflion or knowledge of his royal miftrefs, fol¬
lowed the fleet ; which he joined as theyr were failing
To the Queen. From a mind delighting in forrow;
from fpirits wafted with paffion; from a heart torn in
‘ pieces with care, grief, and travail; from a man that
towards Lifbon, and aCled with great refolution in the “ hateth himfelf, and all things elfe that keep him alive;
repuHe of the Spanifti garrifon of that city. The queen      n ^— '•
wrote him a very fevere letter on the occafion; but (he
was, after his return, foon appeafed. Yet it was not
long before he again incurred her difpleafure, by mar¬
rying the widow of Sir Philip Sidney. In 1591, he
was fent to France with the command of 4000 men
to the afliftance of Henry IV. In 1596, he was joined
with the lord high admiral Howard in the command
of the famous expedition againft Cadiz, the fuccefs of
which is univerfally known. In 1597, he was ap¬
pointed mafter of the ordnance ; and the fame year
commanded another expedition againft Spain, called
the IJland voyage, the particulars of which are alfo well
known.
Soon after his return, he was created earl marlhal of
England; and on the death of the great lord Burleigh,
in 1598, eleCled chancellor of the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge. This is reckoned one of the laft inftances of
this great man’s felicity, who was now advanced too
high to fit at eafe; and thofe who longed for his ho-
what fervice can your majefty expe£l, fince any fer-
vice pad deferves no more than baniftiment and pro-
“ feription to the curfedeft of all iflands ? It is your
rebels pride and fucceffion muft give me leave to ran-
fom myfelf out of this hateful prifon, out of my
loathed body ; which, if it happen fo, your majefty
(hall have no caufe to miflike the faftiion of my death,
[< fince the courfe of my life could never pleafe you.
“ Happy he could finilh forth his fate,
“ In fome unhaunted defart moft obfeure
“ From all fociety, from love and hate
“ Of worldly folk; then (hould he deep fecure.
“ Then wake again, and yield God ever praife,
“ Content with hips, and hawes, and bramhleberry;
“ In contemplation paffing out his days,
“ And change of holy thoughts to make him "merry.
“ Who, when he dies, his tomb may be a bulh
“ Where harmlefs robin dwells with gentle thrulh.
“ Your Majefty’s exiled fervant,
“ Robert Essex.”
The
DEV L 779 ] DEV
Devereux. The earl met with nothing in Ireland but ill fuc-
w—v— cefs an(j crofles: in the midft of which, an army was
fuddenly raifed in England, under the command of the
earl of Nottingham ; nobody well knowing why, but
in reality from the fuggeftions of the earl’s enemies to
the queen, that he rather meditated an invafion on his
native country, than the reduftion of the Iriih rebels.
This and other confiderations made him refolve to quit
his poll, and come over to England; which he ac¬
cordingly did without leave. He burft into her ma-
jefty’s bed-chamber as fhe was rifing, and fhe refeived
him with a mixture of tendernefs and feverity: but Ihe,
foon after, thought fit to deprive him of all his em¬
ployments, except that of mafter of the horfe. He was
committed to the cuftody of the lord-keeper, with
whom he continued fix months. No fooner had he re¬
gained his liberty, than he was guilty of many extra¬
vagancies ; to which he was inftigated by knaves and
fools, but perhaps more powerfully by his own paffions.
He firll determined to obtain an audience of the queen
bytforce. He refufed to attend the council when fum-
moned. When the queen fent the lord-keeper, the
•lord chief-juft ice, and two others, to know his grievan¬
ces, he confined them; and then marched with his
friends into the city, in expe&ation that the people
would rife in his favour ; but in that he was difap-
pointed. He was at laft befieged, and taken in his
houfe in Eflex-ftreet; committed to the tower; tried
by his peers, condemned, and executed. Thus did
this brave man, this favourite of his queen, this idol of
the people, fall a facrifice to his want of that diffimu-
lation, that cunning, that court-policy, by which his
enemies were enabled t9 effeft his ruin. He was a po¬
lite fcholar, and a generous friend to literature.
To thofe who have not taken the trouble to confult
and compare the feveral authors who have related the
ftory of this unfortunate earl, it muft appear wonder¬
ful, if, as hath been fuggefted, he was really beloved
by queen Elizabeth, that (he could confent to his exe¬
cution. Now that (he had conceived a tender paffion
for him, is proved beyond a doubt by Mr Walpole in
his very entertaining and inftruftive Catalogue of Nolle
Authors.—“ I am aware (fays that author) that it is
become a mode to treat the queen’s paffion for him as
a romance. Voltaire laughs at it ; and obferves, that
when her ftruggle about him muft have been the great-
eft (the time of his death), ftie was fixty-eight.—Had
he been fixty-eight, it is probable (he would not have
been in love with him.”—“ Whenever Effex a£ted-a fit
of ficknefs, not a day paffed without the queen’s fend¬
ing often to fee him; and once went fo far as to fit
long by him, and order his broths and things. It is re¬
corded by a diligent obferver of that court, that in one
of his fick moods, he to®k the liberty of going up to
the queen in his night-gown. In the hfeight of thefe
fretful fooleries, there was a malic at Black Fryars
on the marriage of lord Herbert and Mrs Ruffel.
Eight lady-malkers chofe eight more to dance the
meafures. Mrs Fitton, who led them, went to the
queen, and wooed her to dance. Her majefty alked
what Ihe was ? Affedion, Ihe faid. AJfeftion l faid the
queen; AJfeBion is falfe. Were not thefe the murmurs
of a heart ill at eafe ? Yet her majefty rofe, and
danced. She was then fixty-eight. Sure it was as
natural for her to be in love.”
Mr Walpole farther obferves, that her court and co- Devereur.
temporaries had an uniform opinion of her paffion for ' v ‘
Effex, and quotes feveral inftances from a letter writ¬
ten by Sir Francis Bacon to the earl; in which, among
other things, he advifes him to confult her tafte in his
very apparel and geftures, and to give way to any other
inclination Ihe may have. Sir Francis advifed the queen
herfelf, knowing her inclination, to keep the earl about
her for fociety. What Henry IV. of France thought
of the queen’s affeftion for Effex, is evident from what
he faid to her ambalfador—“ Que fa majejle ne lai/fe-
roit jamais fon coufm d' EJfex efloigner de fon cotillon'’ —
After his confinement, on hearing he was ill, Ihe fent
him word, with tears in her eyes, that if Ihe might
with her honour, lire would vifit him.
“ If (fays Mr Walpole) thefe inftances are proble¬
matic,* are the following fo ? In one of the curious
letters of Rowland White, he fays, the queen hath of
late ufed the fair Mrs Bridges with words and blows of
anger. In a fubfequent letter, he fays, the earl is again
fallen in love with his fairefl B. It cannot choofe but come
to the queen’s ear, and then he is undone.”—Eflex him-
felf fays, that her fond parting with him when he fet
out for Ireland, pierced his very foul.
Probably the reader has now very little doubt as to
queen Elizabeth’s affe&ion for the unfortunate Eflex ;
but, in proportion to our belief of the exiftence of this
affe&ion, her motives for confenting to his execution
become more inexplicable. Queen Elizabeth had a
very high opinion of her beauty and perfonal attrac¬
tions, and probably expefted more entire adoration
than the earl’s paffion for variety would fuffer him to
pay. Towards the latter end of her life, ftie was cer¬
tainly an objeft of difguft. He had too much honeft
fimplicity in his nature, to feign a paffion which he did
not feel. She fooliftdy gave credit to the ftories of his
ambitious proje&s incompatible with her fafety ; and
was informed that he had once inadvertently faid, that
fhe grew old and cankered, and that her mind was become
as crooked as her car cafe. If this be true, where is the
woman that would not* facrifice fuch a lover to her re-
fentment ?
It is faid, however, that, epneerning his execution,
her majefty was irrefolute to thie laft, and fent orders to
countermand it; but, confidering his obftinacy in re-
fufing to afk her pardon, afterwards directed that he
flrould die. It is reported, that the queen, in the height
of her paffion for the earl of Eflex, had given him a
ring, ordering him to keep it, and that whatever crime
he ftiould commit, fhe would pardon him when he
fhould return that pledge. The earl, upon his con¬
demnation, applied to admiral Howard’s lady, his re¬
lation, defiring her, by a perfon whom fhe could truft,
to return it into the queen’s own hands; but her huf-
band, who was one of the earl’s greateft enemies, and
to whom fhe had imprudently told the circumftance,
would not fuffer her to acquit herfelf of the commiffion;
fo that the queen confented to the earl’s death, being
full of indignation againft fo proud and haughty a fpi-
rit, who chofe rather to die than implore her mercy.
Some time after, the admiral’s lady fell fick, and being
near her death, fhe fent word to the queen that fhe had
fomething of great confequence to communicate before
fhe died. The queen came to her bedfide, and having
ordered all her attendants to withdraw, the lady re-
5 F 2 turned,
DEV [ ?8o ] DEV
Device turned, but too late, the ring, defiring to be excufed
that .fhe did not return it fooner : on which, it is faid,
, the queen immediately retired, overwhelmed with
grief.
The earl of Effex died in the thirty-fourth year of
his age ; leaving by his lady one fon and two daugh¬
ters.
DEVICE, among painters. See Devise.
- DEVIL (Diabolus), an evil angel, one of thofe ce-
leftial fpirits call down from heaven for pretending to
equal himfelf with God. The Ethiopians paint the
devil white, to be even with the Europeans who paint
him black.
There is no mention of the word devil in the Old
Tettament, but only of the word Satan and Belial: nor
do we meet with it in any heathen authors, in the fenfe
rt is taken among Chriflians, that is, as a creature re¬
volted from God. Their theology went no farther
than to evil genii or daemons.
Some of the American idolaters have a notion of
two collateral independent beings, one of whom is
good, and the other evil; which lail they imagine has
the dire&ion and fuperintendance of this earth, for
which reafon they chiefly worlhip him ; whence thofe
that give us an account of the religion of thefe favages
give out, with fome impropriety, that they worflup
the devil. The Chaldeans, in like manner, believed
both a good principle and an evil one; whichlaft they
imagined was an enemy to mankind.
Ifaiah, fpeaking, according to fome commentators,
of the fall of the devil, calls him Lucifer, from his
former elevation and Hate of glory: but others explain
this paffage of Ifaiah in reference to the king of Ba¬
bylon, who had been precipitated from his throne and
glory. The Arabians call Lucifer, Ellis; which fome
think is only a diminutive or corruption of the word
Dialolus.
Devil on the Neck, a tormenting engine made of
iron, ftraitening and wincing the neck of a man, with
his legs together, in a horrible manner; fo that the
more he ftirreth in it, the ftraiter it prefleth him; for¬
merly in ufe among the perfecuting papifts.
DEVINCTION (Devinfiio), in antiquity, was ufed
to fignify a love-charm or incantation to gain the af-
fe&ion of a perfon beloved.
It was done by tying knots ; and is thus deferibed
by Virgil in his eighth Eclogue :
Ne3e tr/bus noJis termsy Amaryllis colores:
Ne3e, Am ary III, mo do ; et Venei is y dicy vincula neflo.
DEVISE, or Device, in heraldry, painting, and
fculpture, any emblem ufed to reprefent a certain fa¬
mily, perfon, a&ion, or quality; with a fuitable motto,
applied in a figurative fenfe. See Motto.
The effence of a device confifts in a metaphorical fi-
militude between the things reprefenting and repre-
fented : thus, a young nobleman, of great courage and
ambition, is faid to have borne for his devife, in a late,
caroufal at the court of France, a rocket mounted in
the air, with this motto in Italian, “ poco duri purche
m’inahi;” expreffing, that he preferred a fliort life,
provided he might thereby attain to glory and emi¬
nence.
The Italians have reduced the making of devifes in¬
to an art, fome of the principal laws of which are thefe..
x. That there be nothing extravagant or monftrous in Devife
the figures. 2. That figures be never joined which DeV(!jt;on
have no relation or affinity with one another; excep-,
ting fome whimfical unions eilablifhed in ancient fables,
which cuftom has authorifed. 3. That the human
body be never ufed. 4. The fewer figures the better.
5. The motto fhould be every way fuitable.
Devise, in law, the aft whereby a perfon bequeaths
his lands or tenements to another by his lait will or te-
ftament.
DEUNX, in Roman antiquity, 11 ounces, or44°f
the Libra.
DEVOLVED, fomething acquired by right of de¬
volution. Such a right is devolved to the crown :
fuch an eftate devolved on M by the death of
N 
The word is alfo ufed for a right, acquired by a fu-
perior, of conferring a benefice, when the inferior and
ordinary collator has neglefted to confer, or has con¬
ferred it on an unqualified perfon.
If a patron neglefts to prefent to a benefice in fix;
months, the prefentation lapfes or devolves upon the
bifliop, from thence to the primate, and from thence
to the king.
DEVOLUTION, in law, a right acquired by fuc-
ceffion from one to another.
DEVONSHEERING, a term ufed by the farmers
to exprefs the burning of land by way of manure: the
method is to cut off the turf about four inches thick,
and burn it in heaps, and then fpread the allies upon
the land. The name is probably derived from its having,
been earliefl: praftifed in Devonfliire.
DEVONSHIRE, a county of England, bounded
on the fouth by the Englifli channel, on the north by
the Briftol channel, on the eaft by Somerfet Afire, and
on the weft by Cornwall. It is about 69 miles long
and 66 broad. The foil is various ; in the weftern
parts of the country it is courfe and moorifli, bad for
ftieep, but proper for black cattle. In the northern
parts, the dry fbil and downs are well adapted to fheep,
with numerous flocks of which they are well covered.
Tolerable crops of corn are alfo produced there when,
the land is well manured. The foil of the reft of the
country is rich and fertile both in corn and pafture,
yielding alfo in fome places plenty of marie for ma¬
nuring it. In other places they pare off and burn the
furface, making ufe of the allies as a manure. Dr
Campbell ftyles it a rich and pleafant country; as in
different parts it abounds with all forts of grain, pro¬
duces abundance of fruit, has mines of lead, iron, and
filver, in which it formerly exceeded Cornwall, though
now it is greatly inferior. On the coaft alfo they have
herring and pilchard filheries. Devonfliire fends two
members to parliament, and gives title of Duke to the
noble family of Cavendilh.
DEVOTION, Devotio, a fincere ardent worfliip
of the Deity.
Devotion, as defined by Jurieu, is a foftening and
yielding of the heart, with an internal confolation,
which the fouls of believers feel in the praftice or ex-
ercife of piety By devotion is alfo underftood certain
religious praftices, which a perfon makes it a rule to
difeharge regularly; and with reafon, if the exaftitude
be founded on folid piety, otherwife it is vanity or fu»
perdition.
DEV [ 781 ] D E U
Devotion, perdition. That devotion is vain and trifling, which
t. -y—— Would accommodate itfelf both to God and to the
world. Trevoux.
The character of devotion has frequently fuffered
from the forbidding air which has b.een thrown over it,
by the narrownefs of bigotry on one hand, or the
gloom of fuperftition on the other. When freer and
more cheerful minds have not had. occafion to fee it
accompanied with thofe feelings of delight and bene¬
volence which naturally attend it, they are apt to be
prejudiced againft. piety at large, bj mhiaking this un¬
gracious appearance for its genuine form. Nor has
the rant of vulgar enthufialls contributed a little to
beget or ftrengthen the fame averfion, in perfons of a
cool and fpeculative temper ; who have happened to
meet with fuch images and phrafes among religionifts
of a certain drain, as ill fuit the rational, pure, and
fpiritunl nature of true devotion. It may likewife be
remarked on the other fide, that people of tafle and
fenfibility have not feldom been dii'gufted with the in-
fipid ftyle too often employed on fuch fubjeCts, by
thofe who poffefs neither, or who purpofely avoid every
thing of that kind, from an aim at ilmplicity mifun-
derftood, or perhaps from a fear of being thought too
warm, in an age of falhionable indifference and falfe
refinement.
Wherever the vital and unadulterated fpirit of Chri-
ftlan devotion prevails, its immediate objed. will be to
pleafe Him whom we were made topkafe, by adoring
his perfections ; by admiring his works and ways ; by
entertaining with reverence and complacence the va¬
rious intimations of his pleafure, efpecially thofe con¬
tained in holy writ ; by acknowledging our abfo-
lute dependence, and infinite obligations ; by confef-
fing and lamenting the diforders of our nature, and
the tranfgrefljons of our lives ; by imploring his grace
and mercy through Jefus Chrift ; by interceding for
cur brethren of mankind; by praying for the propa¬
gation and embdlifliment of truth, righteoufnefs, and
peace on earth ; in fine, by longing for a more entire
v conformity to the will of God, and breathing after the
everlafting enjoyment of his friendlhip. The effects
of fuch a fpii it habitually cherilhed, and feelingly ex-
prefied before him, with conceptions more or lefs en¬
larged and elevated, in language more or lefs empha-
tical and accurate, fententious or diffufe, muft furely
be important and happy. Among thefe effeds may
be reckoned, a profound humility in the fight of God,
a high veneration for his prefence and attributes, an
ardent zeal for his worfhip and honour, an affe&ionate
faith in the Saviour of the world, a conftant imitation
of his divine example, a diffufive charity for men of all
denominations, a generous and unwearied felf-denial
for the fake of virtue and fociety, a total refignation to
Providence, an increafing efteem for the gofpel, with
clearer and firmer hopes of that immortal life which
it has brought to light.
Devotion, among the Romans, was a kind of fa-
crifice or ceremony, whereby they confecrated them-
felves to the fervice of fome perfon. The ancients had
a notion, that the life of one might be rarrfomed by
the death of another; whence thofe devotions became
frequent for the lives of the empeiors. Devotion to
any particular perfon was unknown among the Ro¬
mans till the time of Auguftus. The very day after
the title of Auguilus had been conferred upon Oft a- Deuteroca-
vius, Pacuvius, a tribune of the people, publicly de- nonitaI-
dared, that he would devote himfelf to Auguftus, and Deu^r<i‘'°'
obey him at the expence of his life (as was the praftice t
among barbarous nations), if he was commanded. His
example was immediately followed by all the reft; till
at length'it became an eftablifhed cuftom never to go
to falute the emperor, without declaring that they
were devoted to him. - Before this, the praftice of the
Romans was that of devoting themfelves to their coun¬
try. SeeDECius.
DEUTEROCANONICAL, in the fchool theo-
logy, an appellation given to certain books of holy
feripture, which were added to the canon after the
reft; either by reafon they were not wrote till after
the compilation of the canon, or by reafon of fome
difpute as to their canonicity. The word is Greek,
being compounded of fecond, and k*»ov«os- cano¬
nical.
The Jews* it is certain, acknowledged feveral books
in their canon, which were put there later than the
reft. They fay, that under Efdras, a great aflembly
of their doftors, which they call by way of eminence
the great Synagogue, made the colleftion of the facred
books which we now have in the Hebrew Old Tefta-
ment. And they agree that they put books therein
which had not been fo before the Babylonifti captivi¬
ty ; fuch are thofe of Daniel, Ezekiel, Haggai, &c.
and thofe of Efdras-and Nehemiah.
And the Romifh church has fince added others to
the canon, that were not, nor could not be, in the ca¬
non of the Jews; by reafon fome of them were not
compofed till after. Such is the book of Ecclefiafti-
cus; with feveral of the apocryphal books, as the Mac¬
cabees, Wifdom, &c. Others were added ftill later,
by reafon their canonicity had not been yet examined;
and till fuch examen and judgment they might be fet
afide at pleafure.—But fince that church has pronoun¬
ced as to the canonicity of thefe books, there is no
more room now for her members to doubt of them,
than there was for the Jews to doubt of thofe of the
canon of Efdras. And the deuterocanonical books are
with them as canonical as the proto-canonical; the
only difference between them confiftingin this, that the
canonicity of the one was not generally known, exa¬
mined, and fettled, fo foon as that of the others.
The deuterocanonical books in the modern canon,,
arc the book of Either, either the whole, or at leaft
the feven- iaft chapters thereof; the epiftle to the
Hebrews ; that of James ; and that of Jude ; the fe¬
cond of St Peter; the fecond and third of St John; and
the Revelation. The deuterocanonical parts of books*,
are, in Daniel, the hymn of the three children ; the
prayer of Azariah ; the hiftoriea of Sufannah, of Bel
and the Dragon ; the laft chapter of St Mark ; the
bloody fweat, and the appearance of the angel, related
in St Luke, chap, xxii; and the hiftory of the adulte¬
rous woman in St John, chap, viii:
DEUTERONOMY, one of the facred books of
the Old Teftament; being the laft of thofe written by
Mofes : (See Pentateuch). The word is Greek,,
compounded of fecond, and law.
Deuteronomy was written the 40th year after the
delivery from Egypt, in the country of the Moabites
beyond Jordan; Mofes being then in the 120th yean
2 of:
DEW
Deutero- of his age. It contains, in Hebrew,
P71 though only 10 in tiie edition of the rabbins at Venice,
Dew- XX chapters, and 955 verfes. In the Greek, Latin,
v   and other veriions, it contains XXXIV chapters.
The lall is net of Mofes. Some fay it was added by
Jolhua immediately after Mofes’s death which is the
moil probable opinion. Others will have it added by
Efdras.
DEUTEROPOTMI, in Grecian antiquity, a de-
fignation given to fuch of the Athenians as had been
thought dead, and, after the celebration of the fu¬
neral rites, unexpectedly recovered. It was unlaw-
[ 782 ] DEW
1 paraches, ling the vapour to rife through the lead, nor from that
very fpot; but that as it arofe from the adjoining '
open ground, the continual fluctuation of the air could
not but fpread it abroad, and carry it thither in its
afeent.
But though this experiment of M. Mufchenbroek’s
is not fufficient to overthrow thofe of Mr Dufay, it
mull Hill remain dubious whether the dew rifes or falls.
One thing which feems to favour the hypothefis of its
defeent is, that in cloudy weather there is little or no
dew to be obferved. From this M. de Luc brings an
argument in favour of the hypothefis juft now mention¬
ful for the deuteropotmi to enter into the temple of ed. He accounts for it in the following manner. Phil. Tranf.
the Eumenides, or to be admitted to the holy rites,
till after they were purified, by being let through the
lap of a woman’s gown, that they might feem to be
new born.
DEUTEROSIS, the Greek name by which the
Jews called their Mifchnah, or fecond law. See Misch-
nah.
DEW, a denfe, moift vapour, found on the earth
in fpring and fummer mornings, in form of a milling
rain, being collected there chiefly while the fun is be¬
low the horizon.
It hath been difputed whether the dew is formed
from the vapours afeending from the earth during the
night-time, or from the defeent of fuch as have been
When there were no clouds in the air, the heat of the vo^ lx‘h-
inferior air and that which rifes from the earth dilfi-patt a*
pates itfelf into the fuperior regions ; and then the va¬
pours which are difperfed throughout the air, condenfe,
and fall down in dew : But, when the clouds continue,
they feparate the inferior from the fuperior part of the
atmofphere, and thus prevent the diffipation of the
heat, by which means the vapours remain fufpended.
When the (icy grows cloudy, fome hours after fun-fet,
although the heat has been fenfibly diminiflied, it is
again increafed ; becaufe, continuing to rife out of the
earth, it is accumulated in the inferior air. But nei¬
ther can this be reckoned a pofitive proof of the defeent
of the dew ; fince we may as well fuppofe the heat of
already raifed through the day. The moft remarkable the atmofphere to be great enough to diffipate it in its
experiments adduced in favour of the firft hypothefis afeent, as to keep it fufpended after its afeent through
are thofe of Mr Dufay of the Royal Academy of the day.
Sciences at Paris. He fuppofed, that if the dew ~
ttfeended, it muft wet a body placed low down fooner
than' one placed in a higher fituation : and, if a num¬
ber of bodies were placed in this manner, the lower-
mod would be wetted firft; and the reft in like manner,
gradually up to the top.
To determine this, he placed two ladders againft
one another, meeting at their tops, fpreading wide
afunder at the bottom, and fo tall as to reach 32 feet
high. To the feveral fteps of thefe he faftened large
fquares of glafs like the panes of windows, placing
them iinfuch a manner that they (hould not overftiade
one another. On the trial it appeared exaCtly as Mr
Dufay had apprehended. The lower fufface of the
loweft piece of glafs was firft wetted, then the upper,
then the lower furface of the pane next above it; and
fon on, till all the pieces were wetted to the top. Hence
it appeared plain to him, that the dew confided of the
vapours afeending from the earth during the night-
time ; which, being condenfed by the coldnefs of the
atmofphere, are prevented from being diffipated as in
thb day-time by the fun’s heat. He afterwards tried
On the other hand, its being found in greater quanti¬
ties on bodies placed low down than on fuch as are high
up, is no proof of the afeent of the dew; becaufe the
fame thing is obferved of rain. A body placed low
down receives more rain than one placed in an elevated
fituation ; and yet the rain certainly defeends from the
atmofphere. The reafon why the dew appears firft on
the lower parts of bodies may be, that, in the evening,
the lower part of the atmofphere is firft cooled, and
confequently moft difpofed to part with its vapour. It
is alfo certain, that part of the water contained in the
air may be condenfed at any time on the fides of a
glafs, by means of cold, fo as to run down its fides in
fmall drops like dew. It feems, therefore, that this
fubjedl is not fufficiently determined by fuch experi¬
ments as have yet been made ; nor indeed does it ap¬
pear eafy to make fuch experiments as (hall be perfect¬
ly decifive on the matter.
Several fubftances, expofed to the fame dew, receive
and charge themfelves with it in a very different man¬
ner; fome more, others lefs, and fome even not at all.
The drops feem to make a fort of choice of what bo-
a fimilar experiment with piecesof cloth inftead of panes dies they (hall affix themfelves to : glafs and cryftals
of glafs, and the refult was quite conformable to his are thofe to which they adhere in the moft ready man-
expectations. He weighed all the pieces of cloth next ner, and in the largeft quantity; but metals of all kinds
morning, in order to know what quantity of water each never receive them at all, nor do the drops ever adhere
had imbibed, and found thofe that had been placed to them. The reafon of this is probably becaufe me-
lowermoft confiderably heavier than fuch as had been tals promote evaporation more than glafs does. Thus,
placed at the top ; tho’ he owns that thj$ experiment if a piece of metal and a piece of glafs are both made
did not fucceed fo perfectly as the former. equally moift, the former will be found to dry in much
M. Mufchenbroek, who embraced the contrary opi- lefs time than the latter. Hence it would feem, that
nion, thought he had invalidated all Mr Dufay’s proofs, there is between metals and water fome kind of re-
by repeating his experiments, with the fame fuccefs, pulfion: and this may be fufficient to keep off the very
on a plane covered with (heet-lead. But to this Mr fmall quantity that falls in dew ; for whatever tends
Dufay replied, that there was no occafion for fuppo- to make water evaporate after it is aCtually in contact
with
DEW [ 783 ] DEW
with any fubftance, alfo tends to keep the water from
ever coming into contadl with it. On this fubjedt fe-
veral curious particulars are mentioned by Dr Perci-
vdl, relative to the attradtion and repulfion between
dew and glafs or metalline veffels. The experiments
were made by M. du Fay, who, in order to determine
with certainty whether the difference between vitrified
fubftances and metals was the fame in all cafes, fet a
china faucer in the middle of a filver plate, and on one
fide, adjoining to it, was placed a china plate, with
a filver difh very much refembling the faucer in the
middle. In this experiment the china faucer was co¬
vered with dew, but the plate, though extending four
inches round it, was not moiftened in the leait. The
china plate alfo had become quite moift, while the filver
veflel in the middle had not received the fmalleft drop.
M. du Fay next endeavoured to afeertain whether a
china faucer fet upon a plate of metal, as already deferi-
bed, did not receive more dew than it would have done
if expofed alone. To accompltfh this defign, he took
two watch cryftals of equal dimenfions, and placed the
one upon a plate of filver, the other upon a plate of
china, each with its concavity uppermoft. That which
was upon the filver plate he furrounded with a ferrel
of the fame metal, well polilhed, that no watery par¬
ticles might attach themfelves to the convex furface of
the glafs. In this fituation he expofed the cryftals
for feveral days fucceflively, and always found five or
fix times more dew in that which was on the china plate
than on the other placed on the filver. The repulfion be¬
tween the dew and filver is further confirmed by the fol¬
lowing experiment of M. du Fay, with regard to the cry-
ftal on the filver plate. He informs us, that the fmall
quantity of dew on the infide near the centre, was in
minute drops ; and that round the border there was a
fpace of five or fix lines perfe&ly dry ; towards which
the drops regularly decreafed ,in magnitude, as if the
filver ferrel had driven away the dew from that part of
the glafs which was contiguous to it. Thefe experi¬
ments were repeated thirty times with invariable fuc-
cefs. M. du Fay’s experiments have received a re¬
markable confirmation from fome lately made by Dr
Watfon, now bilhop of Landaff, with a view to de¬
termine the quantity of vapour that afeends from a
given furface of earth. “ By means ^f a little bees¬
wax (fays he), I fattened a half-crown very near, but
not quite contiguous, to the fide of the glafs; and,
fetting the glafs with its mouth downward on the
grafs, it prefently became covered with vapour, except
that part of it which was next the half-crown. Not only
the half-crown itfelf -was free from vapour, but it had
hindered any from fettling on the glafs which was near
it; for there was a little ring of glafs furrounding the
half-crown, to the diftance of a quarter of an inch,
which was quite dry, as well as that part of the glafs
which was immediately under the half-crown; it feemed
as if the filver had repelled the water to that diftance.
A large red wafer had the fame effeft as the half-
crown ; it was neither wetted itfelf, nor was the ring
of glafs contiguous to it wetted. A circle of white
paper produced the fame effeft, fo did feveral other
fubftances, which it would be too tedious to enume¬
rate.”
Substances of a very different kind from theufual
dew are faid to have fametimes fallen from the at-
mofphere. In the Phil. Tranf. we are told, that in
3
the year 1695 there fell in Ireland, in the provinces ofMsq’Tkw
Leinfter and Munfter, for a confiderable part of the
winter and fpring, a fatty fubftance refembling butter,. ^ ' ■
inttead of the common dew. It was of a clammy tex¬
ture, and dark yellow colour; and was, from its great
refemblance, generally called dew-butter by the country
people. It always fell in the night, and chiefly in the
moorilh low grounds; and was found hanging on the
tops of the grafs, and on the thatch of the houfes of
the poor people. It was feldom obferved to fall twice
in the fame place ; and ufually, wherever it fell, it lay «
a fortnight upon the ground before xlfchanged colour j
but after that it gradually dried up, and became black.
The cattle fed in the fields where it lay as tvell as in
others, and received no harm by it. It fell in pieces
of the bignefs of one’s finger-end; but they were dif-
fperfed icatteringly about, and it had an offenfive
fmell like a church-yard. There were in. the fame
places very ftinking fogs during the winter, and fome
people fuppofed this no other than a fediment from the
fog. It would not keep very long, but never bred worms.
May-D&w whitens linen and wax; the dew of au¬
tumn is ct^verted into a white froft. Out of dew putri-
fied by the fun, arife divers infefts, which change a-
pace from one fpecies into another : what remains is
converted into a fine white fait, with angles like thofe
of falt-petre, after a number of evaporations, calcina¬
tions, and fixations.
There is a fpirit drawn from May-dew, which has
wonderful virtues attributed to it. The method of col-
lefting and preparing it, is preferibed by Hanneman^
phyfician at Kiel. It is to be gathered in clean li¬
nen cloths; expofed to the fun in clofe vials; then di-
ftilled, and the fpirit thrown upon the caput mortuum "r
this is to be repeated till the earth unite with the fpi-
rit, and become liquid; which happens about the le-
venth or eighth cohobation or diilillation. By fuch
means you gain a very red, odoriferous fpirit. Stol-
terfoht, a phyfician of Lubec, thinks May-dew may
be gathered in glafs-plates, efpecially in {till weather,
and before fun-rife. And Etmuller is of the fame fen-
timent. It might likewife be colledted with a glafs
funnel, expofed to the air, having a crooked neck to
bring the dew into a vial in a chamber. See Phil.
Tranf. n° 3. Hoffman, and others. It is apparent¬
ly from the preparation of this dew, that the brothers
• of the Rofy-Crofs took their denomination. See Ro-
S1CRUCXANS.
DEip-Born, in country affairs, a diftemper in cattle,
being a fwelling in the body, as much as the flein can
hold, fo that fome beafts are in danger of burfting.
This diftemper proceeds from the greedinefs of a beaft
to feed, when put into a rank pafturer but commonly
when the grafs is full of water. In this cafe the beait
fhould be ftirred up and down, and made to purge well:
but the proper cure is bleeding in the tail; then take *
a grated nutmeg, with an egg, and breaking the top
of the fhell, put out fo much of the white as you may
have room to flip the nutmeg into the fhell; mix them
together, and then let fhell and all be put down the
beaft’s throat; that done, walk him up and down, and
he will foon mend.
DEtr-Worm. See Lumbricus.
DE WIT (John), the famous pehfionary, was bom
in 1625, at Dort; where he profecuted his ftudies fo
diligently, that, at the age of 23, he publi/hed Ele¬
mental
DEW [ 784 1 D I A
'©eWIt. tnenta Curvarum Linearum, one of the deepeft books in
  mathematics at that time. After taking his degrees,
and travelling, he, in 1650, became penfionary of
Dort, and diftinguifhed himfelf very early in the ma¬
nagement of public affairs. He oppofed with all his
power the war between the Eriglifh and the Dutch ;
and when the event jullified his prediftions, he was
unaniraoufly chofen penfionary of Holland. In this
capacity he laboured to procure a peace with Crom¬
well ; in which peace a fecret article was introduced
by one fide or other, for the exclufion of the houfe of
■Orange. In the war with England after the king’s re¬
iteration, when it was thought expedient, on Opdam’s
-defeat and death, that fome of their own deputies fhould
command the fleet, he was one of the three put in
commiffion; and'wrote an accurate relation of all that
happened during the expedition he was engaged in,
for which, at his return, he received the folemn
thanks of the States-General. In 1667, he cfla-
blifhed the perpetual edift for abolilhing the offi e of
Stadtholder, to fix the liberty of the republic, as it
Was hoped, on a firm bafis ; which produced feditions
and tumults, that reftored the office, on pretence that
the De Wits were enemies to the houfe of Orange, and
plundered the flate. The penfionary begged difmiffion
from his poll ; which was granted, with thanks for
his faithful fer vices. Brit the invafion of the French,
and the internal divifions among the Hollanders them-
felves, fpread every where terror and confufion ; which
the Orange party heightened to ruin the Dc Wits.
'Cornelius, the penfionary’a brother, was imprifoned
and condemned to exile; and a report being railed
that he would be refeued, the mob armed, and fur-
rounded the prifon where the two brothers then were
together,dragged them out,barbarouflymurdered them,
hung the bodies on the gallows, "and cut them to pie¬
ces, which many of them even broiled, and ate with
favage fury. Such was the end of one of the greateft
.geniufes of his age; of whom Sir William Temple,
who was well acquainted with him, writes with the
greateft efteem and admiration. He obferves, that
when he was at the head of the govern'ment, he dif¬
fered nothing in his manner of living from an ordinary
citizen. His office, for the firft teri years, brought
him in little more than 3001. and in the latter part of
his life, not above 7001. per annum. He refufed a
gift of 10,0001. from the States-General, becaufe he
thought it a bad precedent in the government. With
great reafon, therefore, Sir William Temple, fpeak-
ing of his death, obferves, “ He was a perfon that de-
ferved another fate, and a better return from his coun¬
try ; after 18 years fpent in their miniilry, without
any care of his entertainments or eafe, and little of his
fortune. A man of unwearied induftry, inflexible con-
ftancy, found, clear, and deep underftanding, and un¬
tainted integrity; fo that whenever he was blinded, it
was by the paffion he had for that which he efteemed
the good and interefl of his flate. This teftimony is
juftly due to him from all that were well acquainted
with him ; and is the more willingly paid, fince there
can be as little interefl; to flatter, as honour to reproach,
the dead.”
Befides the works already mentioned, he wrote a
book containirg thofe maxims of government upon
which he afted ; which will be a never-fading monu-
ment to his immortal memory'. A tranflation of it Dextans v
from the original Dutch, intitkd, The true interejl and H .. «
political maxims of the repullic of Holland, has been ia ri>* yjfj
printed in London ; to the laft edition of which, in
1646, are prefixed hiftorical memoirs of the illuftrious
brothers Cornelius and John de Witt, by John Camp¬
bell, Efq.
DEXTANS, in Roman antiquity, ten ounces, or
1 44 of their libra. See Libra.
DEXTER, in heraldry, an appellation given to
whatever belongs to the right fide of a ffiield or coat
of arms : thus we fay, bend-dexter, dexter point. See.
DEXTROCHERE, or Destrocherr, in heral¬
dry, is applied to the right arm painted in a fhield,
fometimes naked; fometimes clothed, or adorned with
a bracelet; and fometimes armed, or holding fome move-
able or member ufed in the arms.
DEY, the title of the fovereign of Algiers, under
the proteftion of the grand feignor. A prince under
this title was appointed by the fultan, at the requefi
of the Tiirkifli foldiers, in the year 1710. The term
dey, in the Turkilh language, fignifies an uncle by the
mother’s fide; and the reafon of the denomination is
this: that the Turkifh military confider the grind
feignor as their father ; the republic as their mother,
by which they' are nouriflied and maintained ; and the
dey as the brother of the republic, and confequently
the uncle of all who are under his dominion. Befides
the age,-experience, and valour, which are neceflary
qualifications of a perfon to be elected, he murt alfo
be a native Turk, and have made" the voyage to Mec¬
ca. He has no guards nor confiderable retinue. He
prelides at the divan, and is moft diflinguiffied by the
refpect and fubmiffion which are paid him.
DIABETES, in phyfic, an exceffive difeharge of
urine, which comes away crude, and exceeds the quan¬
tity of liquids drank. See (the Index fubjoined to)
Medicine.
DIABOLUS. See Devil.
Diabolus Marinus. See Raia.
Diabolvs Metellorum, a title given by chemifts to
Jupiter or tin ; becaufe, when incorporated with other
metals, it renders them incapable of reduftion, or at
leaft very difficult to undergo that operation.
DIACAUSTIC curve, a fpecies of the cauftic
curves formed by refraction.
DIACHYLON, in pharmacy, an emollient dige-
ftive plafter', compofed of mucilages or vifeid juices
drawn from certain plants. See Pharmacy.
DIACODIUM, in pharmacy, a fyrap prepared
from poppy-heads. It is alfo called the fyrupus de me-
conio. See Pharmacy.
DIACOUSTICS, called alfo diaphonics, the
confideration of the properties of refracted found, as it
pafles through different mediums : (See Acoustics.)
The word is formed from the Greek ^ per, “ thro’,”
which intimates a paflage ; and **«" “ I hear,” q. d. the
confideration of the paffage of the founds we hear. See
Sound.
DIACRII, in antiquity, was the name of a party
or faction at Athens.—That city, we read, was di¬
vided into two parties: the one favourers of an oligar¬
chy, who would only have a few perfons employed in
the government; the other confifted of fuch as were
for a democratical or popular government, wherein the
whole
D I A [
Diadelphia whole people fliould have a fliare. The fird were call-
II ed diacrii, and the latter pediaci; the latter inhabiting
. . ia°n° 19'. the lower, and the former the or upper quarter
or part of the city.—The laws of Solon imported, that
Pififtratus fhould be chief of the diacrii; though the
fcholiaft on Aviftophanes’s comedy The Wafps, affirms,
that Pandion diftributed the quarter of the diacrii a*
mong his fons, and put Lycus at their head.
DIADELPHIA “ twice,” and “ a bro¬
ther”), clafs the x yth in the fexual fyftem, comprehend¬
ing thofe plants which bear hermaphrodite flowers with
two fets of united ftamina; but this circumftance muft
not be abfolutely depended on. They are the papilio-
nacei of Tournefort, the irregulares tetrapetali of Rivi-
nus, and the leguminofa of Ray. See Botany, the
Scheme, p. 430, and Plate CII. fig. 17.
DIADEM, in antiquity, a head-band or fillet, worn
by kings as a badge of their royalty. It was made of
filk, thread, or wool, and tied round the temples and
forehead, the ends being tied behind, and let fall on
the neck. It was ufually white, and quite plain; tho*
fometimes embroidered with gold, and fet with pearls
and precious ftones. In latter times, it came to be
twifted round crowns, laurels, &c. and even appears to
have been worn on divers parts of the body. See Crown.
—The word comes from the Latin dladema; of the
Greek “ a little band encompaffing the head,”
of the verb cingo, “ I gird.”
Diadem, in heraldry, is applied to certain circles
or rims ferving to inclofe the crowns of foveVeign prin¬
ces, and to bear the globe and crofs, or the flower de
luces, for their creft. The crowns of fovereigns are
bound, fome with a greater, and fome with a lefs num¬
ber of diadems.—The bandage about the heads of
Moors on fhields is alfo called diadem, in blazoning.
DI./ERESIS, in furgery, an operation ferving to
divide and feparate the part when the continuity is a
hindrance to the cure.
Dijeresis, in medicine, is the confuming of the
veflels of an animal body, when from fome corroding
caufe certain paffages are made, which naturally ought
not to have been ; or certain natural paflages are dila¬
ted beyond their ordinary dimenfions, fo that the hu¬
mours which ought to have been contained in the vef-
fels extravafate or run out.
Di/Eresis, in grammar, the divifion of one fyllable
into two, which is ufually noted by two points over a
letter, as auldi in Head of aula, diffoluenda for diffol-
venda.
DIjETET^E,in Grecian antiquity, a kind of judges,
of which there were two forts, the cleroti and diallac-
terii. The former were public arbitrators, chofen by
lot to determine all caufes exceeding ten drachms,
within their own tribe, and from their fentence an ap¬
peal lay to the fuperior courts.
The diallafterii, on the contrary, were private arbi¬
trators from whofe fentence there lay no appeal, and ac¬
cordingly they always took an oath to adminifter ju-
ftice without partiality.
DIAGLYPHICE, the art of cutting or engraving
•figures on metals, fuch as feals, intaglios, matrices of
-letters, &c. or coins for medals. See Engraving.
DIAGNOSIS (from St*yvuiTY.u to dijcern or d'lflin-
guijh), the diagnoses or the fig ns of a difeafe. They
Vox.. V. Part II.
785 ] D I A
are of two kinds, viz. the adjunct and pathognomonic; Diagnoftk
the firft are common to feveral difeafes, and ferve only , II
to point out the difference between difeafes of the fame , ia e ' .
fpecies; the latter are thofe which always attend the
difeafe, and dillinguiffi it from all others.
DIAGNOSTIC, in medicine, a term given to thofe
figns which indicate the prefent Hate of a difeafe, its
nature and caufe.
DIAGONAL, in geometry, a right line drawn a-
crofs a quadrilateral figure, from one angle to another;
by fome called the diameter, and by others the diametral,
of the figure. See Geometry.
DIAGORAS, furnamed the Atheijl, lived in the
91ft Olympiad. He was not a native of Athens, but
he philofophifed there. He delighted in making ver-
fes, and had compofed a poem which a certain poet
Hole from him. He fued the thief, who fwore it was
his own, and got glory by it. This tempted Diago-
ras to deny a Providence. The Athenians fummoned
him to give an account of his do&rine. He fled, and
they fet a price upon his head, promifing a reward to
any who fliould kill him; but he took fliipping, and
was caff away.
DIAGRAM, in geometry, a fcheme for explaining
and demonftrating the properties of any figure-, whe-
thei triangle, fquare, circle, &c. See Geometry.
Diagram, among ancient muficians, the fame with
the fcale of the moderns. See Scale.
DIAH, Diat, a name given by the Arabs to the
punifhment of retaliation. By the Mahometan law, a
brother, or the next relation of a murdered perfon,
ought to take part againft the murderer, and demand
his blood in reparation for that which he has fixed. Be¬
fore the time of Mahomet, the Arabs had a cuftom of
putting a freeman of their prifoners to death in lieu of
every flave they loft in battle, and a man for every wo¬
man that was killed. But Mahomet regulated the laws
of reprifal; dire&ing in the Alcoran, by the diat, that
a freeman ihould be required for a freeman, and a flave
for a flave. The Turks, probably in confequence of
this law, formerly maflacred almoft all their prifoners
of war, but they now content themfelves with enflaving
and felling them.
( DIAPIEXAPLA, or Diahexapte, among far¬
riers, a compound medicine, fo called from its contain¬
ing fix ingredients, viz. birthwort and gentian roots,
juniper-berries, bay-berries, myrrh, and ivory fhavings.
It is commended for colds, confumptions, purfinefs,
and many other diforders in horfes.
DIAL, an inftrument ferving to meafure time;
which if effe&ed by the aid of the fun, is called a fun
dial. The word is from the Latin dies “ day,” be-
caufe indicating the hour of the day. The ancients
alfo called it feiatherium, from its efie61 by the fliadow.
See the article Dialing.
DIALECT, an appellation given to the language
of a province, in fo far as it differs from that of the
whole kingdom. The term, however, is more parti¬
cularly ufed in fpeaking of the ancient Greek, whereof
there were four diale6Is, the Attic, Ionic, ^Eolic, and
Doric; each of which was a perfeA language in its
kind, that took place in certain countries, and had pe¬
culiar beauties.
In Great Britain, befides the grand diverfity of Eng-
5 G lift
D I A [ 786 ] D I A
Dialectics, Iffh and Scotch, almoft every county has a dialed of its
. , own, all differing confiderably in pronunciation, accent,
"r~ ’ and tone, although one and the fame language.
DIALECTICS, in the literary hiftcry of the an¬
cients, that branch of logics which taught the rules
and modes of reafoning. See Logic, Part III.
Zeno Eleates was the firft who difcovered the natu¬
ral feries of principles and conclufions obferved in rea¬
foning, and formed an art thereof in form of a dia¬
logue ; which, for this reafon, was called dialecfica.
The diale&ica of the ancients is ufually divided into
feveral kinds: the firft was the eleatica, that of Zeno
Eleates, which was threefold ; vix. vonfecutionum, collo-
quutionum, and contentionum. The firft confifting of
rules for deducing or drawing conclufions. The fe-
cond, the art of dialogue ; which became of fuch uni-
verfal ufe in philofophy, that all reafoning was called
interrogation: then, fyllogifm being laid afide, the phi-
lofophers did all by dialogue ; it lying on the refpon-
dent to conclude and argue from the feveral conceffions
made. The laft part of Zeno’s dialectics, E^ir'nin, was
contentious, or the art of difputing and contradicting;
though fome, particularly Laertius, afcribe this part
to Protagoras a difciple ofZeno.
The fecond is the dialeSica megarica, whofe author
is Euclid, not the mathematician, but another of Me-
gara. He gave much into the method of Zeno and
Protagoras; though there are two things appropriated
to him : the firft, that he impugned the demonftra-
tions of others, not by affurriptions, but'conclufions ;
continually making illations, and proceeding from con-
fequence to confequence: the fecond, that he fet afide
all arguments drawn from comparifons of fimilitude as
invalid.
He was fucceeded by Eubulides, from whom the
fophiftic way of reafoning is faid to be derived. In
his time the art is defcribed as manifold : mentiens,
fallens, eleCtra, obvelata, arcevalis, Cornuta, and calva.
See Sophism.
The third is the dialectics of Plato, which he pro-
pofes as a kind of analyfis to direCt the human mind,
by dividing, defining, and bringing things to the firft
truth ; where being arrived, and flopped there a little,
it applies itfelf to explain fehfible things, but with a
DIAL
view to return to the firft truth, where alone it can reft. Dialectic* I
Such is the idea of Plato’s analyfis |j
The fourth is Ariftotle’s dialeftics ; containing the Dialing. J
do&rine of fimple words, delivered in his book of Pne-  v—
dicaments ; the doClrine of propofitions, in his book
De Interpretatione; and that of the feveral kinds of fyl- *
logifm, in his books of Analytics, Topics, and Elen-
chufes.
The fifth is the dialeftics of the Stoics ; which they
call a part of philofophy, and divide into rhetoric and
dialectic ; to which fome add the definitive, whereby
things are juftly defined; comprehending likewife the
canons or criterions of truth.
The Stoics, before they come to treat of fyllogifms,
have two principal places; the one about the fignifica-
tion of words, the other about the things fignified. On
occafidn of the firft, they confider abundance of things
belonging to the grammarian’s province: what, and
how many letters; what is a word, diClion, fpeech,
&c. On occafion of the latter, they confider things
themfelves, not as without the mind, but as in it, re¬
ceived in it by means of the fenfes. Accordingly, they
firft teach, that nilfit in intelleSu, quod non prim fuerit in
fenfu; “ whatever is in the mind came thither by the
fenfes;” and that aut incurfionefui, as Plato, who meets
the fight; aut fimilitudine, as Csefar by his effigy ; aut
proportione, either by enlarging as a giant or by diminifh-
ing as a pygmy; aut trdnflatione, as a Cyclops ; aut com-
poftione, as a Centaur; aut contrario, as death ; aut pri¬
vations, as a blind man.
The fixth is Epicurus’s dialectics; for though he
Teems to have defpifed dialectic, he cultivated it with
vigour. He Was only averfe to that of the Stoics ;
who he thought attributed too much to it, as pronoun¬
cing him alone wife who was well verfed in dialectics.
For this reafon, Epicurus, feeming to fet afide the
common dialectics, had recourfe to another way ; viz.
to certain canons which he fubftituted in their ftead,
the collection whereof he called canonica; and as all que-
itions in philofophy are either de re or de voce, he gav>.
feparate rules for each. See Epicureans.
DIALIA, in antiquity, facrifices performed by the
flamfen dialis. See Flameh.
I N G,
TH E art of drawing dials on the furface of any
given body or plane. The'Greeks and the La¬
tins called this art gnomonica and fciatherica, by reafon
it diftihguifties the hours by the fhadow of the gnomon.
Some call it photo fciatherica, becaufe the hours are
fometimes fhown by the light of the fun. Laftly,
j others call it horologiography.
Utility of Dialing is a molt neceflary art: for notwithftanding
this art. we are provided with moving machines, fuch as clocks
and watches, to fhow time ; yet thefe are apt to be out
of order, go wrong, and flop: confequently they ftand
frequently in need of regulation by fome invariable in-
ftrument, as a dial; which being rightly conftrufted and
duly placed, will always, by means of the fun, inform us
of the true folar time ; which time being correCted by
the equation table publifiied annually in the. ephemer
rides, almanacs, and other books, will be the mean time
to which clocks and watches are to be fet. ^
The antiquity of dials is beyond doubt. Some at-j-xiftury.
tribute their invention to Anaximenes Mileiius; and
others to Thales. Vitruvius mentions one made by
the ancient Chaldee hiftorian Berofus, on a reclining
plane, almoft parallel, to the equinoftial. Ariftarchus
Samius invented the hemifpheyical dial. And there
were fome fpherical ones, with a needle for a gnomon.
The difeus of Ariftarchus was an horizontal dial, with
its limb railed up all around, to prevent the lhadowa -
ftretching too. far.
But it was late ere the Romans became acquainted
with dials. The firft fun-dial at Rome was fet up by
Papirius Curfor, about the year of the city 460 ; be¬
fore which time, fays Pliny, there is no mention of any
account
D I A L IlsT &
Plate CLYTIT.
787
D I A
account of time but by the fun’s rifmg and fetting: it
was fet up at or near the temple of Quirinus, but went
ill. About 30 years after, M. Valerius MdTala being
conful, brought out of Sicily another dial, which he fet
tip on a pillar near the roftrum ; but for want of its
being made for that latitude, it could not go true.
They made ufe of it 99 years ; till Martius Philjppus
fet up another more exadt.
But there feem to have been dials among the Jews
much earlier than any of thefe. Witnefs the dial of
Ahaz ; who began to reign 400 years before Alexan¬
der, and within 12 years of the building of Rome ;
mentioned by Ifaiah, cnap. xxxviii. verfe 8.
The firft profefled writer on dialing is Clavius ; who
demonftrates all, both the theory and the operations,
after the rigid manner of the ancient mathematicians;
but fo intricately, that few, we dare fay, ever read them
all. Dechales and Ozanam give much eafier demonftra-
tions in their Courfes, and Wolfius in his Elements. M.
Picard has given a new method of making large dials,
by calculating the hour-lines ; and M. de la Hire, in
his Dialing, printed in 1683, a geometrical method of
drawing hour-lines from certain points determined by
obfervation. Eberhardus Welperus, in 1625, pub-
liihed his Dialing, wherein he lays down a method of
drawing the primary dials on a very eafy foundation-
The fame foundation is defcribed at length by Seba-
ftian Muniter, in his Rudimenta Mathematica, publiih-
ed in 1551. Sturmius, in 1672, publiihed a new edi¬
tion of Welperus’s Dialing, with the addition of a whole
fecond part, about inclining and declining dials, <$cc.
In 1708, the fame work, with Sturmius’s additions,
was republiihed with the addition of a fourth part,
containing Picard’s and de la Hire’s methods of draw¬
ing large dials. Paterfon, Michael, and Muller, have
each wrote on dialing, in the German tongue ; Coet-
fius in his Horologiographia Plana, printed in 1689 ;
Gauppenius, in his Gnomonica Mechanica; Bion, in
his Ufe of Mathematical Infiruments ; the late ingenious
Mr Fergufon, in his Select LeBures ; Mr Emerfom, in
his Dialing } and Mr W. Jones, in his Injlrumental
^ Dialing.
Definitions. A Dial, accurately defined, is a plane, upon which
lines are defcribed in fuch a manner, that the lhadow
of a wire, or of the upper edge of another plane, eredt-
ed perpendicularly on the former, may ihow the true
time of the day.
. The edge of the plane by which the time of the day
is found, is called the f ile of the dial, which muft be
parallel to the earth’s axis ; and the line on which
the faid planeris eredted, is called the fubfik.
The angle included between the fubftile and ftile, is
called the elevation or height of the file.
Thofe dials whofe planes are parallel to the plane
of the horizon, are called horizontal dials ; and thofe
dials whofe planes are perpendicular to the plane of the
horizon, are called vertical or ere 12 dials.
Thofe eredl dials, whofe planes diredlly front the
north or fouth, are called direB north or fouth dials;
and all other eredf dials are called decliners, becaufe
their planes are turned away from the north or fouth.
Thofe dials whofe planes are neither parallel nor per¬
pendicular to the plane of the horizon, are called in-
clining or reclining dials, according as their planes make
LING,
acute or obtufe angles with the horizon » and if their
planes are alfo turned afide from facing the fouth or
"tiorth, they are called declining-inclining or declining-
reclining dials.
The interfe&ion of the plane of the dial, with that
of the meridian, palling through the ftile, is called
the meridian bf the dial, or the hour-line of XII.
Thofe meridians, whofe planes pals through the
ftile, and make angles of 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 99
degrees with the meridian of the place (which marks
the hour-line of XII.) are called hour-circles; and
their interfedtions with the plane of the dial are called
hoar-lines.
In all declining dials, the fubftile makes an angle
with the hour-line of XII. ; and this angle is called the
difance of the fulfile from the, meridian.
The declining plane’s difference of longitude, is the
angle formed at the interfecfion of the ftile and plane of
the dial, by two meridians; one of which pafies thro’
the hour-line of XII. and the other through the fub¬
ftile.
Thus much being premifed concerning dials in ge¬
neral, we lhall now proceed to explain the different
methods of their conftrudrion.
If the whole earth aPcp, were tranfparent, and Plate
hollow, like a fphere of glafs, and had its equatorCLVI11.
divided into 24 equal parts by fo many meridian^'1'
femicircles, a, b, c, d, e,f,g, 8cc. one of which is tlie xheuniver-
geographical meridian of any given place, as London fal principle
(which is fuppofed to be at the point a;) and if theon which
hours of XII were marked at the equator, both upon de"
that meridian and the Oppofite one, and all the reft of ^en ^
the hours in order on the reft of the meridians, thofe
meridians would be the hour-circles of London : then,
if the fphere had an opaque axis, as PRp, terminating
in the poles P and p, the lhadow of the axis would
fall upon every particular meridian and' hour, when
the fun came to the plane of the oppolite meridian,
and would confequently Ihow the time at London, and
at all other places on the meridian of London. ^
If this fphere was cut through the middle by a folid Horizontal
plane ABCD, in the rational horizon of London, one
half of the axis EP would be above the plane, and the
other half below it ; and if ftraight lines were drawn
from the centre of the plane to thofe points where its
circumference is cut by the hour-circles of the fphere,
thofe lines would be the hour-lines of a horizontal dial
for London : for the ihadow of the axis would fall up¬
on each particular hour line of the dial, when it fell
upon the like hour-circle of the fphere.
If the plane which cuts the fphere be upright, as Fig. a.
AFCG, touching the given place (London) at F,
and diredlly facing the meridian of London, it will
then become the plane of an eredl diredt fouth-dial: and
if right lines be drawn from its centre E to thofe points Vertical
of its circumference where the hour-circles of the fphere dial,
cut it, thefe will be the hour-lines of a vertical or diredl
fouth-dial for London, to which the hours are to be fet
as in the figure (contrary to thofe on a horizontal dial),
and the lower half Ep of the axis will eaft a lhadow on
the hour of the day in this dial, at the fame time that
it would fall upon the like hour-circle of the fphere, if
the dial plane was not in the way.
If the plane (ftill facing the meridian) be made to
5 G 2 incline.
733
Inclining,
reclining,
and declin¬
ing, dials.
incline, or recline, any given number of degrees, the
hour-circles of the fphere will ftill cut the edge of the
plane in thofe points to which the hour-lines muft be
drawn ftraight from the centre; and the axis of the
fphere will call a lhadow on thefe lines at the refpeftive
hours. The like will ftill hold, if the plane be made
to decline by any given number of degrees from the
meridian toward the eaft or weft : provided the decli¬
nation be lefs than 90 degrees, or the reclination be
lefs than the co-latitude of the place : and the axis
of the fphere will be a gnomon, or ftile, for the dial.
But it cannot be a gnomon, when the declination is
quite 90 degrees, nor when the reclination is equal to
the co-latitude; becaufe, in thefe two cafes, the axis
has no elevation above the plane of the dial.
And thus it appears, that the plane of every dial re-
prefents the plane of fome great circle upon the earth ;
and the gnomon of the earth’s axis, whether it be a
fmall wire as in the above figures, or the edge of a thin
plate, as in-the common horizontal dials.
The whole earth, as to its bulk, is but a point, if
compared to its diftance from the fun : and therefore,
if a fmall fphere of glafs be placed upon any part of VI, which is juft 90 degrees; and then you need go
I N G.
But if your globe have more than 24 meridian femi- W
circles upon it, you muft take the following method CLVI1I‘
for making horizontal and fouth dials. . 9
Elevate the pole to the latitude of your place, and J°
turn the globe until any particular meridian (fuppofe mai '
the firft) comes to the north point of the horizon, ^1.
and the oppofite meridian will cut the horizon in the
fouth. Then, fet the hour-index to the uppermoft
XII on its circle ; which done, turn the globe weft-
ward until 15 degrees of the equator pafs under the
brafen meridian, and then the hour-index will be at
I (for the fun moves 15 degrees every hour), and the
firft meridian will cut the horizon in the number of
degrees from the north point that I is diftant from
XII. Turn on until other 15 degrees of the equa¬
tor pafs under the brafen meridian, and the hour-in¬
dex will then be at II, and the firft meridian will cut
the horizon in the number of degrees that II is di¬
ftant from XII: and fo, by making 15 degrees of
the equator pafs under the brafen meridian for every
hour, the firft meridian of the globe will cut the ho¬
rizon in the diftances of all the hours from XII to
Jig. S, 2.
Dialing by
the com-
tftrial globe.
the earth’s furface, fo that its axis be parallel to the
axis of the earth, and the fphere have fuch lines upon
it, and fuch planes within it, as above defcribed; it
will fhow the hours of the day as truly as if it were
placed at the earth’s centre, and the fliell of the earth
were as tranfparent as glafs.
But becaufe it is impoffible to have a hollow fphere
of glafs perfeftly true, blown round a folid plane ; or
if it was, we could not get at the plane within the glafs
to fet it in any given pofition ; we make ufe of a wire-
fphere to explain the principles of dialing, by joining
24 femicircles together at the poles, and putting a thin
fiat plate of brafs within it.
A common globe of 12 inches diameter, has gene¬
rally 24 meridian femicircles drawn upon it. If fuch
a globe be elevated to the latitude of any given place,
and turned about until one of thefe meridians cut the
horizon in the north point, wftiere the hour of XII is
fuppofed to be marked, the reft of the meridians will
cut the horizon at the refpeftive diftances of all the
other hours from XII. Then if thefe points of diftance
be marked on the horizon, and the globe be taken out
of the horizon, and a fiat board or plate be put into its
no farther, for the diftances of XI, X, IX, VIII,
VII, and VI, in the forenoon, are the fame from XII,
as the diftances of I, II, III, IV, V, and VI, in the
afternoon: and thefc hour-lines continued thrqugh
the centre, will give the oppofite hour-lines on the
other half of the dial.
Thus, to make a horizontal dial for the latitude of
London, which is 514 degrees north, elevate the north
pole of the globe 514- degrees above the north point
of the horizon ; and then turn the globe, until the firft
meridian (which is that of London on the Englilh ter-
reftrial globe) cuts the north point of the horizon, and
fet the hour-index to XII at noon.
Then turning the globe weftward until the index
points fucceffively to I, II, III, IV, V, and VI, in the
afternoon, or until 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 degrees
of the equator pafs under the brafen meridian, you will
find that the firft meridian of the globe cuts the hori¬
zon in the following numbers of degrees from the north
towards the eaft, viz. iiy, 24I-, 38^-? 534-, 71-^, an(l
90; which are the refpe&ive diftances of the above
hours from XII upon the plane of the horizon.
To transfer thefe, and the reft of the hours, to a Fig.
place, even with the furface of the horizon ; and if horizontal plane, draw the parallel right lines ac and
ftraight lines be drawn from the centre of the board,
to thofe points of diftance on the horizon which were
cut by the 24 meridian femicircles ; thefe lines will be
the hour-lines of a horizontal dial for that latitude, the
edge of whofe gnomon muft be in the very fame fitua-
tion that the axis of the globe was, before it was taken
db, upon that plane, as far from each other as is equal
to the intended thicknefs of the gnomon or ftile of
the dial, and the fpace included between them will be
the meridian or twelve o’clock line on the dial. Crofs
this meridian at right angles with the fix o’clock line
h, and fetting one foot of your compaffes in the in-
out of the horizon : that is, the gnomon muft make an terfeclion a, as a centre, defcribe the quadrant
angle with the plane of the dial, equal to the latitude with any convenient radius or opening of the compaf-
of the place for which the dial is made. fes : then, fetting one foot in the interfcftion b, as a
If the pole of the globe be elevated to the co-lati- centre, with the fame radius defcribe the quadrant f /j,
tude of the given place, and any meridian be brought and divide each quadrant into 90 equal parts or de-
to the north point of the horizon, the reft of the me- grees, as in the figure.
ridians will cut the horizon in the refpeftive diflances Becaufe the hour-lines are lefs diftant from each other
©f all the hours from XII, for a direft fouth dial, whofe about noon, than in any other part of the dial, it is
gnomon muft be an angle with the plane of the dial, beft to have the centres of thefe quadrants at a little di¬
equal to the co-latitude of the place ; and the hours ftance from the centre of the dial plane, on the fide op-
mull be fet the contrary way on this dial to what they pofite to XII, in order to enlarge the hour-diftances
are on the horizontal. thereabouts, under the fame angles on the plane. Thus,
the
Plate
CL VIM.
S'g- 3-
Fig. 4.
ro
An ere 61
ieuth dial.
SJredl de¬
clining
dial.
D I A
the centre of the plane is at C, but the centres of the
quadrants are at a and b.
Lay a ruler over the point b (and keeping it there
for the centre of all the afternoon hours in the quadrant
f b) draw the hour-line of I through 1 if degrees in the
quadrant; the hour-line ©f II, through 24^ degrees ;
of III, through 38TV degrees; IIII, through 534 ;
and V, through 7 i-jV : an(^ becaufe the fun rifes shout
four in the morning, on the longed: days at London,
continue the hour-lines of IIII and V in the afternoon
through the centre b to the oppofite fide of the dial.—
This done, lay the ruler to the centre a of the quadrant
eg; and through the like divifions or degrees of that
quadrant, viz. 1 if. 244, 38tV» 53t> and 7i-fi> draw
the forenoon hour-lines of XI, X, IX, VIII, and VII;
and becaufe the fun fets not before eight in the even¬
ing on the longed days, continue the hour-lines of VII
and VIII in the forenoon, through the centre a, to
VII and VIII in the afternoon ; and all the hour-lines
will be finilhed on this dial; to which the hours may
be fet, as in the figure.
Ladly, through 514 degrees of either quadrant, and
from its centre, draw the right line a g for the hypo-
thenufe or axis of the gnomon a g i; and from gr let
fall the perpendicular^ i, upon the meridian line a
and there will be a triangle made, whofe fides are a g,
g i, and i a. If a plate fimilar to this triangle be made
as thick as the didance between the lines a c and b d,
and fet upright between them, touching at a and b, its
hypothenufe a g will be parallel to the axis of the world,
when the dial is truly fet; and will cad a fhadow on
the hour of the day.
N. B. The trouble of dividing the two quadrants
may be faved if you have a fcale with a line of chords
upon it (as reprefented on the plate); for if you ex¬
tend the compaffes from Q to 60 degrees of the line of
chords, and with that extent, as a radius, defcribe the
two quadrants upon their refpective centres, the above
didances may be taken with the compafies upon the
the lines, and fet off upon the quadrants.
To male an erett direS fouth dial. , Elevate the
pole to the co-latitude of your place, and proceed
in all refpe&s as above taught for the horizontal
dial, from VI in the morning to VI in the after¬
noon ; only the hours mud be reverfed, as in the
figure; and the hypothenufe a g oi the gnomon a gf,
mud make an angle with the dial-plane equal to the
co-latitude of the place. As the fun can diine no longer
©n this dial than from fix. in the morning until fix in
the evening, there is no occafion for having any more
than t2 hours upon it.
To make an ercB dial, declining from the fouth to¬
wards the eajl or weft. Elevate the pole to the latitude
of your place, and fcrew the quadrant of altitude to
the zenith. Then, if your dial declines towards the
ead (which we {hall fuppofe it to do at prefent),.count
in the horizon the degrees of declination, from the ead
point towards the. north, and bring the lower end of
the quadrant to that degree of declination at which the
reckoning ends. This done, bring any particular me¬
ridian of your globe ( as fuppofe the fird meridian ) di-
reftly under the graduated edge of the upper part of
the brazen meridian, and fet the hour to.XII at tioon.
Then, keeping the quadrant of altitude at the degree
«£ declination in the horizon, turn the globe eaftward
LIN G.
on its axis, and obferve the degrees cut by the fir ft ?late
taeridian in the quadrant of altitude (counted from the CLVIB.
zenith) as the hour-index comes to XI, X, IX, &c. in
the forenoon, or as 15, 30, 45, &c. degrees of the
equator pafs under the brazen meridian at thefe hours
refpeftively ; and the degrees then cut in the quadrant
by the firft meridian, are the refpe&ive diftances of the
forenoon hours from XII on the plane of the dial.—
Then, for the~ afternoon hours, turn the quadrant of
altitude round the zenith until it comes to the degree
in the horizon oppofite to that where it was placed be¬
fore ; namely, as far from the weft point of the hori¬
zon towards the fouth, as it was fet at firft from the
eaft point towards the north ; and turn the globe weft-
ward on its axis, until the firft meridian comes to the
brazen meridian again, and the hour-index to XII
then, continue to turn the globe weftward, and as the
index point to the afternoon hours I, II, III, &c. or
as 15f 3°> 45> degrees of the equator pafs under
the brazen meridian, the firft meridian will cut the
quadrant of altitude in the refpe&ive number of degrees
from the zenith that each of thefe hours is from XII
on the dial.—And note, that when the firft meridian
goes off the quadrant at the horizon in the forenoon,,
the hour-index ftiows the time when the fun will come
upon this dial; and when it goes off the quadrant in
the afternoon, the index will point to the time when
the fun goes off the dial.
Having thus found all the hour-diftances from XII,.
lay them down upon your dial-plane, either by dividing;
a femicircle into two quadrants of 90 degrees each (be¬
ginning at the hour-line of XII), or by the line of,
chords, as above directed.
In all declining dials, the line on which the ftile or.,
gnomon Hands (commonly called the fubjlik-line) makes-
an angle with the twelve o’clock, line, and falls among,
the forenoon hour-lines, if.the dial declines towards the
eaft ; and among the afternoon hour-lines, when the
dial declines towards- the weft; that is, to the left hand'
from the twelve o’clock line in the former cafe, and to
the right hand from it in the latter.
To find the diftance of the fubftile from the twelve,
o’clock line ; if your dial declines from the fouth to¬
ward the eaft, count the degrees of that declination in
the herizon from the eaft point toward the north, and
bring the lower end of the quadrant of altitude to that
degree of declination where the reckoning ends; then,,
turn the globe until the firft meridian cuts the horizon
in the like number ©f degrees,, counted from the fouth
point toward the eaft; and the quadrant and.firft me¬
ridian will, then crofs one another at right angles; and,
the number of degrees-of the quadrant, which are in¬
tercepted between the firft meridian and the zenith, is.
equal to,the diftance of the fubftile line from,the twelver
o’clock line; and the number of degrees, of the firft-
meridian, which are intercepted between the quadrant:
and the north pole, is equal to the, elevation of the ftile.
above the plane of the dial.
If the dial.declines weftward from the fouth, counf.
that declination;from the eaft point of the horizon to¬
wards the fouth, and bring the quadrant of altitude tct-
the degree in the. horizon at which the reckoning ends;,
both for finding the forenoon hours, and diftance of the.
fubftile from the meridian : and for the afternoon hours,,
bring the quadrant to the oppofite degree in the hori-.
aoa».
ygo DIAL
Plate zon, namely, as far from the weft, towards the north,
CLV1I1. an(i ^en proceed in all refpeds as above.
Thus we have finifhed our declining dial; and in fo
doing, we made four dials, viz.
i. A north dial, declining eaftward by the fame
number of degrees, z. A north dial, declining the
fame number weft. 3. A fouth dial, declining eaft.
And, 4. A fouth dial declining weft. Only, placing
the proper number of hours, and the ftile or gnomon
refpe&ively, upon each pl%pe. For (as above men¬
tioned) in, the fouth-weft plane, the fubftilar-line falls
among the afternoon hours ; and in the fouth-eaft, of
the fame declination, among the forenoon hours, at
eqi^l diftances from XII. And fo all the morning hours
on the weft decliner will be like the afternoon hours
on the eaft decliner: the fouth-eaft decliner will pro¬
duce the north-weft decliner; and the fouth-weft de^
diner the north-eaft decliner, by only extending the
hour-lines, ftile and fubftile, quite through the centre:
the axis of the ftile (or edge that cafts the ftiadow on
the hour of the day) being in all dials whatever paral¬
lel to the axis of the world, and confequently pointing
towards the north pole of the heaven in north latitudes,
and toward the fouth pole in fouth latitudes.
An eafy But becaufe every one who would like to make a
method for dial, may perhaps not be provided with a globe to affift
confirutft- him, and may probably not underhand the method of
ing.of eials.|(j0jng jj. hy logarithmic calculation ; we ftrall fhowhow
to perform it by the plain dialing lines, or fcale of la¬
titudes -and hours (as reprefented on the Plate), and
which may be had on fcales commonly fold by the
mathematical inftrument makers.
This is the eafieft of all mechanical methods, and by
much the beft, when the lines are truly divided : and
not only the half hours and quarters may be laid down
by all of them, but every fifth minute by moft, and e-
very fingle minute by thofe where the line of hours is a
foot in length.
pjg, Having drawn your double meridian line a b, c d,
on the plane intended for a horizontal dial, and crof-
fed it at right angles by the fix o’clock line f e (as in
fig. 3.), take the latitude of your place with the com-
pafles, in the fcale of latitudes, and fet that extent
from c to e, and from a to f, on the fix o’clock line :
then, taking the whole fix hours between the points
of the compaffes in the fcale of hours, with that ex¬
tent fet one foot in the point c, and let the other foot
fall where it will upon the meridian line c d, as at d.
Do the fame from/to b, and draw the right lines e d
and fby each of which will be equal in length to the
whole fcale of hours. This done, fetting one foot of
the compaflesin the beginning of the fcale at XII, and
extending the other to each hour on the fcale, lay off
thefe extents from d to e for the afternoon hours, and
from b to f for thofe of the forenoon: this will divide
the lines d e and bf'va the fame manner as the hour-
fcale is divided at J, 2, 3, 4, and 6; on which the
quarters may alfo be laid down, if required. Then,
laying a ruler on the point r, draw the firft five hours
in the afternoon, fiom that point, through the dots at
the numeral figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, on the line de; and
continue the lines of Till and V through the centre c
to the other fide of the dial, for the like hours of the
morning: which done, lay the ruler on the point a, and
draw the laft five hours in the forenoon through the
I N G.
dots 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, on the line/5; continuing the hour- Plate
lines of VII and'VlII through the centre a to the
other fide of. the dial, for the like hours qf the evening;
and fet the hours to their refpeftive lines., as in the fi¬
gure. Laftly, make the gnomon the fame way as
taught above for the horizontal dial, and the whole will
be finifhed.
To make an ereft fouth-dial, take the co-latitude
of your place from the fcale of latitudes, and then pro¬
ceed in all refpedls for the hour-line as in the hori¬
zontal dial; only reverfing the hours, as in fig. 4. and
making the angle of the ftile’s height equal to the co¬
latitude.
But, left the young dialift fhould have neither globe
nor wooden fcale, we fhall now fhow him how he may
make a dial without any of thefe helps. Only, if he
has not a line of chords, he muft divide a quadrant in¬
to 90 equal parts or degrees for taking the proper angle
of the ftile’s elevation; which is eafily done.
With any opening of the compafies, as Z Z,, de-F!g’6-
feribe the two femicircles LFk and L upon the
centres Z and z, where the fix o’clock line croffes the
double meridian line, and divide each femicircle into
12 equal parts, beginning at L (though, ftridtly fpeak- 13
ing, only the quadrants from L to the fix o’clock line Horizontal
need be divided) ; then conned! the divifions whichdia^
are equidiftant from L, by the parallel lines KM, IN,
HO, GP, and FQ. Draw FZ for the hypothenufe
of the ftile, making the angle VZE equal to the lati¬
tude of your place ; and continue the line FZ to R,
Draw the line Rr parallel to the fix o’clock line, and
fet off the diftance a K from Z to T, the diftance b I
from Z to Z, c H from Z to JV, d G from Z to T,
and eF from Z to S. Then draw the lines Ss, Tt,
IViv, Xx, and Ty, each parallel to Rr. Set off the
diftance y7~ from a to 11, and from / to 1; the diftance
xX from 5 to 10, and from to 2 ; wlV from e to 9,
and from 5 to 3; tT from d to 8, and from i to 4;
sS from e to 7, and from n to 5. Then laying a ruler
to the centre Z, draw the forenoon hour-lines through
the points 11, 10, 9, 8, 7; and laying it to the centre
z, draw the afternoon lines through the points 1, 2,
3, 4, 5 ; continuing the forenoon lines of VII and
VIII through the centre Z, to the oppofite fide of the
dial, for the like afternoon hours; and the afternoon
lines IIII and V through the centre %, to the op¬
pofite fide, for the like morning hours. Set the
hours to thefe lines as in the figure, and then eredt
the ftile-or gnomon, and the horizontal dial will be
finifhed.
To conftrudt a fouth dial, draw the line FZ, making
an angle with the meridian ZL equal to the co-latitude
of your place ; and proceed in all refpedls as in the
above horizontal dial for the fame latitude, reverfing
the hours as in fig. 4. and making the elevation of the
gnomon equal to the co-latitude.
Perhaps it may not be unacceptable to explain the
method of conftrudling the dialing lines, and fome
others; which is as follows : I4
With any opening of the compaffes, EX, ac-Dialing
cording to the intended length of the fcale, deferibe !lrei> hn'lv
the circle ADCB, and crofs it at right angles by thecon ru e *
diameters CEA and DEB. Divide the quadrant AB Fig. 7.
firft into 9 equal parts, and then each part into 10 ;
fo fhall the quadrant be divided into 90 equal parts or
4 degrees.
D I A I
Plate degrees. Draw the right line AFB for the chord of
CLVill. tj1js qUa(lrant • and fetting one foot of the compaffes
in the point A, extend the other to the feveral divi-
fions of the quadrant, and transfer thefe divifions to
the line AFB by the arcs 10, to, 20, 20, &c. and
this will be a line of chords, divided into 90 unequal
parts; which, if transferred from the line back again
to the quadrant, will divide it equally. It is plain
by the figure, that the diftance from A to 60 in the
line of chords, is juft equal to AE, the radius of the
circle from which that line is made; for if the arc 6o,
60 be continued, of which A is the centre, it goes ex-
aftly through the centre E of the arc AB.
And therefore, in laying down any number of de¬
grees on a circle, by the line of chords, you muft firft
open the compafles fo, as to take in juft 60 degrees
Upon that line, as from A to 60: and then, with that
extent, as a radius, defcribe a circle, which will be
exaftly of the fame fize with that from which the line
was divided : which done, fet one foot of the compaffes
in the beginning of the chord line, as at A, and ex¬
tend the other to the number of degrees you want
upon the line; which extent, applied to the circle, will
include the like number of degrees upon it'.
Divide the quadrant CD into 90 equal parts, and
from each point of divifion draw right lines, z, k, 1,
&c. to the line CE; all perpendicular to that line, and
parallel to DE, which will divide EC. into a line of
fines; and although thefe are feldom put among the
dialing lines on a fcale, yet they affift in drawing the
line of latitudes. For if a ruler be laid upon the point
D, and over each divifion in the line of fines, it will di¬
vide the quadrant CB into 90 unequal parts, as Ba,
Bb, See. fhown by the right lines 10a, 20b, 30c, &c.
drawn along the edge of the ruler. If the right line
BC be drawn, fubtending this quadrant, and the near-
eft diftances Ba, Bb, Be, Stc. be taken in the compaf¬
fes from B, and fet upon this line in the fame manner
as dirdAed for the line of chords, it will make a line of
latitudes 5C, equal in length to the line of chords
and of an equal number of divifions, but very unequal
as to their lengths.
Draw the right line DGA, fubtendihg the quadrant
DA; and parallel to it, draw the right line rs, touch¬
ing the quadrant DA at the numeral figure 3. Divide-
this quadrant into fix equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, &c. and
through thefe points of divifion draw right lines from
the centre E to the line r s, which will divide it at the
points where the fix hours are to be placed, as' in the
figure. If every fixth part of the quadrant be fubdi-
vided into four equal parts, right lines drawn from the
centre through thefe points of divifion, and continued
to the line r i, will divide each hour upon it into quar¬
ters. ..
Fig 8. In fig. 8. we have the reprefentation of a portable
j. dial, which may be eafily drawn on a card, and car-
A dial on atied in a pocket book. The lines ad, ab, and be of.
sard. the gnomon, muft be cut quite through the card ; and
as the end ab of the gnomon is raifed occafionally above
the plane of the dial) it turns upon the uncut line cd
as on a hinge. The dotted 1’ne AB muft be Hit quite
through the card, and the thread C muft be put thro’
the flit, and have a knot tied behind, to keep it from
being eafily drawn out. On the.other end of this
, I , N G. 791
thread is a .fmall plummet D, and on the middle of it PIate
a fmall bead for (bowing the hour of the day. t'i,V ’
To reftify this dial, fet the thread in the flit right
againft the, day of the month, and ftretch the thread
fromthe day of the month over the angular point where
the curve lines meet at XII; then drift the bead to that
point on the thread, and the dial will be reftified.
To find the hour of the day, raife the gnomon (no
matter how much or how little) and hold the edge of
the dial next the gnomon towards the fun,To as the
uppermoft edge of the (hadow of the gnomon may
juft cover the Jhadow-line; and the bead then playing
freely on the face of the dial, by the weight of the
plummet, will flrow the time of the day among the
hour-lines, as it is forenoon or afternoon.
To find the time of fun-rifing and fetti'ng, move the
thread among the hour-lines, until it either covers fome
one of them, or lies parallel betwixt any two; and then
it will, cut the time of fun-rifing among the forenoon
hours; and of fun-fetting among the afternoon hours,
for that day of the year to which the thread is fet in —
the fcale of months.
To find the fun’s declination, ftretch the thread from
the day of the month over the angular point at XII,
and it will cut the fun’s declination, as it is north or-
fouth, for that day, in the proper fcale.
To find on what days the fun enters the figns: when
the bead, as above rectified, moves along any of the
curve-lines which have the figns of the zodiac marked
upon them, the fun enters thbfe figns on the days
pointed out by the thread in the fcale of months.
The conftruetion of this dial is very eafy, efpecially
if the reader compares it all along with fig. 1. of Plate
CLIX. as he. reads the following explanation of that:
figure.
Draw the occult line AB parallel to the top of the Plate
card, and crofs it at right angles with the fix o’clock CLIX£.
line ECD; then upon C, as a centre, with the.radius"®-1*
CA, defcribe the femicircle AEL, and divide it into
12 equal parts (beginning at A), as Ar, As, Stc. and
from thefe points of divifion draw the hour lines r, s,
t, u, v, E, w, and x, all parallel to the fix o’clock line
EC. If each part of the femicircle be fubdivided into
four.equal parts, they will give the half-hour lines and
quarters, as in fig. 2. Draw the right-line AS Do,
making the angle S.dB equal to the latitude of your
place. Upon the centre A defcribe the arch RSF,
and fet off upon it the arcs SR and S*F, each equal to
2Si degrees, for the fun’s greateft declination ; and
divide them into 23-^ equal parts, as in fig, 2. Thro’
the interfettion D of the lines ECD and ADo, draw
the right line FDG at right angles to ADo. Day a.
ruler to the points A and R, and draw the line ARF
through 2.3 j degrees of fouth declination in the arc
SR; and then laying tli ruler to the points A and T,
draw the line ATG through 234- degrees of north de¬
clination in the arc ST: fo. (halTthe lines A-and
ATG cut the line FDG in the proper lengths for the
fcale of months. Upon the centre Z), with the radius
DF, defcribe the femicircle FoG; which divide into
fix equal parts, Fm, mn, no, ,&c. and from thefe points
of divifion draw the right lines mh, ni, pk, and ql, each
parallel to oD. Then fetting one foot of the comr-
paffes in the point F, extend the other to A, and
defcribe -
79* DIALING.
Plate flefcribe the arc AZH for the tropic of v$ : with the parallel to the faid edge ; move the femicircle in the
■plate.
j <foni fame extent, fetting one foot in G, defcribe the arc
pared with*-dEO for the tropic of SB. Next fetting one foot in
fig. 8. of the point h, and extending the other to.//, defcribe the
preceding arc ACI iox the beginnings of the figns %£ and $ ;
* ^ and with the fame extent, fetting one,foot in the point
/, defcribe the arc for the beginnings of the figns
JJ and Q,. Set one foot in the point i, and having
extended the other to At defcribe the arc for. the
'beginnings of the figns X and tit 5 and with the fame
extent, fet one foot in £, and defcribe the arc AM foe
the beginnings of the figns ^ and Then fetting
one foot in the point D, and extending the other to A,
defcribe the curve AZ, for the beginnings of ^ and ;
and the figns will be finifhed. This done, lay a ruler
from the point A over the fun’s declination in the arch
•RST; and where the ruler cuts the line FDG, make
marks: and place the days of the months right againft
thefe marks, in the manner Ihown by fig. 2. Laftly,
quadrant, until the line of V and (where the circle
touches) comes to the latitude of your place in the
quadrant: then turn the whole meridional plane BD,
with its circle G, upon the horizontal plane Si, until
the edge of the lhadow of the circle falls precifely on
the day of the month in the femicircle; and then the
meridional plane will be due north and fouth, the axis
EF will be parallel to the axis of the wofld, and will
call a lhadow upon the true time of the day among the
hours on the circle.
N. B. As, when the inftrument is thus re&iiied, the
quadrant and femicircle are in the plane of the meri*
dian, fo the circle is then in the plane of the equinoc*
tial. Therefore, as the fun is above the equinoftial in
fummer (in northern latitudes), and below it in winter;
the axis of the femicircle will call a lhadow on the
hour of the day, on the upper furface of the circle,
from the 20th of March till the 23d of September;
draw the lhadow-line parallel to the occult line and from the 23d of September to the 20th of March
26
TJniverfal
AB; make the gnomon, and fet the hours to their
refpeftive lines, as in fig. 2. and the dial will be fi-
nilhed.
There are feveral kinds of dials called univerfal, be-
the hour of the day will be determined by the lhadow
of the femicircle upon the lower furface of the circle.
In the former cafe, the lhadow of the circle falls upon
the day of the month, on the lower part of the dia-
Plate
iCLIX.
iig-a.
-caufe tliey ferve for all latitudes. One, of Mr Pardte’s meter of the femicircle ; and in the latter cafe, on the
conftru&ion, was formerly confidered as the bell. It upper part.
confifts of three principal parts ; the firft whereof is
called the horizontal plane (B), becaufe in practice it
mult be parallel to the horizon. In this plane is fixed
.an upright pin, which enters into the edge of the fe-
cond part BD, called the meridional plane ; which is
made of two pieces, the loweft whereof (B) is called
•the quadrant, becaufe it contains a quarter of a circle,
divided into 90 degrees; and it is only into this part,
near B> that the pin enters. The other piece is a fe¬
micircle (D) adjufted to the quadrant, and turning in
it by a groove, for raifing or depreffing the diameter
(EF) of the femicircle, which diameter is called the
axis of the injlrument. The third piece is a circle (G),
divided on both fides into 24 equal parts, which are the
hours. This circle is put upon the meridional plane fo,
that the axis (EF) may be perpendicular to the circle,
and the point C be the common centre of the circle,
femicircle, and quadrant. The ftraight edge of the
femicircle is chamfered on both fides to a fiiarp edge,
which paffes through the centre of the circle. On one
fide of the chamfered part, the firft fix months of the
year are laid down, according to the fun’s declination
for their refpettive days, and on the other fide the laft
fix months. And againft the days on which the fun
•enters the figns, there are ftraight lines drawn upon the
femicircle, with the characters of the figns marked up¬
on them. There is a black line drawn along the middle
of the upright edge of the quadrant, over which hangs
a thread (ff), with its plumntit (I),
inftrument. N. B. From the 23d of September to the
20th of March, the upper furface of the circle muft
touch both the centre C of the femicircle, and the line
of ■■Y5 and ; and from the 20th of March to the 23d
of September, the lower furface of the circle muft touch
that centre and line.
To find the time of the day by this dial. Having
fet it on a level place in fun-lhine, and adjufted it by andJlars.
the levelling ferews k and /, until the plumb^Jine hangs tude.
over the back line upon the edge of the quadrant, and
160. 5
The method of laying down the months and figns Fig. 3.
upon the femicircle is as follows. Draw the right line
ACB equal to the diameter of the femicircle ADB,
and crofs it in the middle at right angles with the line
ECD, equal in length to ADB; then EC will be the
radius of the circle FCG, which is the fame as that of
the femicircle. Upon E, as a centre, defcribe the
circle FCG, on which fet off the arcs Ch and Ci, each
equal to 234 degrees, and divide them accordingly in¬
to that number for the fun’s declination. Then lay¬
ing the edge of a ruler over the centre E, and alfo over
the fun’s declination for every fifth day of each month
(as in the card-dial), mark the points on the diameter
AB of the femicircle from a to g, which are cut by the
ruler; and there place the days of the months accord-
ingly, anfwering to the fun’s declination. This done,
fetting one foot of the compaffes in C, and extending
the other to a or g, defcribe the femicircle a b c def g;
which divide into fix equal parts, and through the points
of divilxon draw right lines parallel to CD, for the be¬
ginning of the fines (of which one half are on one fide
of the femicircle and the other half on the other), and
fet the charadters of the fines to their proper lines, as in
the figure. _ .17
A univerfal dial of a very ingenious conftruftion, A nevJ nne 1
has lately been invented by Mr G. Wright of London, by Mr G. f
The hour-circle or arch A, and latitude arch C, are Wright. |
the portions of two meridian circles; one fixed, and the
for levelling the other moveable. The hour or dial plate SEN at top
fixed to the arch C, and has an index that moves
with the hour-circle E ; therefore the conftrudlion of
this dial is perfectly fimilar to the conftru&ion of the
meridians and hour-circle upon a common globe.
The.peculiar problems to be performed by this in¬
ftrument are, 1. Tofind the latitude of any place, z. The
latitude of the place being hnown, to fnd the time by the fun
3. To fnd the fun or far's a-z-imuth and alti-
Previous to ufe, this inftrument lho*ld be in a well-
adjufted
'V
DIALING. Plate CLX.
D I A ]
Plate admfted (late : to perform which, you try the levels of
CLX. the horizontal plates yf a, by firft turning the fcrews
'' BBBB till the bubbles of air on the glafs tubes of the
fpirit-levels (levels are at right angles to each other)
which are central or in the middle, and remain fo
when you turn the upper plate A half round its
centre ; but if they Ihould not keep fo, there are fmall
fcrews at the end of each level, which admit of being
turned one way or the other as may be requifite till
they are fo. The plates A a being thus made horizon¬
tal, fet the latitude arch or meridian C fteadily between
the two-grooved fides that hold it (one of which is feen
at D), by the rew behind. On this lide D is divided
the nonius or vernier, coirefponding with the divifions
on the latitude arch C, and which may be fubdivided
into 5 minutes of a degree, and even lefs if required.
The latitude arch C is to be fo placed in D, that the
pole M may be in a vertical pofition; which is done by
making 90° on the arch at bottom coincide with the
O of the nonius. The arch is then fixed by the tight¬
ening fcrew at the back of D. Hang a filken plumb-
line on the hook at G : which line is to coincide with a
mark at the bottom of the latitude arch at //, all the
while you move the upper plate A round its centre.
If it does not fo, there are four fcrews to regulate this
adjuftment, two of which pafs through the bafe /
into the plated; the other two fcrews faften the no¬
nius piece D together; which when unfcrewed a thread
or two, the nonius piece may be eafily moved to the
right or left of 90' as may be found requifite.
Prob. 1. To find the latitude of the place. laden the la¬
titude and hour circles together, by placing the pin K
into the holes; Aide the nonius piece E on the hour-
circle to the fun’s declination for the given day: the
fun’s declination you may know in the ephemeris by
White, or other almanacs, for every day in the year.
The nonius piece E mud be fet on that portion of the
hour-circle marked ND or SD, according as the fun
has north or fouth declination. About 20 minutes
or a quarter of an hour before noon, obferve the fun’s
ihadow or fpot~ that pafles through the hole at the axis
0, and gently move the latitude arch C down in its
groove at D till you obferve the fpot exaftly fall on
the crofs line on the centre of the nonius piece at L;
and by the falling of this fpot, fo long as you obferve
the fun to increafe in altitude, you deprefs the arch
C: but at the indant of its dationary appearance the
fpot will appear to go no lower; then fix the arch by
the fcrew at the back of D, and the degrees thereby
cut by the nonius on the arch will be the latitude of
the place required : if great exa&nefs is wanted, allow¬
ance (hould be made for the refraction of the atmofphere,
taken from fome nautical or adronomical treatife.
Prob. 2. The latitude of the place being given, to find the
time by the fun or fan. From an ephemeris as before,
you find the fun’s declination for the day north or
fouth, and fet the nonius piece E on the arch accord¬
ingly. Set the latitude arch C, by the nonius at D,
to the latitude of the place; and place the magnifying
glafs at M, by which you will very correftly fet the
index carrying a nonjus to the upper XII at S. Take
out the pin K, fiacken the horizontal fcrew N, and
gently move, either to the right or left as you fee ne-
ceffary, the hour-circle E, at the fame time with the o-
ther hai«l moving the horizontal plate A round its axis
Vol. V. Part II.
LING. 79
to the right and left, till the latitude-arch C falls
into the meridian ; which you will know by the fun’s
fpot falling exaCfly in the centre of the nonius piece,
or where the lines interfeCI each other. The time
may be now read off exaftly to a minute by the no¬
nius on the dial-plate at top, and which will be the
time required. The horizontal line drawn on the no¬
nius piece L, not feen in the figure, being the paral¬
lel of declination or path that the fun-dial makes, it
therefore can fall on the centre of that line at no
other time but when the latitude arch C is in the
meridian or due north and fouth.. Hence th^ hour-
circle, on' moving round with the pole, mud give the
true time on the dial-plate at top. There is a hole to
the right, and crofs hairs to the left, of the centre axis
hole 0, where the fun’s rays paffes through; whence
the fun’s (hadow or fpot will alfo appear on the right
and left of the centre on the nonius piece A, the
holes of which are occadonally ufed as fights to ob¬
ferve through. If the filn’s rays are too weak for a flia-
dow, a dark glafs to Ikreen the eye is occafionally
placed over the'hole. The mod proper time to find a
true meridian is three or four hours before or after
noon ; and take the difference of the fun’s declination
from noon at the time you obferve. If it be the
morning, the difference is that and the preceding day;
if afternoon, that and the following day: and the me¬
ridian being once found exaft, the hour-circle E is to
be brought into this meridian, a fixed place made for
the dial, and an objeft to obferve by it alfo fixed for it
at a great didance. The fights L 0 mud at all times
be dire&ed againd this fixed objett, to place the dial
truly in the meridian, proper for obferving the planets,
moon, orbrightdars by night.
Prob. 3. To find the fun’s aximulh and altitude. The
latitude-arch G being in the meridian, bring the pole
M into the zenith, by fetting the latitude-arch to 90°.
Faden the hour-circle E in the meridian, by putting in
the pin K; fix the horizontal plates- by the fcrew
N; and fet the index of the dial-plate to XII. which
is the fouth point: Now take out the pin K, and gen¬
tly move the hour-circle E ; leaving the latitude arch
fixed, till the fun’s rays or fpot palling through the
centre-hole in the axis 0 fall on the centre line of the
hour-circle E, made for that purpofe. The azimuth in
time may be then read off on the dial-plate at top by
the magnifying glafg. This time may be converted
into degrees, by allowing at the rate of 15 for every
hour. By diding the nonius piece E, fo that the
fpot fliall fall on the crofs line thereon, the altitude
may be taken at the fame time if it does not exceed
45 degrees. Or the altitude may be taken more uni-
vcrfaliy, by fixing the nonius piece E to the o on the
divifions, and Hiding down the latitude arch in fuch a
manner in the groove at Z>, till the fpot falls exadly
on the centre of the nonius E. The degrees and mi¬
nutes then Ihown by the nonius at D, taken from 90 ,
will be the altitude required. By looking through the
fight holes L, 0, the altitude of the moon, planets, and
liars, may be eafily taken. Upon this principle it is
fomewhat adapted for levelling alfo : by lowering the
nonfus piece E, equal altitudes of the fun may be had;
and by raifing it higher, equal deprelfions.
More completely to anfwer the purpofes of a good
theodolite, of levelling, and the performance of pro-
5 H bleins
794 DIAL
Plate blems in praftical aftronomy, trigosometry, &c. Mr
C-LX. Jones of Holborn divides the horizontal plate D
into 368°, and an oppofite nonius on the upper plate A,
fubdividing the degrees into 5 or more minutes. A
telefcope and fpirit-level applies ofi the latitude arch
?X H G by two fcrews, making the latitude arch a ver¬
tical arch ; and the whole is adapted to triangular ftaffs
with parallel plates, fimilar to thofe ufed with the belt
18 theodolites.
noV'al'cHal ^ more univerfal for the performance of pro-
rnore^ini- blems than the above, though in fome particulars
i/erfa]. not fo convenient and accurate, is made by Mr Jones
Fig. a. and other inftrument-makers in London.® It con-
fifts of the common equatorial circles reduced to a
portable fize, and inftead of a. telefcope carries a
plain fight. Its principal parts confift of the fight-piece
0 P, moveable over the declination’s femicircle D. It
has a nonius $>_ to the femicircle. A dark glafs to
Ikreen the eye applies occafionally over either of the
holes at 0 : thefe holes on the inner fide of the piece
- are interfered by crofs lines, as feen in the figure be¬
low ; and to the fight P two pieces are fcrewed, the
lower having a fmall hole for the fun’s rays or (hadow,
and the upper two crofs hairs or wires.
The declination circle or arch D is divided into two,
90° each; and is fixed perpendicularly on a circle with
a chamfered edge, containing a nonius divifion that fub-
divides into fingle minutes the under equatorial circle
MN, which in all cafes reprefents the equator, and is
divided into twice 1 2 hours, and each hour into five
minutes. At right angles below this equatorial circle
is fixed the femicircle of altitude AB, divided into two
quadrants of 90° each. This arch ferves principally to
meafure angles of altitude and depreffion ; and it
moves centrally on an upright pillar fixed- in the hori¬
zontal circle EF. This circle .E-Fis divided into four
quadrantsof 9o°each, and againft it there is fixed a fmall
nonius plate at N. The horizontal circle may be turn¬
ed round its centre or axis ; and two fpirit levels LL
are fixed on it at right angles to one another.
We have not room to detail the great variety of
aftronomical and trigonometrical problems that may
be folved by this general inftrument, as defcribed in
Jones’s Injlrumental Dialing. One example connefted
with our prefeht purpofe may here fuffice, viz. To
Jind the time when the latitude is given. Suppoiing the
inftrument to be ■well adjufted by the directions here¬
after given. The meridian of the place fhould be firft
obtained to place the inftrument in, which is fettled
by a diftant mark, or particular cavities to receive the
fcrews at IG H, made in the bafe it ftands on. The
meridian is beft found by equal altitudes of the fun.
In order to take thefe, you fet the middle mark of
the nonius on the declination arch D at o, and fix it
by the fcrew behind; then fet the horary or hour circle
to XII. The circle 2?.F being next made horizontal, you
direct the fights to the fun, by moving the horizontal
circle EF and altitude femicircle AB: the degrees and
minutes marked by the nonius on the latter will be the al¬
titude required. To take equal altitudes, you obferve the
fun’s altitude in the morning two or three hours before
noon by the femicircle AB: leave the inftrument in the
’ fame fixation perfectly unaltered till the afternoon,
when by moving the horizontal circle EF, only find
the direction of the light or the fun’s fpot to be juft
1 N G.
the fame, which will be an equal altitude with the Plate
morning. The place of the horizontal circle EF CLX
againft the nonius at each time of obfervation is to be
carefully noted; and the middle degree or part between
each will be the place where the femicircle AB, and
fight OP, will ftand or coincide with, when directed
to the fouth or north, according to the fan’s fituation
north or fouth at noon at the place of obfervation.
Set the index or fight-piece OP very accurately to
this middle point, by directing the fight to fome di¬
ftant objeCt; or againft it, let one be placed up : this
objeCt will be the meridian mark, and will always
ferve at any future time. To find the time, the me¬
ridian being thus previoufly known by equal altitudes
of the fun (or ftar), and determined by the meridian
mark made at a diftance, or by the cavities in the bafe
to fet the fcrew in : Place the equatorial accordingly,
and level the horizontal circle EF by the fpirit-levels
thereon. Set the femicircle AB to the latitude of the
place, and the index of the fights 0 P to the declina- '
tion of the fun, found by the ephemeris, as before di¬
rected. Turn the femicircle D till the fight-holes are
accurately directed to the fun, when the nonius on the
hour circle MN will Ihow the time. It may eafily be
known when the fun’s rays are direCt through, by the
fpot falling on the lower interfeftors of the marks
acrofs the hole at 0. See the figure S adjoining.
The adjuftments of this equatorial dial are to be
made from the following trials, ifl. To adjuft the
levels LL on EF: Place the o of any of the divi-
fions on EF to the middle mark or ftroke on the
nonius at N; bring the air-bubbles in the levels in the
centres* of each cafe, by turning the feveral fcrews
at IGH: this being exactly done, turn the circle EF
two 90° or half round : if the bubble of air then re¬
mains in the centre, they are right, and properly ad¬
jufted for ufe ; but if they are not, you make them fo
by turning the neceffary fcrews placed for that purpofe
at the ends of the level-cafes by means of a turnfcrew,
until you bring them to that fixed pofition, that they
will return when the plate EF is turned half round.
2dly, To adjuft the line of fight OP: Set the no¬
nius to o on the declination arch D, the nonius on the
hoUr-circle to VI, and the nonius on the femicircle
AB to 90°. DireCl; to fome part of the horizon where
there may be a variety of fixed objefts. Level the
horizontal circle EF by the levels LL, and obferve
any objeCt that may appear on the centre of the crms
wires. Reverfe the femic ircle AB, viz. fo that the
oppofite 90° of it be applied to the nonius, obferving
particularly that the other nonii preferve their fi¬
tuation. If then the remote objeCt formerly viewed
ft ill continues in the centre of the crofs wires, the
line of fight OP is truly adjufted; but if not, unfcrew
the two fcrews of the frame carrying the crofs wires,
and move the frame till the interfeCtion appears againft
another or new objeCt, which is half way. between the
firft and that which the wires were againft on the re-
verfion. Return the femicircle AB to its former, po¬
fition: when, if the interfeCtion of the wires be found
to be againft the half way-objeCt, or that to which they
were laft divided, the line of fight is adjufted ; if not,
the operation of obferving the interval of the two ob-.
jeCts, and applying half way, mull be repeated.
It. is necelfary to obferve,. that one of the wires
ftiouid
Plate
CLX.
D I A I
fhould be in the plane of the declination circle, and
the other wire at right angles ; the frame containing
the wires is made to fhift for that purpofe.
The hole at P which forms the fun’s fpot is alfo to
be adjufted by dire&ing the fight to the fun, that the
centre of the fliadow of the crofs hairs may fall ex-
aftly on the upper hole: the lower frame with the
hole is then to be moved till the fpot falls exaftly on
the lower fight-hole.
Lallly, it is generally neceffary to find the correc¬
tion always to be applied to the obfervations by the
femicircle of altitude AB. Set the nonius to o on
the declination arch D, and the nonius to XII on the
equator or hour-circle: Turn the fight to any fixed and
diltinft objeft, by moving the arch ylB and circle EF
only : Note the degree and minute of the angle of al¬
titude or depreffion : Reverfe the declination femi¬
circle by placing the nonius on the hour-circle to the
oppofite XII: Direft the fight to the fame objedl
again as before. If the altitude or depreffion now gi¬
ven be the fame as was obferved in the former pofition,
no corre&ion is wanted ; but if not the fame, half
the difference of the two angles is the correction to be
added to all obfervations or rectifications made with
that quadrant by which the leaft angle was taken, or
to be fubtra&ed from all obfervations made with the
other quadrant. Thefe feveral adjuftments are abfo-
lutely neceffary' previous to the ufe of the inttrument;
and when once well done, will keep fo, with care, a
confiderable time.
Univerfal The Univerfal or AJlronomical EquinoSlal Ring-Dial,
ling-dial. Js an inftrument of an old conftrudtion, that alfo ferves
f'g- 3>4>i. to tfie hour of the day in any latitude of the earth
(fee fig. 3.). It confifts of two flat rings or circles,
ufually from 4 to 12 inches diameter, and of a moderate
thicknefs ; the outward ring A E reprefenting the
meridian of the place it is ufed at, contains two di-
vifions of 90° each oppofite to one another, ferving
to let the Aiding piece H, and ring G (by which the
dial is ufually fufpended), be placed on one fide from
the equator to the north pole, and on the other fide
to the fouth, according to the latitude of the place.
The inner ring B reprefents the equator, and'turns dia¬
metrically within the outer by means of two pivots
inferted in each end of the ring at the hours XII.
Acrofs the two circles is fcrewed to the meridian a
thin pierced plate or bridge, with a curfor C, that
Aides along the middle of the bridge : this curfor has
a fmall hole for the fun to fliine through. The middle
of this bridge is conceived as the axis of the world,
and its extremities as the poles: on the one fide
are delineated the 12 figns of the zodiac, and fome-
times oppolite the degrees of the fun’s declination ;
and on the other fide the days of the month through¬
out the year. On the other fide of the outer ring A
are the divifions of 90°, or a quadrant of altitude :
It ferves, by the placing of a common pin P in the
hole h (fee fig. 4.), to take the fun’s altitude or height,
and from which the latitude of the place may eafily be
found.
Ufe of the dial. Place the line a in the middle of
Its ufe. tfie ffiding piece H over the degree of latitude of the
place. Suppofe, for example, 5 i-J- for London ; put
the line which croffes the hole of the curfor C to the
day of the month or the degree of the fign. Open
. 1 N G. 795
the inftrument till the two rings be at right angles to Plate
each other, and fufpend it by the ring G ; that the CLX.
axis of the dial reprefented by the middle of the bridge
be parallel to the axis of the earth, viz. the north pole
to the north, and vice verfa. Then turn the flat fide
of the bridge towards the fun, fo that his rays paffing
through the fmall hole in the curfor may fall exactly
in a line drawn through the middle of the concave fur-
face of the inner ring or hour-circle, the bright fpot
by which ftiows the hour of the day in the faid con¬
cave furface of the dial. Note, The hour XII cannot
be fliown by this dial, becaufe the outer ring being
then in the plane of the meridian, excludes the fun’s
rays from the inner; nor can this dial Ihow the hour
when the fun is in the equinottial, becaufe his rays
then falling parallel to the plane pf the inner circle or
equinodtial, are excluded by it.
To take the altitude of the fun by this dial, and with
the declination thereby to find the latitude of the place :
Place a common pin p in the hole h projefting in
the fide of the meridian where tire quadrant of altitude
is : then bring the centre mark of the Aiding piece H
to the o or middle of the two divifions of latitude on
the other fide, and turn the pin towards the fun till it
cuts a ftradow over the degree of the quadrant of alti¬
tude ; then what degree the ftiadow cuts is the altitude.
Thus, in fig. 4. the ftiadow hg appears to cut 350* the
altitude of the fun.
The fun’s declination is found by moving the curfor
in the Aiding piece till the mark acrofs the hole Hands
juft again!! the day of the month ; then, by turning
to the other fide of the bridge, the mark will ftand
again!! the fun’s declination.
In order to find the latitude of the place, obferve
that the latitude and declination be the fame, viz.
both north or fouth ; fubtract the declination from
the meridian or greateft daily altitude of the fun, and
the remainder is the complement of the latitude;
which fubtradted from 90°, leaves the latitude. Ex¬
ample :
Deg. min.
The meridian altitude may be 57 48
The fun’s declination for the day 19 18
Complement of latitude 38 30
90 o
The latitude - - - 51 30
But if the latitude and declination be contrary, add
them together, and thd fum is the complement
of the latitude. This dial is fometimes mounted
on a ftand, with a compafs, two fpirit-levels, and ad-
juiling ferews, &c. &c. (fee fig. 5.), by which it is
rendered more ufeful and convenient for finding the
fun’s azimuth, altitudes, variation of the needle, de¬
clinations of planes, &c. &c.
An Univerfal Dial on a plain crofs, is deferibed by Umv/rfal
Mr Fergufon. It is moveable on a joint C, for ele-Crofs-dia!.
vating it to any given latitude on the quadrant C 0 90, Fig. 6,71 S*
as it Hands upon the horizontal board A. The arms
of the crofs Hand at right angles to the middle part;
and the top of it, from a to n, is of equal length with
either of the arms ne or mk. See fig. 6.
This dial is rectified by fetting the middle line tu to
5 H 2 the
796 D I A ]
Plat:e the latitude ot the place on the quadrant, the board
CL.X. ^ level, and the point N northward by the needle ;
thus, the plane of the crofs will be parallel to the
plane of the equator. Then, from III o’clock in the
morning till VI, the upper edge kl x>f the arm to
will caft a Ihadow on the time of the day on the fide
of the arm cm ; from VI till IX, the lower edge i of
the arm i o will caft a fhadow on the hours on the fide
gq. From IX in the morning to XII at noon, the
edge a b of the top part an will caft a fhadow on the
hours on the arm n cf; from XII to III in the after¬
noon, the edge c d of the top part will caft a fhadow
on the hours on the arm k lm ; from III to VI in the
evening, the edge g h will caft a fhadow on the hours
on the part p q ; and from VI till IX, the fhadow cf
the edge ef will (how the time on the top part a n.
The breadth of each part, ab, e f, &c. muft be fo
great, as never to let the ihadow fall quite without the
part or arm on which the hours are marked, when the
fun is at his greateft declination from the equator.
To determine the breadth of the fides of the arms
which contain the hours, fo as to be in juft propor¬
tion to their length ; make an angle ABC (fig. 7.) of
234- degrees, which is equal to the fun’s greateft de¬
clination ; and fuppofe the length of each arm, from
the fide of the long middle part, and alfo the length
of the top part above the arms, to be equal to B d.
Then, as the edges of the fhadow, from each of the
arms, will be parallel to B e, making an angle of 234-
degrees with the fide B d of the arm, when the fun’s
declination is 234-0 ; it is plain, that if the length of
the arm be B d, the leaft breadth that it can have, to
keep the edge B e of the fhadow Begd from going off
the fide of the arm de before it comes to the end of
hed, muft be equal to e J or af if. But in order to
keep the ihadow within the quarter divifions of the
hours, when it comes near the end of the arm, the>
breadth of it fhould be ftill greater, fo as to be almoft
doubled, on account of the diftance between the tips
of the arms.
The hours may be placed on the arms, by laying
down the crofs abed (fig. 8.) on a fheet of paper ;
and with a black-lead pencil held clofe to it, drawing
its fhape and fize on the paper. Then take the length
a e in the compafles, and with one foot in the comer
«, deferibe with the other the quadrant cf. Divide
this arc into fix equal parts, and through the points
of divifion draw light lines ag> ah, 8cc. continuing
three of them to the arm c e, which are all that can
fall upon it; and they will meet the arm in tbofe points
through which the lines that divide the hours from
each other, as in fig. 6. are to be drawn right acrofs
it. Divide each arm, for the three hours contained in
it, in the fame manner; and fet the hours to their pro¬
per places, on the fides of the arms, as they are mark¬
ed in fig. 33. Each of the hour fpaces fhould be di¬
vided into four equal parts, for the half hours and
quarters, in the quadrant e f; and right lines fhould
be drawn through thefe divifion-marks in the quadrant,
to the arms of the crofs, in order to determine the
places thereon where the fubdivifions of the hours
muft be marked.
This is a very fimple kind of univerfal dial; it is
eafily made and has a pretty, uncommon, appearance
in a garden.
/ I K G.
Fig. 9. is called a Univerfal Mechanical Dial, as Plate
by its equinoctial circle an eafy method is had CLX.
of deferibing a dial on any kind of plane. For ex- gafy2^e.
ample: Suppofe a dial is required on an horizontal thod of
plane. If the plane be immoveable, as A BCD, finddrawing a,
a meridian line as GF; or if moveable, afllune the me-d:aj hy
ridian at pleafure: then by means of the trmngle ™1^^ j
EKF, whofe bafe is applied on the meridian line, cai^iai/ ;
raife the equinottial dial H till the index GI becomes Fig 9^,.
parallel to the axis of the earth, (which is fo, if the
angle KEF be equal to the elevation of the pole), and
the 12 o’clock line on the dial hang over the meridian
line of the plane or the bafe of the triangle. If then,
in the night-time or a darkened place, a lighted candle
be fucceffively applied to the axis GI, fo as the fha-
dow of the index or ftyle GI fall upon one hour-line
after another, the fame fhadow w-ill. mark out the
feveral hour-lines on the plane A B C D. Noting _
the points therefore on the. fhadow, draw lines
through them to G; then an index being fixed on
G, according to the angle IGF, its fhadow will,
point out the feveral hours by the light of the fun.
If a dial were required on a vertical plane, having
raifed the equinodtial circle as direCted, pufh forward
the index GI till the tip thereof / touch the plane.
If the plane be inclined to the horizon, the elevation
of the pole fhould be found on the fame; and the
angle of the triange. KEE fhould be. made equal
thereto.
Mr Fergufon deferibes a methbd of making three Dlals ou
dials on. three different planes, fa. that they may allJhocu .the three plane*
time of the day by one gnomon. On the flat board ABC by one guo- \
deferibe an horizontal dial, with its gnomon FGH, p1ion'IO
the edge of the fhadow of which fhows the time of * j
the day. To this horizontal board join the upright
board ED£, touching the edge GH of the, gnomon ;
then making the top of the gnomen at G the centre
of the vertical fouth dial, deferibe it on the board
EDC. Befides, on a circular plate IK deferibe an
equinoCtial dial, and,, by a flitr nf in the XII o’clock .,
line from the edge to the centre, put it on the gno¬
mon as far as the flit will admit. The fame gpomon
will fhow the fame hour on each of thefe dials.
An Univerfal Dial, flowing the hours of the day by a < pjate ,
terrejlrial globe, an fly the fhadows of feveral gnomons, at CLIX.
the fame time: together with all .the places of the earth. Fig 10.
which are then enlightened by the fun ; and thofe to which
the fun is then rijing, or on the meridian, or fetting. This
dial is made of a thick fquare piece of wood, or hollow
metal. The fides-are cut.into femicircijlar hollows, in
which the hours are placed; the flile of each hollow
coming put from the bottom thereof, as far as the ends
of the hollows projeCt. The corners are cut out into
angles, in the in fides of which the hours are alfo,,
marked ; and the edge of the end ,of each fide of the
angle ferves as a ftile .for calling a Ihadow. on the hours
marked on the other fide.
In the middle of the uppermoft fide, or plane,
there is an equinoctial dial; in the centre whereof an
upright wire is fixed, for calling a fliadow on the hours,
of that dial) and fupporting a fmall terreftrial globe on
its top.
The whole dial Hands on-a pillar, in the middle of a
round horizontal board, in which there is a compafs
and magnetic needle, for placing the meridian ftile to¬
ward
Plate.
cux
Fig. 9.
DIAL
ward the fouth. The pillar has a joint with a quadrant
upon it, divided into 90 degrees (fuppofed to be hid
from fight under the dial in the figure) for fetting.it to
the latitude of any given place.
The equator of the globe is divided into 24 equal
parts, and the hours are laid down upon it at thefe parts.
The time of the day may be known by thefe hours,
when the fun {bines upon the globe.
Toredtify and ufe this dial, fet it onalevef table, or
foie of a window, where the fun (bines, placing the
meridian ftile due fouth, by means of the needle ; which
will be, when the needle points as far from, the north
fleur-de-lis toward the weft, as it declines weftward, at
your place. Theti bend the pillar in the joint, till the
black line on the pillar comes to the latitude of your
place in the quadrant.
The machine being thus redlified, the plane of its
dial part ivill be parallel to the equator, the wire or axis
that fupports-the globe will be parallel to the earth’s
axis, and the north pole of the globe will point toward
the north pole of the heavens.
The fame hour will then be fhown in feveral of the
hollows, by the ends of the fhadows of their refpeftive
ftiles: the.axis of the globe will caft a fhadow on the
fame hour of the day, in the equinoctial dial, in the
centre of which it is placed, from the 20th of March to
the 23d of September; and, if the meridian of your
place on the globe be fet even with the meridian ftile,
all the parts of the globe that the fun (hines upon, will
anfwer to thofe places of the real earth which are then
enlightened by the fum The places where the (hade
is juft coming upon the globe, anfwer to all thofe places
of the earth to which the fun is then fetting ; as the
places W'here it is going off, and the light coming On,
anfwer to all the places of the earth where the fun is
then rifing. And laftly, if the hour of VI be marked
on the equator in the meridian of your place (as it is
marked on the meridian of London in the figure) the
divfion of the light and (hade on the globe will {how
the time of the day.
The northern ftile of the dial (oppofite to the
fouthern or meridian one) is hid from the fight in the
figure, by the axis of the globe. The hours in the
hollow to which that ftile belongs, are alfo fuppofed
to be hid by the oblique view of the figure : but they
are the fame as the hours in the front-hollow. Thofe
alfo in the right and left hand femicircular hollows are
moitly hid from fight.; .and fa alfo are all thofe on the
fides next the eye of the four acute angles.
The conftruction of this dial is as follows :
On a thick fquare piece of wood, o- metal, draw the
lines a c and b d, as far from each other as you intend
for the thicknefs of the ftile abed; and in the fame
manner, draw the like thieknefs of the other-three
ftiles, e f g h, i k lm, and n op ^, all (landing outright as
from the centre.
With any convenient opening of the compaffes, as
ad, (fo as to leave proper ftrength of ftuff when KI is
equal to a d), fet one foot in a, as a centre, and with
the other foot deferibe the quadrantal arc dc. Then,
without altering the eompaffes, fet one foot in b as a
centre, and with the other foot deferibe the quadrant
d B. All the other quadrants in the figure muft be
ddeabed in the.fame manner, and with the fame open-
N G.
ing of the compaffes, on their centres e flit, and
no; and each quadrant divided into fix equal parts, 1
for as many hours, as in the figure; each of which
parts muft be fubdivided into 4, for the half-hours and-
quarters.
At equal diftances from each corner, draw,.the right
lines Ip and Kp, L q and Mq. Nr and O r, P s and
^j ; to form the four angular hollows Ip K, L q M,
N r 0, and P s making the diftances between the
tips of thefe hollows, as I K, L M, N 0, and P
each equal to the radius of the quadrants ; and'leaving .
fufficient room within the angular points p q r and s, .
for the equinoctial in the middle..
To divide the infidesof thefe angles properly for the
hour-fpaces thereon, take the following method.
Set one foot of the compaffes in the point / as a
centre, and open the other to K; and with that open¬
ing deferibe the arc Kt: then, without altering the
compaffes, fet one foot in K, and with the other foot
deferibe the arc I r- Divide each of thefe arcs, from '
/ and K to their interfe&ion at t, into four equal parts ; .
and from their centres I and A",, through the points of
divifion, draw the right lines 73, 74, 7 5, I 6, I q 'r
and K 2, K \ , K \2, K 11; and they will meet the
fides K p and Ip of the angle 7p A" where the hours •
thereon muff be placed. And thefe hour-fpaces in the
arcs muft be fubdived into" four equal parts, for the
half hours and quarters.*—Do the like for the other
three angles, and draw the dotted lines, and fet the
hours in the infides where thofe lines meet them, as
in the figure: and the like hour-lines will be paral¬
lel to each other in all the quadrants and in all the
angles.
Mark points for all. thefe hours on the upper fide :
and cut out all the angular hollows, and the quadrantal
ones quite through the places where their four gno¬
mons muft (land; and lay down the hours on their
infides, (as in fig. 10.),. and fet in their gnomons, ,
which muft be as broad as the dial is thick ; and this
breadth and .thicknefs muft be large enough to keep
the (hadows of the gnomons from ever falling quite
out at the (ides of the hollows, even when the fun’s
declination is at the greateft..
Laftly, draw the equinoftial dial in the middle, all .
the hours of which are equidiftant from each otlier;
and the dial will be finiftied.
As the fun goes round, the.broad end of the (hadow
of the ftile a c b d will (how the hours in the quadrant
from fun-rife till VI in the morning ; the (hadow
from the end M will (how the hours on the fide Lq •
from V to IX in the morning; the (hadow of the ftile •
efgh in the quadrant Dg (in the long days) will (how '
the hours from fun-rife till VI in the morning; and
the (hadow of the end N will (how the morning-hours, ,
on the fide 0 /yfrom III to VII.
Juft as the (hadow of the northern ftile abed
goes off the quadrant dc, the (hadow of the fouthern *
ftile iklm begins to fall within the quadrant FI,
at VI in the morning; and (hows the time, in
that quadrant, from VI till XII at noon; and from >
noon till VI in the evening in the quadrant mE.
And the (hadow of the end 0 (hows the time from
XI in the forenoon till III in the afternoon, on the
tide rN; as the (hadow of.the end T’.fliovvs the time
from, i
797
Plate
CLIX.
98 DIAL
Plate from IX in the moVning till I o’clock in the after-
CLUX. noon> on the fide
At noon, when the (hadow of the eaftern ftile efgh
goes off the quadrant hC (in which it (bowed the time
from VI in the morning till noon, as it did in the qua¬
drant^/) from fun-rife till VI in the morning), the
fhadow of the weftern ftile nopq begins to- enter the
quadrant Hp; and (hows the hours thereon from XII
at noon till VI in the evening ; and after that till fun-
fet, in the quadrant q G: and the end Read's a (hadow
on the fide Ps from V in the evening till IX at night,
if the fun be not fet before that time.
The (hadow of the end / (hows the time on the fide
Kp from III till VII in the afternoon ; and the (hadow
of the ftile abed (hows the time from VI in the evening
till the fun fets.
The (hadow of the upright central wire, that fup-
ports the globe at top, (hows the time of the day, in the
middle or equino&ial dial, all the fummer half-year,
when the fun is on the north fide of the equator.
Having (hown how to make fun-dials by the aflift-
ance of a good globe, or of a dialing fcale, we (hall
now proceed to the method of conftrufting dials arith¬
metically; which will be more agreeable to thofe who
have learned the elements of trigonometry, becaufe
globes and feales can never be fo accurate as the loga¬
rithms in finding the angular diftances of the hours. Yet
as a globe may be found exact enough for fome other
requifites in dialing, we (hall take it in occafionally.
The conftruftion of fun-dials on all planes whatever
may be included in one general rule: intelligible, if
that of a horizontal-dial for any given latitude be well
underftood. For there is no plane, however obliquely
fituated with refpeft to any given place, but what is
parallel to the horizon of fome other place; and there¬
fore if we can find that other place by a problem on
the terreftrial globe, or by a trigonometrical calculation,
and conftruft a horizontal dial for it; that dial applied
to the plane where it is to ferve will be a true dial
for that place.—Thus, an ereft direft fouth dial in
51-I- degx'ees north latitude, would be a horizontal-dial
on the fame meridian, 90 degrees fouthward of 514- de¬
grees north latitude : which falls in with 384- degrees
of fouth latitude. But if the upright plane declines from
facing the fouth at the given place, it would ftill be a
horizontal plane 90 degrees from that place, but for a
different longitude, which would alter the reckoning
of the hours accordingly.
Case I. 1. Let us fuppofe that an upright plane at
London declines 36 degrees weft ward from facing the
fouth, and that it is required to find a place on the
globe to whofe horizon the faid plane is parallel; and
alio the difference of longitude between London and
that place.
Re&ify the globe to the latitude of London, and
bring London to the zenith under the brafs meridian;
then that point of the globe which lies in the horizon
at the given degree of declination (counted weft ward
from the fouth point of the horizon) is the place at
which the abovementioned plane would be horizontal.
—Now, to find the latitude and longitude of that place,
keep your eye upon the place, and turn the globe call-
ward until it comes under the graduated edge of thej
I N G.
brafs meridian ; then the degree of the brafs meridian Plate
that (lands direftly over the place is its latitude; and CLIX.
the number of degrees in the equator, which are inter¬
cepted between the meridian of London and the brafs
meridian, is the place’s difference of longitude.
Thus, as the latitude af London is 514- degrees
north, and the declination of the place is 36 degrees
weft ; elevate the north pole 5x4- degrees above the ho¬
rizon, and turn the globe until London comes to the
zenith, or under the graduated edge of the meridian ;
then count 36 degrees on the horizon weft ward from
the fouth point, and make a mark on that place of the
globe over which the reckoning ends, and bringing the
mark under the graduated edge of the brafs meridian,
it will be found to be under 30^ degrees in fouth lati¬
tude : keeping it there, count in the equator the num¬
ber of degrees between the meridian of London and tile
brafen meridian (which now becomes the meridian of the
required place), and you will find it to be 424. There¬
fore an upright plane at London, declining 36 degrees
weftward from the fouth, would be a horizontal plane
at that place, whofe latitude is 304 degrees fouth of
the equator, and longitude 424 degrees well of the me¬
ridian of London.
Which difference of longitude being converted into
time, is 2 hours 51 minutes.
The vertical-dial declining weftward 36 degrees at
London, is therefore to be drawn in all refpedls as a
horizontal-dial for fouth latitude 304 degrees ; fave
only that the reckoning of the hours is to anticipate
the reckoning on the horizontal-dial by 2 hours 51 mi¬
nutes : for fo much fooner will the fun come to the
meridian of London, than to the meridian of any place
whofe longitude is 424 degrees weft from London.
2. But to be more exa£l than the globe will (how us,
we (hall ufe a little trigonometry.
Let NESW be the horizon of London, whofe Fig.4.
zenith is Z, and P the north pole of the fphere ; and
let Zhbt the pofition of a vertical plane at Z, decli¬
ning weftward from S. (the fouth) by an angle of 36
degrees ; on which plane an eredt-dial for London at
Z is to be deferibed. Make the femidiameter ZD
perpendicular to Zh; and it will cut the horizon in Z),
36 degrees weft of the fouth S. Then a plane, in the
tangent HD, touching the fphere in D, will be paral¬
lel to the plane Zh ; and the axis of the fphere will be
equally inclined to both thefe planes.
Let IVbe the equinoctial, whofe elevation above
the horizon of Z (London) is 384 degrees; and PRD
be the meridian of the place/), cutting the equinoctial
in R. Then it is evident, that the arc RD is the la-
tude of the place D (where the plane Zh would be ho¬
rizontal) and the arc i/i^is the difference of longitude
of the planes Zh and DH.
In the fpherical triangle WDR, the arc WD is given,
for it is the complement of the plane’s declination from
S to fouth; which complement is 540 (viz. 90°—360:)
the angle at i?, in which the meridian of the place D
cuts the equator, is a right angle; and the angle RIVD
meafuresthe elevation of the eqninotlial above the ho-
ribon of Z, namely 384 degrees. Say therefore, As
radius is to the co-fine of the plane’s declination from
the fouth, fo is the co-fine of the latitude of Z to the
fine oiRD the latitude ol D : which is of a different
denomination
D I A ]
Plate denomination from the latitude of Z, becaufe Z and
C.LIX. 2) are on different fide* of the equator.
As radius - - - - lo.ooooo
To co-fine 36° o'=^R^ 9.90796
So co-fine 51° 30/=^Z 9.79415
To fine 30° 14. — D R (9.70211) = the lat. of A
whofe horizon is parallel to the vertical plane Zb at Z.
N. B. When radius is made the firii term, it may¬
be omitted ; and then by fubtra&ing it mentally from
the fum of the other two, the operation will be fiior-
tened. Thus, in the prefent cafe,
To the logarithmic fine of IVR-* 540 o' 9.90796
Add the logarithmic fine of RD—\ 38’ 30' 9.79415
Their fum—radius 9.70211
gives the fame folution as above. And we (hall keep
to this method in the following part of this article.
To find the difference of longitude of the places D
and Z, fay, As radius is to the co-fine of 384- degrees,
the height of the equino&ial at Z, fo is the co-tangent
of 36 degrees, the plane’s declination, to the co-tangent
of the difference of longitudes. Thus,
To the logarithmic fine of J 510 30' 9.89354
Add the logarithmic tang, of § 540 O' 10.13874
Their fum—radius 10.03228
is the neareft tangent of 470 8'=: IVR; which is the
co-tangent of 420 52' = i?<^, the difference of longi¬
tude fought. Which differenee, being reduced to
time, is 2 hours 514- minutes.
3. And thus having found the exaft latitude and
longitude of the place D, to whofe horizon the vertical
plane at Z is parallel, we {hall proceed to the conftruc-
tion of a horizontal dial for the place D, whofe lati¬
tude is 30° 14-' fouth; but anticipating the time at 1) by
2 hours 51 minutes (negle&ing the ± min. in praftice),'
becaufe D is fo far weftward in longitude from the me-.
ridian of London ; and this will be a true vertical dial
at London, declining weftward 36 degrees.
Fig. 5. Affume any right line CSL for the fubftile of the
dial, and make the angle RCR equal to the latitude of
the place (viz. 30° 14'), to whofe horizon the plane
of the dial is parallel; then CRP will be the axis of
the ftile, or edge that calls the ftadow on the hours of
the day, in the dial. This done, draw the contingent
line cutting the fubftilar line at right angles in
K; and from K make KR perpendicular to the axis
CRP. Then KG (= Ai?) being made radius, that
is, equal to the chord of 6o° or tangent of 450 on a
good fedlor, take 42° 52' (the difference of longitude
of the places Z and D) from the tangents, and having
fet it from K to M, draw CM for the hour-line of
XII. Take KN, equal to the tangent of an angle
lefs by 15 degrees than -Of; that is, the tangent of
270 52': and through the point N draw CN for the
hour-line of I. The tangent of 12° 52' (which is 150
lefs than 27° 42'), fet off the fame way, will give a
point between K and IV, through which the hour-line
of II is to be drawn. The tangent of 2° 8' (the dif¬
ference between 450 and 52° 52/) placed on the other
fide of CL, will determine the point through which
* The co-fine of 36.0, or of f The co-fine
WDR. § The co-tangent of 36.0, or of Z//Z.
, I N G. 799
the hour-line of III is to be drawn : to which 2® 8', Piste
if the tangent of 150 be added, it will make 170 8'; CLIX.
and this fet off from K towards ^on the line
will give the point for the hour-line of IV : and fo of
the reft.—The forenoon hour-lines are drawn the fame
way, by the continual addition of the tangents 150,
30°, 453, &c. to 42° 52' ( = the tangent of KM) for
the hours of XI, X, IX, &c. as far as tjeceffary ; that
is, until there be five hours on each fide of the fubftile.
The fixth hour, accounted from that hour or part of
the hour on which the fubftile falls, will be always in
a line perpendicular to the fubftile, and drawn through
the centre C.
4. In all ere& dials, CM, the hour-line of XII, is
perpendicular to the horizon of the place for which the
dial is to ferve ; for that line is the interfedlion of a
vertical plane with the plane of the meridian of the
place, both which are perpendicular to the plane of the
horizon: and any line BO, ox ho, perpendicular to CM,
will be a horizontal line on the plane ©f the dial, along
which line the hours may be numbered ; and CM be¬
ing fet perpendicular to the horizon, the dial will have
its true pofition.
5. If the plane of the dial had declined by an equal
angle toward the eaft, its defcription would have dif¬
fered only in this, that the hour-line of XII would
have fallen on the other fide of the fubftile CL, and
the line I/O would have a fubcontrary pofition to what
it has in this figure.
6. And thefe two dials, with the upper points of
their ftiles turned toward the north pole, will ferve for
other two planes parallel to them ; the one declining
from the north toward the eaft, and the other from the
north toward the weft, by the fame quantity of angle.
The like holds true of all dials in general, whatever be
their declination and obliquity of their planes to the
horizon.
Case 11. 7. Ifthe plane of the dial not only declines,
but alfo reclines, or inclines. Suppofe its declination
from fronting the fouth S be equal to the arc SD on the
horizon ; and its reclinatidn be equal to the arc Dd of pjg ^.
the vertical circle DZ : then it is plain, that if the
quadrant of altitude ZdD on the globe cuts the point
Z) in the horizon, and the reclination is counted up¬
on the quadrant from D to d; the interfe&ion of the
hour circle PRd, with the equinoctial W§>E, will
determine Rd, the latitude of the place whofe ho¬
rizon is parallel to the given plane ZI> at Z ; and R§>^
will be the difference in longitude of the places at d
and Z.
Trigonometrically thus: Let a great circle pafs thro’
the three points, W, d, E; and in the triangle WDd,
right-angled at/), the fides IVI) and Dd are given ;
and thence the angle DiVd is found, and fo is the hy-
pothenufe TVd. Again, the difference, or the fum,
of DlVdzni. DWR, the elevation of the equinoftial
above the horizon of Z, gives the angle dWR ; and
the hypothenufe of the triangle JVRd was juft now
found ; whence the fides Rd and IVR are found, the
former being the latitude of the place d, and the lat4
ter the complement oi RQ, the difference of longitude -
fought.
Thus,
)f 51.30, or of §)Z. J The co-fine of 38.30, or of 4
$00
P'ate
CLIX.
Tig. j.
DIALING.
Thus, if the latitude of the place Z he 520 to' north;
the declination SD of the plane Zh (which would be
horizontal at ri) be 36°, and the reclination be iyc. or
equal to the arc Dd; the fouth latitude of the place r/,
that is, the arc Rd, -will be 150 9') and RQ, the dif¬
ference of the longitude, 360 2'. From thefe data,
therefore, let the dial (fig. 7.) be deferibed, as in the
former example.
8. There are feveral other things requifite in the
practice of-dialing ; the chief of which fhall be given
in the form of arithmetical rules, fimple and eafy to
thofe who have learned the elements of trigonometry.
For in practical arts of this kind, arithmetic flrould be
ufed as far as it can go ; and feales never trufted to,
except in the final conftruftion, where they are abio-
lutely necefiary in laying down the calculated hour-di-
flances on the plane of the dial.
Rule I. To Jind the angles ivhich the hour-lines on any
dial make avith the fuljTile. To the logarithmic fine of
the given latitude, or of the ftile’s elevation above'the
plane of the dial, add the logarithmic tangent of the
hour (*) diftance from the meridian, or from the (f)
fubftile ; tmd the fum minus radius will be the loga¬
rithmic tangent of the angle fought.
For KC is to KM in the ratio compounded of the
ratio of KC to KG {zzKR) and of KG to KM-, which
making CK the radius r 0,000000, or 10,0000, or 10,
or 1, are the ratio of 1 o,ocoooo, or of \ 0,0000, or
of 10, or of 1, to KGxKM.
Thus, in a horizontaf dial, for latitude 510 30', to
find the angular dittance of XI in the forenoon, or I
in the afternoon, from XII.
To the logarithmic fine of f 30' 9-89354|;
Add the logarithmic tang, of 5i°o' 9.42805
The fum—-radius is - - - - 9.32159:= the
logarithmic tangent of 110 50’, or of the angle which
the hour-line of XI or I makes with the hour of XII.
And’by computing in this manner, with the fine of
the latitude,and the tangents of 30, 45, 60, and 750,
for the hours of II, III, IIII, and Vin the afternoon;
or of X, IX, VIII, and VII in the forenoon; you will
find their angular diftances from XII to be 240 18',
38° 3', 530 35', and 7 i° 6'; which are all that there is
occafion to compute for. And thefe diftances may
be fet off from XU by a line of chords; or rather, by
taking iooo from a fcale of equal parts, and fetting
that extent as a radius from C to XII; and then, ta¬
king 209 of the fame parts (which are the natural
tangent of M° 50'), and fetting them from XII to
XI and I, on the line ho, which is perpendicular to C
XII: and fo for the reft of the hour-lines, which in
the table of natural tangents, againft the above dif¬
tances, are 451, 782, 1355, and 2920, of fuch equal
parts from XII, as the radius C XII contains 1000.
N0 100.
And, laftly, fet off 1257 (the natural tangent of 510
30') for the angle of the ftile’s height, which is equal
to the latitude of the place.
Rule II. The latitude of the place, the fun's declination,
and his hour dijlance from the meridian, being given, to
find (1.) his altitude, (2.) his azimuth. (l.) Let d be
the fun’s place, dR his declinaton ; and, in the
triangle P Z d, P d the fum, or the difference, of
d R, and the quadrant P R, being given by the fup-
pofition, as alfo the complement of the latitude
PZ, and the angle dPZ, which meafures the horary
diftance of d from the meridian; we lhall (by Cafe 4.
of Keill’s oblique fpheric Trigonometry) find the bale
Zd, which is the fun’s diftance from the zenith, or the
complement of his altitude.
And (2.) as fine Zd: fine Pd: : fine dPZ : dZP,
or of its fupplement DZS, the azimuthal diftance from
the fouth.
Or the pra&ical rule maybe as follows.
Writer? for the fign of the fun’s altitude, L and /
for the fine and co-fine of the latifcpde, D and d for the
fine and co-fine of the fun’s declination, and H for the
fine of the horary diftance from VI.
Then the relation of 17 to A will have three varieties.
1. When the declination is toward the elevated pole,
and the hour of the day is between XII and VI; it is
A-LD+Hld, and
la
2. When the hour is after VI, it is A~LD—Hid,
Id
3. When the declination is toward the depreffed pole,
we have A—Hld—LD, and
Id
Which theorems will be found ufeful, and expedi¬
tious enough for folving thofe problems in geography
and dialing which depend on the relation of the fun’s
altitude to the hour of the day.
Example I. Suppofe the latitude of the place to be
511-degrees north: the time five hours diftant from
XII, that is, an hour after VI in the morning, or be-,
fore VI in the evening; and the fun’s declination 20°
north. Required the fun's altitude?
Then to log. L = log. fin. 510 30' 1.89354**
add log. Z>=log. fin. 20° o' 1.53405
Their fum 1.42 7 5 9 gives
LD=logarilhm of 0.267664, in the natural fines.
And, to log. H-\og. fin..ff 150 o' 1.41300
Mog. /= log. fin.jt 38=0' 1.79414
log. deez log. fin.^ qo° d 1.97300
add
Their fum 1.18014 gives
///t/—logarithm of 0.151408, in the natural fines.
And
(*) That Is, of 15, 30, 45, 60, 750, for the hours of I, II, III, HH, V, in the afternoon; and XI, X,
IX, VIII, VII, in the aftertioon. . , . „
(f) In all horizontal dials, and ereeft north or fouth dials, the fubftile and meridian are the lame: but in all
declining dials, the fubftile line makes an angle with the meridian.
(J) In which cafe, the radius CK\% fuppofed to be divided into 10,0000 equal parts. _
** Here we confider the radius as unity, and not 10,00000; by which, inftead of the index 9, we nave
as above; which is of no farther ufe than making the work a little eafier.
ft The diftance of one hour from VI. tt The co-latitude of the place.
§§ The co-declination of the fun.
Plait
CLIX.
Kg. 6.
D I A
Plate And tliefe two numbers (0.267664 and 0.151408)
CL1X. make 0.419072.= ^; which, in the table, is the near-
eft natural fine of 24° 47', the fun’s altitude fought.
The fame hour-diftance being aflumed on the other
fide of VI, then LD—Hid is 0.116256, the fine of
6° 404-'; which is the fun’s altitude at V in the morn¬
ing, or VII in the evening, when his north declina¬
tion is 20°.
But when the declination is 20° fouth (or towards
the depreffed pole) the difference Hid—LD becomes
negative; and thereby fhows, that an hour before VI
in the morning, or pail VI in the evening, the fun’s
centre is 6° 40-!' below the horizon.
Examp. 2. From the fame data, to find the fun’s a%i-
muth. If H, L, and .D, are given, then (by par. 2. of
Rule II.) from H having found the altitude and its
complement Zd: and the arc Pd (the diftance from
the pole) being given; fay, As the co-fine of the al¬
titude is to the fine of the diftance from the pole, fo is
the fine of the hour-diftance from the meridian to the
fine of the azimuth diilance from the meridian.
Let the latitude be 51° 30'north, the declination
150 9' fouth, and the time II h. 24 m. in the after¬
noon, when the fun begins to illuminate a vertical wall,
and it is required to find the pofition of the wall.
Then, by the foregoing theorems, the complement
of the altitude will be 8x° 324-', and Pd the diftance
from the pole being 1090 5', and the horary diftance
from the meridian, or the angle dPZ, 36°.
To log. fin. 74° 51' - 1.98464
Add log. fin. 36° o' - 1.76922
And from the fum - 1.75386
Take the log. fin. 8i° 324/ - 1.99525
Remains 1.75861 ==log. fin.
35O, the azimuth diftance fought.
When the altitude is given, find from thence the
hour, and proceed as above.
This praxis is of fihgular ufe on many occafions; in
finding the declination of vertical planes more exaftly
than in the common way, efpecially if the tranfits of
the fun’s centre are obferved by applying a ruler with
fights, either plain or telefcopical, to the wall or plane
whofe declination is required. In drawing a meri¬
dian line, and finding the magnetic variation. In
finding the bearings of places in terreftrial furveys; the
tranfits of the fun over any place, or his horizontal di¬
ftance from it, being obferved, together with the alti¬
tude and hour. And thence determining fmall diffe¬
rences of longitude. In obferving the variations at
fea, &c.
Improved The declination, inclination, and redination, of planes,
declinator, are frequently taken with a fufficient degree of accu¬
racy by an inftrument called a declinator or declina¬
tory.-
Plate The conftru&ion of this inftrument, as fomewhat
CLXf. improved by Mr Jones, is as follows: On a maho-
gahy board ABLK, is inferted a femicircular arch
AGEB of ivory or box-wood* divided into two qua¬
drants of 90° each, beginning from the middle G.
On the centre C turns a vertical quadrant DFE,
divided into 9°°, beginning from the bafe Ej on which
is a moveable index CF, with a fmall hole at F for
the fun’s rays to pafs thro’, and form a fpot
Vol. V. Part II.
L I N G. Sai
mark at C. The lower extremity of the quadrant Plate
at E is pointed, to mark the linear dire&ion of the ^LXf*.
quadrant when applied to any other plane; as this
quadrant takes off occafionally, and a plumb-line P
hangs at the centre on C, for taking the inclina¬
tions and reclinations of planes. At H, on the plane
of the board, is inferted a compafs of points and de¬
grees, with a magnetical needle turning on a pivot
over it. The addition of the moveable quadrant and
index confiderably extend the utility of the declina¬
tor, by rendering it convenient for taking equal alti¬
tudes of the fun, the fun’s altitude, and bearing, at the
fame time, &c.
To apply this inftrument in taking the declination To take by
of a wall or plane: Place the fide ACB in an horizon- it the de-
tal direction to the plane propofed, and obferve what
degree or point of the compafs the N part of the a me.
needle ftands over from the north or the fouth, and it ridian line-
will be the declination of the plane from the north or
fouth accordingly. In this cafe, allowance mult be
made for the variation of the needle (if any) at the
place ; and which, if not previoufly known, will render
this operation very inaccurate. At London it is now
220 30' to the weft.
Another way more exaft may be ufed, when the
fun ftiines out half an hour before noon. The fide
ACB being placed againft the plane, the quadrant muft
be fo moved on the femicircle AGB, and the index
CF on DE, till the fun’s rays palling through the
hole at F fall exadtly ort the mark at G, and con¬
tinued fo till the fun requires the index to be raifed
no higher : you will then have the meridian or great-
eft altitude of the fun ; and the angle contained be¬
tween G and E will be the declination required.
The pofition of CE is the meridian or 12 o’clock
line. But the moll exadl way for taking the decli¬
nation of a plane, or finding a meridian line, by this
inftrument, is, in the forenoon, about two or • three
hours before 12 o’clock, to obferve two or three heights
or altitudes EF of the fun ; and at the fame time the
refpedlive angular polar diftances GE from G .■ write
them down; and in the afternoon watch for the
fame, or one of the fame altitudes, and mark the an¬
gular diftances or diftance on the quadrant AG: Now,
the divifion or degree exactly between the two' noted
angular diftances will be the true meridian, and the
diftance at which it may fall from the C of the divi-
fions at G will be the declination of the plane. The
reafon for obferving two or three altitudes and angles
in the morning is, that in cafe there ftiould be clouds
in the afternoon, you may have the chance of one
correfppnding altitude.
The quadrant occafionally takes off at C, in ordef
to place it on the furface of a pedeftal or plane intend¬
ed for an horizontal dial; and thereby from equal al¬
titudes of the fun, as above, draw a meridian or 12
o’clock line to fet the dial by.
The bafe ABIK ferves to take the inclination and
reclination of planes. In this cafe, the quadrant is
taken off, and the plummet P is fittedon a pin at the
centre C: then the fide IGK being applied to the
plane propofed, as S>L (fig. 7.) of the plumb-line cuts
the femicircle in the point G, the plane is horizontal;
or if it cut the quadrant in any point at S, then will
GC$ be the angle of inclination. Laftly, if applying
5 I the
on a
So2 DIAL
Wafe the fide jfCB (fig. 7.) to the plane, the plummet cuts
CLXI. p]aije ls vertical ; or if it cuts either of the qua¬
drants, it is accordingly the angle of reclination.
Hence, if the quantity of the angle of inclination be
compared with the elevation of the pole and equator,
it is eafily known whether the plane be inclined or
reclined.
Of the double Horizontal Dial, and the Babylonian and
Italian Dials.
To the gnomonic projeftion, there is fometimes ad¬
ded a Jlereographic projection of the hour-circles, and
the parallels of the fun’s declination, on the fame ho¬
rizontal plane; the upright fide of the gnomon being'
Hoped into an edge, ftanding perpendicularly over the
centre of the projection : fo that the dial, being in its
due pofition, the ihadow of that perpendicular edge is
a vertical circle palling through the fun, in the ftereo-
graphic projection.
The months being duly marked on this dial, the fun’s
declination, and the length of the day at any time, are
had by infpeCtion (as alfo his altitude, by means of a
fcale of tangents). But its chief property is, that it
may be placed true, whenever the fun fhines, without
the help of any other inftrument.
Fig. 6. Let d be the fun’s place in the ftereographic projec¬
tion, xdyz the parallel of the fun’s declination, Z d
a verticle circle through the fun’s centre, Pd the hour-
circle ; and it is evident, that the diameter NS of this
projection being placed duly north and fouth, thefe
three circles will pafs through the point d. And there¬
fore, to give the dial its due pofition, we have only
to turn its gnomon toward the fun, on a horizontal
plane, until the hour on the common gnomonic pro¬
jection coincides with that marked by the hour-circle
P d, which pafles through the interfeCtion of the fha-
dow Z d with the circle of the fun’s pvefent declina¬
tion.
The Babylonian and Italian dials reckon the hours,
not from the meridian as with us, but from the fun’s
rifing and fetting. Thus, in Italy, an hour before
fun-fet is reckoned the 23d hour; two hours before
fun-fet the 22d hour; and fo of the reft. And the
' fhadow that marks them on the hour-lines, is that of
the point of a ftife. This occafions a perpetual varia¬
tion between their dials and clocks, which they muft
correft from time to time, before it arifes to any fen-
fible quantity, by fetting their clocks fo much falter or
flower. And in Italy, they begin their day, and re¬
gulate their clocks, not from fun-fet, but from about
mid-twilight, when the Ave-Maria is faid ; which
correCts the difference that would otherwife be between
the clock and the dial.
The improvements which have been made in all forts
of inftruments and machines for meafuring time, have
rendered fnch dials of little account. Yet, as the theo¬
ry of them is ingenious, and they are really, in fome
refpeCts, the heft contrived of any for vulgar ufe, a
generaf idea of their defcription may not be unaccep¬
table.
jrjg Let fig. 8. reprefent an ereCt direCt fouth wall, on
which a Babylonian dial is to be drawn, ftiowing the
hours from fun-rifing; the latitude of the place, whofe
horizon is parallel to the wall, being equal to the angle
KCR. Make, as for a common dial, KG = KR (which
i n a
is perpendicular to CR') the radius of the equinoctial Plate
./EQ, and draw RS perpendicular to CK for the ftile f'bXI*
of the dial; the fhadow of whofe point R is to mark
the hours, when SR is fet upright on the plane of the
dial.
Then it is evident, that, in the contingent line j&Q,
the fpaces Ki, K2, K3. &c. being taken equal to
the tangents of the hour-diftances from the meridian,
to the radius KG, one, two, three, &<j. hours after
fun rifing, on the equinoClial day ; the fiiadow of the
point R will be found, at thefe times, refpeCHvely in
the points 1,2, 3, See.
Draw, for the like, hours after fun-rifing, when the
fun is in the tropic of Capricorn >$' V, the like com¬
mon lines CD, CE, CF, See. and at thefe hours the
fhadow of the point R will be found in thofe lines re-
fpeCtively. Find the fun’s altitudes above the plane
of the dial at thefe hours ; and with their co-tangent*
Sd, <SY, Sf, &-C. to radius SR, deferibe arcs inter¬
fering the hour-lines in the points d, e,f. Sec. fo fhall
the right lines id, 2 e, 3/, &c. be the lines of I, II,
III, Sec. hours after fun-rifing.
Tht conftruCtion is the fame in every other cafe; due
regard being had to the difference of longitude of the
place at which the dial would be horizontal, and the
place for which it is to ferve: and likewife, taking care
to draw no lines but what are neceflary 5 which may be
done partly by the rules already given for determining
the time that the fun fhines on any plane ; and partly
from this, that on the tropical days, the hyperbola de-
feribed by the fhadow of the point R limits the extent
of all the hour-lines.
Of the right placing of Dials, and having a true Meridian
Line for the regulating of Clocks and Watches.
The plane on which the dial is to reft being duly
prepared, and every thing neceffary for fixing it, you
may find the hour tolerably exa& by a large equinoc¬
tial ring-dial, and fet your watch to it. And then the
dial may be fixed by the watch at your leifure.
If you would be more exa&, take the fun’s altitude
by a good quadrant, noting the precife time of obfer-
vation by a clock or watch. Then compute the time
for the altitude obferved; and fet the watch to agree
with that time, according to the fun. A Hadley’s
quadrant is very convenient for this purpofe : for by
it you may take the angle between the fun and his
image reflected from a bafon of water; the half of
which angle, fubtrafting the refra&ion, is the alti¬
tude required. This is beft done in fummer; and the
nearer the fun i* to the prime vertical (the eaft or weft
azimuth) when the oblervation is made, fo much the
better.
Or, in fummer, take two equal altitudes of the fun
in the j fame day ; one any time between 7 and 10 in
the morning, the other between 2 and 5 in the after¬
noon ; noting the moments of thefe two obfervations
by a clock or watch: and if the watch fhows the ob¬
fervations to be at equal diftances from noon, it agrees
exadtly with the fun: if not, the watch muft be cor-
redted by half the difference of the forenoon and after¬
noon intervals ; and then the dial may be fet true by
the watch.
Thus, for example, fuppofe you had taken the fun’s
altitude when it was 20 minutes paft VIII in the morn-
3. *nS
D I A
? Piafe Jug by tile watch; and found,by obfervingin the after-
“ tXXI. noorij that the fun had the fame altitude 10 minutes
before III!; then it is plain, that the watch was 5 mi¬
nutes too fall for the fun : for 5 minutes after XII is
the middle time between VIII h. 20m. in the morn¬
ing, and Illh. 50m. in the afternoon ; and therefore
to make the watch agree with the fun, it mult be fet
a6 back five minutes.
A meridian A good meridian line, for regulating clocks or watch-
line. esj may be had by the following method.
Make a round hole, almoft a quarter of an inch dia¬
meter, in a thin plate of metal; and fix the plate in the
top of a fouth window, in fuch a manner, that it may
recline from the zenith at an angle equal to the co-lati¬
tude of your place, as nearly as you can guefs: for then
the plate will face the fun diiedtly at noon on the equi-
nodtial days. Let the fun fhine freely thro’ the hole
into the room 5 and hang a plumb-line to the ceiling
of the room, at leaft five or fix feet from the window,
in fuch a place as that the fun’s rays, tranfmitted
through the hole, may fall upon the line when it is
noon by the clock; and having marked the laid place
on the ceiling, take away the line.
Having adjufted a Hiding bar to a dove-tail groove,
Iin a piece of wood about 18 inches long, and fixed a
hook into the middle of the bar, nail the wood to
the above-mentioned place on the ceiling, parallel to
the fide of the room in which the window is; the
groove and bar being towards the floor: Then
hang the plumb-line upon the hook in the bar, the
vreight or plummet reaching almoft to the floor ; and
the whole will be prepared for farther and proper ad-
juftment.
This done, find the true folar time by either of the
two laft methods, and thereby regulate your clock.
Then, at the moment of next noon by the clock,
when the fun flrines, move the fliding-bar in the groove,
until the (hadow of the plumb-line bifedls the image of
the fun (made by his rays tranfmitted thro’ the hole)
on the floor, wall, or on a white fcreen placed on the
north-fide of the line ; the plummet or weight at the
end of the line hanging freely in a pail of water placed
below it on the floor.—But becaufe this may not be
quite correft for the firit time, on account that the
plummet will not fettle immediately, even in water; it
may be farther corrected on the following days, by the
above method, with the fun and clock; and fo brought
to a very great exadlnefs.
N. B. The rays tranfmitted through the hole will
caft but a faint image of the fun, even on a white
fcreen, unlefs the room be fo darkened that no fun-
fhine may be allowed to enter but what comes thro’
the fmall hole in the plate. And always, for fome
time before the obfervation is made, the plummet
ought to be immerfed in a jar of water, where it may
hang freely; by which means the line will foon become
fteady, which otherwife would be apt to continue
iwinging.
Dtfcription of two New Inflruments forfacilitating the
pratiiu of Dialing.
I. The Dialing ScStor, contrived by the late Mr
Benjamin Martin, is an inftrument by which dials are
drawn in a more eafy, expeditious, and accurate man¬
ner. It is reprefented on the plate as now made by Mr
i n a go
Jones of Holborn. The principal lines On it are the Plate
line of latitudes and the line of hours. They are found on CLX{
moft of the common plane feales and fedtors 5 but in a 4-
manner that greatly confines and dimriniflies their ufe :
for, firft, they are of a fixed length; and, fecondly, too
fmall for any degree of accuracy. But in this new fee-
tor, the line of latitudes is laid down, as it is called,yhSer-
wife, viz. one line'of latitudes upon each leg of thd
fedtor, beginning in the centre of the joint, and di¬
verging to the end (as upon other fedlors), where the
extremes of the two lines at 90° and 90° are nearly
one inch apart, and their length 11J inches: which
length admits of great exadlnefs; for at the 70th de¬
gree of latitude, the divifions are to quarters of a de¬
gree or 1 y minutes. This accuracy of the divifions ad¬
mits of a peculiar advantage, namely, that it may be e-
qually communicated to any length from 1 to 23 inches,
by taking t\\t parallel diftances (fee fig. 5.), viz. from
to to 10, zo to 20, 30 to 30, and fo on as is done
in like cafes on the lines of fines, tangents, &c. Hence
its univerfal ufe for drawing dials of any prepared fize.
The line of hours for this end is adapted and placed
contiguous to it on the fedtor, and of a fize large e-
nough for the very mfnutes to be diftindt.on the part
where they are fmalleft, which is on each fide of the
hour of III.
From the conftrudtion of the line of hours before
{hown, the divifions on each fide of the hour III are
the fame to each end, fo that the hour-line properly is
only a double line of three hours. Hence a line of 3 hours
anlwers all the purpofes of a line of 6, by taking the
double extent of 3, which is the reafon why upon the
fedtor the line of hours extends only to 4-.
To make ufe of the line of latitude and Hue of hours
on the fedtor: As Angle feales only, they will be found
more accurate than thofe placed on the common feales
and fedtors, in which the hours are ufually fubdivided,
but into 5 minutes, and the line of latitudes into
whole degrees. But it is ftiown above how much
more accurately thefe lines are divided on the dialing
fetor. As an example of the great exadtnefs with
which horizontal and other dials may be drawn by it,
on account of this new fedoral difpofition of thefe feales,
and how all the advantages of their great length are pre-p- x
ferved in any lefler length of the VI o’clock line c e S ”
and af: Apply either of the diftances of ce or af to
the line of latitude at the given latitude of London,
fuppofe 510 32'on one line to yi032' on the other, in
the manner {hown in fig. 5. and then taking all the
hours, quarters, &c. from the hour-fcale by fimilar
parallel extents, you apply them upon the lines e d and
/ £ as before deferibed.
As the hour-lines on. the fedlor extend to but 4*,
the double di/lance of the hour 3, when ufed either
fngly or fettorally, muft be taken, to be firft applied
from 510 32' on the latitudes, to its contadf on the
XII o’clock line, before the feveral hours are laid off.
The method of drawing a vertical north or fouth dial
is perfectly the fame as for the above horizontal one ;
only reverfing the hours as in fig. x. and making the
angle of the ftile’s height equal to the complement of
the latitude 38° 28'.
The method of drawing a vertical declining dial by
the fedtor, is almoft evident from what has been al¬
ready faid in dialing. But more fully to comprehend
5 1 * the
8 04
Piate
CJLX1
Tig- 3*
DIAL
the matter, it muft be confidered there will be a varia¬
tion of particulars as follow: i. Of the fubjlile or line
over which the Itile is to be placed; 2. The height of
the ftile above the plane; 3. The difference between the
meridian of the place and that of the plane, or their
difference of longitude. From the given latitude of the
place, and declination of the plane, you calculate the
three requifites juft mentioned, as in the following ex¬
ample. Let it be required to make an ereS, fouth dial,
declining from the meridian <wejlrward 28° 43'. in the
latitude of London 510. 32'. The firft thing to be
found is the diftanceof the fubftilar line GB (tig. 3.)
from the meridian of the plane GXII. The analogy
from this is : jis radius is to the fine of the declination, fo
is the co-tangent of the latitude to the tangent of the difance
fought, viz. As radius : 28° 43' : : tang. 38° 28' : tan¬
gent 20u 55'. This and the following analogy may be
as accurately worked on the Gunter’s line of fines,
tangents, &c. properly placed on the fe&or, as by the
common way from logarithms. Next, To find the
plane’s difference of longitude, sis the fine of the latitude
is to radius,fo is the tangent of the declination to the tangent of
the difference of longitude, viz. As s 5i°32': radius ::
tang. 28043': tang. 350 o'. Laftly, to find the height
of the ftile: Bs radius is to the co-fine of the latitude, fo is
the co-fine of the declination to thefine of the file's height, viz.
Radius : s 38° 28' :: s 61° 17' : s 330 5'.
The three requifites thus obtained, the dial is drawn
in the following manner: Upon the meridian line G
XII, with any radius GC defcribe the arch of a circle,
upon which fet off 20° 55' from C to B, and draw
G B, which will be the fubftilar line, over which the
ftile of the dial muft be placed.
At right angles to this line G B, draw A ^inde¬
finitely through the point G : then from the fcale of
latitudes take the height of the ftile 33' 5,' and fet it
each way from G to A and ijh Laftly, take the
double length of 3 on the hour-line in your compaffes,
and fetting one foot in A or Sf, with the other foot
mark the line GB in D, and join AD Qffd, and
then the triangle A D completed upon the fub-
ftile G B.
To lay off the hours, the plane’s difference of lon¬
gitude being 350, equal to 2h. 20 min. in time, allow-
ing 150 to an hour, fo that there will be 2h. 20' be¬
tween the point D and the meridian G XII, in the
line AD. Therefore, take the firft 20' of the hour-
fcale in your compaffes, and fet off from Z) to 2 ; then
take ih. 20', and fet off from D to 1 ; 2h. 20', and fet
off fromZ) to t 2; 3h. 20', from D to 11; 4I1. 20' from
D to 10; and yh. 20' from D to 9, which will be
40 from A.
Then, on the other fide of the fubftilar line G B,
you take 40' from the beginning of the fcale, and fet
off from Z) to 3; then take 1 h. 40', and fet off from D
to 4; alfo 2h. 40', and fet off from Z) toy; and fo on to 8,
which will be 20' from Then from G the centre,
through the feveral points 2, j, 12, 11, 10, 9, on one
fide, and 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, on the other, you draw the
hour-lines, as in the figure they appear. The hour of
VIII need only be drawn for the morning; for the
fun goes off from this <wef decliner zd before VIII in
I N G.
the evening.—The quarters, &c. are all fet off in P!are
the fame manner from the hour-fcale as the above CLXL
hours were.
The next thing is fixing the ftile or gnomon, which
is always placed in the fubftilar line G B, and which
is already draw. The ftile above the plane has been
found to be 330 5' : therefore with any radius G B
defcribe an obfcure arch, upon which fet off 330 y'
from B to S, and drawn G S, and the angle S G B
will be the true height of the gnomon above the fub-
ftile GB.
II. The Dialing frigon is another new inftru-
ment of great utility in the praftice of dialing ; and
was alfo contrived by the late Mr Martin. It is com-
pofed of two graduated fcales and a plane one. On
the fcale ^.5 is graduated the line of latitudes; and on
the fcale AC, the line of hours: th'efe properly con¬
joined with the plane fcale BD, as fliown in the
figure, truly repreient the gnomohical triangle, and is
properly called a dialing trigon. The hour-fcale AC
is here of its full length ; fo that the hours, halves,
quarters, &c. and every fingle minute (if required)
may be immediately fet off by a fteel point; and from
what has before been obferved in regard to the fector, it
muft appear that this method by the trigon is the moft
expeditious way of drawing dials that any mechanifin
of this fort can afford. As an example of the application
of this trigon in the conftrudtion of an horizontal dial
for the latitude of London 51c 32', you muft proceed
as follows : Apply the trigon to the 6 o’clock line af
(fig. 1.) on the morning fide, fo that the line of la¬
titudes may coincide with the 6 o’clock line, and the
beginning of the divifions coincide with the centre a ;
andat5X°32 of the line of latitudes place the 6 o’clock
edge of the line of hours, and the other end or begin¬
ning of the fcale clofe againft the plane fcale c d, as
by the figure at d\ and fattening thefe bars down by the
feveral pins placed in them to the paper and board,
then the hours, quarters, &c. are all marked off with
a fteel point inftantly, and the hour-lines drawn through
them as before, and as ftiown in the figure. When this
is done for the fide a f or morning hours, you move
the fcale of latitudes and hours to the other fide c e,
©r afternoon fide, and place the hour-fcale to 51 °32' as
before, and pulh down the hours, quarters, &e. and
draw the lines through them for the afternoon hours,
which is clearly reprefented in the figure.
In like manner is an ereB north or fouth dial drawn
(fee fig 2.), the operation being juft the fame, only
reverfing the hours as in the figure, and marking the
angles of the ftile’s height equal to the complement of
the latitude.
This trigon may be likewife ufed for drawing verti¬
cal declining dials (fig. 3), as it is with the fame facility
applied to the lines A GB, and the hours and quar¬
ters marked off as before directed.
Mr Jones graduates on the fcale. BD of the tri¬
gon a line of chords, which is found ufeful for laying
off the neceffary angles of the ftile’s height. The
fcales of this trigon, wheil not in ufe, lie very clofe toge¬
ther, and pack up into a portable cafe for the poo..
ket..
DIA-
D I A [ 805 ] D I A
Dialing Lines, or Scales, are graduated lines, pla¬
ced on rules, or the edges of quadran&s, and other in-
ftruments, to expedite the conftruftion of dials. See
Plate CLVIII.
Dialing-SeBar. See Dialing, p. 803, and Plate
CLXI.
DiAiiNG-Sphere, is an inftrument made of brafs, with
feveral femicircles Aiding over one another, on a mo¬
ving horizon, to demonftrate the nature of the doftrine
of fpherical triangles, and to give a true idea of the
drawing of dials on all manner of planes.
DiALiNG-Trigon. See Dialing, p. 804, and Plate
CLXL
Dialing, in a mine, called nMo Plumming, is the
ufing of a compafs (which they call dial), and a long
line, to know which way the load or vein of ore inclines,
or where to ihift an air-ihaft, or bring an adit to a de-
fired place.
DIALIS, in antiquity, a Latin term fignifying
fomething that belongs to Jupiter.— The word is form¬
ed from the genitive of Jupiter.
Flamen Dialis. See Flamen.
DIALITHA, in the writings of the ancients, a
word ufed to exprefs the elegant ornaments of the
Greeks and Romans, compofed of gold and gems.
They alfo called thefe Uthocolla, “ cemented Hones or
gems;” the gold being in this cafe as a cement to hold
the Hones together. They wore bracelets and other
ornamental things about their habits thus made ; and
their cups and table-furniture, for magnificent treats,
were of this kind. The green Hones were found to
fucceed beH of all in thefe things; am the emerald
and greenifii topaz, or, as we cal) it, chryfolite, were
moH in efieem for this purpofe. This ufe of the Hones
explains what Pliny very often fays of them in his de-
fcription : Nihil jucundius aurum decet, “ Nothing be¬
comes gold better:” this he fays of the green topaz or
chryfolite ; and this and many other like paflages have
greatly perplexed the critics, who did not hit upon this
explication.
DIALLING, or Dialing. See Dialing.
DIALOGISM, in rhetoric, is ufed for the folilo-
quy of perfons deliberating with themfelves. See So¬
liloquy.
DIALOGUE, in matters of literature, a converfar
tion between two or more perfons either by writing
or by word of mouth.
Compojition and Stile of 'written Dialogue. As the
end of fpeech is eonverfation, no kind of writing can
be more natural than dialogue, which reprefents this.
And accoidingly we find it was introduced very early,
for there are feveral inHances of it in the Mofaic hi-
flory. The ancient Greek writers alfo fell very much
into it, efpecially the philofophers, as the moH conve¬
nient and agreeable method of communicating their
fentiments and infiru&ions to mankind. And indeed
it feems to be attended with very cbnfiderable advan¬
tages, if well and judicioully managed. For it is ca¬
pable to make the drieH-fubjefts entertaining and plea-
fant, by its variety, and the different characters of the
fpeakers. Belides, things may be canvaffed more mi¬
nutely, and many leffer matters, which ferve to clear
up a fubjeft, may be introduced with a better grace,
by quefiions and aniwers, objections and replies, than
can he conveniently done in H continued difcourfe.
There is likewife a further advantage in this way of
writing, that the author is at liberty to choofe his
fpeakers: And therefore, as Cicero has well obferved,
when we imagine that we hear perfons of an efiabliihed
reputation for wifdom and knowledge talking together,
it necefiarily adds a weight and authority to the dif¬
courfe, and more clofely engages the attention. The
fubjed-matter of ifc> is very intenfive : for whatever is
a proper argument of difcourfe, public or private, fe-
rious or jocofe ; whatever is fit for wife and ingenious
men to talk upon, either for improvement or diverfion;
is fuitable for a dialogue.
From this general account of the nature of dialogue,
it is eafy to perceive what kind of Hyle beH fuits it.
Its affinity with Epistles, fhows there ought to be no
great difference between them in this refpeCt. Indeed,
fome have L yn of opinion, thait it ought rather to fink
below that of - n epiffle, becaufe dialogues fhould in
all refpeCts reprefent the freedom of converfation ;
whereas epiffles ought fometimes to be compofed with
care and accuracy, efpecially when written to fuperiors.
But tKere feems to be little weight in this argument,
fince the ddfign of an epiffle is to fay the fame things,
and in the fame manner, as the writer judges would
be moH fit and proper for him to fpeak, if prefent.
And the very fame thing is defigned in a dialogue>
with refpedt to the feveral perfons concerned in it.
Upon the whole, therefore, the like plain, eafy, and
Ample Hile, fuited to the nature of the fubjedt, and
the particular characters of the perfons concerned,
feems to agree to both.
But as greater fkill is required in writing dialogues
than letters, we ffiall give a more particular account of
the principal things neceffary to be regarded, in their
compofition, and illuffrate them chiefly from Cicero’s
excellent Dialogues concerning an Orator.— A dia¬
logue, then, coniiHs of two parts; an introduction,, and
the body of the difcourfe.
1. The introcludion acquaints Us with the place, time,,
perfons, and occafion, of the converfation. Thus Ci¬
cero places the fcene of his dialogues at Craffus’s coun¬
try feat; a very proper recefs, both for fuch a debate,
and, the parties engaged in it. And as they were per-
fons of the firff rank, and employed in the greateff af¬
fairs of Hate, and the difcourfe held them for two days;
he reprefents it to have, happened at the time of a fef-
tival, when there was nobufinefs done at Rome, which
gave them an opportunity to be abfent.
And becaufe the greateff regard is to be had in the
choice of the perfons, who ought to be fuch as are
well acquainted with the fubject upon which they dif¬
courfe ; in thefe dialogues of Cicero, the two principal
difputants are Craffus and Antony, the greateff orators
of that age, and therefore the moH proper perfons to
difpute upon the qualifications neceffary for their art-
One would think it fcarce neceffary to obferve', that
the conference ffiould be held by perfons who lived at
the fame time, and fo were capable to converfe toge¬
ther. But yet fome good writers have run into the
impropriety of feigning dialogues between perfons who
lived at diffant times. Plato took this method, in
which he has been followed by Macrobius. But others,
who have been willing to bring perfons to difcourfe
together, who lived in different ages, without fuch in-
c.onfiffeney, have wrote dialogues of the dead. Lucian
D I A [ So6 1 D I A
TVialogue. l)as made himfelf mod remarkable in this way. As to
' ^^ the number of perfons in a dialogue, they may be more
or lefs: fo many as can conveniently carry on a con-
verfation without diforder or confufion may be ad¬
mitted. Some of Cicero’s dialogues have only two,
others three or more, and thofe concerning an orator
feven. And it is convenient they Ihould all, in fume re-
fpe&s, be perfons of different charafters and abilities ;
which contributes both to the variety and beauty of
the difcourfe, like the different attitude of figures in
a pifture. Thus, in Cicero’s dialogues lall mentioned,
Craffus excelled in art, Antony principally for the force
of his genius, Catullus for the purity of his ftile, Sce-
vola for his (kill in the law, Csfar for wit and humour;
and though Sulpitius and Cotta, who were young men,
were both excellent orators, yet they differed in their
manner. But there (hould be always one chief perfon,
who is to have the main part of the converfation; like
the hero in an epic poem ora tragedy, who excels
the reft in aftion ; or the principal figure in a pidlurc,
which is moft confpicuous. In Plato’s dialogues, this
is Socrates; and Craffus, in thofe of Cicero above
mentioned.
It is ufual, likewife, in the introdudion, to acquaint
us with the occafion of the difcourfe. Indeed this is
not always mentioned ; as in Cicero’s dialogue of the
parts of oratory, where the fon begins immediately
with defiring his father to inftrud him in the art. But
it is generally taken notice of, and moft commonly re-
prefented, as accidental. The reafon of which may
be, that fuch difeourfes appear moll natural; and
may likewife afford fome kind of apology for the
writer in managing his different charadlers, fince the
greateft men may be fuppofed not always to fpeak with
the utmoft exadlnefs in an accidental converfation.
Thus Cicero, in his dialogues concerning an orator,
makes Craffus occafionally fall upon the fubjedt of o-
ratory, to divert the company from the melancholy
thoughts of what they had been difeourfing of before,
with relation to the public diforders, and the dangers
which threatened their country. But the introduction
might not to be too long and tedious. Mr Addifon
complains of this fault in fome authors of this kind.
4t For though (as he fays) fome of the fineft treatifes
of the moft polite Latin and Greek writers are in dia¬
logue, as many very valuable pieces of French, Italian,
and Englifti, appear in the fame drefs; yet in fome of
them there is fo much time taken up in ceremony, that,
before they enter on their fubjedt, the dialogue is half
over.”
2. We come now to the tody of the difeourfe, in which
fome things relating to the perfons, and others to the
fubjedl, are proper to be remarked.
And as to the perfons, the principal thing to be at¬
tended to is to keep up a juftnefs of character through
the whole. And the diftindt charadters ought to be
fo perfectly obferved, that from the very words them-
fclves it may be always known wdio is the fpeaker.
This makes dialogue more difficult than fingle deferip-
tion, by reafon of the number and variety of charadters
which are to be drawn at the fame time, and each of
them managed with the greateft propriety. The prin¬
cipal fpeaker (hould appear to be a perfon of great
fenfe and wifdom, and bed acquainted with the fub¬
jedt. No queftion ought to be alked him, or objedtion
darted to what he fays, but what he (hould fairly an- D rogue.
fwer. And what is (aid by the reft (hould principally ' 
tend to promote his difcourfe, and carry it through in
the moft artful and agreeable manner. Where the argu¬
ment is attended with difficulties, one other perfon or
more may be introducecl, of equal reputation, or near
it, but of different fentiments,'to oppofe him and main¬
tain the contrary fide of the queftion. This gives op¬
portunity for a thorough examination of the point on
both (ides, and anfwering all objedlions. But if the
combatants are not pretty equally matched, and ma-
fters of the fubjed, they will treat it but fuperficially.
And through the whole debate there ought not to be
the lead wrangling, peeviftinefs, or obftinacy; nothing
but the appearance of good-humour and good breeding*
the gentleman and the friend, with a readinefs to fubmlt
to conviction and the force of truth, as the evidence (hall
appear on one fide or the other. In Cicero, thefe two
charaders are Craffus and Antony. And from them
Mr Addifon feems to have taken his Philander and
Cynthio, in his Dialogues upon the ufefulnefs of ancient
medals, which are formed pretty much on Cicero’s
plan. Where younger perfons are prefent, or fuch
who are not equally acquainted with the fubjed, they
(hould be rather upon the inquiry than difpute: And
the queftions they a(k (hould be neither too long nor
too frequent; that they may not too much interrupt
the debate, or appear over talkative before wifer and
more experienced perfons. Sulpitius and Cotta fuftain
this charader in Cicero, and Eugenius in Mr Addifon.
And it is very convenient there (hould be one perfon
of a witty and jocofe humour, to enliven the difcourfe
at proper feafons, and make it the more entertaining,
efpecially when the dialogue is drawn out to any con-
liderable length. Casfar has this part in Cicero. And
in Mr Addifon, Cynthio is a perfon of this turn, and
oppofes Philander in a merry way. Mr Addifon’s fub¬
jed admitted of this : but the ferioufnefs and gravity
of Cicero’s argument required a different fpeaker for
the jocofe part. Many perfons ought not to fpeak im¬
mediately one after another. Horace’s rule for plays is:
To crowd the ftage b odious and abfurd.
l et no fourth a<ftor ftrivc to fpeak a word.
Though Scaliger and others think a fourth perfon may
fometimes be permitted to fpeak in the fame feene with¬
out confufion. However, if this is hot commonly to be
allowed upon the ftage, where the adors are prefent,
and may be diftinguifhed by their voice and habit;
much lefs in a dialogue, where you have only their
names to diftinguilh them.
With regard to fuhjeS, all the arguments (hould
appear probable at leait, and nothing be advanced
which may feem weak or trivial. There ought alfo to
be an union in dialogue, that the difcourfe may not
ramble, but keep up to the main defign. Indeed, ffiort
and pleafant progreffions are fometimes allowable for
the eafe and entertainment of the reader. But every
thing (hould be fo managed, that he may. dill be able
to carry on the thread of the difeourfe in his mind, and
keep the main argument in view, till the whole is fi-
nilhed. The writers of dialogue have not confined
their difeourfes to any certain fpace of time ; but ei¬
ther concluded them with the day, or broke off when
their fpeakers have been tired, and reaffumed them
again the next day. Thus Cieero allows two days for
D I A L So; ] D I A
Dialogue his three dialogues concerning an orator; but Mr Ad-
Diamafti- ^on exten^s to three ^ays> allowing a day for
golis. " each. Nor has the fame method always been obferved
in compofing dialogues. For fometimes the writer,
by way of narrative, relates a difcourfe which pafied
between other perfons. Such are the dialogues of Ci¬
cero and Mr Addifon laft mentioned, and many others
both of the ancients and moderns. But, at other times,
the fpeakers are introduced in perfon, as talking to
each other. This, as Cicero obferves, prevents the
frequent repetition of thofe words, he /aid, and he
replied; and by placing the hearer, as it were, in the
converfatien, gives him a more lively reprefentation @f
the difcourfe, which makes it the more affe&ing. And
therefore Cicero, who wrote his dialogue of old age in
this manner, in which Cato, who was then in years,
largely recounts the fatisfa&ions of life which may be
enjoyed in old age, tells his friend Atticus, he was
himfelf fo affected with that difcourfe, that when he
reviewed it fometimes, he fancied they were not hi?
own words, but Cato’s. There are fome other dialogues
of Cicero, written in the fame way; as that Offriend-
fhip, and Of the parts of oratory. And both Plato and
Lucian generally chofe this method.
Dialogue, in dramatic compofition. See Poetry,
chap, ii 22, 23.
PI ALTHAEA, ip pharmacy, an unguent much
ufed as a refolvent; fo called from Althaea, or marlh-
mallows, which is the prinqipal ingredient in it.
DIALUM, in botany : A genus of the monogy-
pia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of plants.
The corolla is pentapetalous ; no calyx ; the ftamina
at the upper fide of the receptacle.
DIALYSIS, in grammar, a mark or character,
confiding of two points, ”, placed over two vowels of
a word, in order to feparate them, becaufe otherwife
they would make them a diphthong, as Mofdic, &c.
DIAMASTIGOSIS, a feftivalat Sparta in honour
of Diana Orthia, which received that name T!"J
fixsiyow, from whipping, becaufe boys were whipped be¬
fore the altar of the goddefs. Thefe boys, called Bo- Duimm*
monicae, were originally free born Spartans, but in the ,8°,is>
more delicate ages they were of mean birth, and gene- D‘“n1£ter'.
rally of a flavilh origin. This operation was perform- v
ed by an officer in a fevere and unfeeling manner; and
that no compaffion ffiould be raifed, the pried dood
near the altar with a fmall light datue of the goddefs,
which fuddenly became heavy and infupportable if the
laffi of the whip was more lenient or lefs rigorous.
The parents of the children attended the folemnity,
and exhorted them not to commit any thing either by
fear or groans, that might be unworthy of Laconian
education. Thefe flagellations were fo fevere, that
the blood gullied in profufe torrents, and many expi¬
red under the laffi of the whip, without Uttering a
groan, or betraying any marks of fear. Such a death
was reckoned very honourable ; and the corpfe was
.buried with much folemnity with a garland of flowers
on its head. The origin of this fedival is unknown.
Some fuppofe that Lycurgus fird inflituted it to inure
the youth of Lacedemon to bear labour and fatigue,,
and render than infenfible to pain and wounds. Others
maintain, that it is a mitigation of an oracle, which
ordered that human blood ffiould be ffied on Diana’s
altar; and according to their opinion, Oredes fird in¬
troduced that barbarous cudom, after he had brought
the datue of Diana Taurica into Greece. There is
another tradition which mentions that Papfanias, as
he was offering prayers and facrifices to the gods, be¬
fore he engaged with Mardomus, was fuddenly at¬
tacked by a number of Lydians who didprbed the fa-
crifice, and were at lad repelled with daves and dones,
the only weapons with which the Lacedemonians were
provided at that moment. , In commemoration of this,
therefore, that whipping of boys was indituted at
Sparta, and after that the Lydian proceffion.
DIAMETER, in geometry, a right line palling
thro’ the centre of a circle, and terminated at each fide
by the circumference thereof. See Geometry,,
END OF THE FIFTH
VOLUME.
fclattf
CXXXVIII.
CXXXIX.
CXL.
CXLI.
CXLII.
CXLIIL
CXLIV. 7
CXLV. S
CXL VI.
CXLVII. 1
CXLVIII. f
CXLIX.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of VOL. V.
Part I.
to face
Part II.
Page
29
69
72
76
89
112
284
345
444
480
Plate
CL.
CLI.
CLII.
CLIII.
CLIV.
CLV.
CLVI.
CLVII.
CLVIII.
CLIX.
CI.X.
CLXI.
Page
561
5ll
580
584
595
688
697
753
787
792
793
804
In all, 24 Plates.
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